THE 


WORLD'S   PROGRESS 


CHRONOLOGICAL    AND    ALPHABETICAL    RECORD    OF    ALL    ESSENTIAL    FACTS 

IN   THE   PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  FROM   THE   CREATION   OF 

THE  WORLD   TO  THE    PRESENT  TIMB 

WITH    A     CHART 

• 

EDITED  BY  GEO    P.  PUTNAM,  A.M. 
REV  IN  ED  AND    CONTLVUKD    TO   AUGUST,   1877 

BY 

F.  B.  PERKINS 


TWENTY-FIRST     EDITION 


NEW  YORK 
G.     P.     PUTNAM'S     SONS 

182  FIFTH  AVENUE 

1878 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

G.   P.   PUTNAM'S    SONS, 

1877. 


NOTE  TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION   OF    1877. 


IN  this  edition  the  Synchronistical  Tables  and  the  alphabetical 
arrangement  of  Historical  and  Statistical  Facts  have  been  brought 
down  to  July,  1877  ;  and  the  short  chapter  of  "  Statistics  from  the 
U.  S.  Treasury  Department  "  has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of 
similar  statistics  from  authoritative  sources,  covering,  so  far  as 
was  practicable,  the  time  since  those  tables  were  compiled. 

NEW  YOBK,  August  20,  1877. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS  (1867  to  1877),        .  •'  .        .        .  1 

II.  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS 66 

III.  SUPPLEMENT,  1851  to  1867, 6£ 

IV.  DICTIONARY  OP  DATES 201 

LITERARY  CHRONOLOGY, 665 

VI.  HEATHEN  DEITIES,  &c.,        .        .        . 704 

VII.  TABULAR  VIEWS  OF  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 713 

I.  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

PERIOD  I.— The  Antediluvian  (1656  years)            ......  715 

PKBIOD  II. — Dispersion  of  Mankind  (427  years).— The  Deluge  to  Abraham           .  716 

PERIOD  III. — The  Abrahamic  or  Patriarchal  (430  years). — Abraham  to  Moses           .  718 

PERIOD  IV.— The  Mosaic  or  Theocratic  (396  years).— Moses  to  Saul           .           .  720 

PERIOD  V.— The  Monarchical  (488  years). —Saul  to  Cyrus          ....  736 

PERIOD  VI.— The  Persian  (322  years).— Cyrus  to  Alexander             .           .            .  733 

PERIOD  VII.  —The  Grecian  (184  years). — Alexander  to  the  Fall  of  Greece      .           .  738 

PERIOD  VIII.— The  Roman  (146  years).— Fall  of  Greece  to  the  Christian  Era      .  750 

H.  MODERN  HISTORY. 

PERIOD  I. — (306  years.)— From  the  Christian  Era  to  the  reign  of  Constantine           .  760 

PERIOD  II. — (170  years.) — Constantine  to  Odoacer     .....  770 

PERIOD  III.— (146  years.)— Odoacer  to  Mahomet             .....  774 

PERIOD  IV. — (178  years.) — Mahomet  to  Charlemagne           ....  780 

PERIOD  V.— (266  years.) — Charlemagne  to  William  the  Conqueror        .            .            .  784 

PERIOD  VI.— (233  years.) — William  the  Conqueror  to  Othman  I.     .           .           .  798 

PERIOD  VII.— (154  years.)— Othman  to  the  Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire           .            .  814 

PERIOD  VIII.— (145  years.) — Fall  of  Eastern  Empire  to  the  Edict  of  Nantes          .  824 

PERIOD  IX.— (120  years. )— Edict  of  Nantes  to  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  834 

PERIOD  X.—  (97  years.)— Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  to  the  Fall  of  Napoleon  .            .  846 
PERIOD  XI.— (52  years.)— Napoleon  to  the  year  1867      .           .           .            .           .858 

PERIOD  XII.— (10  years.)— 1867  to  1877 !W. 

VIII.— BRIEF  BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY  OR  INDEX       .           .           .           .  »19 

XI.— SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING     .                                                                                   .  1019 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CHART  OF  HISTORY, 

Repn-senting,  in  a  Chronological  Series,  the  Rise,  Revolutions,  and   fall  ;/  tk 
principal  Empires  oj  the  World. 

ON   THE   PLAN   OF    DR.     J.    FRIE8TUT. 

li  is  necessary  to  notice,  that  the  space  allotted  o  each  country  is  rather  according  to  its  relative 
political  importance,  than  to  its  geographical  extent 

The  spaces  between  the  vertical  lines  which  cross  the  chart,  represent  time,  viz..  each  a  cen- 
Mry  or  1110  years ;  those  between  the  htmztnttal  lines  represent  countries,  the  names  of  which  are 
expressed  at  the  end  of  the  chart. 

By  examining  the  vertical  columns,  we  ascertain  the  contemporary  state  of  different  nations  at 
the  period  we  fix  upon.  For  instance:  about  1500  years  before  Christ,  we  see  stales  forming  ii 
Greece  ;  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  tfrom  whence  they  depait  nine  years  after) ;  the  Egyptian,  Assy- 
rian, Persian,  Chinese,  and  other  kingdoms  had  been  founded  several  cemurios  previous— but  theit 
history  uncertain  and  obscure.  At  the  time  of  Christ,  we  find  the  Roman  Empire  spread  over  a 
greater  part  of  the  then  known  world,  but  the  Parthians,  Britons,  and  Germans,  as  yet  unsubdued 
by  them.  700  years  after,  this  empire  exists  only  in  Turkey,  and  its  former  territories  are  under 
barbarians:  the  Heptarchy  ID  England;  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  the  Franks  in  Gaul;  the  African 
provinces,  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  under  the  Saracens.  In  1500  we  find  the  Eastern  or  Greek 
Empire  fallen  under  the  Turks;  the  Tartars  powerful  in  Asia:  many  of  the  modern  states  of 
Europe  founded ;  America  discovered  by  the  Europeans,  &c.  &c. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  revolutions  of  each  country  may  be  seen  in  continuation  by  looking 
(Jong  the  chart  Horizontally  :  the  Persian  empire  is  founded  in  remote  antiquity ;  uniied  with  that 
of  the  Mcdes,  about  600  B.  c. ;  is  extended  by  Cyrus  into  Assyria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt,  536 ;  falls 
in  turn,  under  the  Macedonians,  Parthians,  Saracens,  Turks,  and  Tartars,  successively.— The 
/traelites  in  Egypt  from  1706  to  1491  B.  c. ;  in  Canaan  1451 ;  under  the  Judges  about  1300;  under 
Kings,  1095;  Ten  Tribes  separated,  975;  they  are  conquered,  721,  and  Judah,  5S8,  by  the  Assyrians 
restored  by  the  Persians,  535;  under  the  Macedonians,  330;  restored  to  independence  by  the  Mac 
eabeeft,  150,  conquered  hy  the  Romans,  63;  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D.  622;  afterwards  by  the  cru- 
•adere,  Mamelukes,  and  Turks,  successively. — England  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  cen- 
tury; relinquished  by  them,  A.  D.  410;  subdued  by  the  Saxons,  500;  by  the  Danes,  860;  by  the 
Normans  (receiving  French  territories),  1066;  united  with  Ireland,  1170;  with  Wales,  1280;  with 
Scotland,  1600.— Italy  in  antiquity  possessed  by  several  petty  tribes ;  by  the  Romans  from  300— 20C 
ft.  o.  U>  480  A.  D.,  then  by  the  Herulii,  Ostrogoths,  Lombards,  and  Franks,  successively ;— in  modem 
limey,  divided  into  several  small  republics  and  principalities;  joined  to  the  French  empire  about 
HOt,  and  now  divided  chiefly  between  Austria,  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  &c.  :lu 
Copr,  and  the  King  of  Naples. 

'•  They  are  rather  melancholy  reflections  which  the  view  of  such  a  chart  of  history  is  apt  M 
uicite  in  the  minds  of  persons  of  feeling  and  humanity.  What  a  number  of  revolutions  ar« 
•narked  u|x>n  it !  What  torrents  of  human  blood  has  the  restless  ambition  of  mortals  shed,  and  IB 
*niu  complicated  distress  has  the  discontent  of  powerful  individuals  involved  a  great  part  <* 
ctM !  "—PrietUey. 


PREFACE. 


revising  a  chronological  manual,  in  compiling  whicn  I  had 
at  the  age  of  fifteen,*  employed  many  midnight  hours,  I  have  found 
material  assistance  in  the  tables  prepared  by  my  late  friend,  D.  A. 
Talboys,  publisher,  of  Oxford,  England,  usually  called  the  Oxford 
Chronological  Tables.  In  the  alphabetical  part  of  the  volume,  the 
comprehensive  and  useful  Dictionary  of  Dates,  by  Haydn,  has  been 
incorporated  almost  entire,  with  such  additions  relating  to  the  United 
States  as  were  necessary  to  its  completeness,  and  with  continuations 
to  the  present  year. 

The  contemporary  tables  which  I  had  formerly  prepared,  had 
cost  much  diligent  application,  and  I  was  glad  to  find  on  collating 
them  with  the  more  recent  works,  that  some  slight  additions  only 
were  needed  to  make  them  as  full  and  complete  as  was  desirable  for 
the  purpose  in  view,  viz. :  a  convenient  and  portable  volume  for  refer- 
ence, not  over-burdened  with  details,  but  indicating  to  the  intelligent 
reader  all  the  great  landmarks  of  history  in  their  order  of  succession  ; 
and  showing  also  what  was  going  on  at  the  same  time  in  different 
countries.  To  render  this  glance  more  comprehensive  and  clear, 
many  of  the  details  in  the  former  tables  are  now  omitted,  as  they 
are  given  more  at  large  in  the  alphabetical  part  of  the  volume. 

To  a  reader  of  history  the  utility  of  such  a  glance  at  contempo- 
rary persons  and  events,  is  too  obvious  to  need  illustration  :  but  while 
the  more  elaborate  and  ponderous  works  of  Blair,  Talboys,  and 


*  Chrr/nclogy — An  Index  to  Universal  History,  &c.    12mo.     Leavitt,  New- 
Fork,  1033.    The  volume  has  been  long  out  of  print. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

others,  are  available  to  the  historian  or  the  merely  literary  man,  thev 
are  usually  repulsive  to  the  general  reader,  for  the  very  reason 
that  they  contain  too  much  for  ordinary  purposes ;  their  very  elaborate- 
ness serves  to  puzzle  and  to  mystify. 

What  is  here  aimed  at  is  simply  to  indicate,  in  brief  and  suggee 
tivc  terms,  the  succession  of  the  prominent  occurrences  and  of  the 
governments  in  the  chief  nations  of  the  world — enough  merely  U 
recall  to  the  reader  of  history  the  full  pictures  of  these  events,  and 
to  enable  him  to  classify  them  correctly  in  his  memory. 

The  alphabetical  part  of  the  volume  gives,  in  most  cases,  more 
full  and  ample  references  to  the  same  historical  facts ;  but  still  the 
whole  work  is  but  an  index  to  the  sources  of  knowledge — a  Diction- 
ary of  Dates.  It  has  been  planned  so  as  to  facilitate  access  to  the 
largest  amount  of  useful  information  in  the  smallest  possible 
compass. 

There  are  some  discrepancies  among  the  authorities,  as  to  names 
and  dates — especially  in  the  Middle  Ages — and  in  some  instances 
the  dictionary  varies  from  the  tables ;  but  these  instances  are  not 
numerous  or  important. 

Tho  Biographical  List  at  the  close  of  the  volume  will  contribute. 
it  is  presumed,  to  render  the  contemporary  tables  far  more  variously 
useful  than  would  be  at  first  supposed.  By  ascertaining  from  it 
the  dates  of  birth  and  death  of  any  eminent  person,  the  tables  will 
show  at  a  glance  what  events  happened,  and  what  other  eminent  per- 
sons lived  during  the  life-time  of  that  individual. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  say  more  by  way  of  explanation.  That 
such  a  volume  can  be  quite  free  from  imperfections  is  not  to  b< 
supposed ;  but  the  compiler  trusts  that  it  will  be  found  to  answer  all 
reasonable  expectations,  as  a  compact  manual  of  reference  to  the 
World's  Progress  in  Arts.  Literature,  and  Social  Life,  as  well  as  in 
Politics  and  Government  Gr.  p.  p. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
July,  1867,  to  July,  1877. 

BEING   AX  ALPHABETICAL  KECORD  OF  IMPORTANT  FACTS   AND   OCCURRENCES  DURING   THOSK 
YEARS  J   INCLUDING   ALSO   TOPICS   OMITX'ED  IN  FORMEB  EDITIONS. 


ABATTOIR.  December  28,  1871,  was  opened  at  Deptford,  a  market  and 
slaughter-house,  where  all  foreign  cattle  for  London  consumption  must 
be  landed  and  slaughtered.  Cost,  more  than  £194,000. 

ABYSSINIA.  Theodore,  the  native  King  of  Abyssinia,  having  imprisoned 
several  English  subjects,  an  expedition  under  Sir  Robert  Napier  invaded 
the  country,  and  on  April  13,  1868,  stormed  Magdala,  the  king's  strong- 
hold, on  which  he  killed  himself.  Cost  of  the  war  to  England,  £8,300,000. 
Napier  was  created  Baron  Napier  of  Magdala,  with  a  pension  of  £2,000 
a  year.  King  John,  or  Johanni,  a  successor  of  Theodore,  has,  since  his 
death,  maintained  a  defensive  war  against  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  whose 
troops  entered  Abyssinia,  but  were  surprised  and  defeated  with  much 
slaughter,  in  1874  or  1875.  In  1876,  however,  John  was  totally  defeated, 
and  treated  for  peace  ;  was  again  defeated  after  breaking  truce  ;  but  the 
later  results  of  the  war  have  been  indecisive. 

ACCAD.  Accad  or  Akkad,  and  Sumer  or  Sumir,  are  the  names  given  to 
two  pre-historic  countries,  whose  people,  called  Accadians  and  Sumerians, 
are  supposed  to  have  used  two  differing  dialects,  found  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  of  Assyria.  No  dates  are  ascertained  about  them,  but  the 
former  were  in  the  southeast  of  Babylonia,  while  the  Sumer  were  in  the 
northeast. 

ACCIDENTS.  (See  also  Collisions,  Earthquake*,  Explosions,  Fires,  Flood*, 
Rai'r oad  Accidents,  Shipwrecks,  Storms.)  From  1864  to  1874  inclusive, 
about  11,000  deaths  by  accident  took  place  in  England  and  Wales,  a  large 
proportion  of  them  from  coal-mine  casualties.  January  15,  1867,  the  ice 
broke  under  the  skaters  on  the  lake  in  the  Regent's  Park,  London,  letting 
several  hundred  persons  into  the  water.  Forty  were  di owned.  July  81, 1868, 
a  false  alarm  of  fire  was  raised  in  Lang's  Victoria  Music  Hall,  at  Manches- 
ter. England,  and  in  the  panic  rush  to  escape,  between  twentj'  and  thirty 
were  killed.  July  27,  1869,  Rev.  J.  M.  Elliott,  an  Englishman,  lost  his 
foothold,  and  fell  from  near  the  summit  of  the  Schreckhorn,  in  Switzer- 
land, a  distance  of  1,000  feet  or  more,  and  was  killed.  October  1,  1869,  a 
firework  dealer's  shop,  in  Bayswater,  London,  blew  up,  killing  seven  out 
of  thirteen  persons  then  asleep  in  the  house.  August  2,  1870,  on  Mont 
Blanc,  an  English  lady,  Mrs.  Marke,  and  her  guide  fell  into  a  crevasse, 
and  were  killed.  August  11, 1871,  at  Stowmarket,  England,  an  explosion  of 
gun-cotton  stored  there  killed  24  and  wounded  72  persons.  December  30, 
1 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


1871,  at  Glasgow,  a  road  locomotive,  known  as  Tuille's  Traction  Engine, 
used  to  drag  heavy  machinery  for  shipping,  exploded  its  boiler,  killing  five 
persons  and  wounding  some  40  more,  mostly  children,  who  had  gathered 
round  it  out  of  curiosity. 

ADMINISTRATIONS.  ENGLAND.  (See  pp.  71,  208-210.)  Disraeli  resigns, 
and  Gladstone  becomes  premier,  December  2,  1868  :  Robert  Lowe,  John 
Bright,  G.  J.  Goschen,  W.  E.  Forster,  and  others  becoming  members  of 
the  Government.  This  ministry  carried  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  Church,  in  1869,  and  the  ballot  in  1872.  Mr.  Gladstone,  having 
lost  his  majority  at  the  election  of  February,  1874,  resigned,  February  14, 
and  Mr.  Disraeli  resumed  the  premiership,  his  cabinet  consisting  of  the  Earl 
of  Derby,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  etc. 

ADMINISTRATIONS.    UNITED  STATES.     (See  pp.  70,  205.) 


TJlysses  S.  Grant, 
Schuyler  Colfax, 
Hamilton  Fish, 
Geo.  S.  Bontwell, 

A.  E.  Bone, 
G<x>.  M.  Robeson, 
Gen.  Schofield. 
Gen.  J.  A.  Rawlins, 
Gen.  W.  W.  Belknap, 
James  Harlan, 
Gen.  J.  D.  Cox, 
Columbus  Delano, 
J.  A.  J.  Creswell, 
E.  R.  Hoar, 
A.  T.  Akerman, 
O.  H.  Williams, 


GRANT'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION. 

Illinois, 

March  4, 

1869     President. 

Indiana, 

March  4, 

1869     Vice-President. 

New  York, 

March, 

1869     Secretary  of  State. 

Massachusetts, 

March, 

1869     Secretary      of      the 

Treasury. 

Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey, 

JunreC25, 

1869  ) 
jggq  V  Secretaries  of  Navy. 

March, 

1869  1 

Illinois, 

March, 

1869  V  Secretaries  of  War. 

Iowa, 

Sept.. 

1869  I 

Iowa, 
Ohio, 

March,' 

1870  I  Secretarie8  of    Inte- 

Ohio, 

June, 

1870  i       ri"r- 

Maryland, 

March, 

1869     Postmaster  General. 

Massachusetts, 

1869) 

Georgia, 

1871  V  Attorneys-General. 

Oregon, 

1871  ) 

GRANT'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION. 

Illinois,  March  4,  1873 

Massachusetts,  March  4,  1873 

Michigan, 


TJlysses  S.  Grant, 
Henry  Wilson. 
Thos.  W.  Ferry, 

Hamilton  Fish,  New  York,  March  4.  1869 

Wm.  A.  Richardson, 

Benj.  J.  Bristow, 

Lot  M.  MorrilL, 

Wm.  W.  Belknap, 

J.  D.  Cameron, 

Geo.  M.  RolxMun, 

Columbus  Deiano, 

Zach.  Chandler, 

Geo.  H.  Williams, 

Edwards  Pierrepolnt, 

Alphonso  Taft, 

John  A.  J.  Creswell, 

Marshall  Jewell, 

James  N.  Tyner, 


New  York, 

Massachusetts, 

Kentucky, 

Vermont, 

Iowa, 

Pennsylvania, 

New  Jersey, 

Ohio, 

Michigan, 

Oregon, 

New  York, 

Ohio, 

Maryland,  '•    / 

Connecticut, 

Indiana, 

HATES'  ADMINISTRATION. 
Ohio, 

New  York, 
New  York, 
Ohio, 


President. 
Vice-Premdent. 
President  of   Senate 

pro  tern. 
Secretary  of  State. 

(  Secretaries  of  Treas 
f     ury. 

>  Secretaries  of  War. 

Secretary  of  Navy. 
I  Secretaries  of    Inte- 
f     rior. 

V  Attorneys-General. 


V  Postmasters-General. 


Rutherford  B .  Hayet, 
Wm.  A.  Wheeler, 
Wm.  M.  Evarts, 
John  Sherman, 

Geo.  W.  McCrary,  Iowa, 

Richard  W.  Thompson,  Indiana, 

Carl  Schurz,  Missouri, 

Charles  Devens,  Massachusetts, 

David  M.  Key,  Tennes-ae, 


March  4,  1877     President. 
March  4.  1877     Vice-President. 

Secretary  of  State. 

Secretary  of    Treas- 
ury. 

Secretary  of  War. 

Secretary  of  Navy. 

Secretary  of  Interior. 

Attorney-General. 

Postmaster-General. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  3 

AFGHANISTAN.  (See  p.  313.)  Runjeet  Singh,  a  Sikh  by  race,  and  King 
of  Lahore,  conquered  most  of  Afghanistan  about  1818 ;  Dost  Mohammed 
became  ruler  of  it,  1829 ;  took  Herat  May  26,  1863 ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Shere  Ali,  June  9,  1863 ;  who  has  had  much  trouble  and  warfare  with 
divers  of  his  fifteen  brothers  and  his  other  relatives,  and  has  only  been 
maintained  by  English  aid. 

AFRICA.  (See  pp.  72, 213.)  Zambesi  River  explored  by  Livingstone,  1851-6 
and  1858-64 ;  his  book  published  November,  1865.  Stanley,  sent  by 
Bennett  of  the  New  York  Herald,  reported  having  met  Livingstone  at 
Ujiji.  November  10,  1871,  and  having  remained  with  him  until  March  14, 
1872.  Livingstone  died  at  Itala,  in  Central  Africa,  May  1,  1873 ;  his 
remains  were  brought  to  England  and  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
April  18,  1874;  his  last  journals  published  December,  1874.  Lieut. 
Cameron  crossed  Africa  from  Zanzibar  westward  to  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments on  the  west  coast,  arriving  November  21,  1875.  Stanley's  second 
expedition  for  the  New  York  Herald  and  London  Telegraph,  1875-6. 

AGRICULTURE.  (See  pp.  73,  214.)  Farm  products  of  the  United  States, 
exclusive  of  live  stock,  year  ending  June  1,  1870,  $2,445,000,000.  A 
"Union"  of  English  agricultural  laborers  to  secure  better  wages  and 
social  amelioration  generally,  was  established  mainly  by  the  efforts  of 
Joseph  Arch,  himself  formerly  a  laborer,  at  Leamington,  Warwickshire, 
March  29,  1872,  and  has  attained  some  influence. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  The  Alabama  rebel  armed  steamer,  Raphael  Semmes 
commander,  was  built  by  Messrs.  Laird,  of  Birkenhead.  England,  for  the 
Rebel  States  of  America,  and  launched  May  15,  1862,  and  sailed  July  28, 
1862,  one  day  before  the  English  government  telegraphed  to  detain  her. 
She  was  destroyed  and  sunk  in  a  sea-fight  off  Cherbourg  by  the  U.  S. 
steamer-of-war  Kearsarge,  Capt.  Winslow,  June  19,  1864,  after  having 
done  immense  damage  to  American  commerce.  During  1865  the  United 
States  and  English  governments  discussed  the  question  of  English  respon- 
sibility for  this  damage ;  a  convention  was  agreed  upon  on  the  subject 
November  10,  1868,  which  came  to  nothing ;  another,  signed  by  Lord 
Clarendon  and  Mr.  Reverdy  Johnson,  January  14,  1869,  was  rejected  by 
the  United  States  Senate  April  13,  1869  ;  a  joint  convention  on  this  and 
other  matters  signed  a  treaty  at  Washington,  May  8,  1871,  providing 
a  mode  of  settlement  by  arbitration ;  Arbitration  Commission  met 
formally  at  Geneva,  December  18,  1871,  and  the  American  and  British 
cases  were  presented  December  20.  Indirect  claims  and  the  whole 
attitude  of  the  English  Government  caused  much  excitement  in  England  ; 
indirect  claims  mutually  resigned  by  supplementary  treaty,  appr  >ved  by 
Senate  May  '^5,  1872.  The  arbitration  tribunal,  composed  of  Count 
Frederic  Sclopis,  for  Italy,  President ;  Baron  Staempfli,  for  Switzer- 
land ;  Viscount  d'ltajuba,  for  Brazil ;  Sir  Alexander  E.  Cockburn,  for 
England ;  Mr.  C.  F.  Adams,  for  the  United  States,  met  at  Geneva  and 
opened  business  June  15,  1872.  After  presentation  of  cases  and  argu- 
ment, the  final  meeting  was  held  September  14.  1872,  and  damages 
awarded  to  the  United  States,  unanimously  for  injuries  by  the  Alabama, 
by  four  arbitrators  for  those  by  the  Florida,  and  by  three  for  those  by 
the  Shenandoah.  Total  of  award,  $15,000,000.  The  total  of  the  United 
States  claims,  after  dropping  the  indirect  claims,  was  about  three  times 
as  much.  The  English  arbitrator,  Sir  A.  E.  Cockburn,  refused  to  sign 
the  judgment,  mainly  on  the  ground  that  the  Florida  and  Shenandoah 


4  THE    WOULD  S    PROGRESS. 

claims  were  improperly  allowed.  A  large  proportion  of  this  sum  remained 
after  all  the  awards  of  the  Court  of  Claims  established  by  the  United 
States  to  decide  who  should  receive  the  money,  which  as  yet  (August, 
1877),  remains  in  the  U.  S.  Treasury. 

ALASKA.  Bought  from  Russia  by  the  United  States  by  treaty  of  March 
13,  1867,  for  $7,200,000,  which  was  paid  August  1,  1868.  Principal 
settlement,  Sitka.  The  United  States  military  occupation  discontinued 
in  1877. 

ALSACE.  Alsace  (German,  Elsass),  was  anciently  part  of  Austrasia ;  joined 
to  the  German  empire  in  tenth  century  ;  part  recovered  by  Prance,  1648 ; 
the  rest,  1697 ;  conquered  and  occupied  by  the  Germans,  1870-1 ;  ceded 
by  France  to  Germany  by  treaty  of  May  10,  1871;  the  law  completing 
the  annexation  passed  June  9,  1871.  The  people  allowed  to  choose  their 
nationality,  and  those  preferring  France  to  emigrate  with  their  property 
before  September  30,  1872.  Many  did  so.  Part  of  Lorraine  (which  see) 
including  Metz  and  Thionville,  was  ceded  and  annexed  with  Alsace. 

ANILINE.  Discovered  by  Unverdorben  in  1826,  in  distilling  indigo;  ob- 
tained from  benzole  by  Bechamp,  1856;  "mauve"  applied  in  dyeing  by 
W.  A.  Perkin,  1856;  since  used  to  produce  red,  blue,  violet,  and  green 
colors. 

ANIMALS,  CRUELTY  TO.  (See  p.  76.)  The  establishment  of  societies  for 
preventing  cruelty  to  animals  in  England  and  Europe  was  followed  by  the 
organization  of  a  similar  one,  chiefly  by  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Henry  Bergh,  in 
New  York  City,  incorporated  April  10,  1866,  and  of  one  in  Boston,  incor- 
porated March  23,  1868,  which  have  been  efficient. 

ARCH.  The  arch  was  long  supposed  a  Roman  invention  ;  but  very  ancient 
arches  have  been  found  in  bridges  in  China,  and  in  temples  and  other 
structures  in  Egypt  and  Assyria.  The  arching  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima  at 
Rome  is  thought  the  oldest  in  Europe,  and  dates  to  about  588  B  c. ;  and 
those  found  hi  the  ruins  of  Assyrian  cities  are  considered  the  oldest  in  the 
world. 

ARCHAEOLOGY.  (See  Curium ;  Mycenae ;  Olympia  ;  Prehistoric  Man  ; 
Troy.) 

ARCH^OPTERYX.  ("Primeval  bird.")  Fossil  remains  found  at  Sol  - 
enhofen  in  Bavaria,  in  1861,  by  H.  Von  Meyer  and  Dr.  Haberlein.  It  had 
some  reptilian  traits  in  its  structure — teeth  in  its  jaws,  and  a  tail  with 
feathers  radiating  from  it.  It  was  described  by  Owen  in  1863. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS.  (See  pp.  78,  229.)  Captain  C.  F.  Hall's  first 
voyage  of  discovery  was  1860-62;  he  ascertained  that  Frobisher's  so- 
cafleil  strait  is  a  bay,  and  gained  experience  of  Eskimo  life.  His  second 
voyage,  in  the  Afontieelio,  began  June  30,  1864;  results  not  remarkable. 
His  third,  in  the  Polaris,  began  July  3,  1871,  and  he  took  his  ship  to  82' 
If!  north  latitude,  the  northernmost  point  so  far.  He  died  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  November  8,  1871.  Polaris  wintered  at  northernmost  point  so 
far,  8T  38  ;  set  out  to  return  under  Budington,  August  12,  1872;  in  a 
panic  in  the  ice,  October  15,  Tyson  and  nineteen  more  were  left  on  a  floe, 
and  were  rescued  April  30,  1873,  after  a  remarkable  drift.  The  ship  re- 
mained with  the  other  fourteen  persons  a  second  winter ;  they  left  in 
boats  built  from  her  materials,  June  3,  1873,  and  were  picked  up  by  a 
whaler.  The  '•  first  German  expedition,"  under  Capt.  Karl  Koldewey,  of 
•leven  men  only,  in  the  Germania,  to  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  and 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  5 

Spitzbergen,  set  out  September  80,  1868.  The  "second  German  expedi- 
tion," in  the  Germania  and  Hansa,  under  Koldewey,  sailed  from  Bremer- 
haven,  June  15,  1869.  Hansa  was  lost  in  the  ice,  crew  escaping ;  coal 
discovered  in  east  Greenland ;  Germania  wintered  at  Sabine  Island ; 
sledge  parties  reached  77°  1'  N.  L.  Expedition  reached  home  September 
11,  1870.  The  "Austrian  expedition"  in  the  Tegetihoff,  under  Wey- 
precht  and  Payer,  by  way  of  the  seas  between  Spitzbergen  and  No- 
vaia  Zemlia  (Nova  Zembla),  left  Tromsoe  in  Norway,  July  14,  1872  ;  dis- 
covered Franz  Josef  Land,  in  79J  43'  N.,  August  30,  1873  ;  reached  79° 
58'  N. ;  left  the  Tegetthoff  in  the  ice,  May  20,  1874,  and  escaped  in  boats, 
reaching  Europe  early  in  September,  1874.  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  George) 
Nares's  expedition,  in  the  Alert  and  Discovery \  left  Portsmouth,  May  29, 

1875.  September  1st,  she  reached  82°  24'.  and  wintered  0182°  27'  north, 
the  furthest   point   reached  by  any  ship.     That  winter  was   noted   the 
severest    cold   ever   known    in  Arctic   regions,  reaching   to    73  •  7    below 
zero  ;    a  mean  for  seven  days  of  58 "17  ;    for  thirteen  days  of  58'9  ;    and 
for  five  days  of  66  "29  degrees  below  zero.      Ascertained  that  there  is  no 
"  open  Polar  sea."  but  instead,  a  "  palseocrystic  sea,"  or  "  sea  of  ancient 
ice,"  which  is,  it  was  found,  almost  impossible  to  traverse.     Sledge  parties 
explored  the  coast  eastward  and  westward,  and  another  reached  the 
northernmost  point  yet  attained  by  man,  being  83°  20'  26",  within  400 
miles  of  the  North  Pole.     The  expedition  returned  to  England  in  October, 

1876.  A  sharp  controversy  followed  as  to  the  proper  victualling  of  the 
expedition,  and  the  responsibility  for  the  severe  attacks  of  scurvy  which 
had  been  suffered  by  most  of  the  party. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.  (Seep.  79.)  Don  Domingo  F.  Sarmiento  was 
elected  President  for  six  years,  October  12,  1868  ;  Dr.  Avellaneda  was  in- 
augurated for  six  years,  October  12,  1874  ;  an  insurrection  under  Mitre  at 
Buenos  Ayres  was  ended  by  his  submission,  December  2,  1874 ;  the  Na- 
tional Bank  stopped  and  the  government  suspended  specie  payments, 
May  16,  1876. 

ARMY,  ENGLISH.  (See  p.  232.)  In  1869,  it  was  stated  in  the  English 
Parliament  that  each  regular  soldier  cost  per  year  in  Prussia,  £33 ;  in 
France,  £37;  in  England,  £100;  being  nearly  $165,  $185,  and  $500.  By 
Order  in  Council,  1870,  Queen  Victoria  surrendered  the  royal  prerogative 
of  governing  the  army,  and  the  General-in-Chief,  instead  of  continuing  an 
agent  of  the  crown,  was  formally  declared  subordinate  to  the  Minister  of 
War.  November  1,  1871,  the  practice  of  buying  and  selling  commissions 
in  the  British  army  was  stopped  by  royal  warrant,  dated  July  20,  1871. 
Appointment  and  promotion  by  examination,  merit,  and  seniority  were 
substituted. 
The  English  military  force  in  1876  was  thus  constituted  : 

Army  in  United  Kingdom .  96,275 

"      in  India .  62.850 

Mihtia 274,175 

Yeoman  cavalry 1-6,078 

Volunteers 168,750 

Enrolled  pensioners  and  army  reserve 31,000 

Total  men 648,128 

The  sum  voted  for  military  purposes  for  the  year  1876-7,  was  £15,282,- 
000  ;  that  for  1855-6  (Russian  watf,  £32,006,603  ;  and  that  for  1815  (last 
year  of  war  with  Napoleon),  £39,150,000. 


0 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


ARMY,  EUROPEAN.  Estimated  total  of  European  armies  in  1863,  six  mil  • 
lion  men,  one  million  horses,  11,000  cannon.  European  armies  in  1876, 
were  nearly  as  follows  : 

P«ACE 
FOOTING. 

Austro-Hungary. . . .  278,470 

Belgium 40,0(10 

Denmark 35,657 

France 430,703 

Germany.   .... 419,738 

Great  Britain 288,781 

Gieece  (nominal). . .     14,OH1 

Italy 199,567 

Netherlands 97, 369 

Portugal 18,195 

Peace  footings  not  carried  forward 

Total  war  armies  of  Europe  more  than 11,723,081 

ARMY,  U.  S.     (See  p.  79.)     Expenses  of  the  War  Department  for 


WAB 

FOOTING. 

838.700 
100,000 
48.936 
1,750,000 
2,800.000 
748,128 

750.000 
208,359 
68,450 

Russia  

PEACE 

FOOTING. 

765,872 

WAB 

FOOTING. 

3,300,000 

201,257 
469,360 

74,000 

Spain  

151,668 

Sweden  

....  132,775 

(Norway)  

.  .  ..     12,750 

Turkey  

.  170,376 

.     34,647 

4.000 

Totals  

.  .  .  3,094,609 

11,377,190 
.  .  .     345,891 

1867 $95.224,415.63 


123,24(1, 648.62 
78,501,990.61 
57,655,675.40 
1871 35,799,991.82 


1868 

1869 

1870. 


1872 $35.372.157.20 

1873 46.323,138.31 

1874  42,31 3, 927. 22 

1875 41.120,645.98 

1876 88,070,888.64 


Regular  army  in  1877  about  25,000  men,  and  this  total  in  process  of  re- 
duction. 

ARTILLERY.     (See  Ordnance.) 

ASHANTEE.  The  Ashantees  defeated  Sir  Charles  M'Carthy  at  Accra, 
January  21,  1824,  and  carried  off  his  skull  as  a  trophy.  Col.  Purdoii 
totally  defeated  them  August  7,  1826.  War  was  begun  against  them 
again  by  the  English  in  1863,  but  suspended  from  sickness  of  troops. 
Expedition  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  sailed  from  England  September 
12,  1873 ;  English  force,  after  a  severe  campaign,  entered  Coomassie, 
the  Ashantee  capital,  February  4,  1874  ;  the  king,  Koffee  Kalcalli,  re- 
fusing proposals,  his  palace  and  city  burned  February  6th ;  a  treaty, 
prohibiting  human  sacrifices,  and  providing  for  50,000  ounces  of  gold 
indemnity  to  the  English,  signed  February  13th.  The  expedition  cost 
about  £900,000. 

ASSASSINATIONS.  June  6,  1867,  one  Berezowski,  a  Pole,  fired  two 
shots  at  the  Czar  of  Russia,  then  in  Paris,  but  missed.  He  was  trans- 
ported for  life.  Michael  Obrenovitch,  Prince  of  Servia,  was  assassinated 
at  Belgrade.  June  10,  1868,  as  was  believed  in  consequence  of  a  con- 
spiracy to  place  Prince  Karageorgewictz  on  the  throne.  March  12,  1868. 
in  New  South  Wales,  at  a  public  picnic,  one  O'Farrell  shot  the  Duke  of 
Edinburgh  in  the  back,  intending  to  kill  him.  O'Farrell,  who  avowed 
himself  a  Fenian,  was  hanged.  April  7, 1868,  Hon.  Thomas  D'Arcy  M'Gee 
was  shot  dead  from  behind  at  his  own  door,  by  one  Whelan,  a  Fenian,  in 
consequence  of  his  opposition  to  the  Fenians.  December  28,  1870, 
Marshal  Prim  was  shot  by  night  in  the  streets  of  Madrid,  the  assassin 
escaping,  and  died  in  two  days.  September  20,  1871,  at  Calcutta,  Mr. 
Justice  Norman,  acting  Chief  Justice,  was  murdered,  being  stabbed  by 
a  native.  February  8,  1872,  Lord  Mayo,  Governor -General  of  India, 
assassinated  at  Port  Blair,  on  the  Andaman  Islands,  by  a  Mohammedan 
convict  named  Shere  AH. 

ASSYRIA.     (See  pp.  234-235.)     The  results  of  Mr.  Layard's  investigations 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  7 

at  Nineveh  were  published  in  his  "  Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  1848,  and 
in  his  "Discoveries,"  1853.  Botta's  explorations  at  Khorsabad  began 
1848;  his  "Monuments  de  Ninive "  appeared  1849-50.  Mr.  George 
Smith's  "Assyrian  Discoveries"  appeared  1875,  and  his  "Chaldean 
Account  of  Genesis"  in  1876.  Mr.  Smith  died  at  Aleppo,  August  19, 
1876,  while  pushing  further  investigations.  An  Assyrian  grammar  (of 
the  language  of  the  cuneiform  or  arrow-headed  inscriptions)  was  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  A.  H.  Sayce  in  1875;  an  Assyrian  dictionary  by  Norris,  in 
1868 ;  and  eight  volumes  of  (translated)  Assyrian  Texts,  by  Birch,  in 
1874-77. 

ASTRONOMY.  (See  pp.  81,  235.)  The  planet  Neptune  was  discovered 
September  23,  1846  ;  the  moon  was  photographed  by  Bond,  1851 ;  spec- 
trum analysis  first  used  in  astronomy  in  1861 ;  Warren  De  la  Rue's  first 
large  photograph  of  the  moon  was  made  in  1863.  The  transit  of  Venus 
of  December  9  (astronomical  day,  December  8),  1874,  was  extensively 
observed  at  the  expense  of  several  governments,  with  good  results.  From 
April,  1868,  to  August  29,  1876,  were  discovered  Nos.  98  to  167  of  the 
asteroids. 

ATCHINESE  WAR.  Atchin  or  Acheen,  a  native  state  of  Sumatra.  The 
Dutch  hostilities  against  it  took  place  from  April,  1873  to  1876,  ending  in 
victory  by  the  Dutch. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED.  (Seep.  236.)  It  is  asserted  in  Lumby's  "His- 
tory of  the  Creeds"  (1874),  that  this  creed  was  not  composed  by  Athana- 
sius,  but  consists  of  two  distinct  parts  ;  was  put  into  its  present  form 
between  A.D.  813  and  850,  first  imputed  to  Athanasius  by  any  respect- 
able authority  809,  and  accepted  by  the  Greek  Church  about  1200.  Much 
opposition  to  the  use  of  this  creed  in  England,  and  efforts  to  stop  com- 
pulsory reading  of  it  in  public,  1870  to  1873. 

ATOMIC  THEORY.  Dalton's  system  of  atomic  weights  assumes  hydrogen 
as  1  ;  that  of  Berselius  assumes  oxygen  as  100,  and  is  that  used  on  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

ATOMS.  The  number  of  ultimate  atoms  in  one  drop  of  water  has  been 
recently  computed  by  Sir  William  Thomson,  at  100,000,000,000,000,000,- 
000,000,000,  or  one  hundred  trillions  of  quadrillions. 

AUSTRIA.  (See  pp.  82.  239.)  Francis  Joseph,  October  20,  1860,  issued  a 
"diploma,"  which  gave  legislative  power  to  the  assemblies  of  the  provin- 
cial states,  constituting  Austria,  and  also  to  the  Reichsrafch  or  Council  of 
the  Empire.  Hungary  was  granted  self-government  February  17,  1867. 
By  decree  of  November  14,  1868,  Austria  assumed  the  official  name  of 
"The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy."  The  population  of  Austria,  Decem- 
ber 31,  1869,  was: 

Cis-Leithan  provinces 20,394,980 

Trana-Leithan  provinces 15,609,455 

35,904,435 

The  Cis-Leithan  provinces  (viz.,  those  reckoned  on  the  hither  side  of 
the  river  Leithe),  are :  Galicia,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  Moravia,  the  two 
Austrias  (Upper  and  Lower),  Styria,  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  Salzburg, 
Carinthia,  Carniola,  Trieste  and  Istria,  Dalmatia,  the  Bukovina.  The 
Trans-Leithan  are :  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  the 
city  of  Fiurne.  The  Reichsrath  became  a  national  representative  assem- 
bly by  reform  bill  of  March  10,  1873. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


B. 

BABISM.  A  Persian  religious  doctrine,  first  promulgated,  1843,  at  Shiraz, 
by  Mirza  All  Mahommed,  who  called  himself  the  Bab  (gate)  of  knowl- 
edge, gave  a  new  exposition  of  the  Koran,  and  claimed  to  be  an  incarna- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  "  Babis"  were  tolerated  by  Shah  Mahom- 
med, but  were  nearly  all  killed  by  his  successor,  the  present  Shah,  in 
1848-9,  the  Bab  himself  being  executed,  July  15,  1849.  The  sect  is  said 
to  be  now  (1877)  quite  numerous  again. 

BABY  FARMING.  September  23,  1870,  in  England,  Margaret  Waters  was 
convicted  of  the  wilful  murder  of  a  child  entrusted  to  her.  She  had  been 
in  the  baby  farming  businesi  four  years,  and  confessed  to  having  received 
some  forty  children.  She  was  condemned  to  death,  and  hanged  October 
11,  after  having  confessed  that  five  others  of  the  children  in  her  care  had 
died. 

BALLOONS.  (See  pp.  83,  248.)  Used  with  a  good  deal  of  success  during  the 
siege  of  Paris  by  the  Germans,  September  and  October,  1870,  for  carrying 
mail  matter  out  of  the  city,  and  for  escapes  by  individuals.  U|>  to  April, 
1867,  Mr.  Coxwell  is  said  to  have  made  550  successful  ascents  ;  and  Charles 
Green,  who  died  March  27,  1870,  aged  84,  had  made  600.  In  an  ascent 
from  near  Paris,  April  15,  1875J  by  Messrs.  Tissandier,  Croce,  Spinelli, 
and  Sivel,  after  having  reached  a  height  of  26,160  feet  (nearly  five  miles), 
Croce  threw  out  ballast  and  they  ascended  rapidly  to  an  unknown  height. 
But  the  latter  two  men  died  there  of  suffocation,  and  Tissandier  only  got 
down  alive.  Glaisher  and  Coxwell,  at  Wolverhampton,  July  17,  1862, 
had  ascended  about  7  miles,  but  at  5f  miles  Glaisher  became  insensible, 
and  Coxwell  lost  the  use  of  his  hands,  and  only  escaped  death  by  opening 
the  valve  with  his  teeth  and  thus  bringing  down  the  balloon. 

BALLOT.  (Seep.  83.)  Secret  ballot  was  adopted  in  Victoria  (Australia), 
1856;  employed  in  electing  school-board  in  nine  districts  in  London,  No- 
vember 29,  1870 ;  recommended  for  general  use  in  the  Queen's  speech, 
February  9,  1871,  and  bill  for  it  passed  the  Commons  and  rejected  in  the 
Lords,  97  to  48,  August  10,  1871.  Bill  providing  for  its  use  until  Decem- 
ber HI,  1880,  became  a  law  July  13,  1872  ;  Mr.  H.  E.  Childers  was  chosen 
member  of  Parliament  for  Pontefract  by  ballot  August  15,  1872,  with  no 
difficulty ;  the  method  has  worked  well  enough  since. 

BAMPTOX  LECTURES.  Delivered  annually  at  Oxford,  on  theological 
subjects,  and  paid  for  by  funds  left  for  the  purpose  by  Rev.  John  Bamp- 
ton,  who  died  1751.  The  first  lecture  was  by  Rev.  Dr.  Bandinel,  in  1780. 

BANKRUPTCY.  (See  pp.  84.  245.)  Bankrupt  peers  decided  incompetent 
to  sit  in  English  House  of  Lords,  February  10,  1871,  and  a  law  expressly 
so  providing  was  passed  July  13,  1871.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada 
there  were  failures  and  liabilities  as  follows : 

FAILURES.  LIABTLTTIKS. 

Year  ending  June  30.  187K.  n.77ti  $£«,«;,2.51« 

Y«-ar  ending  June  30,  1877.  !l,241  182,U)3,425 

BATHOMETER,  for  deep-sea  sounding  without  lead  and  line,  invented  and 
improved  1861-76,  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens.  It  operates  by  registering  the 
lessening  of  the  earth's  attraction  of  gravitation  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocfian  from  what  it  would  be  on  solid  ground,  in  consequence  of  the  less 
density  of  water. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77. 


9 


BATHYBIUS  HAECKELII,  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  recent  deep- 
sea  soundings,  and  so  named  by  Huxley ;  a  gelatinous  substance,  supposed 
the  lowest  form  of  animal  life.  Since  believed  to  have  been  proved  a 
mineral. 


BATTLES.     (See  pp.  84,  248.) 


FRANCO-PBUSSIAN  WAB. 

Saarbruck,        French  victorious, Aug.    2,  1S70  !  Metz.  Germans  victorious,  Ang.  81,  1870 

Wissembourg,  Germans      •'        Aug.    4,  1870  '  SEDAN,  "  Aug.  31-Sep.  1,  1870 

Woerth,  "  "        Aug.    (i,  Ib70  .  Before  Paris,       "        victorious,  Sept.  30,  1870 

Saarbruck  or  Forbach,  Germans,Aug.    6,  1870  |  Thoury,          French          "  Oct.    6,  18711 

Courcelles  or  Pange,  "         Aug.  14,  1870  !  St.  Remy,       Germans  Oct.   5,  1870 

Strasburg,     Germans  victorious, Aug.  16,  187U     Chateaudnn,       "  "  Oct  18.  1870 


OTHER  BATTLES. 


Oroquieta.  Spain,Carlists  defeated.  May  4, 1872 
Elmina,  British  defeat  Ashantees, 

June  13,  1873 
Elqueta,  Spain,  Carlists  claim  victory, 

Aug.  5-6,  1873 

Mafieru,  Spain,  indecisive,  Oct.  6,  1873 

Abrakampra,  Ashantees  defeated  Nov.5-6,1873 
Borborassie,  '  Jan.  29,  1874 

Amoaful,  '  Jan.  31,  1874 

Bocquah,  Feb.  1,  1874 

Fommanah.  '  Feb.  2,  1874 

Ordahsa,  '  Feb.  4,  1874 

Bilbao,    Spain,   several  days;     Concha 

enters May  2,  1874 

Estella,  Spain,  Carlists  retreat,  but  Con- 
cha killed June  25-27,  1874 


Abyssinians  defeat  Egyptians  in       Nov., 
Irun,  Spain,  Laserna  defeats  Carlists, 

Nov.  10, 
Sorota,  Peru,  Pierota  and  insurgents 

defeated Dec.  3, 

Tolosa,  Spain,  Carlista  repulse  Loma, 

Dec.  7-8, 
Khokand,   Russians  defeat  Khan  of 

Khiva Sep.  4-21, 

Assake,    Russians    defeat    Khokand 

force Jan.  30, 

Servian-Turkish  war  begins July  1, 

Saitschar,  Servians  retreat  . . .  July  2-3, 
Urbitza,  Montenegrins  defeat  Turks, 

July  28, 


1874 
1874 
1874 
1874 
1875 

187(5 
187fi 
1876 

1876 


BAYREUTH.  The  Wagner  Festival,  or  Biihnenfestspiel.  The  perform- 
ance of  Wagner's  "  Ring  des  Nibelungen,"  took  place  here  on  August  13, 
14,  16.  and  17,  1876.  The  four  successive  portions  of  the  work  are:  1. 
Das  Rheingold ;  3.  Die  Walkiire;  3.  Siegfried;  4.  Gotterdammerang. 
Great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  music  by  itself ;  but  the  whole  rep- 
resentation very  magnificent.  All  deficiencies  in  receipts  made  up  by  the 
King  of  Bavaria. 

BEHISTUX.  The  trilingual  inscriptions  here  were  deciphered  and  trans- 
lated by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  1844-6,  the  first  great  step  being  thus  made 
towards  interpreting  the  so-called  cuneiform  inscriptions. 

BELFORT.  A  strong  fortified  town  in  Alsace,  invested  by  the  Germans 
Novembers,  1870;  capitulated  February  16,  1871  ;  reserved  to  France  at 
the  cession  of  Alsace  to  Germany ;  and  the  Germans  left  it  in  August,  1873. 

BESSEMER  STEEL.    (See  Steel.) 

BIBLE.  (See  pp.  86,  257.)  First  meeting  of  the  Convocation  for  Revising 
the  English  Bible,  at  Westminster,  England,  June  22,  1870.  Among  Bible 
Dictionaries  should  be  mentioned  McClintock  and  Strong's  "  Biblical  and 
Theological  Encyclopaedia."  "  The  Codex  Sinaiticus,"  a  Greek  MS.  of  the 
Bible,  probably  written  in  the  fourth  century,  was  found  by  Prof.  Tis- 
chendorf  at  St.  Catherine's  monastery  on  Mt.  Sinai  in  1844  and  1859,  and 
procured  by  him  for  the  Czar  of  Russia,  who  caused  it  to  be  printed  in 
1862.  The  first  version  of  the  Bible  (the  Syriac),  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made  in  the  first  or  second  century;  the  Old  Latin,  early  in  the 
second,  and  revised  by  Jerome  in  384  ;  Jerome's  own  version,  the  Vulgate, 
1* 


10  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

completed  405.  First  printed  edition  (Mazarin  or  Mentz  Bible),  about 
1455  or  1456,  without  date  ;  and  a  copy  of  this,  at  the  Perkins  sale  in  Eng- 
land, June,  1873,  brought  about  $16,000,  the  largest  price  ever  paid  for  one 
printed  book. 

BOKHARA.  Ancient  Sogdiana.  Murder  of  the  English  envoys,  Stoddart 
and  Conolly,  by  the  Khan,  1843.  A  war  with  Russia  began  1866,  the 
Khan  repeatedly  beaten,  and  peace  made  July  11,  1867.  There  was  more 
fighting  in  1868 ;  the  Russians  entered  Samarcand  May  26th  ;  and  in 
November,  1868,  annexed  it  by  treaty.  A  new  treaty  between  Bokhara 
and  Russia  was  published  December,  1873. 

BLUE  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT.  First  mentioned  by  Samuel  Andrews 
Peters,  a  tory  Episcopalian  clergyman,  of  Hebron,  Conn.,  in  a  "  History  of 
Connecticut,"  published  at  London,  1781.  Peters  built  his  story  on  the 
basis  of  the  actual  laws,  but  with  great  additions  invented  by  him.  The 
text-book  on  the  subject,  by  J.  H.  Trumbull,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1876. 

BOOKS,  BOOK  TRADE.  (See  pp.  20,  208.)  In  Great  Britain  were  pub- 
lished as  follows : 

NEW  BOOKS.  NEW  EDITIONS. 

1871...        3,547 1,288 

1872 3,419 1,100 

1874 3,351 961 

1875  3,573 1,331 

The  number  of  publishers  and  booksellers  in  Germany  is  (in  1876),  3,473,  in 
786  towns.  In  Leipzig,  the  emporium  of  the  German  book  trade,  there 
are  105  commission  agents,  who  act  for  4,202  booksellers,  of  whom  1,143 
are  in  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Holland,  England,  and  America.  Number 
of  books  published  in  the  United  States,  about  2,500  a  year. 

BOSTON.  (See  pp.  88,  268.)  Annexations  to  the  city  of  Boston  were  : 
Roxbury,  September  9,  1867 ;  Dorchester,  June  22,  1869  ;  Charlestown, 
Brighton,  and  West  Roxbury,  October  7,  1873.  Great  peace  jubilee,  with 
over  10,000  voices,  and  1,094  instruments,  June  15,  1869.  International 
peace  jubilee,  with  chorus  of  about  20,000  voices,  and  orchestra  of  1,000 
instruments,  June  17  to  July  4,  1872.  Great  fire,  burning  about  eighty 
acres  of  buildings  in  the  thickest  business  part  of  the  city,  November  9, 
10,  11,  1872  ;  9-19  houses,  of  which  125  dwellings,  were  destroyed,  and  35 
persons  killed.  Boston  Public  Library  has,  in  1877,  about  320,000  vol- 
umes ;  has  six  branches,  and  two  "  delivery  agencies,"  besides  the  central 
collection,  and  circulates  free  of  all  expense  about  1,300,000  volumes  a 
year  ;  staff,  about  130  persons  ;  salaries,  about  $60,000  a  year  ;  annual 
cost,  about  $i:JO,000,  of  which  all  but  about  $6,000  is  paid  by  the  city 
of  Boston  by  an  annual  appropriation,  the  rest  coming  from  trust  funds 
of  about  *105,000. 

BOSNIA,  incorporated  with  Turkey,  1463.  A  rebellion  broke  out  in  1849, 
was  put  down  by  Omar  Pasha  in  1851.  In  September,  1875,  the  Bosni- 
ans joined  the  Herzegovinian  insurgents.  Its  area  is  23,100  square  miles ; 
population,  1,357,984,  of  which  about  one-third  only  is  Mohammedan. 

BRAZIL.  (See  pp.  89.  272.)  The  war  with  Paraguay  was  ended  by  the 
defeat  and  killing  of  Lopez,  the  Paraguayan  dictator,  at  Aquidaban, 
March  1,  1870;  treaty  of  peace  with  Paraguay,  June  20,  1870.  Don. 
Pedro,  the  emperor,  and  his  empress  visit  Europe  June,  1871,  and  March, 
1872.  Gradual  slave  emancipation  bill  passed  by  the  Brazilian  senate, 
September  27-28,  1872.  Dom  Pedro  and  the  empress  were  present  at  the 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  11 

opening  of  the  Philadelphia  Exhibition  May  10,  1876,  and  afterwards 
travelled  extensively  in  America  and  Europe.  Population  of  Brazil,  1872 
(partly  estimated),  9,448,233,  besides  about  another  million  of  savage 
natives.  Number  of  slaves  in  May,  1874,  1,016,262. 

BRIGANDS.  (See  also  Motty  Maguires.)  April  21,  1870,  some  English 
ladies  and  gentlemen,  and  an  Italian,  were  taken  near  Athens  by  brigands, 
who  demanded  $125,000  ransom,  which  was  ready  ;  but  the  Greek  Gov- 
ernment, contrary  to  promise,  sending  troops  against  the  robbers,  the 
tourists  were  all  murdered.  In  June,  1870,  two  Englishmen,  of  Gibral- 
tar, were  seized  by  brigands,  and  made  to  pay  £5,200  ransom,  part  of 
which  was  afterwards  recovered,  and  some  of  the  robbers  killed,  by  the 
Spanish  civic  guard.  The  Mafia,  an  organized  system  of  spying,  murder, 
and  brigandage  pot  into  possession  of  almost  unlimited  power  in  Sicily 
about  1860,  and  has  since  remained  so. 

BRIDGES.  (See  pp.  89,  274.)  The  proposed  New  York  and  Brooklyn 
suspension  bridge  is  to  be  5,862  feet  long,  with  a  central  span  of  1,600 
feet,  at  185  feet  above  high- water  mark.  The  Victoria  railway  bridge 
over  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Montreal,  about  two  miles  long,  an  iron  tubular 
bridge,  begun  May  24,  1854,  formally  opened  August  25,  1860,  and  cost 
£1,700,000. 

BURIAL.  (See  Cremation.)  The  "earth  to  earth"  system  of  burial,  ad- 
vocated by  Mr.  Seymour  Haden,  and  wicker  coffins,  exhibited  in  1875  at, 
London. 

C. 

CANADA.  (See  pp.  91,  288.)  The  act  creating  "the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada "  was  passed  March  29,  1867.  The  Dominion  contains  Ontario,  or 
Upper  Canada,  Quebec,  or  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island ,  and  provision  is 
made  for  admitting  Newfoundland.  Lord  Monck,  first  Governor- General, 
opened  the  first  session  of  the  Dominion  Parliament,  at  the  capital, 
Ottawa,  Nov.  7,  1867.  Population  by  census  of  1871  :  Ontario,  1,620,- 
851;  Quebec,  1,191,516;  Nova  Scotia,  387,800;  New  Brunswick,  285,- 
594;  Manitoba,  11,953  ;  British  Columbia,  10,586  ;  Prince  Edward  Island, 
94,021  ;  total,  3,602,321. 

CANALS.  (See  Suez  Canal.)  Recent  surveys  have  shown  that  the  ques- 
tion of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  or  that  of  Tehuantepec,  is 
only  one  of  cost,  not  of  practicability.  In  April,  1870,  a  French  company 
was  empowered  to  cut  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  be  done 
in  six  years. 

CANDIA,  THE  ANCIENT  CRETE.  (See  pp.  289,  338.)  Insurrections  against 
Turkish  oppression,  184t;  again,  and  quieted  by  conciliation,  1858. 
Christians  persecuted,  1 859  ;  a  general  assembly  rejects  Turkish  authori- 
ty and  declares  union  with  Greece,  September  2,  1866;  after  obstinate, 
contests  the  insurgents  yield  from  exhaustion,  and  Turkish  authority  re 
established  March  8,  1869. 

CANOPUS.  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  sea-coast,  east  of  Alexan- 
dria. The  "  Decree  of  Canopus"  was  put  forth  B.  c.  238,  by  Ptolemy 
Euergetes,  to  constitute  his  deceased  daughter,  Berenice,  a  goddess,  and 
to  establish  an  annual  festival  and  a  service  of  priests  in  her  honor.  A 
copy  of  this,  in  hieroglyphics  and  Greek,  was  discovered  at  Tanis,  1866. 


12 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.  (See  Death,  Punishment  of,  pp.  108,  344.)  Abol- 
ished in  Saxony,  April  1,  1868  ;  abolition  of  it  refused  in  Belgium,  Janu- 
ary 18  1867  ;  in  English  House  of  Commons,  by  127  to  23,  April  21, 
1868  ;  by  118  to  58,  July  29,  1869  ;  by  167  to  54,  July  24,  1872  ;  refused 
by  French  Senate,  June  21,  1876.  It  was  prohibited  in  Michigan,  1846  ; 
Rhode  Island,  1852  ;  Wisconsin,  1853 ;  Iowa,  1872 ;  Maine,  February  18, 
1876,  and  is  practically  disused  in  some  other  States.  The  effect  of  such 
disuse  on  crime  is  undetermined.  In  thirteen  years  next  after  the  repeal 
of  the  law  inflicting  it  in  Michigan,  there  were  30  convictions  for  mur- 
der, and  in  the  next  fourteen  years,  with  a  population  50  per  cent,  greater, 
only  26.  But  in  New  York  City,  during  1871-6,  only  seven  murderers  were 
hanged,  while  there  were  281  murders.  And  in  1871  there  were  no  hang- 
ings, but  in  the  next  year  the  murders  increased  from  41  to  55,  and  when 
in  1873.  two  murderers  were  hanged,  the  murders  decreased  in  like  man- 
ner from  53  to  39. 

CATHOLICS.  (See  Concordat;  Infallibility ;  Old  Catholics;  Romanism; 
Vatican  Council.) 

CENSUS.  (See  pp.  94,  299.)  The  English  census,  taken  April  2,  1871, 
showed  a  population  in  the  United  Kingdom  (England,  Wales,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland),  of  31,465,480.  For  Census  of  United  States,  1870,  see 
United  States. 

CENTENNIAL.  An  immense  number  of  Centennial  celebrations  took  place 
in  the  United  States  during  1875  and  1876,  beginning  with  that  of  June 
19,  1875,  for  the  battle  of  Lexington.  The  Centennial  International  Ex- 
hibition at  Philadelphia  was  opened  by  President  Grant,  May  10,  1876, 
and  closed  November  10. 

Of  the  growth  of  the  United  States  in  the  first  century,   the  following 
figures  show  a  few  illustrations  : 

1776.  1876. 

Population 2,750,000  44,675,000 

Area  square  miles...., 800.000  3.603,844 

Annual  manufactures $20,000.000  $4,200,000,01  0 

Banks 0  fi,066 

Collies 9  374 


CHARITIES, 
as  follows : 


(See  pp.  95,  302.)     George  Peabody's  public  charities  were 


$2,500,000  for  the  poor  of  London. 

$2,000.000  for  education  in  the  South- 
ern States. 

$300,000  for  museums  at  Yale  and  Har- 
vard Colleges. 

$50,000  for  a  free  museum  at  Salem, 
MM. 


820,000  to  Kenyon  College. 

$250,000  to  the  State  of  Maryland. 

$500,000  for  a  free  library  and  educa- 
tional institute  at  Danvers  (afterwards 
named  Peabody),  Mass. 

$1.003.000  for  the  Peabody  Institute, 
at  Baltimore,  Md. 


December  2,  1871,  was  opened  at  Dublin  the  Brown  Institution,  endowed 
by  a  bequest  left  for  the  purpose  by  a  Mr.  Brown,  of  Dublin,  as  a  hospital 
for  the  study  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  quadrupeds  and  birds  useful 
to  men.  Mr.  Vanderbilt  had,  during  his  life,  endowed  a  college  in  Ten- 
nessee, with  about  $1,000,000,  and  supported  the  "Church  of  the  Stran- 
gers," in  New  York.  Daniel  Drew,  a  leading  New  York  stock  operator, 
endowed  (nominally)  Drew  Theological  Seminary  in  New  Jersey,  but 
afterwards  losing  his  money,  the  funds  were  never  paid  over.  A.  T. 
Stewart  left  at  his  death,  unfinished,  a  great  hotel  for  working-women  in 
New  York,  which  was  completed  by  his  widow. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  13 

CHICAGO.  (See  p.  95.)  GREAT  FIKE,  October  8-11,  1871  About  250 
persons  perished,  about  98,500  were  rendered  destitute,  and"  the  loss  was 
estimated  at  $290,000,000.  Some  25,000  buildings  were  destroyed. 
Large  contributions  were  made  in  American  and  English  cities  towards 
relieving  the  sufferers,  and  great  energy  was  shown  in  rebuilding. 

CHILDREN.  Under  eight  years  old,  forbidden  to  be  employed  in  agricul- 
ture in  England,  by  act  of  August  5,  1873. 

CHINA.  (See  pp.  95,  305.)  Chinese  embassy,  with  Anson  Burlingame  (of 
Massachusetts)  at  its  head,  received  at  Washington,  June  5,  1868  ;  at 
Paris,  January  24,  1869 ;  Mr.  Burlingame  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  Feb- 
ruary 22,  1870.  Massacre  of  French  priests  and  about  fifty  others  by  a 
mob  at  Tientsin,  June  21,  1870 ;  the  leaders  were  executed  October  26, 
1870.  Emperor  Tsai  tien  (altered  to  Kwang-Sii),  son  of  Chun  and  nephew 
of  Prince  Kung,  succeeds  Toung-Chi,  February  4,  1875.  First  railway  in, 
eleven  miles  long,  from  Shanghae  to  Oussoon,  publicly  opened  June  30, 
1876.  Chinese  emigration  to  America  began  in  1850  ;  and  there  are  now 
(1877)  supposed  to  be  nearly  50,000  Chinese  in  San  Francisco,  and  from 
125,000  to  150,000  in  California,  mostly  males.  In  California  this  emi- 
gration, and  the  Chinese,  after  coming,  are  chiefly  controlled  by  the  "  Six 
Companies,"  which  are  a  kind  of  corporations,  and  whose  names  are  Sam 
Yup,  Yung  Wo,  Kong  Chow,  Ning  Yeung,  Yan  Wo,  and  Hop  Wo. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND.  (See  p.  310.)  Royal  assent  to  Mr.  Gladstone's 
bill  disestablishing  it,  July  26,  1869,  took  effect  January  1,  1871. 

CHURCH-RATES.  (Seep.  97.)  Compulsory  church-rates  in  England  were 
abolished  by  act  of  Parliament,  introduced  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  passed 
July  31,  18(58. 

CIVIL  SERVICE,  ENGLISH.  August  31,  1870,  went  into  operation  an 
English  Older  in  Council  that  all  entrance  appointments  to  civil  service 
except  the  Foreign  Office  and  posts  requiring  professional  knowledge, 
should  be  filled  by  open  competition.  Persons  in  the  English  Civil  Service 
(treasury,  home,  foreign,  colonial,  post,  revenue,  etc.,  officers),  about 
17,000;  cost  of  same  yearly,  estimated  for  3877  at  £13,309,100. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM,  UNITP;D  STATES.  Measure  to  secure,  in- 
troduced into  Congress  by  T.  A.  Jenckes.  of  Rhode  Island,  January  20, 
1867.  Act  for  rules  to  be  prescribed  by  the  President  for  civil  service 
examinations,  passed  March  3,  1871.  Commissioners  to  prepare  rules 
appointed  by  President,  June  4th,  met  and  G.  W.  Curtis  chosen  chairman, 
June  28,  1871.  Rules  prepared,  but  less  was  accomplished  by  them  than 
was  expected.  In  the  summer  of  1877,  President  Hayes  ordered  that  all 
national  office-holders  should  resign  any  situations  they  might  hold  as  party 
political  managers,  or  else  resign  their  offices,  his  purpose  being  ' '  to  take 
the  office-holder  out  of  politics."  This  order  was  promptly  obeyed. 

CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES.  (See  pp.  97,  314,  646.)  Imported  into  Great 
Britain  in  1870,  258,628  clocks,  372,420  watches.  The  Boston  Watch  Com- 
pany, the  first  factory  for  making  watches  by  machinery,  was  founded  by 
Mr.  Dennison  in  1854 ;  it  failed  1856,  and  was  bought  by  Mr.  Robbins,  who 
changed  the  name  to  American  Watch  Company,  often  called  the  Waltham 
Watch  Co.  In  1876  there  were  eleven  such  watch  factories.  That  at 
Waltham,  with  900  workmen,  turns  out  about  425  movements  a  day;  the 
next  largest,  at  Elgin,  111.,  about  300  movements.  The  effect  of  the 
American  watch  business  on  the  importation  of  Swiss  watches  is  shown 


14  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

as  follows  :     Swiss  watches  imported  into  the  United  States  in  1872, 
366,000;  1873,  204,000;  1874,  187,000;  1875,  134,000;  1876,  75,000. 

CLUBS.  (See  p.  97.)  Recent  London  clubs  were  formed  at  following 
dates  :  Cobden  Club  (free  trade),  1866 ;  Scientific,  Wanderers  (travellers), 
Devonshire  (Liberal  political),  Verulam  (literary  and  scientific),  1874 ; 
Byron,  1875  ;  Hanover  Square  (new  Liberal),  1876. 

COAL.  (See  pp.  98,  315.)  Consumption  of  anthracite  from  the  Pennsyl- 
vania coal  fields  began  with  365  tons,  in  1820,  and  was  in  1875,  18,082,294 
tons.  By  periods  of  ten  years  the  production  was  as  follows,  inclusively  : 


1820-29 tons         859,190 

1830-89 "        5,210,685 

1840-49. "      18,954,678 


1P50-59 tons     68,333,469 

1860-69 "      10«,883,48ti 

1870-75...  ..    "      105.627.240 


The  anthracite  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  all  in  seven  counties  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, viz :  Schuylkill,  Carbon,  Luzerne,  Columbia,  Northumberland, 
Dauphin,  and  Lebanon,  and  mostly  in  the  first  three  of  these.  Estimates 
of  the  time  when  these  anthracite  deposits  will  be  exhausted  vary  from 
77  years  to  650  years.  Tons  of  coal  raised  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  in  1870  and  1874  : 

GREAT  BRITAIN.         UNITED  STATES. 

1870 113,000.000      32,000,000 

1874 125,000,0(!0      50,000,000 

Area  of  all  coal  fields  in  the  United  States  estimated  at  196,000  square 
miles.  Proportions  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  mined  in  the 
United  States  in  1870  and  1875  : 

1870.  1875. 

Anthracite,  tons. 13,985.960  20,654,509 

Bituminous,  "    15,231,668  26,031,726 

COINAGE.  (See  pp.  99,  317.)  Total  coinage  of  United  States  to  and 
including  1 876  : 

In  1876. 

Gold $945.477,022.80  $38,178,962.50 

Silver 180,322,356.40  19,126,502.50 

Cents,  etc     12,822,538.55  2W.o50.00 

Total $1,138,621,917.25  $57,565,815.00 

COLLEGES  IN  UNITED  STATES  in  1875,  355;  schools  of  science  (and 
collegiate  departments),  75  ;  theological  schools  (and  departments),  123; 
law  schools  (and  departments),  43 ;  medical,  dental,  etc.,  schools  (and 
departments),  106. 

COLOMBIA.  (See  p.  319.)  General  Salgar,  President,  1871 ;  M.  M.  Toro, 
April  1,  1872;  S.  Perez,  April  1,  1874.  Population  in  1864,  2,794,473  ; 
in  1870,  2,910,329. 

COLONIES.  (See  pp.  99,  320.)  Great  Britain  has  sixty-nine  colonies  and 
foreign  possessions,  whose  population  was  estimated  in  1861  at  142,952,- 
243,  all  but  about  7,500,000  being  in  the  East  Indies.  Their  revenue  in 
1865  was  about  £51.497,000,  and  expenditures,  £59,353,000.  All  slaves 
in  all  British  colonies  emancipated  August  1,  1834.  In  recent  times  the 
English  home  policy  towards  the  colonies  has  steadily  become  more  com- 
plying and  indulgent.  The  earliest  acquired  of  the  present  colonies  was 
Newfoundland,  about  A.D.  1500;  the  latest,  the  Fiji  Islands,  October  25, 
1874. 

COLORADO  proclaimed  a  State  August  1,  1876. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  15 

COMETS.  (See  pp.  100,  321.)  17,500,000  comets  estimated  to  be  in  the 
solar  system.  More  than  600  recorded  as  having  been  seen.  Schiaparelli 
of  Milan  has  discovered  that  the  August  meteors  move  round  the  sun  in 
an  orbit  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  second  comet  of  1862-6.  The 
great  comet  of  1861  had  a  nucleus  of  about  400  miles  diameter,  a  long, 
bushy  tail,  and  moved  about  ten  million  miles  a  day.  On  June  30,  1861 , 
it  was  suggested  that  the  earth  was  in  this  tail,  aa  there  was  seen  a 
"  phosphorescent  auroral  glare.1' 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.     General  Sherman  appointed,  1869. 

COMMERCE  OF  UNITED  STATES.     (See  also  Cotton,  Failures,  etc.) 

hxports.  fmportx. 

1869 $394,«44,335 $414.256,243 

1870 392.771,178 452,875,665 

1871 460,331,614 572.509,314 

1872 444,177,668 626,595.077 

1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 

1874  633.339,368 '..  567,406.342 

1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 

Of  the  years  1874  and  1875,  nearly  half  this  commerce  was  with  Great 

Britain,  viz. : 

Exports  to  G.  B.  Imports  from  (,'.  B. 

1874 $341.(i24,04!» $180,042,83 

1875 366,799,869 157,047,827 

Chambers  of  Commerce  now  exist  in  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  Chris- 
tendom. Twenty-seven  of  the  English  ones  met  for  consultation,  Febru- 
ary 21,  1865 ;  the  meeting  became  annual ;  in  1873  (February  18th),  46 
met. 

COMMUNE  OF  PARIS.  Proclaimed  March  28,  1871 ;  ended  at  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city  by  the  government  forces,  May  28th,  following. 

CONCORDANCE.  (See  pp.  100,  324.)  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible 
on  which  was  based  that  of  St.  Caro,  seems  to  have  been  made  by  An- 
thony of  Padua.  Cruden's  t^the  best),  first  published  in  London,  1737. 
Mrs.  Furness's  Concordance  to  Shakespeare's  poems,  1874.  Todd's  Verbal 
Index  to  Milton,  1809,  and  Cleaveland's  Concordance  to  Milton.  1867. 
Brightwell's  Concordance  to  Tennyson,  1869  ;  Abbott's  to  Pope,  1875. 

CONCORDAT.  (See  p.  324.)  The  Concordat  between  Rome  and  Austria, 
August  18,  1855,  gave  the  former  much  authority  over  the  Austrian 
Church,  and  thus  excited  great  dissatisfaction  in  Austria.  In  1868  the 
Austrian  and  Hungarian  legislatures  practically  abolished  it,  and  it  was 
formally  declared  suspended,  July  30,  1870,  in  consequence  of  the  procla- 
mation of  papal  infallibility. 

CONFESSION,  AURICULAR.  (See  p.  325.)  Introduced  in  England  by  the 
Puseyites,  Tracfcarians,  or  Ritualists.  Rev.  A.  Poole  suspended  for  prac- 
ticing it,  June,  1858  ;  Rev.  T.  West  tried  to  introduce  it,  causing  much 
excitement,  September,  1858  ;  483  Anglican  clergymen  petitioned  convo- 
cation for  its  establishment,  May,  1873,  but  the  bishops  were  strongly 
opposed  to  it  ;  Archdeacon  Denison's  letter  against  all  who  oppose  it, 
August  22,  1873.  A  secret  book  used  by  the  English  ritualists,  with 
shameful  questions  to  be  put  to  married  women  and  young  persons,  dis- 
covered June,  1877,  and  great  indignation  aroused. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  (See  p.  327.)  Now  reckoned  aa  29  northern,  45 
southern,  1 2  zodiacal. 


16  THE  WORLD'S  I-ROURESS. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  (See  pp.  102,  328.)  The 
dates  and  subjects  of  the  fifteen  amendments  were  as  follows :  1.  Pro- 
posed 1789,  Freedom  of  religion,  press,  assembling,  and  petition.  2.  1789, 
Right  to  bear  arms.  8.  1789,  Quartering  soldiers  on  people.  4.  1789, 
Searches  and  seizures  of  persons,  houses,  etc.  5.  1789,  Indictment,  mar- 
tial law,  legal  process,  eminent  domain.  6.  1789,  Criminal  prosecutions 
to  be  speedy ;  privileges  of  accused.  7.  1789,  Jury  trial  for  anything  over 
$20,  in  common-law  suits.  8.  1789,  Bail,  fines,  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments. 9.  1789,  Enumeration  of  rights  in  Constitution  does  not  impair 
others.  10.  1789,  State  rights.  11.  1794,  Judicial  power  of  United 
States  as  against  States.  12.  1803-5,  Election  of  President.  13.  Ratified 
December  18,  1865,  abolishes  slavery.  14.  Ratified  July  28,  1868,  civil 
rights,  representative  basis,  rebel  disf  ranchisement,  public  and  rebel  debt. 
15.  Ratified  March  30,  1870,  negro  suffrage. 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  ACT.  Providing  for  periodical  medical  examina- 
tions of  women's  persons  at  military  and  naval  stations,  passed  in  English 
Parliament  June,  I860.  Great  opposition  has  been  made  to  it;  a  royal 
commission  to  inquire  into  it  reported  July,  1871.  Alterations  have  been 
proposed,  and  repeal  has  been  attempted,  but  failed  by  126  to  308  June, 
1875,  and  102  to  224,  July,  1876. 

CONVENTS  (for  nuns ;"  monasteries  "  are  for  monks).  (See  p.  328.)  In 
1832  there  were  16  convents  in  England  ;  in  1870,  233,  besides  70  monas- 
teries. A  large  Church  of  England  convent  opened  at  Bournemouth, 
October  3,  1875. 

CONVOCATION.  The  English  Convocation  consists  of  the  upper  house  (of 
bishops),  and  the  lower  (of  the  inferior  clergy).  It  formerly  possessed 
power  over  various  church  matters,  but  was  deprived  of  these  by  a  statute 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  again  in  1716,  when  it  ceased  meeting.  Formal 
meetings  of  the  Anglican  clergy  have  been  held  since  1 854,  and  attempts 
made  in  vain  to  regain  power  over  church  interests.  In  February,  1872, 
convocations  were  authorized  to  deliberate  upon  changes  in  the  liturgy, 
and  this  was  done  in  March  following. 

CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES  (for  economical  supply  of  goods  to  members). 
Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers'  Society  began  1844.  In  1862  there  were 
332  in  England;  on  December  81,  1866,  749.  Annual  congresses  have 
been  held,  the  seventh  at  London,  March  29.  1875.  Similar  organizations 
in  the  United  States  have  not  been  very  successful.  There  were  in 
Massachusetts  in  1875,  however,  fifteen  such,  of  which  eight  had  a  member- 
ship of  1,650,  share  capital  $50,000,  assets  $100,000.  and  selling  $500,000 
of  goods  yearly.  These  were  at  Fall  River  (organized  1866),  Worcester 
(1867),  New  Bedford  (1867),  Lynn  (1870),  Wakefield  (1866),  Holyoke 
(1873),  Gardner  (1874),  Natick  (18(59  ?).  On  the  continent  of  Europe  such 
organizations  are  numerous  and  efficient. 

COPYRIGHT.  (See  pp.  102. 103,  330.)  An  international  copyright  bill 
brought  into  Congress,  February  21,  1868,  but  could  not  pass.  English 
House  of  Lords  decided  in  Routledge  vs.  Low,  in  favor  of  the  copyright 
of  a  foreign  author.  The  Copyright  Association  of  England  was  founded 
by  leading  London  booksellers,  March  19,  1872. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY.     Founded  by  Ezra  Cornell  in  1868. 

CORONERS.  (See  p.  332.)  In  consequence  of  abuses  and  annoyances  from 
the  ijfnorance  and  incompetence  of  coroners,  they  Tere  suppressed  in 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  17 

Massachusetts  by  act  of  legislature,  May  9,  1877,  and  "medical  exami- 
ners" substituted,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  Council,  and  to 
be  "able  and  discreet  men,  learned  in  the  science  of  medicine." 

COTTON  MANUFACTURE  IN  UNITED  STATES  : 

Looms.           In  South.            Spindles.             In  South.  3fills 

1870 153.534     ....      5,852     ....     7,114,000     ....     262,221  ...     956 

1874 186,975     ....     10,945     ....     9.415,383     ....     487,029  ....     847 

Cotton  mill  first  in  India,  built  1863  ;  and  the  number  had  increased  in 
1876  to  reach  a  consumption  of  3,000  bales  cotton  per  week.  Estimated 
consumption  of  cotton  for  manufacturing  purposes  in  the  world,  for  1860 
and  1876,  in  bales  of  400  pounds : 

I860.  1876.  Increase. 

Great  Britain 2,817,000     3,187,000     3~U,000 

Continent  of  Europe 1,794,000     2,3<>:;,000     5K8,UOO 

United  States 1,088,000     1,441,000     353,000 

Bombay  and  rest  of  India 164,000     164,000 

This  increase  is  about  13  per  cent,  for  Great  Britain,  and  37£  per  cent, 
for  the  other  manufacturing  countries. 

COUNCILS,  CHURCH.     (See  p.  385:  also  Vatican  Council.) 

CREDIT  FONCIER.  Name  given  to  organizations  for  advancing  money  to 
real  estate  owners  on  the  security  of  their  estates.  Such  a  plan  was  set 
in  operation  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  Prussia  in  1703.  Companies  for 
the  purpose  have  existed  in  Hamburg  (1782).  Prussia  (1787),  Belgium, 
(1841),  France  (1852),  England  (1863),  and  elsewhere. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER.  (See  p.  104.)  The  original  Credit  Mobilier  at  Paris 
failed,  and  the  capital  was  said  to  have  "disappeared,"  October,  1867. 
The  Pereires,  and  other  directors  held  liable  August  1,  1868.  "  Credit 
Mobilier  of  America,"  incorporated  in  Pennsylvania  March  15,  1865  ;  as- 
sumed a  contract  to  build  100  miles  of  the  Union  Pacific  R.  R.  westward 
from  the  Missouri  River,  in  which  Hoxie  had  failed.  Improper  distribution 
of  its  stock  to  members  of  Congress  in  December,  1867  and  afterwards,  was 
charged,  and  an  investigati  n  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives took  place  in  1872-73. 

CREMATION  advocated,  instead  of  burial,  by  Sir  Henry  Thompson  and ' 
others  in  England,  1873.  Societies  for  it  established  in  London,  Vienna, 
and  Berlin  in  1874.  The  body  of  Sir  C.  Dilke's  wife,  burned  at  Dresden 
October  10,  1874;  the  ashes  of  the  body  and  coffin  together  being  about 
six  pounds.  Baron  de  Palm's  remains  burnt  in  like  manner  in  America 
in  1876,  and  Dr.  Winslow's  in  1877. 

CRETE.    Now  Candia,  which  see. 

CRIME.  (See  pp.  105,338;  also  Ticket  of  Leave.)  International  Congress 
for  Prevention  and  Repression  of  Crime,  met  at  London,  July  3,  1872.  In 
England  a  great  decrease  in  crimes  of  violence  in  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation has  been  observed  from  1861  to  1871. 

CRISPINS.     (See  St.  Crispin.) 

CROWN.  (See  p.  340.)  The  crown  of  England  contains  1  large  ruby,  1 
large  sapphire,  16  sapphires,  11  emeralds,  4  rubies,  1,363  brilliants  (dia- 
monds), 1,273  rose-diamonds,  147  table  diamonds,  4  drop-shaped  pearls, 
273  pearls. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS.     (See  Animals.) 


18  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

CRYOLITE.  A  fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium,  found  in  quantities  in 
Greenland,  and  used  to  manufacture  metallic  aluminium. 

CUBA.  (See  pp.  106,  340.)  Insurrection  began  soon  after  the  Spanish  revo- 
lution, September,  1868 ;  checked,  June,  1870 ;  not  suppressed,  January, 
1872  ;  still  in  full  activity.  August,  1877. 

CUMULATIVE  VOTE.  Under  the  English  Reform  Act  of  1867,  cumulative 
voting,  to  allow  "  minority  representation,"  was  allowed  in  London,  Glas- 
gow, Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  Leeds,  arid  in  such  counties  as  returned 
three  members  each.  In  the  counties,  and  in  some  of  these  cities,  the 
result  was  to  admit  minority  candidates.  Used  in  electing  members  of  the 
government  of  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges. 

CUNEIFORM  LANGUAGES.     (See  Assyria.') 

CURIUM.  General  L.  P.  di  Cesnola  discovered  in  1875,  in  the  ruins  of  this 
very  ancient  city,  in  Cyprus,  a  treasure  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  a 
temple,  deposited  in  four  subterranean  rooms,  and  consisting  of  over  7,200 

1  ornaments,  statues,  and  other  articles  of  gold,  silver,  bronze,  terra  cotta, 
ivory,  glass,  etc. ,  etc. ,  which  have  been  secured  for  the  Metropolitan  Art 
Museum  in  New  York. 

CURRENCY.  UNITED  STATES.  National  bank  notes  outstanding,  De- 
cember 31, 1876,  $319,860,304  ;  greenbacks  outstanding,  same  date,  $366,- 
911,000. 

CYCLONE.  A  circular  hurricane,  common  in  the  tropics.  In  a  cyclone  at 
Calcutta,  October  5,  1864,  about  100  ships  lost,  and  60,000  persons  per- 
ished. One  at  Nassau,  in  the  Bahamas,  October  1  and  2,  1866,  destroyed 
over  600  houses  and  other  buildings,  dismasted  many  ships,  and  killed 
from  60  to  70  persons.  August  21,  1871,  a  cyclone  devastated  Antigua, 
St.  Kitte,  and  other  islands,  inflicting  enormous  damages.  In  a  flood  and 
cyclone  in  the  Backerguuge  district,  in  India,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gan- 
ges, 5,000  persons  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  October  31,  1876. 

CYPRUS.     (See  Curium.) 

CZECHS.  Name  of  the  natives  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  In  Bohemia  there 
is  a  violent  opposition  between  the  Czechs  and  Germans. 


D. 

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES.     (See  Roumania.) 

DARIEN  CANAL.     (See  Canals.) 

DARWINISM.  A  "  development "  theory  was  put  forth  by  Wolff,  1759; 
and  one  by  Lamarck,  1809,  and  one  in  the  *'  Vestiges  of  Creation,"  1844. 
Origin  of  mammals  from  an  effg,  not  a  hundredth  part  of  an  inch  diameter, 
proved  by  von  Baer,  1827.  Mr.  Darwin's  doctrines  are  contained  in  his 
'•  Origin  of  Species,"  1859,  and  "  Descent  of  Man,"  1871.  His  follower, 
Haeckel,  published  a  "History  of  Creation,"  1873,  appeared  in  English, 
1.875.  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace's  ' k  Natural  Selection"  appeared  1870. 

DEACONESSES.  Discontinued  in  the  Western  Church  in  the  fifth  and 
Sixth  centuries,  and  in  the  Eastern  in  the  twelfth  ;  recently  revived  in 
Germany.  Pastor  Fliedner's  Institution  for  training  deaconesses  at  Kais- 
erswerth  founded  1835.  Advocated  in  England  by  the  Bishop  of  Ely, 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77. 


19 


1853,  and  some  appointed.     Di:cesan  Deaconess  Institution  at  London, 
established  1861.     In  1866  the  Kaiserswerth  Institution  had  connected 
with  it  139  stations  and  491  sisters  or  deaconesses. 
DEATHS,  noticeable,  1867-1877,  in  alphabetical  order  of  names  : 

Agassiz.  L.,  naturalist,  Dec.  15.  1873.  Derby,  Earl  of,  statesman,  Oct.  23,  1869. 

Alford,  Rev.  H.,  critic,  poet,  and  divine,  Jan.    Dickens,  Charles,  novelist,  June  9,  1870. 

12,  1871.  Didot,  A.,  publisher,  Feb.  20,  1876. 

Alison,  Sir  A.,  historian,  May  23,  1867. 
Amberley,  Viscount,  Jan.  10,  1876. 


Antonelli,   Cardinal,    priest    and    statesman, 

Nov.  6,  1876. 
Applegath  A.,  inventor  of  printing  machinery, 

counterfeit-proof  bank  notes,  etc.,  Feb.  14, 

1871. 

Aspinwall,  Col.  Thomas,  Aug.  11,  1876. 
Auber,  D.  F.  B.,  composer,  May  13,  1871. 
Aubigno,  Merle  d',  clergyman  and  historian, 

Oct.  1!),  1872. 

Austin,  Mrs.  Sarah,  authoress,  Aug.  8,  1867. 
Babbage,  C.,  mathematician,  Oct.  18,  1»71. 
Baird,  James,  Scotch  iron  master,  June  21, 

1876. 
Bailey,  Theodoras,  admiral,  U.  S.  N.,  Feb.  10, 

1877. 

Bedford,  Paul,  actor,  Jan.  11,  1871. 
Bentley,  R.,  publisher.  Sept.  10,  1871. 
Berryer,  P.  A.,  French  advocate  and  orator, 

Nov.  29,  1868. 
Blair.  F.  P.,  senior,  editor  and  politician,  Oct. 

18,  1876. 

Blitz,  Antonio,  "magician,"  Jan.  28,  1877. 
Brag,',  B.  L.,  rebel  general,  Sept.  27,  1876. 
Brewster,  SirD.,  physicist,  Feb.  10,  18t»8. 
Brongniart,  A.  X.,  scientist  and  author,  Feb. 

20,  1876. 
Brooke,  Sir  J.,  Rajah  of  Sarawak,  June  11, 

1863. 

Brougham,  Lord,  advocate,  orator,  writer,  phil- 
anthropist. May  7.  1868. 
Broiighton,  Lord  (Sir  J.  C.  Hobhouse),  author 

and  official,  June  3,  1869. 
Brownlow,  W.  G.,  editor  and  politician,  April 

29,  1877. 
Brownson,  O.  A.,  writer  and  journalist,  April 

17,  1876. 

Buchanan,  J.,  ex-President,  June  1.  1868. 
Burgoyne,  Sir  John,  soldier,  Oct.  7,  1871. 
Burns,  Jabiz,  Methodist  clergyman,  Jan.  31, 

1876. 


Dumas,    Alexandra,  novelist   and  dramatist, 
Dec.  5,  1870. 


Durbin.  J.  P.,  Methodist  clergyman,  Oct.  19, 
1876. 

Ellenborough,  Earl  of,  statesman  and  admin- 
istrator, Dec.,  1871. 

Ellet,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  P.,  authoress,  1877. 

Emerson-Tennent,  Sir  J.,  author  and  official, 
March  6,  1869. 

Evans.  Sir  De  Lacy,  soldier,  Jan.  9,  1870. 

Exeter,  Bianop  of  (Henry  Phillpotts),  Sept.  8, 
1869. 

Faraday,  M.,  physicist,  Aug.  25,  1867. 

Forrest,  Edwin,  actor,  Dec.  12.  1872. 

Forster,  John,  author,  Jan.  31, 1876. 

Freiligrath,  P.,  poet,  March  19,  1876. 

Galliera,  Duke  of,  wealthy  Italian  nobleman, 
Nov.  24,  1876. 

Gough,  Lord,  soldier,  March  2,  1S69. 

Greenfield,  Elizabeth  T.,  the  "  black  swan, " 
colored  singer,  March  31,  1876. 

Grisi,  Giulia,  singer,  Nov.  25,  1869. 

Grote  G.,  historian  of  Greece,  June  18,  1871. 

Guizot,  F.,  statesman  and  historian,  Sept.  12, 
1873. 

Hall.  W.  W.,  medical  writer  and  editor.  May 
10,  1876. 

Harper,  Fletcher,  last  of  four  brothers,  pub- 
lishers, May  29,  1877. 

Hemmenway,  A.,  merchant  and  capitalist, 
June  16,  1876. 

Herschel,  Sir  J.  F.  W.,  astronomer,  May  11, 
1871. 

Howe,  Dr.  S.  G.,  physician  and  philanthro- 
pist, Jan.  9,  1876. 

Hudson.  George,  the  "  Railway  King,"  Dec. 
14,  1871. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  ex-President,  January  10, 
1876. 

Johnson,  Reverdy,  lawyer  and  statesman,  Feb. 
10,  1876. 

Johnston,  Keith,  geographer,  July  9.  1871. 


Bushnell,  Horace,  clergyman  and  writer,  Feb.    Jones,  Ernest,  chartist,  Jan.  26,  1869. 
17,  1876.  Juarez,  B.,  ex-president  of  Mexico,  July  18, 


Capponi,  Marquis,  author,  Feb.  4,  1876. 
Cardigan,  Lord,  of  Balaklava  notoriety,  March 


1872. 
Kean,  Charles,  Jr..  actor,  Jan.  22,  1868. 


28,  1868.  Kerr,  Michael  C.,  politician,  Aug.'  19,  1S78. 

Chambers,  Robert  and  William,  publishers  and  I  Kock.  Paul  de,  French  novelist,  Aug.,  1871. 

authors.  March  17  and  20,  1871.  ,  Lahrbush,  Frederick  A.,  soldier,  claiming  to 

Clarendon,  Earl  of,  diplomatist  and  statesman,  ;      be  111  years  and  25  days  old,  April  3,  1877. 

June  27,  1870.  I  Lamartine,  A.  de,  poet,  historian,  and  states- 

Cousin,  Victor,  historian  and  philosopher.  Jan.        man,  Feb.  28,  1869. 

14.  1867.  I  Landseer.  Sir  E.,  painter.  Oct.  1,  T873. 

Cushman,  Charlotte,  actress,  Feb.  18,  1876.        '  Lane.  E.  W.,  Arabic  scholar,  Aug.  10,  1876. 
Custer,  Gen.,  July  2,  1876.  ;  Lee,  R.  E.,  rebel  general,  Oct.  13,  1870. 

Davies,  C..  mathematician,  Sept.  17,  1876.         i  Lick,  James,  capitalist,  Oct.  1,  1876. 
Davis,  C.  H.,  admiral  U.S.  Navy,  Feb.  18, 1877.    Lowenthal,  J.  J.,  chess-player,  July  21,  1876 
Deak,  Francis,  Hungarian  statesman,  Jan.  29,    Lyttou,  Lord,  novelist,  Jan.  18,  1873. 

1876.  Le:uair.re,  K.,  actor,  Jan.  27,  1876. 

De  Morgan,  A.,    mathematicUn,  March   18,    Le;n'.m,  >I;irk.  editor,  May  23.  1870. 

1871.  I  Maclise,  Daniel,  painter,  April  25,  1870. 


20 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Mansel,  H.  L.,  divine  and  metaphysician,  July 
81, 1871. 

Marochetti,  Baron,  sculptor,  Dec.  29,  1867. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  writer.  June  27,  1876. 

Hayo,  Lord.  ifov.  gen.  of  India,  assassinated, 
Feb.  8,  1872. 

Hayo,  Dr.  Thomas,  physician  and  medical 
writer,  Jan.  13, 1871. 

Maximilian  L,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  June  19, 
1867. 

Maxwell,  Lady  (Mrs.  Caroline  Norton),  June 
H1877. 

Mazzlni,  G.,  Italian,  republican  agitator  and 
conspirator,  March  10,  1872. 

MelvilL,  Rev.  Henry,  divine,  Feb.  9,  1871. 

Michael  III.,  Prince  of  Servia,  assassinated 
June  10.  1868. 

Milman,  Dr.  H.  H.,  author  and  divine,  Sept. 
27,  1868. 

Montalernbert,  Count  de,  author  and  states- 
man, March  13,  1870. 

Murchison,  Sir  R.  I.,  geologist,  Oct.  22,  1871. 

Napoleon  III.,  ex-Emperor,  Jan.  9. 1873. 

Narvaez,  Spanish  soldier  and  ruler,  April  23, 
1868. 

Neal,  John,  writer,  June  20.  1876. 

Omar  Pasha,  soldier,  April  18,  1871. 

Patteson,  J.  0.,  missionary,  Bishop  of  Melan- 
esia, Sept.  20, 1871. 

Peabody.  George,  banker  and  public  benefac- 
tor, Nov.  4, 18«9. 

P6rier,  Casimir,  French  statesman,  July  6, 
1876. 

Poggcndorff,  J.  C.,  physicist,  1877. 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  judge,  Aug.  23.  1870. 

Pr6vost-Paradol,  M.,  author,  July  19, 1870. 

Prim.  J.,  Spanish  soldier  and  statesman,  as- 
sassinated Dec.  28,  1870. 

Ptiifh,  George  E  ,  lawyer  and  politician,  July 
1!),  1876. 

Putnam,  George  P.,  publisher,  Dec.  19,  1872. 

Randall,  H.  S.,  agricultural  and  educational 
writer,  Aug.  19,  1876. 

Rhett,  R.  B.,  politician,  Sept.  14,  1876. 

DEVELOPMENT.     (See  Darwinism.) 

DIAMONDS.  The  Kohinoor,  reduced  by  its  first  unskilful  cutting  from 
nearly  800  carats  to  279  carats,  was  recut  in  1852  down  to  102±  carats. 
The  il  Star  of  the  South,"  brought  from  Brazil  1855,  weighed  204^  carats, 
of  which  half  was  lost  in  cutting.  Diamonds  were  found  in  Cape  Colony, 
South  Africa,  in  March,  1867,  and  one,  the  "  Star  of  South  Africa.*1 
found  in  1869,  weighed  46£  carats,  and  was  valued  in  June,  1870,  at 
£2.1,000.  Other  diamond  fields  discovered  near  Vaal  and  Orange  Rivers. 
September,  1870  ;  a  great  rush  of  diggers,  November,  1870.  The  value  of 
141  diamonds  found  in  Africa,  18ii9,  was  £7,405;  of  5.661  in  1870, 
£124,910.  Diamond  drill  for  piercing  stone,  patented  by  Hermann  in 
France,  1854  ;  a  subsequent  improvement  by  setting  the  diamond  in  the 
rim  of  a  tube  to  turn,  and  thus  cut  out  a  core,  used  in  Mt.  Cenis  tunnel 
and  at  Hellgate  mine. 

DISESTABLISHMENT.  (See  also  Church  of  Ireland.)  A  conference  was 
held  at  Birmingham,  October  1,  1872.  to  promote  immediate  action  for 
the  disestablishment  of  the  English  and  Scotch  national  churches. 

DRAMA.     January  28,  1869,  the  Lord  Chamberlain  of  England  sent  an  offi- 


Robertson,  T.  W..  dramatist,  Feb.,  1871. 

Robinson,  W.  S.,  journalist,  March  11,  1876. 

Rosa*,  Manuel,  ex-dictator  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
March  14, 1877. 

Rosse,  Earl  of,  astronomer,  Oct.  31, 1867. 

Rossini,  G.  A.,  composer,  Nov.  13.  1868. 

Rothschild,  Sir  Anthony,  capitalist,  Jan.  4, 
1876. 

Ryves,  Mrs.,  daughter  of  the  self-styled  "  Prin- 
cess Olive,  of  Cumberland,"  Dec.  7, 1871. 

Sainte-Beuve,  C.  A.  literary  critic,  Oct.,  1869. 

Saldanha,  field  marshal,  Poitnguese,  soldier 
and  statesman,  Nov.  21,  1876. 

Salt  Sir  Titus,  manufacturer,  Dec.  29, 1876. 

Sand,  George  (Mme.  Dudevant),  June  8,  1876. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  L.,  Mexican  general  and 
ruler,  June  20,  1876. 

Schatnyl,  Circassian  chief,  April,  1871. 

Smart!  Sir  George,  musician,  Feb.  23,  1867. 

Smith,  Alexander,  poet,  Jan.  5,  1867. 

Smith.  F.  O.  J.,  telegraph  capitalist,  Oct.  14, 
1876. 

Smith,  Geo.,  Assyrian  scholar,  Sept.  5,  1876. 

Smith,  Henry  B.,  presbyterian  clergyman,  pro- 
fessor, editor,  and  author,  Feb.  7,  1877. 

Smith,  William,  connoisseur  and  antiquary  in 
engravings,  Sept.  13,  1876. 

Smirke,  SirR.,  architect.  April  18,  1867. 

Stanfleld,  Clarkson,  marine  painter,  May  18, 
1867. 

Stewart,  A.  T.,  merchant,  April  10.  1876. 

Strangt'ord,Viscount,  diplomatist,  Jan.  9, 1869. 

Strauss,  F.,  theologian,  Feb.  8.  1873. 

Sumner,  C.,  statesman,  March  11,  1W3. 

Thompson,  Jeff.,  rebel  general,  Sept.  5,  1876. 

Tischendorf,  C.,  biblical  scholar,  Dec.  7,  1873. 

Vanderbilt,  C.,  railroad  owner  and  capitalist, 
Jan.  4,  1877. 

Whittingham,  C.,  printer,  April  21,  1876. 

Wilk.es,  Charles,  admiral,  U.  S.  N.,  Feb.  8, 
1877. 

Wilson,  Henry,  vice-president,  Jan.  20.  1876. 

Winship,  G.  B.,  strong  man,  Sept.  12.  1876. 

Wise,  H.  A.,  politician,  Sept.  11,  1876. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  21 

cial  warning  to  all  the  London  managers  against  ' '  the  impropriety  of  cos- 
tume of  the  ladies  in  the  pantomimes,  burlesques,  etc.,"  usual  on  the  stage. 
Dramatic  College,  for  distressed  actors  and  their  children,  founded  at  May- 
bury,  near  Woking,  in  England,  June  1,  1860,  and  seven  persons  installed 
as  beneficiaries,  September  29,  1862.  A  somewhat  similar  institution  was 
directed  to  be  established  by  Edwin  Forrest,  the  American  actor,  in  his 
house  at  Philadelphia,  but  there  appeared  to  be  none  to  apply  for  the 
benefit  of  the  asylum. 

DUALIN.     (See  Explosives.) 

DUELS.  March  12,  1870,  the  Duke  de  Montpensier  challenged  Don  Enri- 
que de  Bourbon,  for  personalities  having  reference  to  the  throne  of  Spain, 
and  at  the  third  shot  killed  him.  The  Duke  was  tried  by  court-martial, 
and  sentenced  to  one  month's  banishment  from  Madrid  and  $6,000  fine, 
to  be  paid  to  Don  Enrique's  family.  Duels  are  still  (1877)  frequent  in 
France,  but  have  become  rare  in  England  and  America.  A  clumsy  and 
unsuccessful  one  took  place  in  1877,  between  J.  G-.  Bennett,  the  owner  of 
the  New  Ycn*k  Herald,  and  one  May,  of  New  York  ;  neither  was  damaged, 
and  Bennett  went  off  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  a  number  of  months . 

DZOUNGARIA,  OR  SOONGARIA.  A  country  north  of  China,  inhabited 
by  about  two  million  warlike  and  fanatical  Mohammedans.  They  were 
tributary  to  China,  rebelled  1864,  making  Abel  Oghlan  sultan.  In  conse- 
quence of  their  depredations  Eussia  attacked  them,  April,  1871,  the  Sultan 
surrendered  himself  July  4,  and  the  country  was  annexed  to  Russia. 


E. 

EARTH.  The  estimated  average  density,  5-ft-  that  of  water  ;  weight, 
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  tons. 

EARTHQUAKES.  (See  pp.  112,  358.)  August  13-15,  1868,  terrible  earth- 
quakes totally  destroyed  Arica,  Arequipa,  Islay,  Iquique,  Pisco,  and 
many  other  towns  of  Peru  and  Ecuador.  Estimated  lives  lost,  20,000  ; 
estimated  loss  of  property,  £60,000,000,  including  many  ships  along  the 
coast  and  at  the  Chiucha  Islands.  It  was  believed  that  more  th&n  300,000 
persons  were  deprived  of  shelter  and  food.  An  earthquake  on  the  Sind 
frontier  of  India,  December  14  and  15,  1872,  killed  about  500  persons.  May 
16-18,  1875,  one  on  the  Colombia  frontier,  near  Santander,  is  said  to  have 
killed  14,000.  From  1783  to  1857,  the  kingdom  of  Naples  lost,  out  of  a 
population  of  about  six  million,  over  1,000  persons  a  year,  in  all  110,000. 
About  255  earthquakes,  all  slight,  are  known  to  have  occurred  in  the  Brit- 
ish Islands. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.  Its  government  of  India  ceased  October  1, 
1858.  Finally  abolished  June  1,  1874. 

ECLIPSES.  August  17  and  18,  1868,  there  was  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  visi- 
ble in  many  parts  of  the  East,  and  very  important  for  study,  because  its 
obscuration  was  for  the  longest  period  ever  observed,  reaching  on  the  east 
coast  of  Bengal  5  minutes  49  seconds,  and  owing  to  the  sun's  great  dis- 
tance and  the  moon's  small  distance  from  the  earth,  the  obscuration  wae 
also  very  complete.  Very  important  observations  were  made,  especially 
spectroscopic  ones,  as  to  the  material  structure  of  the  sun.  August  7, 


22  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

1869,  solar  eclipse  generally  observed  in  North  America.  There  is  a  sort 
of  series  of  about  70  eclipses  that  comes  round  once  every  18  years  1(H 
days.  Except  on  August  12,  1889,  no  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  will  be  visi- 
ble in  England  for  250  years  from  July,  1871. 

ECUADOR.  Presidents:  Gen.  Franco,  August  21,  1859;  Dr.  G.  G. 
Moreno,  January,  1861 ;  G.  Carrion,  August  4,  1865  ;  resigns  December, 
1867  ;  Dr.  X.  Espinosa,  September  13,  1867 ;  Dr.  G.  G.  Moreno,  end  of 
1872  ;  assassinated  August  6,  1872  ;  X.  Leon,  Vice-President,  September, 
1875.  Population  estimated  at  about  1,500,000. 

EDUCATION  IN  U.  S.  (See  pp.  113,  362.)  A  Department  of  Education 
created  by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  March  2,  1867  ;  afterwards  made 
a  Bureau  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  Commissioner,  Henry 
Barnard;  succeeded  in  1870  by  Gen.  John  Eaton.  In  1870,  in  the 
United  States,  were  persons  over  10  years  old  unable  to  read,  4,528,084  ; 
unable  to  write,  5,658,144  ;  school  children,  7,209,938  ;  schools,  141,629  ; 
teachers  (127,713  female),  221,042;  income  of  schools,  $95,402,726,  of 
which  public  money,  $61,716,039.  The  census  of  1870  showed  that  the 
wealth  of  the  country  was  owned  where  the  education  was  highest,  and 
that  poverty  and  illiteracy  go  together.  Compulsory  free  schools,  and 
disfranchisement  of  all  who  cannot  read  and  write  English,  by  Federal 
authority,  recommended  by  President  Grant  in  his  message,  December  5, 
1876. 

EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND.  (See  p.  362  )  Na'ional  Education  Leagues 
(for  compulsory  education)  first  met  October  12  and  13, 1869  ;  Metropolitan 
School  Board  (for  London),  elected  November  29,  1870,  MissGarrett,  M.D., 
being  chosen  member  by  a  large  majority.  Elementary  Education  Bill  of 
Mr.  W  E.  Forster  became  law  August  9, 1870  ;  amended  1872,  1873,  1876  ; 
Compulsory  Attendance  Bill  of  Mr.  Dixon  rejected,  320  to  1:,6.  July  1, 
1874,  and  again,  281  to  260,  April,  1876.  Primary  schools  in  Great 
Britain  in  1855,  4,8lO  ;  in  1860,  7,272 ;  in  1870,  10,949  ;  annual  parlia- 
mentary grant  for  same,  in  1870,  about  $4,500,000. 

EGYPT.  (See  pp  113.362.)  See  also  Suez  Canal.  June  6,  1867.  the 
Khedive  (viceroy)  of  Egypt  arrived  in  London ;  his  visit  lasted  until  the 
18th.  He  made  a  second  visit  in  1869,  landing  June  22,  and  remaining 
eight  days.  A  controversy  with  the  Sultan  was  adjusted  December  18, 
1869  ;  a  firman  makes  the  Khedive  practically  independent  June  8,  1873  ; 
but  he  must  nut  coin  money,  make  treaties,  or  build  iron-clad  ships.  The 
succession  of  the  Khedives  is  :  Meheraet  Ali  Pacha,  abdicated  September, 
184S;  dies  August  2,  1849  ;  Ibrahim,  his  adopted  son,  September,  1848  ; 
dies  November  9  or  10,  1848 ;  Abbas,  hia  son,  succeeds  ;  dies  July  14, 
1854 ;  Said,  Abbas's  brother,  dies  January  18,  1863 ;  Ismail,  Said's 
nephew,  succeeds.  Mr.  Cave's  report  to  English  Government  (April, 
1870),  ca'ls  Ismail  "  intelligent,  industrious,  hospitable,  and  frugal." 
The  principal  points  as  to  ancient  Egyptian  history  settled  thus  far  are  : 
.  1.  Hieroglyphics  are  partly  pictoriol  (and  of  these  some  are  special  and 
some  general  or  determinative)  and  partly  alphabetic.  2.  Menes  was 
.  believed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  be  historical,  the  first  known  king  of 
lv-,rypt ;  and  there  is  more  evidence  .for  his  existence  than  for  that  of 
J  King  Arthur.  3.  The  great  pyramid  dates  from  the  4th  dynasty,  say  300 
or  4()0  years  after  Menes.  4.  Manetho's  dynasties  were  mostly  consecu- 
tive, not  contemporary.  5.  Roving  tribes  from  the  East  (the  Hyksos)  con- 
quered Lower  Egypt  and  ruled  in  the  Delta  for  centuries ;  they  were 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  23 

expelled  by  Aahmes,  or  Amasis  I.  Under  the  18th  dynasty,  which  began 
with  this  king,  Egypt  was  greatest.  Thotmes  III.  was  the  greatest  of  its 
kings.  Ramses  II.,  or  Sesostris,  of  the  19th  dynasty,  was,  however,  as 
great.  6.  Important  synchronisms  have  been  determined  of  the  later 
period  of  Egyptian  empire,  with  Syrian  and  Persian  history. — (Ren.  J.  P. 
Thompson. ) 

ELECTORAL  COMMISSION.  The  votes  of  Florida,  Louisana,  and  South 
Carolina  in  the  Presidential  election  of  November,  1876,  were  disputed, 
and  were  finally  referred  for  adjudication  to  an  Electoral  Commission  by 
Act  approved  January  29,  1877.  The  commission  consisted  of  Justices 
Clifford.  Strong,  Miller,  Field,  and  Bradley,  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court;  United  States  Senators  Edmunds,  Morton,  Frelinghuysen,  Thur- 
man,  Bayard  ;  United  States  Representatives  Payne.  Hunton,  Abbott, 
Garfield,  Hoar.  The  Commission  began  operations  February  7,  1877; 
acted  on  the  three  votes  above  named,  the  critical  questions  being  mostly 
determined  by  a  vote  of  eight  to  seven,  corresponding  nearly  with  the 
known  political  opinions  of  the  members  of  the  commission,  and  the 
deciding  vote  being  usually  that  of  Justice  Bradley.  The  result  of  the 
Commission  was  the  crediting  of  the  votes  in  question  to  Hayes  and 
Wheeler,  who  were  in  consequence  elected  President  and  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  by  one  electoral  vote  majority,  viz.,  by  185  votes  to 
184. 

ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  The  elementary  substances  now  known 
are  sixty-five  in  number,  as  follows;  those  after  sulphur  being  in  the 
order  of  their  discovery  from  antimony,  1490  down  to  1877. 

Gold,  Platinum,  Tungsten,  Lithium, 

Silver,  Nickel,  Tellurium,  Selenium, 

Mercury,  Sodium,  Uranium,  Cadmium, 

Copper,  Potassium,  Zirconium,  Bromine, 

Iron,  .Lime  (calcium),  Titanium,  Thormum, 

Tin,  Silex,  Strontium,  Vanadium, 

Lead,  Alumina,  Yttrium,  Lanthanum, 

Carbon,  Magnesia,  Chromium,  Didymium, 

Sulphur,  Hydrogen,  Glucinnm,  Erbium, 

Antimony,  Fluorine,  Tantalum,  Ruthenium, 

Bismuth,  Nitrogen,  Cerium,  Niobium, 

Zinc,  Chlorine,  Palladium,  Caesium, 

Phosphorus,  Oxygen,  Rhodium,  Rubidium, 

Borax,  Manganese,  Iridinm,  Thallium, 

Arsenic,  Barium,  Osmium,  Indium, 

Cobalt,  Molybdennm,  Iodine,  Jargonium, 
Gallium. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH,  The  electric  telegraphs  of  the  world  are  (in 
1877)  391,360  miles  long.  Of  these,  the  United  States  contain  79,000 
miles;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  75,000;  Russia,  31,459;  France, 
28,784;  Austro-Hungary,  28, 148 ;  Germany,  only  19,152. 

EMIGRATION  AND  IMMIGRATION.  Immigration  into  United  States 
since  1861  (by  Government  fiscal  years) : 

1861...  ..  89,720  18«7...  ...293,601  1872...  ...487.750 

1862 89,005  1868 939,145  1873 422,545 

1803 174.525  1869 385,287  1874 260,814 

lb(>4 193,191  1870 366,303  1875...  ...H'1,231 

1866 248,394  1S71 346,938  1876 237.991 

1866 ..314,840 

Total  in  sixteen  years,  4.331,278.  Whole  emigration  into  United  Slates 
to  end  of  1875,  including  the  estimated  total  of  250,000  before  1820, 
9,526,966.  For  Chinese  immigration  to  California,  see  China. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Emigration  from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  Ten  Years. 


To  North  Ameri- 
can Colonies. 

To  United  States. 

To  Australia. 

Total. 

1866 

13,255 

161.000 

24,097 

204,882 

1867 

15,503 

159.275 

14,466 

.  195,953 

1868 

21,062 

155,532 

12,809 

196,325 

1869 

33,891 

203.001 

14,901 

258.027 

1870 

&5,295 

196,075 

17,065 

256.940 

1871 

32,671 

198.843 

12  2-27 

25'i435 

1872 

32.205 

233.747 

15,876 

295,213 

1873 

37,208 

233.073 

26,428 

810,612 

1874 

25.450 

148,161 

63,958 

241,014 

1875 

17,378 

105,046 

35,525 

173,809 

ENCUMBERED  ESTATES  ACT,  to  provide  for  disposal  of  encumbered 
real  estate  in  Ireland,  passed  July,  1849 ;  proceedings  under  it  October, 
1849,  to  July,  1858:  2,380  estates  sold,  and  brought  £22,000,000.  The 
Irish  Land  Bill,  passed  1870,  further  recognized  the  Irish  customs  as  to 
tenure  of  land,  and  gave  the  tenant  a  right  in  his  improvements,  and 
damages  for  being  wrongfully  evicted. 

EOZOON  CANADENSE.  A  foraminifer  found  by  J.  W.  Dawson,  of  Mont- 
real, in  the  Laurentian  limestone  in  1858;  asserted  to  be  the  earliest 
known  form  of  animal  life. 

EPHESUS.  Mr.  Wood's  search  for  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Diana  began 
1863;  he  ascertained  the  site  1870,  and  shipped  60  tons  of  marble  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1872. 

EUROPE.  Population  (census  years  1860  to  1875  in  different  countries), 
265,374,470;  an  estimate  for  1872,  for  all  these  countries,  gives  301,700,- 
000. 

EVOLUTION  theory ;  includes  the  nebular  theory,  and  the  Darwinian  theory 
of  the  descent  of  man  and  natural  selection. 

EXECUTION.  (See  also  Capital  Punishment.)  The  execution  of  Michael 
Barrett,  for  being  concerned  in  the  plot  to  blow  up  Clerkenwell  Prison, 
December  13,  1867,  at  Newgate,  London,  May  26.  1868,  was  the  last 
public  execution  in  England.  On  September  8th  following,  the  first 
private  execution  took  place,  inside  of  Newgate,  being  that  of  one 
Mackay,  for  murder. 

EXHIBITIONS,  INTERNATIONAL.  London  (South  Kensington),  opened 
May  1,  closed  November  1,  1867;  visitors,  6,117,450.  Paris,  opened  April 
1.  closed  November  3,  1867.  Vienna,  opened  May  1,  closed  November  2, 
1873.  Philadelphia,  opened  May  10,  closed  November  10,  1876.  The 
Philadelphia  Exhibition  (most  single  admissions,  274,919,  on  September 
28,  1876)  compares  with  the  other  chief  similar  ones  as  follows  : 


Place. 

Year. 

Days  open. 

Admissions. 

Receipts. 

London  

1851 

141 

6  039  lill 

$2.530.500 

1NJ2 

172 

6211  103 

2  042,650 

Paris  

1855 

200 

5  162  330 

640.495 

1867 

217 

8  805  969 

2  103,675 

Vionna  

1813 

186 

6  740  500 

1,032,885 

Philadelphia  

1876 

159 

9,789,392 

3,813,749.75 

Exhibitors  at  Philadelphia,  80.864.  from  50  countries  ;  whole  outlay  about 
$8,830.000. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  25 

EXPLOSIONS.  (See  Hellgnte.}  Explosion  of  steam  on  the  ironclad  Thun- 
derer, at  Portsmouth,  England,  kills  77  persons.  One  Thomas,  Thomas- 
sen,  or  Thomson,  said  also  to  be  in  fact  named  Alexander  Keith,  Jr.,  and 
a  native  of  Halifax,  N.  S.,  sent  a  cask  of  dynamite  to  be  shipped  by  the 
steamer  Mosel,  at  Bremerhaven,  and  with  it  a  clock-train  set  to  run  eight 
days  and  then  explode  the  dynamite  and  destroy  the  ship,  which  would 
then  be  well  out  at  sea.  The  machine,  however,  exploded  on  the  dock 
December  11,  1875,  killing  over  80  persons  and  wounding  about  200. 
Thomassen  killed  himself,  after  confessing  that  his  object  had  been 
merely  to  obtain  a  small  insurance. 

EXPLOSIVE  BULLET  TREATY,  adopted  in  November  1868,  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, by  Bavaria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  England,  France,  Greece,  Holland, 
Italy,  Persia,  Portugal,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sweden,  Switzerland, 
Turkey,  and  Wiirtemberg,  agreed  not  to  use  in  any  war  amongst  them- 
selves, by  land  or  sea,  any  explosive  missiles  of  any  kind  of  less  than  400 
grammes  weight,  viz.,  about  13  cz.  avoirdupois. 

EXPLOSIVES.  Dynamite  (or  giant  powder),  looks  like  rather  fine  brown 
sugar,  and  is  made  of  powdered  silex,  silicious  ashes  or  infusorial  earth, 
mixed  with  three  times  its  weight  of  nitro-glycerine.  Dualin,  made 
known  by  Carl  Ditmar,  a  Prussian,  in  1870,  consists  of  cellulose,  nitro- 
starch,  nitro-mannite,  and  nitro-cellulose  ;  and  the  dualin  invented  by 
Nobel  is  composed  of  ammonia  and  sawdust,  treated  with  nitro-sulphuric 
acid.  Nitro-glycerine,  an  amber-colored  fluid,  discovered  by  Sobrero, 
1847 ;  made  by  gradually  adding  glycerine  to  a  mixture  of  one  part  nitric 
and  two  parts  sulphuric  acid.  It  explodes  with  thirteen  times  the  force 
of  gunpowder,  besides  a  great  gain  in  its  speed  of  action.  Gun-cotton, 
invented  by  Schonbein,  and  made  known  1846  ;  it  is  made  by  steeping 
cotton  in  mixed  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  (equal  parts).  Lithofracteur  is 
a  modification  of  dynamite,  invented  by  Engels,  of  Cologne,  1869.  Gly- 
oxyline,  invented  by  F.  A.  Abel,  in  England,  in  1867,  is  a  mixture  of  gun- 
cotton,  saltpetre,  nitro-glycerine,  and  pulp.  It  was  superseded  by  com- 
pressed gun-cotton. 

EXTRADITION  TREATY  between  England  and  the  United  States,  negoti- 
ated 1842 ;  abrogated  M.ay  2,  1876,  in  consequence  of  England's  refusing1, 
April  18,  1876.  to  surrender  the  forger  Winslovv,  and  of  a  disagreement 
about  trying  one  Lawrence,  delivered  by  England  under  the  treaty,  the  Eng- 
lish position  being  that  there  were  improper  efforts  to  try  him  for  offences 
other  than,  that  for  which  he  was  delivered ;  while  the  United  States 
claimed  that  England  had  wrongly  applied  a  home  English  statute  of  1870, 
defining  extradition  offences,  to  this  treaty,  which  was  international.  An 
extradition  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Spain  was  proclaimed 
Feb.  21,  1877. 

EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS.     (See  pp.118,  373.)    See  Commerce. 


F. 

FAILURES   (See  Commercial  Failures,  W.  P.,  p.  100,)  in  the  United  States, 
for  the  ten  years  1867-76,  were  as  follows  : 
Q 


26  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


ISffT. 

Number, 
2,386 

Whole  Amount. 
$86,218,000 

Average 
Indebtedness 
$26  134 

1868  
18f)9 

2.608 
2799 

63,  774,000 
75  054  000 

24.452 

26  814 

1870 

.  .  3  551 

88,242.000 

24  849 

1871      

.2915 

85,252,000 

29,245 

1872  

4,06!l 

121,056,000 

29,750 

1878  
1874  

5,183 
5,880 

2-28,  49!).  000 
155,239,000 

44,085 
26627 

1875 

.  .  .     7,740 

201,0150,353 

25978 

1876  .  .  . 

...9,092 

191,117,786 

21,020 

FAMINE.  (See  p.  375.)  In  Orissa,  750,000  persons  perished  of  famine, 
18(55-6  ;  very  severe  in  Persia,  1871-2  ;  in  Bengal,  from  drought,  1874 ; 
in  Asia  Minor,  1874-5  ;  in  several  parts  of  India,  1876-7. 

FENIANS.  October  10,  1809,  Edward  Martin,  a  Fenian  official,  was  buried 
in  London,  with  a  Fenian  demonstration  consisting  of  a  funeral  procession 
of  various  organized  bodies,  in  all  about  6,000  men.  In  1870,  Parliament 
amnestied  the  Fenian  prisoners  at  Portland,  but  on  condition  of  banish- 
ment for  life  from  the  United  Kingdom.  A  Fenian  force  of  some  2, (XX) 
strong,  under  O'Neill,  entered  Canada  from  Vermont,  May  25,  1870,  but 
remained  beyond  the  lines  only  ninety  minutes,  being  repulsed  and  driven 
back  by  a  few  English  and  Canadian  troops.  Another  company  crossed 
the  line  at  Malone,  N.  Y.,  on  the  27th,  and  were  driven  back  in  a  similar 
manner.  One  Fenian  killed  at  each  place  was  the  whole  loss  on  both 
sides.  July  13,  1871,  Head  Constable  Talbot,  of  Dublin,  who  bad  been 
vigorous  and  successful  in  breaking  up  the  plans  of  the  Fenians,  was 
assassinated  by  a  pistol-shot,  dying  on  the  16th.  One  Kelly,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  have  shot  him,  was  acquitted,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Fenians. 

FIJI  ISLANDS.  Ceded  to  England,  September  30,  1673 ;  Sir  A.  H.  Gordon 
first  Governor,  1875. 

FILIOQUE.  A  word  adopted  into  the  Western  creeds,  in  the  Council  of 
Toledo,  589 ;  rejected  by  the  Eastern  churches  since  662.  It  implies  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  both  from  the  Father  "  and  from  the  Son."  The 
old  Catholic  Conference,  Bonn,  August,  1875,  debated  its  omission,  but  did 
not  omit  it. 

FIRES.  'See  pp.  120,  378.)  December  6,  1867,  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  Lon- 
don, was  burned  down.  It  was  reckoned  the  best  existing  building  of  its 
class  for  hearing  music  in.  June  5,  1870.  a  great  fire  in  Pera,  one  of  the 
suburbs  of  Constantinople,  destroyed  many  houses,  immense  quantities  of 
property  of  Armenian  merchants,  the  English  Embassy  buildings,  and  (by 
estimate)  2,000  lives.  January  12,  1870,  the  Star  and  Garter  Hotel  at 
Richmond,  near  London,  for  many  years  a  favorite  resort  of  pleasure- 
parties,  was  totally  burnt ;  the  manager,  Mr.  Lever,  being  burnt  also. 
May  24,  1870,  at  Quebec,  a  fire  in  the  suburb  of  St.  lloch  destroyed  400 
houses,  left  8,000  persons  homeless,  and  consumed  $1,000,000  worth  of 
property.  March  10,  1871,  a  fire  at  Holker  Hall,  Devonshire,  a  seat  of 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  destroyed,  among  many  other  valuable  and 
curious  articles,  seventy-two  very  fine  paintings,  by  some  of  the  best 
masters,  ancient  and  modern.  June  17,  1871,  the  steam  in  an  immense 
boiler,  some  thirty  feet  long,  in  the  Trinity  Works  in  Sheffield,  was  found 
to  continue  to  fill  the  boiler  at  night  after  the  fires  were  withdrawn.  On 
examination  it  was  found  that  the  boiler,  which  had  been  noticed  to  be 
sinking  for  some  time,  was  kept  hot  by  the  slow  burning  of  a  seam  of 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  27 

shale  and  coal  extending  immediately  under  the  building.  The  fire  muet 
have  been  long  burning,  perhaps  for  years,  and  was  quietly  at  work  under 
the  street  and  under  the  houses  opposite.  It  took  a  considerable  time 
and  a  large  force  of  men  to  put  it  out.  December  3,  1871 ,  a  fire  at  War- 
wick Castle  consumed,  the  whole  of  the  east  wing  and  the  centre,  the 
west  wing  being  saved  with  great  difficulty.  Many  valuable  works  and 
historic  pictures  and  relics  were  destroyed.  December  14,  1871,  a  fire 
at  Rotherhithe,  near  London,  in  Bennett  &  Co. 's  granaries,  among  the 
largest  in  England,  destroyed  to  the  value  of  £150,000.  November  24, 
1876,  fire  at  Tokio,  Japan,  destroys  some  5,000  homes;  about  fifty  per- 
sons killed;  loss  of  property  about  $10,000,000.  December  5,  1876, 
Brooklyn  Theatre  burned ;  315  lives  lost.  For  Boston  and  Chicago  fires, 
see  Boston,  Chicago. 

FLOGGING.  Abolished  in  the  English  army  (in  time  of  peace)  in  the 
annual  mutiny  bills  of  1868.  The  Act  provides  that  "no  court-martial 
shall  have  power  to  sente  ce  any  soldier  or  marine  on  shore  to  corporal 
punishment  in  time  of  peace." 

FLOODS.  (See  Inunda.lions,  pp.  132,  426.)  Great  floods  in  France  in  Sep- 
tember, 18(5(5 ;  in  North  of  England,  November  16  and  17,  1866  ;  at  Rome, 
December  28  and  29, 1870 ;  in  Northern  Italy,  October,  1872  ;  at  Toulouse, 
in  France  (1,000  lives  lost),  June  23,  1875  ;  in  midland  and  western  coun- 
ties of  England,  July,  October  and  Novenc&er,  1875;  in  India,  September 
22-24,  1875  ;  in  Holland  and  France,  March,  1876.  Reservoir  at  Mill 
River,  Mass.,  burst,  destroying  several  villages  and  about  150  lives,  May 
16,  1874.  A  flood  in  the  rivers  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  July,  1874, 
drowns  about  220  persons.  The  Worcester,  Mass. ,  reservoir  burst  March 
80,  1876,  but  having  been  expected,  no  lives  were  lost,  though  great 
damage  was  done. 

FLORENCE,  OR  FIRENZE.  (See  p.  378.)  People  vote  for  annexation  to 
Sardinia,  March  11  and  12,  1860,  and  on  April  7,  the  King  enters  Flor- 
ence :  it  is  made  the  capital  of  Italy  until  Rome  shall  be  acquired,  De- 
cember 11,  1864,  and  the  King  and  Court  established  there  May  13.  1865. 
600th  anniversary  of  Dante's  birth  celebrated  May  14.  1865;  first  Italian 
parliament  November  18,  1865  ;  government  removes  to  Rome,  July,  1871. 
400th  anniversary  of  Michael  Angelo,  September  12,  1875. 

FLUORESCENCE.  The  luminousness  which  takes  place  in  uranium-glass, 
and  in  solutions  of  quinine,  horse-chestnut  bark,  or  stramonium  datura, 
when  the  invisible  chemical  rays  of  the  blue  end  of  the  solar  spectrum  are 
sent  through  them.  Discovered  and  named  by  Stokes,  1852. 

FRANCE.  (See,  for  events,  etc.,  in  the  Chronological  Tables,  following  the 
"  Dictionary  of  Dates.") 

G. 

GAMING.  Gaming-houses  licensed  in  Paris  until  1838.  Betting-houses 
suppressed  in  London,  1830.  Public  gaming-tables  suppressed  at  Wies- 
baden, Hamburg,  and  other  European  watering-places,  leaving  Monaco 
the  only  such  place  of  resort,  December  31,  1872.  Pool-selling  forbidden 
by  law  in  New  York,  1876. 

GATLING  GUN.  Invented  in  America ;  patents  1861-1865  ;  exhibited  at 
Paris  1867 ;  rejected  in  England  as  inferior  to  a  field-gun  firing  shrapnel ; 


28  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

a  similar  machine,  the  mitrailleuse,  tried  at  Vincennes,  1869,  and  used  by 
the  Freuch  ia  the  war  of  1870-1871. 

GENEVA.  (See  p.  388.)  The  ex-Duke  of  Brunswick  dies  here  August 
18,  1873,  and  leaves  all  his  property  (over  £7(54,000)  to  the  city. 

GENEVA  CONVENTION,  on  care  of  wounded,  e'tc.,  in  war,  of  delegates 
from  fourteen  governments,  met  October  26,  1863  ;  their  code  adopted  by 
all  civilized  power*  except  the  United  States,  August,  1864.  The  Inter- 
national or  "Red  Cross"  Society,  established  inconsequence,  did  much 
in  relieving  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  Franco-Prussia  war,  1870-1871, 
some  13,000  volunteers  attending  them  at  a  time. 

GERMANY.  (See  pp.  124,  390.)  The  Germanic  Confederation,  succeeding 
Napoleon's  "  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,"  was  formed  June  8,  1815  ;  its 
first  diet  was  at  Frankfort,  November  16,  1816  ;  announced  dissolved  by 
Prussia,  June  14,  1866,  but  continued ;  was,  however,  given  up  by  Austria 
at  the  peace  of  Nikolsburg,  after  Sadowa,  July  26,  and  the  last  meeting 
of  the  diet,  August  24,  1866.  Instead  was  established  the  North  German 
Confederation,  without  Austria  and  the  other  South  German  States,  Au- 
gust 18,  1866.  North  German  Parliament  met  at  Berlin,  February  24, 
1867;  the  confederation  ceased  on  the  re-establishment  of  the  German 
Empire,  January  1,  1871.  Population  of  the  Empire,  December  1,  1875, 
42,726,844. 

GOLD.  (See  pp.  125, 395.)  Of  98,000,000  sovereigns  coined  in  England 
from  1850  to  1869,  44,000,000  had  in  the  latter  year  disappeared  from 
circulation;  and  it  was  computed  that  in  1869  31^  per  cent,  of  the  sov- 
ereigns and  40  per  cent,  of  the  half-sovereigns  circulating  were  of  light 
weight.  Estimated  value  of  gold  extant  in  the  world,  in  1848,  about 
$2,800,000,000  ;  in  1875,  about  $5,000,000,000. 

GOOD  TEMPLARS.  A  secret  society  of  total  abstinents.  The  first  Eng- 
lish lodge  formed  at  Birmingham,  May,  1868;  in  1874  said  to  be  3,74J 
lodges  and  210,255  members  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

GOTHENBURG  SYSTEM.  Introduced  with  excellent  results  at  Gothen- 
burg, Sweden,  for  controlling  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors.  It  consists 
of  a  monopoly  of  the  sale  by  a  company  of  reputable  citizens,  under  care- 
ful restrictions,  and  without  any  gain  beyond  usual  wages,  to  the  sellers, 
who  must  live  by  their  other  business  as  victuallers,  etc. 

GRANGERS.     (See  Patrons  of  Husbandry.} 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  (For  principal  occurrences,  see  in  Chronological 
Tables,  following  the  Dictionary  of  Dates. ) 

GREEK  CHURCH.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  declines  the  Pope's  invita- 
tion to  an  oecumenical  council,  October,  1868.  A  Greek  church  at  Liver- 
pool consecrated  by  an  archbishop,  January  16,  1870. 

GRETNA  GREEN.  Here  Scotch  marriages  (an  acknowledgment  before 
witnesses  was  a  valid  marriage  in  Scotland)  used  to  be  celebrated  for  run- 
aways. An  Act  of  Parliament  in  1856,  however,  destroyed  the  business, 
by  providing  that  one  party  to  such  marriage  must  have  lived  in  Scotland 
twenty-one  days. 

GUATEMALA.  (See  p.  126.)  Recent  Presidents  :  Vincent  Cerna,  succeeded 
Carrera,  May  3,  1865,  to  1869 ;  M.  G.  Granedos,  December,  1872  ;  R.  Bar- 
rios,  May  7,  1873.  Population,  about  1,180,000. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  29 

GYPSIES.      Esther  Faa  crowned  Queen  of  the  Gypsies  at  Blyth,  in  York- 
shire, November  18,  I860. 


H. 

HAYTI,  OK  ST.  DOMINGO.  (See  pp.  127,  406.)  Hayti  and  St.  Domingo  are 
used  as  names  for  the  whole  island.  Hayti  is  the  western  or  French 
part,  and-  San  Domingo  (which  see)  the  eastern  or  Spanish  part.  Gef- 
frard  became  President  of  Hayti,  January  23,  1859  ;  a  military  insurrection 
against  him,  under  Salnave,  broke  out  May,  1865  ;  Geffrard  beaten  and 
banished.  Salnave  President,  March  27,  1867 ;  after  one  or  two  risings 
are  put  down,  Salnave  proclaims  himself  Emperor,  August,  1868,  but  is 
defeated  by  insurgents,  taken,  tried,  and  shot,  January  15,  1870.  General 
Nissage  Saget  elected  President,  March  19,  1870;  lives  out  his  term.  M. 
Domingue  elected  June  14,  1874;  an  insurrection  expels  him,  April,  1876, 
and  Boisrond  Canal  elected  July,  1876.  Population  (estimated)  572,000. 

HEAT.  Count  Rumford,  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  asserted  that 
heat  consists  in  motion  among  the  particles  of  matter.  Tyndall's  book 
on  the  same  theme  appeared  February,  1863,  and  this  is  at  present  the 
received  doctrine. 

HELLGATE.  The  reef  at  Hallett's  Point,  which  was  the  principal  obstruc- 
tion at  Hellgate,  in  East  River,  near  New  York,  was  mined  during  seven 
years  under  the  management  of  General  Newton,  of  United  States 
Engineers,  by  a  system  of  galleries  and  pillars  between,  to  an  extent  of 
4,857  feet  of  tunnelling  and  2,568  feet  of  galleries,  covering  two  and 
three-quarter  acres  of  ground,  leaving  ten  feet  of  rock  above,  supported 
by  173  piers  of  about  ten  feet  diameter  each,  and  the  whole  system 
radiating  fanwise  outward  from  the  entrance-shaft  at  the  shore.  All 
these  pillars  were  then  drilled  and  charged  with  a  total  number  of  3,6i>0 
charges  of  dynamite,  vulcanite,  or  rend-rock  powder,  and  the  whole  were 
connected  with  a  battery  on  shore  by  wires,  so  as  to  insure  simultaneous 
discharge.  This  took  place  on  September  24,  1876,  with  complete  suc- 
cess, the  final  connection  which  exploded  the  whole  mass  being  made  by 
the  finger  of  General  Newton's  baby  daughter  pressing  a  battery-key.  A 
smaller  explosion  was  the  blowing  up  of  Blossom  Rock,  in  the  Golden 
Gate  (San  Francisco  harbor),  April  23,  1870,  in  which  43,000  pounds  of 
gunpowder  were  used,  packed  in  one  large  chamber  in  the  rock. 

HEPTARCHY.  Seven  Saxon  kingdoms  in  England,  about  A.D.  450-850, 
viz.:  Kent;  South  Saxons  (Sussex  and  Surrey);  West  Saxons  (Berks, 
Hampshire,  Wilts,  Somerset,  Dorset,  Devon,  part  of  Cornwall) ;  East; 
Saxons  (Essex,  Middlesex,  part  of  Hert<) ;  Northurabria  (Lancaster,  York, 
Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Durham,  Northumberland) ;  East  Angles 
(Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Ely) ;  and  Mercia  (Gloucester,  Hereford, 
Chester,  Stafford,  Worcester,  Oxford,  Salop.  Warwick,  Derby,  Leicester, 
Bucks,  Northampton,  Notts,  Lincoln,  Bedford,  Rutland,  Huntingdon, 
part  of  Herts). 

HERAT.  A  strong  city,  called  the  key  of  Afghanistan,  near  the  Persian 
frontier.  The  Persians  failed  to  take  it,  1838  ;  took  it,  October  25,  1656, 
contrary  to  the  treaty  of  1853  ;  were  forced  to  restore  it  by  the  English, 
July  27,  1857, 


30  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

HERZEGOVINA.  An  insurrection  against  the  Turks  broke  out  December, 
1861 ;  subdued  September,  1862.  Another  broke  out  July  1,  1875,  and 
the  country  has  been  in  an  unsettled  state  ever  since  (1877),  sympathizing 
with  its  neighbors  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Servia. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  (See  p.  409;  see  also  Egypt.)  The  researches  of 
Champollion  and  others,  greatly  assisted  by  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta 
Stone  (see  p.  103),  have  now  made  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  language  a 
reasonably  well  understood  one,  with  dictionaries  and  grammars. 

HOLLAND.  (See  p.  410.)  William  III.  succeeded  his  father,  William  II., 
March  17,  1849.  A  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  re -introduced,  1853. 
Slavery  abolished  in  Dutch  West  Indies  (to  take  place  July  1,  1863), 
August  0,  1862.  Canals  begun  to  connect  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam 
with  the  North  Sea,  1865.  Population  (December  31,  1875),  3,809,527,  of 
which  over  1,200,000  is  in  cities  having  more  than  20,000  inhabitants. 
The  town  population  of  Holland  is  proportionately  larger  than  in  any 
other  European  country. 

HOME  RULE  (for  Ireland).  The  Home  Government  Association,  estab- 
lished at  Dublin,  1870,  with  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  members  ;  Mr. 
Isaac  Butt,  a  leader,  elected  to  Parliament  from  Limerick.  September  20, 
1871 ;  agitation  in  and  out  of  parliament  from  that  time,  without  much 
result ;  parliamentary  "  filibustering,"  with  much  inconvenience  to  busi- 
ness, carried  on  by  Home  Rule  members,  July,  1877. 

HORSE.  (See  p.  413.)  Rarey's  mode  of  training  horses  shown  by  him 
in  England  with  great  success,  1858-9-60.  Horseflesh  used  as  food  in 
Paris,  1866,  and  since.  Gootenough's  American  maehiae-made  horse- 
shoes (patented  I860),  to  put  on  cold,  adopted  by  the  London  General 
Omnibus  Co. ,  1870.  A  horse  epidemic,  called  the  epizootic,  coming  from 
Canada,  caused  much  inconvenience  in  Northern  States,  October,  1872. 

HUNGARY.  (See  pp.  129,  414.)  The  Emperor  and  Empress  of  Austria  were 
crowned  king  and  queen  of  Hungary,  at  Pesth,  June  8,  1867.  The 
"  Act  of  Grace  "  issued  on  the  occasion  annulled  all  sentences  and  stopped 
all  proceedings  for  political  offences,  restored  forfeited  estates,  and  al- 
lowed the  banished  to  return.  Croatia  united  with  Hungary,  May  27, 
1868. 

HURRICANE.  (See  also  Cyclone.)  Oct.  29,  1867,  a  violent  hurricane 
struck  St.  Thomas  (W.  I. )  and  vicinity.  At  St.  Thomas  alone,  some  80 
vessels  were  sunk  or  driven  ashore,  100  lives  lost  on  the  island  by  fall  of 
houses,  etc.,  and  several  times  as  many  on  the  shipping.  March  11, 
1868,  a  hurricane  at  Mauritius  drove  ashore  20  ships,  destroyed  or  un- 
roofed many  buildings,  destroyed  immense  quantities  of  growing  sugar, 
cane  and  stored  sugar,  blew  down  a  railroad  bridge,  etc. 

I. 

ICE-MACHINE.  Machines  for  making  ice  act  either  :  1,  by  rapid  evapora- 
tion, as  in  Carre's,  Harrison's,  Twining's,  etc.,  patents;  or  2,  by  lique- 
faction of  a  freezing  mixture,  as  in  the  common  way  ot  making  ice-cream 
with  ice  and  salt ;  or  3,  by  use  of  vacuum  and  absorption  of  heat  in  conse- 
quence from  the  article  to  be  frozen.  Several  of  these  machines  have 
been  commercially  successful. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  31 

ICELAND.  (See  p.  417.)  A  new  constitution,  granted  and  put  in  opera- 
tion at  King  Christian's  visit,  Aug.  1,  1874,  when  the  1000th  anniversary 
of  the  settlement  was  celebrated  at  Reykjavik.  Cleasby's  Icelandic-Eng- 
lish dictionary,  published  1869-74.  A  volcanic  eruption  March  29,  1875, 
devastated  much  pasture-land. 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  House  of  Representatives  voted  (126  to  41)  to  im- 
peach President  Johnson,  Feb.  24,  1868,  of  high  crimes  and  misdemean- 
ors, in  having  violated  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  and  in  other  doings. 
After  trial  before  the  Senate,  he  was  on  May  16th  acquitted  on  one  ar- 
ticle (the  llth),  only  35  Senators  voting  for  conviction  (one  less  than  the 
two-thirds  requisite),  to  19  for  acquittal.  On  the  26th  he  was  acquitted 
on  the  remaining  articles. 

INCOME  TAX,  UNITED  STATES.  Expired  by  limitation,  end  of  1871. 
Receipts  from  it,  1867,  $27,418,000  ;  1868,  $23,390,000  ;  1869.$27,353,000; 
1870,  $26,150,000. 

INDIA.  (See  pp.  131,  421. )  Order  of  the  Star  of  India  established  June  25, 
1861.  Growth  of  cotton  greatly  increased  in  consequence  of  American 
civil  war  stopping  the  supply,  1862.  Government  support  of  heathen 
religion  stopped  December,  1863.  Indo-European  telegraph  opened, 
March  1,  1865.  About  1,500,000  persons  die  of  famine  in  Orissa,  August 
to  November,  1866.  The  Brahmo  Somaj,  a  sect  holding  tenets  much 
like  the  Unitarian,  appear  in  18(59,  and  open  a  house  of  worship  August 
24.  Their  leader,  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  afterwards  (1870)  visits  London, 
and  preaches  in  a  Unitarian  chapel.  Mr.  Dall,  a  Unitarian  missionary  to 
India,  joins  the  Brahmo  Somaj.  Much  distress  from  famine  in  Bengal, 
spring  of  1874,  but  only  a  few  lives  lost.  Estimated  expense  of  relief 
operations  £6,500,000.  Prince  of  Wales's  visit;  he  sails  from  England 
October  11, 1875,  reaches  Bombay,  November  8 ;  grand  reception  of  Indian 
rulers,  December  24  ;  sails  from  Bombay  to  return.  March  13, 1876-  Queen 
Victoria  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  in  London,  May  1,  1876  ;  at  Delhi, 
January  1.  1877.  British  India  (immediate  and  feudatory  states  inclusive) 
contains  about  1,500,000  square  miles,  and  population  (census  1871-2) 
about  240,000,000. 

DTDIANS.  (See  pp.  131,422;  also  Modocs.}  Gen.  Custer  ambushed,  de- 
feated and  killed,  and  his  command  of  17  officers  and  315  rank  and  file 
utterly  exterminated  by  the  Indians  under  Sitting  Bull,  at  Little  Horn 
River,  July  2,  1876.  Hostilities  continue  against  the  Indians,  who,  under 
Sitting  Bull,  flee  into  British  territory  at  end  of  campaign  of  1876.  In 
the  summer  of  1877  Joseph,  an  Idaho  chief,  and  a  small  band  commence 
hostilities  in  that  State. 

INFALLIBILITY  of  the  Pope  alone,  voted  by  the  Vatican  Council,  July  18, 
1870.  Dr.  von  Dollinger  excommunicated  for  opposing  it,  April  18,  1871  ; 
and  chosen  rector  of  the  University  of  Munich,  July  29, 1871.  The  Bava- 
rian government  protests  against  the  doctrine,  September  27,  1871 ;  au 
"Old  Catholic"  church  opened  at  Munich,  in  September,  1871. 

INSOLVENCY.     (See  Bankruptcy.} 

INSURANCE.  First  fire  insurance  company  in  United  States,  the  Phila- 
delphia Contributionship,  1752.  First  state  insurance  department  in 
Massachusetts,  1854 ;  next  in  New  York,  1860.  Capital  in  fire  insurance 


32  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

business  in  United  States  in  1860,  $32,358,000 ;  in  1866,  $44,410,000 ;  in 
1876,  $55,883,000.  Lost  by  the  great  fires  of  1871  and  1872,  over  $15,- 
000,000.  Comparison  of  the  business  in  years  1865  and  1875  : 

1865.  1875. 

Property  insured $3,428,000.000  $6,273.000,000 

Premium  receipts 29,529,000  «4,900,000 

Losses  paid  over. 17,21)5,000  31,960,000 

Whole  losses  by  fire  in  United  States  in  1875,  $78,000,000,  of  which  in- 
sured, $39,000,000. 

INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT.     (See  Copyright.} 

INTERNATIONALISTS.  An  organization  of  a  communist  or  socialist 
nature,  first  established  by  some  German  socialists  in  London,  1847  ; 
definitely  organized  at  London,  September  28,  1864,  George  Odger  first 
president.  Professes  to  operate  for  the  emancipation  of  labor  from  the 
tyranny  of  capitalists.  It  has  had  congresses,  sometimes  ludicrously  dis- 
orderly, at  Geneva,  September,  1866 ;  Lausanne,  September,  1867  ;  Brus- 
sels, September,  1868;  Basle,  September,  1869;  Barcelona,  June,  1870; 
Hague,  September,  1872.  This  last  was  particularly  quarrelsome,  and 
the  political  part  seceded  from  the  trade  part,  and  adjourned  to  New 
York.  At  this  time  the  society  reported  failing  in  England.  Geneva 
meeting  September,  1873,  and  at  Brussels  again,  September,  1874.  Has 
claimed  the  absurd  number  of  2,500,000  members,  and  to  be  affiliated 
with  the  Fenians  and  other  secret  societies. 

INTEREST.  (See  pp.  132,  426.)  In  England  was  8  per  cent,  by  law  of 
1<>2;3;  6  per  cent.,  1651;  5  per  cent.,  1713;  and  law  totally  repealed  1 854, 
leaving  interest  a  matter  of  agreement. 

INUNDATIONS.     (See  Floods.) 

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  (See  pp.  133,  427.)  Declare  for  annexation  to  Greece, 
in  March,  1861,  and  April,  1862.  England  acquiescing,  annexation  takes 
place  accordingly,  May  28,  1864,  and  the  British  troops  leave  June  2. 
Population  about  200,000. 

IRELAND.  (Seep.  428;  see  also  Church  of  Ire'and ;  Encumbered  Es- 
tates Act ;  Fenians;  Home  Rule.}  Queen  Victoria  visits  Ireland,  Au- 
gust, 1849 ;  again,  August,  1853.  Agitation  against  national  school 
system,  1859.  Agricultural  distress  and  agrarian  murders,  1862  and  1863 ; 
emigration  very  extensive,  1860-1864.  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales 
visit  Ireland,  April,  1868.  Agrarian  murders,  1869  and  1870. 

IRON,  (See  pp.  183,  428.)  The  iron  and  steel  production  of  the  United 
States  for  three  years,  1874-5-6,  was  as  follows  : 

1874.  1875.  1878. 

Pig  iron,  tons  (of  2,000  Ibs.) 2.689,413  2.206,581  2,1193.236 

All  rolled  iron,  tons 1,839,5«0  1.890,379  1,921,730 

Rails,  all  kinds,  tons 729,418  792.512  879,629 

Hails,  Bessemer  steel,  tons 144,944  29Il.8i>3  41 2.481 

Cut  nails  and  spikes  (included  in  "  rolled  iron")  kegs  4.912,180  4,726,881  4,157,814 

Iron  produced  in  Great  Britain  in  1875,  tons,  6,566,451. 

IRON  SHIPBUILDING.  (See  also  Navies.)  This  industry  began  in  the 
United  States  in  1868,  and  up  to  1877  have  been  built  251  iron  vessels  of 
a  total  capacity  of  197,500  tons.  Present  annual  value  (1877)  of  iron 
vessels  built  in  United  States,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  million  dollars.  In 
1876  were  built  25  vessels  as  follows  : 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  33 

Place.                                        Jfumber.  Total  Tonnage 

about. 

Buffalo »        140 

Burlington,  N.  J 1        13 

Delaware  (State) 9        8,298 

NewOrleans 2         915 

Philadelphia 11         11,981. 

Besides  9  other  large  vessels  and  a  considerable  number  of  smaller  ones 
building. 

ITALY.  (See  pp.  133, 429. )  •  September  23, 1867,  Garibaldi,  persisting  in  his 
march  upon  Rome,  was  arrested  by  the  Italian  authorities  at  Sinalunga, 
near  Sienna,  as  he  was  about  entering  the  Papal  territory.  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  Alessandria,  but  afterwards  sent  to  his  island  of  Caprera  and 
watched  by  ships  of  war.  He  escaped,  however,  resumed  his  enterprise, 
and  was  at  Monte  Rotondo,  near  Rome,  in  the  end  of  October,  and  on  the 
point  of  advancing,  when  (October  28)  a  French  fleet  reached  Civita  Vec- 
chia,  and  October  30,  a  French  force  occupied  Rome,  to  prevent  the  pro- 
posed revolution.  November  3,  Garibaldi  was  decisively  beaten  at  Mentana 
by  the  French,  and  he  was  again  arrested  and  imprisoned.  In  September, 

1870,  the  Italian  troops  marched  upon  Rome,  under  Gen.  Cadorna,  and 
on  the  20th,  after  four  hours'  cannonade,  entered  and  occupied  the  city. 
October  2,  a  popular  vote  was  held  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  on  the 
question  of  uniting  them  and  Rome  with  Italy,  and  making  Rome  the 
capital.     The  vote  was  133,681  affirmative,  and,  1,507  negative.     Decem- 
ber 5,  the  Italian  Parliament  at  Florence  voted  192  to  18  to  remove  the 
capital  to  Rome.     Victor  Emanuel  made  a  formal  public  entrance  into 
Rome,  December  31,  1870. 

J. 

JAMAICA.  (See  p.  431.)  Negro  rising,  October  11,  1865,  put  down  with 
much  bloodshed  and  many  punishments,  by  Gov.  Eyre,  October  and  No- 
vember, 1865.  Gov.  Eyre  suspended ;  a  government  commission  reported, 
April  9,  that  great,  wanton  and  unnecessary  cruelty  and  violence  had  been 
used.  Eyre  was  afterwards  indicted  in  England,  and  sued  for  damages ; 
but  the  grand  jury  threw  out  the  bills,  and  an  act  of  indemnity  gave  him 
the  suit.  In  1873  the  island  was  reported  more  prosperous.  Population, 

1871,  506,154. 

JAPAN.  (See  pp.  134, 432.)  Jeddo  (now  called  Tokio)  and  other  places 
opened  to  trade  according  to  treaty,  April  25,  1867 ;  Osaka  and  Hiogo  the 
same,  January  1,  1868.  Insurrection  of  the  daimios,  or  provincial  princes, 
1868,  ending  in  their  overthrow  in  1869.  This  left  the  government  sub- 
stantially an  absolute  monarchy  under  the  Mikado,  who,  however,  had 
first  to  overcome  also  the  Tycoon,  or  spiritual  sovereign.  This  was  accom- 
plished December,  1869.  An  embassy  of  distinguished  Japanese  reached 
Washington  March  4,  aud  London,  August  17,  1872.  First  railway  in 
Japan  opened  October,  1872.  New  constitution,  arranging  a  form  of 
government  somewhat  like  the  imperial  French  Government,  April  14, 
1875.  The  present  Mikado,  or  Emperor.  Moutsu  or  Mutsu  Hito,  born 
1852,  succeeded  his  father,  Komei  Tenno,  in  1867.  Population  in  1875 
(estimated),  32,794,897. 

JERUSALEM.  (See  p.  433.)  Population  estimated  (in  1877)  as  follows : 
Jews,  10,600;  Christians,  5,300  ;  Mohammedans,  5,000 ;  total,  20,900.  A 
Protestant  bishopric  was  established  here  under  protection  of  England  and 
2* 


34  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Prussia,  1846  ;  Wilson  and  Warren's  excavations,  ascertaining  many  points 
of  interest  about  the  ancient  city,  1867-71. 

JESUITS.  (See  pp.  134, 433.)  Expelled  from  Belgium,  1818;  Russia, 
1820;  Spain,  1820  and  1835;  France,  1831  and  1845;  Portugal,  1834; 
Sardinia  and  Austria,  and  some  other  States,  1848  ;  Italy  and  Sicily,  1860; 
Empire  of  'Germany,  1872 ;  Italy  again,  1873.  In  1866  whole  number 
of  Jesuits  reported  to  be  8,167,  of  which  in  France  2,422. 

JEWS.  (See  pp.  134,  434.)  Oppressive  Austrian  laws  against  them  annulled 
January,  1860;  Hungary  emancipates,  1867;  Disraeli,  a  Jew,  English 
premier,  1868;  Jews  admitted  into  Spain,  1868;  Sir  G.  Jessel,  a  Jew, 
English  solicitor -general,  1871  ;  master  of  the  rolls,  1873.  Jews  in 
Great  Britain  (estimated)  in  1876,  51,520,  and  in  London,  39,833.  Jews 
in  the  world,  1869,  estimated  at  7,000,000. 

JUTE.  Fibre  from  two  plants  cultivated  in  Bengal  (viz. ,  chonch,  or  cor- 
chorus  olitorius,  and  isbund,  or  C.  capsularis).  Used  for  mats,  gunny- 
cloth,  and  other  coarse  textile  fabrics.  Imported  into  the  United  King- 
dom in  1871,  3,454,120  cwt. ;  1874,  4,270,164  cwt.  ;  in  1875,  3,416,617 
cwt. 

K. 

KARAITE  JEWS.  A  kind  of  Protestant  sect,  who  adhere  to  the  Hebrew- 
Scriptures  alone,  rejecting  the  Talmud  and  Rabbinical  tradition.  They 
are  found  mostly  in  Turkey,  Poland,  and  the  Crimea. 

KEET,  REV.  MK.     (See  Reverend.) 

KHEDIVE.  (See  Egypt. )  The  title  is  supposed  to  mean  something  more 
than  vali  or  viceroy.  It  was  given  to  the  ruler  of  Egypt,  May  14,  1867. 

KHIVA.  The  Czar  Nicholas  sent  an  expedition  against  it,  which  perished 
in  the  cold  of  the  winter  of  1840.  Another,  1873,  took  Khiva  after  de- 
feating the  Khan,  who  became  subordinate  to  the  Czar.  The  country  has 
since  been  pretty  much  made  a  Russian  province. 

KHOKAND  entered  by  Russian  troops,  February,  1876,  and  the  khanate 
annexed  to  Russia  by  the  name  of  Ferghana. 

KINEMATICS.  A  recent  subdivision  of  physical  science,  being  the  science 
of  motion.  Professor  Reuleaux's  Kinematics  of.  machinery,  an  important 
work  on  the  application  of  this  science,  published  in  Germany ;  a  transla- 
tion appeared  in  London,  1876. 

KU-KLUX  KLAN.  A  secret  organization  in  the  Southern  States  to  oppose 
the  ruling  party,  or  Republicans,  by  threats  and  violence,  particularly 
against  such  colored  persons  as  should  vote  the  Republican  ticket.  Their 
operations  were  very  efficacious,  1868-1871,  when,  under  the  pressure  of 
legal  and  military  measures,  they  disappeared,  other  forms  of  the  same 
kind  of  activity  being  adopted. 


LABOR.     (See  Internationalists;  Strikes;  Wbrkingm'n.) 
LAMBESSA,     An  island  on  the  coast  of  Algeria,  used  as  a  prison  for  some 
of  the  victims  of  Napoleon  III.,  of  December  2,  1851,  and  for  other  po- 
litical exiles. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  35 

LATIN  UNION,  to  maintain  a  uniform  coinage,  1865  to  1880,  consists  of 

France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 
LEONINE  CITY.     That  part  of  Rome  assigned  to  the  Pope  at  tie  entrance 

of  the  Italian  troops,  in  Sept.,  1870.    It  includes  the  castle  of  SanAngelo, 

the  hospital  of   San  Spirito,  the  Vatican  palace  and  gardens,   and  St. 

Peter's. 

LIBERIA.  (See  pp.  136,  451.)  Presidents  :  D.  B.  Warner,  1864 ;  J.  S. 
Payne,  1868;  E.  J.  Roy,  1870  (deposed  Oct.,  1871);  J.  J.  Roberts  (the 
first  President),  1872  and  1874 ;  he  died  1876.  Population  about  720,000, 
of  which  about  19,000  are  of  American  birth  or  descent.  In  July,  1877, 
it  was  reported  that  80,000  negroes  in  South  Carolina  were  enrolled  to  go 
to  Liberia,  in  consequence  of  apprehensions  from  the  white  supremacy  in 
that  State. 

LIBRARIES.  (See  pp.  136,  451.)  The  great  Report  of  the  Education 
Bureau  on  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  for  1876,  gives  a  list  of 
3,469  public  libraries  in  the  United  States  having  over  300  volumes  (not 
including  common  or  district  school,  parish,  and  Sunday-school  libraries). 
In  these  were  reported  in  all  : 

Volumes 12,276,964 

In  common  school,  etc.,  libraries,  additional,  more  than 1,865.407 

Total  volumes 13,642.371 

Add  pamphlets,  only  part  reported,  up  to  about 1.500,000 

Of  these,  1,510  libraries  report  434,339  volumes  annually  added  ;  742  re- 
port 8,879,869  volumes,  annual  use  ;  1,722  report  $6,105,501  permanent 
funds;  830  report  $1,398,756  total  yearly  income  ;  769  report  $5(52,407, 
annually  spent  for  books,  and  b'43  report  $682,166  annually  spent  for 
salaries  and  incidentals.  The  Boston  Free  Public  Library,  the  largest  on 
the  American  continent,  contained,  July  1,  1877,  about  333,000  volumes, 
besides  about  150,000  pamphlets. 

LIFE-SAVING  APPARATUS.  Patent  for  life-boat  to  Wm.  Lukin,  1785  ; 
H.  Greathead,  1788,  obtained  reward  of  a  South  Shields  committee  for 
best  life- boat ;  also  £1,200  from  parliament.  It  first  put  to  sea  January 
30,  1790.  Up  to  1804,  31  life-boats  built  and  300  lives  saved.  Richard- 
son's tubular  life-boat,  Challenger,  patented  1852,  in  England.  English 
National  Life-boat  Institution,  founded  1824  ;  in  1876  had  2,541  life- 
boats in  operation,  and  lives  saved,  1824—1875,  inclusive,  23,789.  An 
American  "life-raft"  of  cylinders,  filled  with  air  and  lashed  together, 
navigated  from  New  York  to  Southampton,  June  4  to  July  25,  1867. 
Manby's  apparatus  for  throwing  a  shot  from  a  mortar  over  vessels  in  dis- 
tress, and  thus  getting  a  line  to  them,  put  in  use  February,  1808 ;  in  20 
years  it  saved  58  vessels  and  410  persons.  Boyton's  life-preserving 
dress  and  signalling  apparatus  exhibited  in  America  and  Europe,  1874- 
1877  ;  he  crossed  the  English  Channel  in  it  in  23J  hours,  May  28  and  29, 
1875.  The  United  States  Life-saving  Service,  as  organized  1871,  is  in  11 
districts  on  the  ocean  and  great  lakes.  It  has  108  stations,  with  mortar, 
shot-line,  life-car,  and  ample  equipments,  and  24  of  them  with  a  life- 
boat besides.  There  is  a  superintendent  for  each  district,  and  a  keeper 
and  six  surfmen  for  each  station.  In  five  years,  ending  June  30,  1876, 
there  were  on  these  coasts  273  wrecks  ;  property  saved  by  the  Life-sav- 
ing Service,  $5,254,300;  lives  saved,  3,189;  lost,  41.  Ottinger's  shot- 
line  gun  will  carry  631  yards. 


36  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

LIGHT.  Velocity  nearly  200,000  miles  per  second.  Comes  from  the  sun 
to  the  earth,  therefore,  in  a  little  over  eight  minutes.  The  greatest  prog- 
ress in  the  science  of  optics  since  Newton  has  been  in  this  century,  in- 
cluding the  development  of  the  undulatory  theory,  polarization,  actinism 
or  chemical  action  of  light,  spectroscopic  investigations,  etc. 

LOANS.  (See  pp.  137,  456.)  French  loan  for  Crimean  war,  for  $150,000,- 
000,  authorized  by  law,  July  9,  1855  ;  on  the  30th,  nearly  five  times  the 
required  amount  had  been  taken  in  France,  besides  nearly  the  whole 
amount  in  foreign  subscriptions.  French  loan  of  $100,000,000,  for  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859,  raised  without  difficulty  ;  for  that  of  $400,000,- 
000,  in  1871,  for  German  indemnity,  and  for  subsequent  one  of  $000,000,- 
000,  to  close  out  the  same  and  end  the  German  occupation,  twice  the 
required  amount  was  promptly  subscribed  within  France.  The  success 
of  these  French  loans  arises  from  the  small  sums  receivable,  and  the  con- 
firmed habit  of  the  people  to  hoard  specie. 

LONDON.  (See  pp.  137,  458.)  Estimated  area  in  1860,  121  square  miles,  or 
eleven  miles  square.  Total  population,  1871,  3,885,641 ;  in  1877,  probably 
considerably  over  4,000,000.  The  first  charter  of  London,  given  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  is  still  preserved  i  n  the  city  archives.  It  is  on  a  slip  of  parch- 
ment six  inches  long  and  one  broad,  beautifully  written  in  Saxon,  and  is  in 
English  as  follows:  "William  the  King  greeteth  William  the  bishop  and 
Godfrey  the  portreve  and  all  the  burgesses  within  London  friendly.  And  I 
acquaint  you  that  I  will  that  ye  be  all  there  law-worthy  as  ye  were  in 
King  Edward's  days.  And  I  will  that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir 
after  his  father's  days.  And  I  will  not  suffer  that  any  man  do  you  any 
wrong.  God  preserve  you." 

LONGEVITY.     (See  Old  Age.) 

LORRAINE.  Anciently,  Lotharingia  ;  German,  Lothringen.  United  to 
France,  1766 ;  about  one-fifth  of  it,  including  Metz  and  Thionville,  an- 
nexed to  Germany,  along  with  Alsace,  at  end  of  Franco-Prussian  war, 
February  26,  1871. 

LUXEMBURG.  According  to  treaty  at  London,  by  the  great  powers,  May, 
1867,  the  Prussian  garrison  left  the  fortress.  November,  1867  ;  fortifica- 
tions dismantled.  August,  1870,  and  transformed  for  civil  purposes,  1874. 
The  grand  duchy  was  declared  neutral  by  the  treaty  of  1867  ;  its  popula- 
tion, December  1,  1871,  was  197,528;  area,  1,592  square  miles. 

M. 

MAFIA  or  MAFFIA.     (See  Brigands.) 

MAGDALA.  A  very  strong  Abyssinian  mountain  fastness,  stormed  by  the 
British  under  Sir  R.  Napier  (afterwards  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala),  April 
13,  1868,  when  Theodore,  the  Abyssinian  king,  killed  himself.  The 
place  was  burned,  April  17th. 

MAGNESIUM.  The  metal  first  obtained  from  magnesia,  by  Davy,  1808; 
produced  in  large  quantities  by  Sonstadt,  1862-4.  It  burns  easily,  with 
a  singularly  brilliant  flame,  by  which  photographs  can  be  taken,  as  was 
done  in  the  interior  of  the  Pyramids,  1875. 

MAN,  ANTIQUITY  OF.     (See  Pre-Mstoric  Man.) 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  37 

MANITOBA.  Rupert's  Land  made  a  province,  and  named  Manitoba,  1870. 
One  Riel  and  others  (Catholics)  resisted  annexation  to  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  in  January,  1870;  proclaimed  the  "Red  River  Republic,"  and 
murdered  one  Scott,  who  opposed  them.  On  the  appearance  of  a  mili- 
tary force  from  Canada,  however,  in  July,  Riel  yielded  without  resistance, 
and  ran  away.  The  annexation  was  accomplished,  and  A.  G.  Archibald, 
the  first  Lieutenant- Governor  of  Manitoba,  arrived  in  September.  An  in- 
tended Fenian  raid  on  this  colony  suppressed  by  United  States  troops, 
October,  1871.  The  Red  River  settlement  is  in  the  geographical  centre  of 
North  America. 

MELANESIA.  The  South-west  Pacific  Islands.  Their  missionary  bishop, 
Patteson,  and  his  chaplain,  Atkin,  murdered  by  the  natives  at  Santa 
Cruz,  one  of  the  Queen  Charlotte  group,  September,  1871,  as  supposed  in 
revenge  for  kidnapping,  which  the  bishop  had  strenuously  opposed. 

MENTANA.     Garibaldi  defeated,  November  3,  1867. 

MERCURY.  (See  p.  477.)  The  new  Almaden  mine,  in  California,  produced 
from  July,  1850,  to  end  of  1873,  351,897,055  pounds  of  quicksilver.  From 
one  to  two  pounds  are  lost  for  every  ton  of  the  ore  that  is  worked  with  it. 

MERV.  A  miserable  town  in  Turkistan,  just  north  of  the  Persian  frontier, 
of  no  importance  except  as  a  possible  military  station,  on  the  line  to  India 
which  might  be  followed  by  the  Russians. 

METEOROLOGY.  Meteorological  Society  established  in  England,  1850, 
chartered  1866.  A  department  for  this  science,  of  the  English  Board  of 
Trade,  under  Admiral  Fitzroy,  organized  1855  ;  it  has  done  much  to- 
wards foretelling  the  weather  for  commercial  and  scientific  purposes. 
The  United  States  Signal  Service  department  sent  and  received  in  the 
year  1873-4,  529,958  letters  and  documents  ;  issued  of  all  its  publica- 
tions 4,494,320  copies,  of  which  3,491,046  were  "  farmers'  bulletins."  It 
had  in  that  year  108  stations  and  247  observers.  It  has  been  from  the 
beginning  under  the  able  management  of  General  Albert  J.  Myer,  who  or- 
ganized it. 

METEORS.  The  dates  of  the  usual  annual  meteoric  displays  are  :  January 
3d,  July  29th,  August  3d  and  9th  to  12th,  November  8th  to  14th,  Decem- 
ber llth.  Meteors  are  now  supposed  to  be  small  bodies  revolving  around 
the  sun  in  space,  and  the  displays  of  them  to  be  in  consequence  of  the 
earth's  passing  through  a  belt  or  group  of  them,  when  the  swiftness  of 
their  motion  through  the  earth's  atmosphere  inflames  them. 

METRIC  SYSTEM.  Based  on  the  metre,  one  ten-millionth  of  a  quarter 
of  the  earth's  circumference  in  latitude  (3.2808  English  feet).  Unit  of 
surface  is  the  centiare  or  square  metre.  The  are  is  100  square  metres. 
Unit  of  solidity  is  the  stere,  a  cubic  metre.  Unit  of  capacity,  the  litre,  a 
cubic  decimetre.  Unit  of  weight,  the  gramme,  a  cubic  centimetre  of  dis- 
tilled water.  Unit  of  money,  the  franc,  weighing  5  grammes.  Prefix  to 
either  of  these  (except  franc)  deca-  for  ten  times;  hekato-,  100  times  ; 
M0-,  1,000  times;  myria-,  10,000  times.  Also,  deci-  for  one-tenth  ;  centi-, 
one-lOOth  ;  milli-  for  one-1, 000th.  Adopted  to  more  or  less  extent  (be- 
sides being  the  only  legal  system  hi  France)  by  convention,  May  20,  1875, 
in  the  following  countries :  Austria,  Germany,  Russia,  Italy,  Spam. 
Portugal,  Turkey,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Denmark,  United 
States  of  America,  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  Peru. 


38  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OP  ART,  New  York,  chartered  April,  1870, 
a  site  in  the  Central  Park  and  $500,000  for  a  building  granted  by  the 
State,  April,  1871.  First  collection  (of  paintings)  opened  in  temporary 
gallery,  February  20,  1872.  Greatly  enlarged  by  the  antiquities  collected 
by  General  di  Cesnola  at  Curium  and  elsewhere  in  Cyprus,  1873-5. 

METZ.  Surrendered,  October  27,  1870,  by  Bazaine,  with  3  marshals,  66 
generals,  6,000  officers,  173,000  men,  400  guns,  100  mitrailleuses,  53 
eagles. 

MEXICO.  (See  pp.  142, 479.)  French  evacuated  Mexico,  March,  1867. 
Juarez  (a  full-blooded  Indian),  president  until  his  death,  July  18,  1872  ; 
Lerdo  de  Tejada,  president ;  his  government  overthrown  by  Porfirio  Diaz, 
November  16,  1876. 

MILK.  Condensed  milk  process  invented  by  Gail  Borden,  1849,  since  which 
time  a  great  business  has  grown  up  in  it,  both  as  supplied  in  bulk  in  cities 
and  put  up  in  sealed  cans  for  voyages  and  store  purposes. 

MINES,  MINING.  (See  pp,  143,  481.)  Value  of  minerals  and  metals  mined 
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1874,  £67,834,313;  hi  1875,  £67,487,688. 
Coal,  iron  and  lead  were  the  three  greatest  mining  products,  coal  being 
over  two-thirds  of  the  whole  in  value,  and  iron  almost  three-fourths  of 
the  other  third.  Mining  products  of  the  United  States  in  1870,  $152,- 
598,994,  of  which  just  about  half  were  from  Pennsylvania  alone. 

MINORITY  REPRESENTATION.     (See  Cumulative  Vote.) 

MISSISSIPPI  RIVER.  (See  pp.144, 482.)  Improvements  to  make  the 
South  Pass  of  the  river  navigable  and  to  keep  it  so,  by  Capt.  Eads's  plan 
of  jetties  carried  out  from  the  natural  mouth  of  the  pass  so  as  to  keep  the 
main  river  stream  together  and  thus  scour  a  passage  out  to  deep  water, 
were  begun  in  1875.  In  1877  a  twenty-foot  channel  is  secured  and  main- 
tained by  the  river  itself,  where  there  was  before  only  eight  feet  of  water, 
and  the  jetty  plan  is  considered  successful.  Humphreys'  and  Abbott's 
elaborate  and  valuable  hydrographic  and  hydraulic  survey  of  the  river, 
published  1861. 

MITRAILLEUSE.     (See  Galling  Gun.) 

MOABITE  STONE.  Discovery  announced  January,  1870,  having  a  Phoe- 
nician or  ancient  Hebrew  inscription,  said  to  be  by  order  of  Mesha,  King 
of  Moab,  referred  to  in  2  Kings,  iii. ,  and  to  narrate  his  victories  over  Israel. 
Dr.  Ginsburg  has  published  an  excellent  monograph  of  it,  second  edition, 
1871. 

MODOCS  defeated  the  United  States  troops,  January,  1873  ;  murdered  Gen. 
Canby  and  about  forty  more  by  treachery,  April  11 ;  after  long  and  des- 
perate fighting  in  almost  impregnable  volcanic  ''lava-beds,"  the  remaining 
Modocs  were  captured,  and  their  chief,  Captain  Jack,  was  tried,  and  ex- 
ecuted October  3,  1873. 

MOLLY  MAGUTRES.  Said  to  be  a  branch  of  a  secret  society  called  the 
Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  but  practically  a  murdering  secret  society 
among  the  miners  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  The  name  and  the  organiza- 
tion first  came  into  notice  about  1862,  and  for  fourteen  years  they  pur- 
sued a  career  of  violence  and  murder  in  Carbon,  Schuylkill,  and  the  other 
neighboring  mining  counties.  In  December,  1862,  they  attacked  Mr. 
Goyne's  mine  in  Casa  township,  stopped  the  works  and  beat  those  who 
opposed  them ;  June  14,  1862,  they  murdered  F.  W.  S.  Langdou,  noai 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  39 

Audenreid,  and  in  November,  1863,  George  K.  Smith,  in  the  same  vicinity  ; 
attacked  Mr.  Northall's  house,  February  11,  1867,  in  order  to  kill  him,  he, 
however,  being  away  ;  July  5,  1875,  shot  and  killed  policeman  Yost,  of 
Tamaqua  ;  September  1,  1875,  murdered  Sanger  and  Uren,  two  miners, 
at  Raven  Run  ;  September  3,  murdered  John  P.  Jones  at  Lansford  ;  and 
there  were  many  other  cases  of  murder  and  violence,  usually  in  the  nature 
of  revenge  for  some  action  about  wages  or  employment  of  which  the  order 
okose  to  disapprove.  By  means  of  detectives,  a  number  of  them  were, 
however,  seized  and  tried,  and  June  21,  1877,  ten  of  them  were  hanged. 

MONEY.     (See  p.  484.     See  also  Coinage  ;  Currency;  Gold;  Silver.) 

MONT  CENIS  TUNNEL.     (See  runnels.) 

MONTENEGRO  rebelled  against  the  Turks  early  in  17th  century  ;  inde- 
pendent ever  since,  though  without  the  consent  of  Turkey,  and  in  spite 
of  repeated  furious  Turkish  attacks.  Several  of  these,  however,  would 
have  overwhelmed  the  brave  little  principality,  without  the  intervention 
of  the  great  powers.  Area,  1,770  square  miles;  population  in  1871,  about 
195,600. 

MOODY  AND  SANKEY.     (See  Revivals.) 

MOORSOM'  S  METHOD  of  measuring  the  tonnage  of  merchant  shipping 
was  adopted  in  the  English  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1854,  and  is  the 
method  used  for  ascertaining  the  tonnage  on  which  dues  are  payable  at 
the  Suez  Canal. 

MORMONS.  (See  pp.  145,  485.)  One  Lee,  a  Mormon  bishop,  tried  and 
condemned  to  death  in  1877.  for  having  participated  in  the  Mountain 
Meadows  massacre,  Sept.  18,  1858,  of  136  emigrants,  by  order  of  the 
Mormon  leaders. 

MOUNTAIN.  Mount  Everest,  in  the  Himalayas,  29,002  feet  high,  is  the 
highest  mountain  known  in  the  world. 

MURDERS  in  England  and  Wales  for  ten  years  : 


1865  ... 

....  226 

1869   

265 

1872  

257 

1866 

272 

1870 

222 

1873 

223 

1867  

255 

1871  

226 

1874  

223 

1868... 

..  261 

MUSIC.  (See  pp.  146,  487.)  Musical  pitch  fixed  in  France,  1860,  the  mid- 
dle C  to  be  522  vibrations  in  a  second.  Various  different  pitches  have 
since  been  adopted,  and  "concert  pitch"  is  now  (1877)  not  a  settled 
thing.  Tonic  sol-fa  system  invented  by  Miss  Glover  ;  improved  about 
1847  by  Curwen.  For  Wagner's  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  see  Bayreuth. 

MYCENAE.  1874  to  1876,  Dr.  Schliemann  explored  the  site  of  the  Acro- 
polis of  ancient  Mycenae,  discovering  five  tombs,  which  he  believes  those 
of  Agamemnon,  Eurymedon,  Cassandra,  and  their  followers.  In  these  was 
a  great  collection  of  golden  and  other  precious  articles  of  ornament  and 
use,  extremely  ancient,  interesting,  valuable,  and  archaeologically  'impor- 
tant. They  are  deposited  with  the  Greek  authorities  at  Athens. 


NATIONAL  DEBT  OF  UNITED  STATES.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  Deducting 
cash  in  the  Treasury,  Dec.'l,  1876,  was  $2,089,336,099.42.  Increase  of 
the  debt  in  the  month  preceding,  $457,662.64.  Decrease  since  June  30, 


40 


THE  WOBLD'S  PBOGRESS. 


1876,  $10,103,245.57.     Decrease  since  1866,  $683,900,074.27.  State  and 
territorial  debts,  June,  1876,  estimated  at  $350,000,000. 

NATIONAL  DEBTS.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  An  estimate  in  the  Westminster 
Review,  of  the  national  debts  of  the  world  in  1875,  was  as  follows  (at 
$5.00  to  the  pound  sterling) : 

Great  Britain $3,875,000,000 


Europe 13,865.000,000 

America 3,870,000,000 

Asia 655,000,000 


Australasia . 
Africa . . . 


200.000,000 
375,000,000 


Total $22,840,000,000 

European  national  debts  are  about  as  follows    (at   $5.00  to  the  pound 
sterling) : 


Austro-Hungary  (1876) $1,709, 634,630 

Belgium  (January  1,  1«76) ....  33, 656,000 

Denmark  (March  31,  1875) ....  51,620,005 

France  (January  1,  1875) 4,687,921,400 

German  Empire,  none,  or  a  tri- 
fling one. 

But  Prussia  (January  1, 1876) . .  229,852, 375 

Bavaria  (January  1,  1874).  156,688,045 

Wurtemberg  (May  10,  1874)  73,496,020 

Saxony  (end  of  1876) 85,222,010 

etc.,  etc. 

Great  Britain  (March  31,  1876).  3.884,852,720 


Greece  (partly  estimated,  Jan., 

1,  1876) 106,800,515 

Italy  (end  of  1875,  estimate). . .  2,000,000,000 

Netherlands  (beginning  of  1875)  386.383,365 

Portugal  (June  30,  1876) 395,308,900 

Russia  (estimate,  Jan.  1, 1876)..  1.254,810,000 

Spain  (estimate,  end  June,  1875)  2,650,000,000 

Sweden  (January  1.  1876) 38,H2!>,680 

And  Norway  (end  of  1875) 13,418,775 

Switzerland  (beginning  of  1876)  5,520,000 
Turkey  (June,  1876 ;  much  more 

since) 927,000,000 


NATURAL  SELECTION.     (See  Darwinism.) 

NATURALIZATION.  (See  pp.  147,  490.)  In  1870  there  were  about  9,500 
Americans  in  England,  and  about  2,500,000  British  subjects  in  the  United 
States.  Under  English  laws  passed  May  12,  1870,  and  July  25,  1872,  the 
latter  were  empowered  to  renounce  their  allegiance ;  and  by  the  conven- 
tion of  Februarys,  1871,  the  nationality  of  British  subjects  was  made 
dependent  on  choice,  and  not  on  birth. 

NAVIES.  (See  pp.  148,  495.)  The  English  navy  contains  in  all  about  240 
vessels.  Of  iron-clad  war-ships,  there  are,  including  those  now  (1877) 
building,  about  as  follows  in  the  world  : 


Nation.  Ships. 

England  ....................        59 

France  .................. 

Russia  ................... 


Turkt-y 
Germany 
Holland  .  . 


68 
M 
M 

24 
1J 

17 


Total  tonnage. 
317,000 
184.000 

89.000 

89,000 

65,000 

61,000 

23,000 


Also,  Austria,  14 ;  Spain,  7  ;  Denmark,  6 ;  United  States,  27 ;  Sweden 
and  Norway,  8;  Portugal,  1;  Greece,  2;  Brazil,  17;  Peru,  6;  Chili,  2; 
Argentine  Confederation,  2 ;  Japan,  2.  Whole  number  of  iron-clad  ships  of 
war,  305 ;  of  these,  England  has  21  first-rates,  thickest  armor  on  any  of 
them,  24  inches  ;  and  France,  23  first-rates.  The  thickest  armor  used  by 
any  German  ship  is  10  inches ;  Russia  and  Turkey,  12  inches ;  Italy,  22 
inches  (on  the  Duilio,  launched  May  8,  1876,  and  considered  the  most 
powerful  war-ship  ever  built).  The  United  States  navy,  besides  27  iron- 
clad ships,  has  70  other  steamers  and  25  sail-vessels. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS.  Published  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  1811  In 
October,  I860,  the  "  dumb-bell  nebula"  was  reported  by  Lassell  to  show 
no  signs  of  consisting  of  stars.  In  1865,  Huggins  reported  certain  nebulas 
shown  by  the  spectroscope  to  be  entirely  gaseous. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  41 

NEPTUNE  (PLANET).  First  observed  by  Dr.  Galle,  at  Berlin,  September  23, 
1846,  where  Le  Verrier  told  him  to  look  for  it,  having  calculated  that  the 
irregular  motions  of  Uranus  called  for  such  a  planet.  Mr.  J..  C.  Adams, 
of  Cambridge,  had  made  similar  calculations  about  the  same  time. 

NETHERLANDS.     (See  Holland.) 

NEW  CALEDONIA.  Occupied  by  the  French,  September  20,  1853^  and 
since  used  by  them  as  a  penal  colony. 

NEWSPAPERS.  (See  pp.  149,  500.)  Newspapers  in  Great  Britain,  1876, 
1,642.  In  the  United  States,  1875,  7.870  periodicals,  of  which  5,957 
weeklies.  In  British  America,  1,478,  being  in  America,  north  of  Mexico, 
8,348  periodicals.  Among  the  remarkable  enterprises  of  newspaper  con- 
cerns within  the  last  few  years,  are:  Stanley's  expedition  into  Central 
Africa,  for  the  New  York  Herald  ;  Mr.  George  Smith's  explorations  in 
Assyria,  partly  for  the  London  Telegraph ;  the  destruction  of  the  very 
powerful  and  wealthy  criminal  combination  called  the  New  York  "Ring," 
in  consequence  of  revelations  in  the  New  York  Times  by  Sheriff  O'Brien. 
Works  on  the  English  periodical  press  :  Andrews'  British  Journalism,  1855, 
and  Hunt's  Fourth  Estate,  1850 ;  on  that  of  America,  Hudson's  Journalism 
in  the  United  States,  1873,  which  supersedes  in  most  respects  the  infor- 
mation in  Buckingham's  and  Thomas's  works. 

NEW  YORK  CITY.  (See  pp.  150, 499.)  Barnum's  old  museum  burnt,  July 
13,  1865  ;  money  panic  in  Wall  Street,  from  the  gold-buying  operations  of 
Fisk  and  Gould,  September  22-26,  1869 ;  revelations  of  the  ''  Tweed 
Ring  "  corruptions  in  the  city  government,  August  and  September,  1871  ; 
Fisk  murdered  by  Stokes,  January  7,  1872 ;  the  Erie  railway  administra- 
tion, controlled  by  Fisk  and  Gould,  breaks  down,  March,  1872  ;  trouble 
from  epizootic,  or  horse  disease,  October,  1872 ;  great  panic  in  business 
throughout  the  country,  begins  with  stoppage  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.,  Sep- 
tember, 1873 ;  Tweed  convicted  of  embezzlement,  and  sentenced  to 
twelve  years'  imprisonment,  November  19,  1873 ;  escapes,  December, 
1873  ;  damages  of  $6,537,000  awarded  against  him  in  civil  suit,  March  8, 
1876  ;  arrested  at  Vigo,  in  Spain,  September  8,  1876,  and  returned  to 
jail. 

NEW  ZEALAND.  Discovered  by  Tasman,  1642 ;  recognized  as  belonging 
to  Great  Britain,  1814 ;  first  English  governor  lands,  January  29,  1829 ; 
colony  and  bishopric  established  1841 ;  towns  founded  :  Auckland,  1840, 
Nelson  and  Turanaki,  1841,  Otago,  1848,  Canterbury,  1850;  native  insur- 
rection from  land  troubles,  March,  1860 :  suppressed,  after  much  fighting 
and  trouble,  March,  1861 ;  another  native  war,  May,  1863,  continued 
more  or  less  until  July,  1866.  The  New  Zealand  group  is  about  1,0(10 
miles  long  and  200  wide ;  area  of  land,  about  102,000  square  miles  ;  white 
population,  1851,  26,707;  December  31,  1876.  about  375,856,  besides 
about  45,470  natives  or  Maoris. 

NICSICS.  A  strong  Turkish  fortress  standing  at  that  narrow  neck  of  land 
which  joins  the  two  main  portions  of  Montenegro,  and  therefore  an  im- 
portant military  position. 

NILE.  (See  p.  502.)  .  From  the  time  of  Bruce's  explorations  in  1768  -70,  no 
discovery  of  importance  about  the  source  of  the  Nile  was  made  until 
Speke  and  Grant  discovered  the  great  lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  1863.  Baker 
discovers  the  Albert  Nyarza,  March  14,  1864.  Livingston's  letter  from 


42  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

TTjiji,  dated  November,  1871,  to  Mr.  Bennett,  says  the  Nile  springs  are 
about  600  miles  south  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE.  Explosion  of,  June  30',  1869.  Two  cart-loads  of 
nitro-glyceriue  exploded  in  the  vale  of  Llanberris,  on  the  road  to  a  quarry 
there.  Five  persons  were  killed,  they  and  the  horses  being  so  blown  to 
pieces  that  only  fragments  were  found,  as  a  heart,  a  foot,  a  chin  with  the 
beard  on  it.  Roofs,  doors,  and  windows  were  destroyed  everywhere  for 
two  miles  around,  and  where  each  cart  blew  up  was  left  a  circular  pit  in 
the  road,  seven  and  a  half  feet  across  and  seven  feet  deep. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  (See  p.  503.)  After  the  English  penal  colony  was 
removed,  the  descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty  (198  souls) 
were  in  June,  1856,  carried  from  Pitcairn's  Island  and  established  here. 
In  December,  1875,  the  new  colony  was  prospering. 

NORWAY.     (See  Sweden.) 

0. 

OCEAN  EXPLORATION.  Deep-sea  soundings  and  dredgings  have  been 
made  by  Sars,  off  the  coast  of  Norway ;  by  Carpenter  and  Thompson,  near 
the  Faroe  Islands,  1868-9  ;  by  Carpenter,  in  the  Mediterranean,  1870. 
The  voyage  of  the  Challenger,  for  ocean  exploration,  was  December  21, 
1872,  to  May  25,  1876  ;  she  sailed  about  80,000  miles.  These  investiga- 
tions have  greatly  added  to  knowledge.  Deepest  soundings  thus  far, 
3,875  fathoms  (4  miles,  710  yards),  in  the  Atlantic  north  of  St.  Thomas, 
March  24,  1873.  Living  creatures  have  been  found  at  the  depth  of  three 
miles. 

OLD  AGE.  (See  Longevity,  pp.  137,458.)  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  Prof.  Owen, 
and  W.  J.  Thorns  (his  "Human  Longevity"  published  1873,)  have  dis- 
proved many  alleged  cases  of  old  age,  and  few  of  over  100  years  can  be 
believed  in.  A  few  recent  ones  are  as  follows  :  Anthony  Beresford  died 
in  England,  aged  101,  March  3,  1874 — considered  authentic ;  Count  Wai  - 
deck,  traveller  and  artist,  died  aged  109,  at  Paris,  April  29,  1875 ;  Captain 
Frederic  Lahrbush,  soldier,  died  aged  111  years,  (age  disputed),  April  3, 
1877,  at  New  York. 

OLD  CATHOLICS  organized  September,  1871,  at  Munich.  Third  annual 
synod  at  Bonn,  in  summer  of  1876,  50,000  members  and  adherents  were 
reported,  but  action  on  the  question  of  clerical  celibacy  was  declined. 
The  movement  grew  out  of  opposition  to  the  new  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility ;  but  it  does  not  now  (1877)  show  signs  of  great  success. 

OLYMPIA.  Explorations  at  Elis,  on  the  site  of  the  Olympian  games,  planned 
by  Curtius,  begun  by  Hirschfeld  and  Bottiger,  October,  1875.  The  Ger- 
man Government  pays  expenses,  and  has  casts  of  objects  found,  the  orig- 
inals to  be  the  property  of  the  Greek  Government.  Many  interesting 
discoveries  of  statues,  parts  of  the  pediments  of  the  great  temple  of 
Jupiter  Olympus,  etc.,  have  been  made. 

ORDNANCE.  (See  Cannon,  pp.  92,  290.)  The  Rodman  gun,  a  smooth- 
bore, 20-inch  calibre,  weighing  58  tons,  and  throwing  a  1,000-pound  round 
shot,  cast  at  Pittsburg,  1864  ;  a  stream  of  cold  water  was  kept  running 
through  the  core  during  casting  and  cooling,  so  as  to  chill  and  harden  the 
inside  of  the  u;un.  Trials  of  Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  Horsfall  guns 
at  Shoeburyness,  England,  in  1862-3,  against  various  targets  representing 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  43 

ironclad  ships,  up  to  an  aggregate  thickness  of  15  inches  (in  three  plates) 
of  wrought  iron.  The  Hercules  target,  4  feet  2  inches  thick,  with  11^ 
inches  of  iron.  Palliser's  patent  for  chilled  metal  shot  (cast  in  cold  iron 
moulds),  dated  May  27, 1827.  More  experiments  at  Shoeburyness,  1867-8, 
where  a  10-inch  English  gun  is  found  better  than  Prussian  and  American 
guns,  and  a  23-ton  gun,  12-inch  bore,  throwing  Palliser  shot,  is  resisted 
by  a  model  fort  defended  by  15-inch  iron  plates.  The  "Woolwich  In- 
fant," 35  tons,  cast  in  1870,  16  feet  3  inches  long,  to  carry  a  700-pound 
shot,  with  120-pound  charge.  In  1875-6  an  81-ton  gun  tried,  with  a  1,250- 
pound  shot  and  190-pound  charge.  The  shot  penetrated  50  feet  of  sand. 
A  charge  of  370  pounds  afterwards  used.  The  Uchatius  guns  of  "steel 
bronze,"  used  in  the  Austrian  army,  first  made  at  Vienna,  1875.  Suc- 
cessful trials  of  100-ton  Armstrong  gun,  throwing  a  2,000-pound  shot,  at 
Spezzia,  in  Italy.  The  gun  is  for  the  Italian  iron-clad  Duilio.  Rifled 
guns  first  used  for  siege  purposes,  Sebastopol,  1854-5.  The  Armstrong 
breech- loading  rifled  gun  first  used  in  China  campaign,  I860.  The  Ger- 
man army  is  now  supplied  with  breech-loading  artillery. 

ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES.  (See  Darwinism.)  Book  by  Darwin  published 
November,  1869. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.  Total  income  of  the  University,  21  colleges  and 
5  halls,  in  1871,  £483,842,  16s.  6d. 

OXYGEN.  The  most  abundant  substance,  being  one-third  of  the  earth, 
nine-tenths  of  the  water,  and  one-fifth  of  the  air. 

OZONE.  (See  p.  153.)  In  1872  Brodie  showed  that  Odling's  suggestion 
was  correct,  viz.  :  that  ozone  is  oxygen  condensed  into  two-thirds  the 
space  it  would  naturally  occupy. 

P. 

PACIFIC  RAILWAY,  1,700  miles  long,  from  Omaha  to  San  Francisco, 
opened  for  trafiic  May  12,  1868. 

PALESTINE  EXPLORATION.  Fund  established  1865  ;  explorations  under 
it  began  in  1866  ;  a  systematic  trigonometrical  survey  begun  December, 
1871 ;  a  similar  fund  established  at  New  York,  same  year. 

PAMIR.  A  region  sometimes  called  the  roof  of  the  world,  being  a  very  lofty 
water-shed  in  Central  Asia,  north  of  the  Himalayas,  at  the  west  end  of  Lit- 
tle Thibet,  and  constituting  a  kind  of  focus  from  which  diverge  the  chief 
Asiatic  mountain  ranges.  It  is  the  source  of  the  Oxus  and  other  rivers. 

PAN- ANGLICAN  CONFERENCE  of  seventy-five  bishops,  English,  Colonial, 
and  American,  met  at  Lambeth,  September  24,  1867,  and  issued  an  address 
and  resolutions  of  a  pretty  general  and  safe  character.  Another  is  pro- 
posed for  July,  1878. 

PANTECHNICON.  A  building  in  London  used  for  storage.  Burned  Feb- 
ruary 13  and  14,  1874,  when  many  valuable  paintings  and  other  costly 
articles  were  destroyed. 

PAPAL  INFALLIBILITY.     (See  Infallibility.) 

PARAGUAY.  (See  p.  155.)  Francis  S.  Lopez  succeeded  his  father  as  dic- 
tator, September,  1862.  Brazil  attacked  Parag-uay,  December,  1864,  in 
consequence  of  seizure  of  a  Brazilian  steamer,  on  November  11,  1864;  de- 
feated Lopez  in  several  battles,  and  he  was  killed  at  Aquidaban.  March  1, 


44  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

1870.  Peace  signed  June  20,  1870.  S.  Jovellanos  chosen  president  for 
three  years,  December  12,  1871,  and  J.  B.  Gil  for  three  years,  November 
25,  1874.  Population  in  1857  returned  at  1,337,439,  and  another  return 
in  1873  indicated  the  devastation  of  the  war  by  showing  only  221,079  souls, 
of  which  men  over  15  only  28,746,  and  women  106,254,  the  other  86,079 
being  children. 

PASSION  PLAY.  A  drama  representing  the  passion  of  Christ,  represented 
from  time  time  at  Oberammergau,  in  Bavaria  ;  said  to  have  been  so  rep- 
resented there  ever  since  1633. 

PASSPORT  SYSTEM.  Introduced  in  the  United  States  August  19,  1861, 
on  account  of  the  civil  war.  Abolished  in  Norway,  1809  ;  Sweden,  1860 ; 
Italy,  1862 ;  Portugal,  1863  ;  in  France,  abolished  as  to  British  subjects. 
December  16,  1860 ;  revived  in  the  war,  August  1,  1870  ;  abolished  again 
April  10,  1872. 

PATRONS  OF  HUSBANDRY.  Popularly  known  as  Grangers.  A  secret 
society  in  the  United  States  professing  to  be  for  the  promotion  of  agri- 
cultural interests.  Said  to  have  been,  first  organized  by  one  Saunders, 
who  established  the  national  "grange"  (or  lodge)  in  December,  1867. 
Subordinate  granges  were  established,  10  or  11,  in  1868  ;  39  in  1869  ;  38 
in  1870 ;  125  in  1871 ;  1,105  in  1872  ;  8,400  in  1873  ;  and  for  a  year  or 
two  after  this  time  the  order  had  much  political  influence,  and  did  some- 
thing to  establish  co-operative  organizations  for  the  supply  of  goods.  Legis- 
lation in  Iowa  (1874)  and  elsewhere,  at  the  requirement  of  the  "Grangers," 
to  fix  transportation  prices  by  railroad,  has  proved  a  mistake  and  a  bad 
failure. 

PAUPERS.  (See  Poor  Laws,  p.  535.)  Paupers  and  their  cost  in  England 
and  Wales  for  ten  years  (poor-rate  only,  and  not  including  charity) : 

Pauper*.  Poor-rate. 

1866  ..  916,152  £6,439,517 

1867 981,546  6.959,840 

1868...  1,034,723  7,498,059 

1869  1,039,549  7,673,100 

1870  ..           I,079.o91  7,644,307 

1871 1,071,926  7,886,724 

1872...  977,664  8.007,403 

1873...          890,372  7,692,169 

1874...              82fl,281  7,664,957 

.1875 815,587  

PAUPERS  IN  UNITED  STATES,  1870,  116,102. 

PEABODYFUND.     (See  Charities.) 

PEABODY  MEMORIAL.  A  statue  of  Mr.  George  Peabody  was  publicly 
inaugurated  in  London,  July  23,  1869. 

PEACE  JUBILEE.     (See  Boston. ) 

PEERAGE.  In  37  years,  1832-69,  an  average  of  2|  commoners  a  year  were 
created  peers  in  England. 

PERU.  (See  pp.  157,  523.)  Presidents  :  Canseco  succeeds  Pezet,  Novem- 
ber, 1865.  Prado  subsequently  appointed  dictator,  and  February  15, 
1367,  made  president;  resigns  in  consequence  of  an  insurrection,  and 
Gen.  La  Puerta  succeeds  him,  January  18,  1868 ;  Col.  Balta  next  August 
1,  1868;  Gutierrez  dictator,  July  22,  1872,  but  killed  26th;  Pardo 
elected,  August  2,  and  Prado  succeeds  him,  August,  1876.  The  Peru- 
vian railways,  in  establishing  which  the  American,  Henry  Meiggs,  has  been 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  45 

prominent,  at  end  of  1876  open  for  trade,  or  in  course  of  completion,  were 
22  lines,  2,030  miles  in  length. 

PESSIMISM.  A  gloomy  system  of  philosophy  and  belief  put  forth  by 
Arthur  Schopenhauer  in  Germany,  1819  to  1851,  and  which  has  found  some 
acceptance.  Its  most  eminent  expositor  is  Hartmann. 

PITCAIEN'S  ISLAND.     (See  p.  528  ;  also  Norfolk  Island.) 

PLANCHETTE.     (See  /Spiritualism.) 

PLANETS.     (See  Astronomy.) 

POLAND.  (Seep.  532.)  The  separate  government  of  Poland  abolished, 
and  administrative  union  with  Russia  perfected  February  29,  1868. 
Polish  language  prohibited  in  public  places,  July,  1868 ;  in  courts  of  law 
and  public  offices,  June,  1876.  These  measures  followed  a  severe  mili- 
tary repression  of  hopeless  but  determined  military  efforts  against  Russia, 
which  had  continued  most  of  the  time  since  1830. 

POOR.     (See  Paupers.) 

POPULATION.  (See  pp.  161,  537.)  Total  population  of  the  world  esti- 
mated at  1,377,000,000.  Another  estimate,  by  statistical  authorities  at 
Washington,  1874,  made  it  1,391,032,000. 

POSITIVISM.  A  philosophy  put  forth  by  Aug-uste  Comte  (born  about 
1795,  died  1852),  which  rejects  metaphysics  and  claims  to  deal  wholly 
with  facts.  Its  chief  historical  principle  is  that  there  are  three  stages  of 
human  belief,  the  theological,  the  metaphysical,  and  the  positive,  the 
former  two  being  erroneous,  and  the  last  the  only  valid  one,  at  which 
Europe  is  just  now  arriving. 

POST-OFFICE;  POSTAL  AFFAIRS.  Book-post  established  in  England, 
1855.  Money-order  office  established  1792  ;  little  used  until  1840,  but 
very  largely  since.  English  electric  telegraphs  purchased  by  government 
and  run  as  part  of  post-office  system,  1869.  Postal  cards  first  issued 
October  1,  1870.  Post-office  savings-banks  (Government  responsible  to 
depositors)  established  1861  ;  deposits  in  them,  December  31,  1874, 
£23,157,469  18s.  lOd.  An  International  Postal  Congress  met  at  Bern, 
Switzerland,  January  27,  1874,  and  signed  a  convention,  October  9,  for  a 
universal  international  postage  rate  of  25  centimes,  or  2|  pence,  or  5  cents 
for  each  half-ounce  letter  rate ;  1  penny,  or  2  cents,  or  10  centimes  for 
each  newspaper  rate,  etc.  In  the  United  States  Post-office  Department : 
Postage  stamps  issued,  year  ending  June  30,  1876,  700,089,437,  worth 
$19,718,708.75;  stamped  envelopes  (not  official)  issued,  147,021,500, 
worth  $4,359,907.04;  newspaper  wrappers,  18,498,750,  worth  $273,723.- 
50;  postal  cards,  150,815,000,  worth  $1,580,150  ;  official  postage  stamps, 
17,682.665,  worth  $663,831.50,  and  official  stamped  envelopes  and  wrap- 
pers, 15,690,155,  worth  $129,110.93.  Total  number'of  these  issues,  1,049,- 
797,507,  worth  $26,953,421.72. 

PRAYER- GAUGE   DEBATE    originated  in  a  proposition   by   Sir  Henry  ' 
Thompson,  July,  1872,  that  some  certain  hospital  ward  or  wards  should 
be  chosen,  special  prayers  offered  for  the  patients  in  them,  and  the  result,  ^^ 

as  compared  with  other  wards,  to  show  whether  prayer  is  efficacious  to     ~C? 
heal  the  sick.     There  was  a  long  and  energetic  debate  in  print  on  this    •*     '  /  ' 
suggestion,  1872-3,  but  the  experiment  was  not  tried. 

PREHISTORIC  MAN.  Burnt  bricks  found  in  Egypt  have  been  reckoned 
20,000  years  old;  human  bones  found  in  Florida 30, 000 years  old.  Recent 


46  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

discoveries  of  worked  flints  by  Boucher  de  Perthes,  near  Abbeville,  1836, 
and  similar  ones  and  of  various  other  articles  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
have  led  to  the  belief  by  many  scientific  men  that  human  life  has  exetisd 
on  the  earth  for  many  ages.  The  prehistoric  period  has  been  divided 
into  the  stone,  iron,  and  bronze  ages.  See  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric 
Times"  (1865),  Dawkins's  "Cave-Hunting."  Evans's  "Ancient  Stone  Im- 
plements "  (1872),  etc.  An  International  Congress  of  Prehistoric  Archae- 
ology meets  annually  and  publishes  transactions. 

PRE-RAPHAELITES.  A  school  of  painters  that  arose  in  England  about 
1850,  including  Millais,  Hunt,  Rossetti,  etc.  Their  peculiarity  was  a 
purpose  to  pursue  real  art  by  representing  nature  as  they  saw  it,  instead 
of  following  the  antique.  With  some  extravagance,  their  influence  on  art 
has  on  the  whole  been  good. 

PRINTING-PRESS.  (See  p.  164)  The  Walter  press,  an  English  inven- 
tion, is  said  to  print  both  sides  of  from  15,000  to  17,000  popies  per  hour 
of  a  newspaper.  The  Campbell  press  is  said,  however,  to  print  50,000 
such  copies  per  hour.  Copper-faced  type  introduced  about  1850.  Several 
machines  for  composing  and  distributing  type  invented,  1858-1875  ;  some 
of  them  are  in  fact  used  for  the  more  uniform  kinds  of  work.  A  Caxton 
celebration,  with  exhibition  of  many  rare  and  curious  books,  on  fourth 
centennial  of  establishment  of  his  press  in  England,  at  London,  July, 
1877. 

PRUSSIA.  (See  pp.  165, 549.)  North  German  Confederation  (see  Ger- 
many), formed  August  1,  1866.  King  refuses  to  receive  the  French 
minister  Benedetti  in  consequence  of  improper  demands,  July  13,  1870; 
French  declaration  of  war  delivered  at  Berlin,  July  19 ;  first  hostilities 
at  Niederbronn,  July  26 ;  first  battle  at  Saarbriick,  July  30  (for  events  of 
the  war  see  Chronological  Tables) ;  capitulation  of  Napoleon  and  of  McMa- 
hon's  army  at  Sedan,  September  2,  1870  ;  surrender  of  Metz  by  Bazaine, 
October  27 ;  Paris  capitulates,  January  88,  1871 ;  treaty  of  peace  signed, 
February  26 ;  King  of  Prussia  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany  at  Ver- 
sailles, January  18;  imperial  diet  opened,  Berlin,  March  21,  1871. 
Prussian  na'ionality  and  administration  remain  substantially  intact,  while 
it  is  a  member  of  the  new  empire  of  Germany. 

PURCHAS  CASE.  February  23,  1871,  the  judgment  of  the  English  Privy 
Council  was  given  on  the  charges  of  heresy  against  Mr.  Purchas,  the 
ritualist.  He  was  found  guilty  of  violating  the  ecclesiastical  law  "  by 
wearing  the  chasuble,  alb,  and  tunicle  during  the  communion  service  ; 
by  using  wine  mixed  with  water,  and  wafer-bread  in  the  administration 
of  the  communion ;  and  by  standing  with  his  back  to  the  people,  between 
the  communion-table  and  the  congregation, during  the  consecration  prayer. " 
He  was  held  to  pay  costs. 

PUSEYISM.     (See  Ritualism;  also  Tractarianism,  p.  191.) 

Q- 

QUEENSLAND.  Made  a  separate  colony,  1859.  Governor,  1876,  Sir  A. 
E.  Kennedy.  Includes  the  northeast  part  of  Australia  and  adjacent 
islands.  Capital,  Brisbane.  First  settlement  (by  convicts  sent  out),  1825. 
Population  of  European  descent,  May  31,  1876,  173,180,  besides  natives, 
Chinese,  and  South  Sea  Islanders.  Area  about  678,600  square  miles,  or 
one-fifth  as  much  as  all  Europe. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  47 


RADIOMETER.  A  delicate  vane  with  four  fans,  each  black  on  one  side, 
hung  in  a  vacuum,  usually  in  an  hermetically  sealed  glass  globe.  In- 
vented by  Wm.  Crookes,  1873-6.  When  light  falls  on  it  the  vane  turns, 
and  this  movement  was  at  first  supposed  to  demonstrate  the  mechanical 
action  of  light.  Further  investigation  indicated,  however,  that  the 
motion  was  caused  by  heat  acting  on  the  small  portion  of  air  left  in  the 
approximate  vacuum. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.  (See  p.  167.)  Average  attendance  at  226  Ragged 
Schools  in  London,  in  1867,  26,000.  The  buildings  exempted  from  rates, 
1869.  At  present  the  London  School  Board  Schools  are  gradually  repla- 
cing these. 

RAILWAYS.  August  21, 1867,  a  locomotive  and  two  carriages  passed  over 
the  whole  length  of  the  Mount  Cenis  Railway,  48  miles.  This  road 
crosses  the  mountain  nearly  in  the  track  of  the  road  built  by  Napoleon  I. 

Railway*  in  the  world,  end  of  1876  : 


Africa .miles,  1,451 

Asia...  .     "      7,643 


Australia '        1,752 

Central  Am.  and  W.  Indies .     "         559 


Europe miles,  88,745 

North  America "      79,519 


South  America "        3,701 


Total 183,370 

Another  authority  makes  this  total  194,836. 

Of  the  North  American  total,  the  United  States  contains  74,658  (another 
authority  says  77.470)  miles,  Canada  4,484,  Mexico  377.  About  one- 
fourth  the  railroads  built  in  the  United  States  in  1876  were  narrow-gauge. 
Steam  on  street  railroads  was  successfully  introduced  in  Philadelphia  in 
the  spring  of  1877.  Railways  of  upper  Italy  to  be  bought  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  bill  passed,  344  to  35,  June  27,  1876.  First  narrow-gauge  railway 
built  as  a  tram- way  for  horse-power,  at  Festiniog.  in  Wales,  1832  ;  loco- 
motives used  on  it,  1863. 

RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS.  August  20,  1868,  the  Irish  day  mail  express 
train  ran  into  a  freight  train  with  petroleum  near  Abergele,  in  Wales,  and 
the  oil  taking  fire  from  the  engines,  thirty-three  persons  were  burned 
alive  in  the  cars,  having  (apparently)  been  smothered  in  the  smoke;  as  not 
a  scream  nor  a  word  was  heard  from  one  of  them.  June  21,  1870,  by  the 
collision  of  two  trains  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  near  Newark,  Eng- 
land, in  consequence  of  a  defective  axle,  18  persons  were  killed  and  40  or 
50  more  or  less  injured.  December  29,  1876,  disaster  at  Ashtabula,  on 
the  Lake  Shore  Railroad,  Ohio,  by  breaking  of  a  bridge;  60  persons 
burned  or  frozen,  60  or  70  others  injured.  In  1866-8,  one  traveller  on 
railroads  out  of  each  12,941,170  killed  by  accident  not  his  own  fault. 

RATTENING.  Stealing  and  hiding  a  man's  tools  because  he  opposes 
trades-unions  or  does  not  pay  dues  to  them.  An  English  practice  ;  much 
of  it  proved  before  the  Commission  of  Inquiry,  Sheffield  and  Manchester, 
June  and  September,  1867.  (See  Sheffield.) 

RECONSTRUCTION.  Immediately  after  the  rebel  surrender,  1865,  the 
Southern  States  began  to  pass  laws  discriminating  in  social  and  political 
affairs  against  the  negroes.  In  1868  Arkansas  was  readmitted  into  the 
Union  over  President  Johnson's  veto,  on  condition  that  the  State  should 


48 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


never  deprive  negroes  of  their  right  to  vote.  Another  bill,  passed  in  like 
manner  over  the  veto,  readmitted  North  Carolina,  Scuth  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alabama,  the  provision  being  requisite 
in  consequence  of  the  discriminations  aforesaid.  July,  1868,  President 
Johnson  by  proclamation  pardoned  all  who  had  been  in  rebellion,  except 
those  actually  under  indictment  for  treason-felony.  During  President 
Grant's  administration,  the  Eepublican  State  governments,  in  Louisiana 
and  South  Carolina  especially,  were  supported  by  national  troops.  Presi- 
dent Hayes  withdrew  these,  with  the  result  that  these  States  at  once 
passed  under  democratic  administrations. 

BED  RIVER.     (See  Manitoba.) 

RELIGIONS  IN  THE  WORLD.  Estimating  the  population  of  the  world 
at  1,377,000,000,  the  believers  in  its  religions  rank  as  follows  in  point  of 
numbers :  1.  Pagans  ;  2.  Christians ;  3.  Mohammedans  ;  4.  Jews.  Atheists 
not  counted ;  there  are  very  few.  The  numbers  of  the  above  four  classes 
are  estimated  as  follows  : 


Pagans,  viz.  : 

Buddhists 455,000,000 

Others 425,600,000 

Christians,  viz. : 

Roman  Catholics 201.200,000 

Protestants 106,300,000 

Eastern  Churches 81,900,000 

Mohammedans  (some  say  165  millions) 

Jews  . . . 


880,600,000 


REPUBLICAN  PARTY. 

votes  for  President  will 
party,  1856-1876 : 

Popular 
Vote. 

1866.  Buchanan 1,838,169 

Fremont 1,341,264 

Fillmore 874,634 

1860.  Lincoln 1,8(56,352 

Douglas 1.375,157 

Breckenridge 845,763 

Bell 589,581 

1864.  Lincoln 2,21(5.067 

McClellan 1,808,725 

1866.  Grant 3,015,071 

Seymour 2,709,613 


389,400,000 

100,000,000 
7,000,000 

1,377,000,000 

The  following  table  of  the  popular  and  electoral 
show  the  numerical  history  of  the  Republican 


Electoral 
Vote. 
174 
114 
8 
180 

12 

72 

39 
212 

21 
214 

71 


Popular      Electoral 

Vote.  Vote. 

1872.  Grant 3,5jrr,070  136 

Greeley   (died  be- 
fore the  electoral 

vote) 2,834,079  3 

Hendricks 42 

Brown 18 

Jenkins 2 

Davis 1 

1876.  Hayes 4,033,295  185 

Tilden 4,284,265  184 

Cooper 81,737  0 

Smith 9,522  0 


By  this  table  the  successive  proportions  between  the  Republican  party 
and  its  chief  adversary,  neglecting  third  parties  and  odd  numbers,  are  as 
follows :  1856,  13  to  18  ;  1860,  18  to  13  ;  1864,  22  to  18  ;  1868,  30  to  27  ; 
1872,  35  to  28  ;  1876,  40  to  42  (Hayes  having  come  in  by  a  minority  pop- 
ular vote). 

REPUDIATION.  President  Johnson,  in  his  message  of  December  7,  1868, 
recommended  a  form  of  repudiation  of  the  national  debt,  saying  that 
"  it  would  seem  but  just  and  equitable  that  the  six  per  cent,  interest  now 
paid  by  the  Government  should  be  applied  to  the  reduction  of  the  princi- 
pal in  semi-annual  instalments."  In  reply,  the  House  of  Representatives 
voted  by  154  to  6  that  all  forms  of  repudiation  of  the  national  debt  were 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  49 

odious  to  the  American  people,  and  that  nothing  less  than  was  agreed 
would  be  offered  to  the  national  creditor.  The  States  of  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 
ana, Texas,  Arkansas  and  Tennessee,  do  not  pay  the  interest  on  their 
debts.  Some  of  them,  and  Minnesota  also,  have  repudiated  more  or  less 
of  the  principal  of  the  same.  Counties  and  towns  in  Missouri  and  Illi- 
nois have  also  repudiated.  The  debt  of  North  Carolina  is  (1877)  about 
$39,000,000,  and  in  a  conference  in  that  year  between  the  creditors  and 
the  authorities  of  the  State,  the  latter  offered  to  fund  $6,000,000  of  the 
debt,  at  three  and  six  per  cent  interest,  to  be  in  full.  The  creditors  de- 
clined, but  offered  to  accept  half  ;  but  nothing  was  done.  The  whole  debt 
of  South  Carolina  was,  in  1873,  stated  at  $25,770,611.44,  and  in  this 
year  a  law  was  passed  rejecting  a  part  of  this  as  illegal,  and  repudiating 
half  of  the  rest  by  settling  with  the  holders  at  50  per  cent.  The  payment, 
even  at  this  rate,  has  not  been  made.  Turkey  repudiates  all  payments  on 
account  of  public  debt  until  times  shall  be  better,  July  9,  1876.  Penn- 
sylvania, which  used  to  be  abused  for  repudiating,  never  did  so,  the  only 
pretext  being  a  delay  upon  certain  payments,  which  were  afterwards 
made  in  full.  The  United  States  has  practically  repudiated  the  French  I 
spoliation  claims,  having  received,  in  1803,  the  consideration  paid  by  - 
France  for  those  claims,  but  having  never  paid  the  persons  owning  the 
claims. 

RESUMPTION.  By  Act  of  Congress,  approved  January  14,  1875,  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  is  to  resume  specie  payment  January 
1,  1879.  This  purpose  has  been  firmly  adhered  to  notwithstanding  vio- 
lent efforts  in  different  parts  of  the  country  to  rescind  this  action,  which 
efforts  are  in  more  or  less  close  connection  with  the  attempt  to  keep  up  or 
enlarge  the  quantity  of  paper  money,  and  even  to  keep  the  same  irre- 
deemable. 

REVENUE.  Revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  United  States  for  ten  years 
1867-76  (items  of  total  revenue  other  than  customs  and  internal  revenue 
are  not  specified,  though  included  in  "  total.") 


1867.. 
1808 

Customs. 
....$176,417,810.88.... 
184,464.599.56  

Intern.  Rev. 
..$266,027.537.43.... 
..    191,087.589.41  

Total. 
...$462,846,679.92  
.  ..    376.434,453.82 

Expenditure*. 
..$346,  729,  324.  78. 
370,339,133.83 

1869.. 
1870  . 
1871  .  . 
1872.. 
1873 

.    180,048,426.63.... 
.  ...    194,538,374.44.... 
.  ...    206.270.408.05.... 
....    216.370,286.77.... 
188.089,522.70 

..    158,856.460.86.... 
.    184.899,756.49.... 
..    143,098,153.63...  . 
..    130.642.177.72.... 
113729314.14 

...    357.188,255.64  
.  ..    395,959.838.87  ... 
.  .  .   374,431.10  1.94  
.  ..    364,694,229.91  
322,177  673.78. 

...    321,190,597.75 
...    293,6o7,C05.70 
.  ..    2*1160,393.51 
.  ..    270,559.695,91 
285  2?  9  325  34 

1874.. 
1875.. 
187tj.. 

....    163.103,8.-I3.69.... 
..,.    157,167.752,35.... 
..    14N07l.984.61... 

..    102,409.784.90.... 
..    110,007.493.58.... 
..    116.700.732.03 

.  ..    299,941,090.84  
...    284,020.771.41  
283,758.493.36.  .  .  . 

...    2a5,  738,800.  21 
.  ..    272,693,573.84 
..    258.459.797.10 

REVENUE   AND  EXPENDITURE   of   Great  Britain  (United   Kingdom), 
years  1868  to  1876,  ending  March  31 : 

Revenue.  Expenditure.  Revenue.  Expenditure. 


1868 £69,600,218 £71,236.242 

1869 72,591,991 74,971.816 

1S70 75,434.252 68,864,752 

1871 69.945,220 69,548.539 


1873 £76,608,770 £70,714,448 

1874 77.335,657 76,466.5iti 

1875 74,921.873 74,328.040 

1876 77.131,693 76,621,773 


1872 74,708,314 71,490,020 

REVEREND.     The  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  1874,  refused  to  Rev.   Mr.  Keet,  a 
Wesleyan  clergyman,  permission  to  put  the  title  "Reverend  "  on  the  grave- 
stone of  a  dissenter.     The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  allowed  it.     On  trial 
in  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  the  Chancellor  of  Lincoln  decided  against  Mr. 
3 


50  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Keet ;  on  appeal,  Sir  R.  Phillimore,  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  July  31, 1875, 
sustained  the  refusal ;  but  on  appeal  again,  the  Privy  Council.  January  2 1 , 
1876,  reversed  both  decisions,  and  gave  judgment  that  the  title  is  lauda- 
tory only,  and  that  no  law  restricts  it  to  ministers  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

REVIVALS.  Moody  and  Sankey's  revival  meetings  in  England,  1874-5. 
In  March,  1875,  in  London,  present  about  15,000  persons  ;  farewell  meet- 
ing, July  12,  1875.  In  New  York  city,  February  7  to  April  19,  1876  ;  in 
Boston,  March  to  June,  1877.  Great  results  were  asserted  to  have  been 
obtained. 

RIOTS.  (See  pp.  170,  565.)  Riots  in  various  English  towns,  by  Roman- 
ists, against  the  lectures  of  one  Murphy,  1867-1871  ;  at  White  Haven, 
April  20,  1871,  he  was  cruelly  beaten.  Riots  by  artisans  out  of  work  at 
Greenwich  and  Deptford,  England,  Jan.  24  and  25,  1867 ;  in  November 
following,  in  the  west  of  England,  from  dearness  of  provisions ;  Oct.  30, 
1868,  at  Blackburn,  between  Liberals  and  Tories  ;  June  2,  1869,  a  furious 
riotous  attack  by  2,000  Welsh  on  military  and  police  in  charge  of  some 
colliers  convicted  of  assault ;  mob  only  dispersed  by  being  fixed  on,  from 
which  4  were  killed  and  26  badly  wounded.  August  7,  and  September  8, 
1871,  much  rioting  at  Dublin,  in  connection  with  a  meeting  in  Phoenix 
Park  to  ask  for  relief  of  Fenian  prisoners.  April  20,  1876,  agrarian  riots 
break  out,  lasting  some  weeks,  among  the  negroes  in  Barbadoes.  Furious 
rioting  by  Romanists  at  Montreal,  Sept.  1875,  to  prevent  burial  of  one  Gui- 
bord  in  a  Romanist  cemetery.  The  right  to  it  being,  however,  proved  at 
law,  he  was  so  buried  under  military  protection,  Nov.  16,  1875. 

RITUALISM.  The  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act,  for  repressing  ritualism 
in  the  Church  of  England,  became  a  law  August  7,  1874,  to  go  into  opera- 
tion July  1,  1875.  The  Ridsdale  case  was  the  first  under  the  act,  in 
which  judgment  was  given  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  against  Rev.  C.  J. 
Ridsdale  for  ritualistic  proceedings.  In  the  cases  of  Rev.  A.  Tooth,  and 
Rev.  T.  P.  Dale,  monitions  issued  to  discontinue  such  practices.  Rev. 
Arthur  Tooth,  vicar  of  St.  James's  at  Hatcham,  in  England,  was  lawfully 
commanded  to  desist  from  processions,  tolling  the  bell,  singing  certain 
music,  and  other  ritualistic  and  unlawful  practices.  Disobeying,  he  was 
on  Dec.  17,  1876,  inhibited  from  performing  divine  service  or  otherwise 
officiating  in  the  parish.  Disobeying  again,  he  was  imprisoned.  For  a 
similar  case  before  the  act,  see  Purchas  Case. 

ROMANISM.  (See  pp.  171,  5fi6;  see  also  Infallibility ;  Old  Catholics; 
Vatican  Council.}  The  "emancipation"  of  the  Romanists  has  steadily 
advanced  in  England  during  this  century.  Their  priests  might  be  chap- 
lains to  gaols,  by  act  July,  1863;  Justice  Shee,  of  the  Queen's  Bench, 
(Dec.  15,  1863)  was  the  first  Romanist  judge  in  England  since  the  Refor- 
mation. O'Hagan,  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  (Dec.,  1868),  was  the  first 
Romanist  in  that  office  since  1688  ;  the  first  Romanist  master  of  arts 
since  the  test  acts  were  abolished,  was  made  at  Oxford,  June  22,  1871  ; 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act  repealed  July  24,  Ib71.  Meanwhile  Romanist 
bishops  (at  Dublin,  Oct.  17,  1867)  adhere  to  the  policy  of  separate  educa- 
tion under  priests  ;  refuse  a  Romanist  university  to  be  endowed  by  the 
State,  because  they  cannot  have  entire  control,  March,  1868,  and  October^ 
1871.  In  Germany,  the  "  Falk  law?,'1  to  subject  ecclesiastical  affairs  to 
a  royal  tribunal,  passed  May  11.  1H73.  and  an  obstinate  though  not  noisy 
struggle  between  the  German  Empire  and  the  Romanist  hierarchy  sets  in, 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  51 

which  is  still  (1877)  in  full  activity,  the  State  having  fined,  imprisoned, 
and  banished  various  prelates,  and  the  Pope  having  cursed  various  Offi- 
cials. In  the  United  States  there  is  a  regular  policy  by  the  Romanists  to 
obtain  a  share  of  public  money  for  their  sectarian  schools,  which  has  not 
thus  far  succeeded.  For  Romanist  riots,  see  Riots. 

ROME.  French  enter,  Oct.  30,  1867.  They  march  out,  August  21,  1870. 
Italian  troops  occupy,  Sept.  20,  1870  ;  united  to  kingdom  of  Italy  along 
with  Papal  States,  Oct.  9,  1870,  and  the  Pope's  authority  restricted  to 
the  Leonine  City  (which  see).  The  vote  on  union  with  Italy  was  as  f ol  • 
lows  :  Out  of  167,548  votes :  for  union,  133,681 ;  against,  1,507  ;  the  rest 
did  not  vote.  The  Pope  has  hitherto  (1877)  wholly  refused  the  restricted 
sovereignty  and  guaranties  offered  him. 

ROSICRUCIANS.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  genuine  society  of  this 
name  in  the  thirteenth  century,  a  religious  organization  of  some  kind. 
The  Rosicrncians  of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  were  a  hoax,  im- 
agined by  one  Andreas  or  Andreas,  who  published  a  solemn  pretended 
account  of  them,  1615. 

ROUMANIA.  Union  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  under  this  name  acknowl- 
edged by  Turkey,  December,  1861  ;  Alexander  Couza,  hospodar;  he 
abdicates  (by  force)  February  22,  1866;  crown  of  Roumania  declined  by 
Prince  of  Flanders,  February  8,  and  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen  elected  hospodar,  April  20,  and  recognized  hereditary  hospodar 
by  the  Sultan,  October  24,  1866.  Declared  independent  of  Turkey,  and 
title  of  king  assumed  by  the  hospodar  during  Russian  invasion,  summer 
of  1877. 

RUSSIA.      (See  pp.   173,  569.)     Imperial  serfs  emancipated  in  part,  July 

2,  1858.      Decree   for  emancipation  of  all  Russian  serfs  (twenty-three 
million)  in  two  years,  March  8,  1861.     1000th  anniversary  of  foundation 
of  Russian  empire  by  Rurik,  at  Novgorod,  celebrated  September  20,  1862. 
Circassian  war  declared  ended,  June  2,  1864.     War  with  Bokhara  begun, 
1866.     Samarcand  taken.  May  26,  1868.     Circular  of   Prince  Gortscha- 
koff,  repudiating  treaty  clauses  of  1856  as  to  the  Black  Sea,  October  31, 
1870;    clauses  abrogated  by  London  Conference,  March  13,  1871.     Com- 
mercial panic  from  failure  of  Strousberg,  November,  1875.     Prosecution 
of  the  sect  of  Skoptzi,  April,  1876.     Khokand  annexed  as  Ferghana,  Feb- 
ruary 29,  1876.     Southern  Russian  army  mobilized  by  decree  of  Novem- 
ber 15,  1876  ;  war  with  Turkey,  having  been  declared,  the  Russians  enter 
Roumania ;    cross  the   Danube,  June   27,    1877 ;    Gen.  Gourkha,  with  a 
strong  advanced  guard,  passes  the  Balkans,  July  4.      Result  of  the  paral- 
lel Russian  campaign  in  Armenia,  however,  up  to  August  1,  1877,  only 
an  advance  to  within  a  few  marches  of  Erzeroum,  a  defeat  by  Mukhtar 
Pasha,  and  a  retreat  to  Russian  territory. 

S. 

SADOWA,  or  Koniggratz,  in  Bohemia.  Decisive  battle  of  the  "  Seven 
Weeks'  War,"  or  war  of  1866,  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  fought  July 

3,  1866.     About  400,000  men   engaged ;   the  Austrians  lost  174  guns, 
40,000  killed  and  wounded,  and  20,000  prisoners.     The  battle  decided 
the  war,  gave  Prussia  the  leadership  in  Germany,  secured  unity  to  the 
North  German  nations,  gave  Venetia  to  Italy,  and  led  to  the  legislative 
independence  of  Hungary. 


52  TUB  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

ST.  CRISPIN,  KNIGHTS  OF.  This  trade  union  of  boot  and  shoe  making 
operatives  was  first  formed  in  Milwaukee,  about  1870,  and  quickly  spread 
into  other  States,  having  in  1873,  in  Massachusetts  alone,  40,000  mem- 
bers. They  have  operated  by  strikes  and  the  like  means,  with  the  general 
object  of  keeping  up  wages  of  operatives  as  against  employers. 

SAN  DOMINGO.  (See  p.  175.)  Present  name  of  the  Spanish  part  of  the 
island  of  San  Domingo,  or  Hayti.  For  the  French  part,  see  Hayti. 
Dominican  Republic  proclaimed,  February,  1844,  after  the  deposition  of 
President  Boyer.  Baez  was  President,  1849-1853  ;  Santana,  1853-6  ; 
Baez  again,  1856-8  ;  Valverde.  March,  1858-May,  1861 ;  reunion  with 
Spain  decreed  by  the  Queen,  May  20,  1861  ;  insurrection  against  Spain, 
August,  1861 :  insurgents  generally  defeated,  but  Spain  renounces  the 
colony,  May  5,  1865 ;  Cabral  President,  September,  1865 ;  Baez,  Novem- 
ber, 1865  ;  Cabral  again,  June,  1867  ;  San  Domingo  City  nearly  destroyed 
by  a  hurricane,  October  30,  1867  ;  Baez  President  again,  March,  1868  ; 
Ganier  d'Aton,  October,  1873;  Gonzalez;  Baez,  December  10',  1876. 
Population  estimated  at  about  250,000. 

SAN  JUAN  ARBITRATION  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
for  ownership  of  the  island,  which  commands  the  strait  between  British 
Columbia  and  the  United  States  territory.  Decided  by  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  October,  1872,  in  favor  of  the  United  States,  and  the  British 
troops  left  accordingly,  November  22  following. 

SAN  SALVADOR.  One  of  the  Central  American  republics,  independent 
since  its  federal  union  with  Honduras  and  Nicaragua  was  dissolved,  1853. 
Government,  nominally  republican;  but  there  is  most  frequently  some 
revolution.  Population,  variously  estimated  at  from  about  430,000  to 
600.000,  all  Indian,  or  mixed,  except  about  10,000  whites. 

SARAWAK  A  territory  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Borneo,  about  300 
miles  along  the  sea  and  reaching  100  miles  inland,  with  about  300,000 
population.  Was  under  government  of  Rajah  Brooke,  an  Englishman, 
1841-1868. 

SAVINGS-BANKS.  (See  pp.  176,  575.)  Deposits  in  savings-banks  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  1872,  £40,088,348.  For  English  postal  savings,  see 
Post-Office.  In  the  savings-banks  of  New  England,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  California  together  there  were,  in  the  year  1874-5,  deposits 
amounting  to  $810,096,745,  of  which  the  bankers  of  New  York  held  over 
$303,000,000,  and  those  of  Massachusetts  over  $217,000,000. 

SCHELDT  DUES  abolished  for  a  compensation,  1867,  and  the  navigation 
of  the  river  made  free. 

SEAMEN;  On  Mr.  S.  Plimsoll's  motion,  a  commission  of  inquiry  to  investi- 
gate the  practice  of  employing  unseaworthy  ships,  appointed  March  4, 
1873  ;  reported  July  2.  1874  ;  a  merchant  shipping  survey  bill  rejected, 
June  24,  1874  ;  great  excitement  in  and  out  of  Parliament  on  the  subject ; 
an  act  finally  passed  empowering  the  Board  of  Trade  to  stop  unseaworthy 
ships,  August  13,  1875,  and  a  merchant  shipping  act,  August  15,  1876. 

SECULARISM.  A  non-Christian,  free-thinking  system.  "  seeking  morality 
in  nature,  and  happiness  in  duty,"  and  claiming  to  be  "  not  against  Chris- 
tianity, but  independent  of  it."  Advocated  in  England  by  Messrs.  Hol- 
yoake  about  1846  ;  subsequently  by  Mr.  Bradlaugh.  A  small  number  of 
secularists  are  to  be  found  in  the  United  States. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  53 

SEDAN.  An  ancient  city,  reckoned  a  very  strong  fortress  in  old  timep,  on 
the  Meuse,  in  the  north-east  of  France,  and  the  seat  of  a  little  principal- 
ity held  by  the  Dukes  of  Bouillon,  who  were  Princes  of  Sedan.  Ceded  to 
the  French  crown,  1642.  A  Protestant  university  here  abolished  after  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in  1G85.  Here  was  taken,  destroyed,  or 
surrendered,  August  29th  to  September  2d,  the  whole  of  the  French 
Army  of  the  North,  150,000  strong,  with  Napoleon  III.  himself  in  com- 
mand. Men  actually  surrendered,  83,000,  with  70  mitrailleuses,  400  field- 
pieces,  and  150  fortress  guns. 

SERVIA.  (Seep.  178.)  Alexander  Karageorgevitch  (i.  e'.,  son  of  Black 
George),  the  hospodar,  forced  to  abdicate,  and  Milosch  Obrenovitch  (re- 
elected)  prince  in  his  stead,  December  23,  1858 ;  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Michael  Obrenovitch,  September  26,  1860 ;  movement  begins  about  this 
time  for  independence  of  Turkey  ;  disputes  at  Belgrade  ;  Turkish  Pasha 
bombards  the  city,  and  is  dismissed,  1862 ;  on  a  conference  of  the  powers, 
at  Constantinople,  the  Porte  makes  concessions  to  Servia,  October,  1862. 
On  further  demands  by  Servia,  Turkish  garrisons  withdrawn ;  Prince  Mi- 
chael assassinated,  June  20,  1868,  and  his  nephew  Milan  Obrenovitch  suc- 
ceeds; war  against  Turkey  breaks  out,  July,  1876  ;  complete  subjection 
of  Servia  by  Turks  only  averted  by  interference  of  the  powers,  November 
1,  1876.  Area  of  Servia,  about  16,000  square  miles,  and  population,  by 
census  December  31,  1874,  1,352,523. 

SHEFFIELD,  ENGLAND.  An  abominable  practice  of  persecution  by  "  rat- 
tening," or  stealing  tools,  and  other  outrages,  and  even,  in  several  in- 
stances, by  murder  and  attempts  to  murder,  at  Sheffield  and  Manchester, 
all  reduced  to  a  system  and  paid  for  regularly,  in  order  to  punish  oppo- 
nents of  trade-unions,  revealed  before  a  parliamentary  commission,  June 
and  July,  1867.  The  worst  criminal  was  one  William  Broadhead,  Secre- 
tary to  the  Saw-Grinders'  Union,  who  planned  these  proceedings  and  paid 
for  them. 

SHIPPING.  (See  also  Names.)  Sail  and  steam  vessels  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  not  including  river  steamers,  in  1875  : 

Men 
Vessels.  Tonnage.  employed. 

Sail 17.221       4,044,504     126.240 

Steam 2,970     1,847,188     73,427 

20,191     5,891,692     199,667 

On  June  30,  1875,  the  shipping  of  the  United  States  were  as  follows  : 

Vessels.  Tonnage. 

Sail 17,226  2,257,154,23 

Steam 3,958  1,116,425,42 

Unrigged  (barges,  etc) 7,803  890,858,07 

Canal-boats,  etc 2,936  331,445,74 


31,923     4,595,883,46 

June,  1876,  the  total  tonnage  was  4,853,752. 

SHIPWRECKS.     (See  Wrecks.) 

SIAMESE  TWINS.  (Seep.  181.)  They  were  exhibited  a  second  time  iu 
London,  February,  1869.  They  died  in  January,  1874,  one  about  two 
hours  before  the  other.  A  post-mortem  examination  showed  that  there 
was  an  actual  communication  of  their  nervous  and  circulating  systems 
through  the  band  that  connected  them. 


54  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

SILKWORM.  (See  p.  585.)  In  1856  the  French  silk  crop,  which  should 
have  been  worth  about  $25,000,000,  was  reduced  to  one-third  that  value 
by  the  destruction  of  the  silk-worms,  which  were  killed  off  by  a  sort  of 
epizootic  called  pebrine,  which  turned  out  to  be  parasitic.  Scientific  in- 
vestigations by  order  of  the  government  resulted  in  a  method,  devised  by 
Pasteur,  which  has  nearly  destroyed  the  disease. 

SILVER.  (See  pp.  181,585.  See  Coinage ;  Money.)  Silver  produced  in 
the  United  States,  1848-1873,  $156,050,000.  In  1875,  Nevada  alone  pro- 
duced $40,478,369  of  the  precious  metals,  of  which  nearly  all  was  silver. 
In  1876  an  important  fall  took  place  in  the  value  of  silver,  since  which 
time  the  question  of  the  standard  of  money  has  been  vigorously  debated, 
with  a  tendency  to  make  gold  the  only  standard,  thus  leaving  silver  more 
a  merchandise  than  a  currency,  except  for  small  change. 

SINAI,  MT.     Ordnance  survey  by  Wilson  and  Palmer,  published  1872. 
SINAI  TIC  MS.  of  the  Bible,  or  Codex  Sinaiticus.     (See  Bible.) 

SKOPTZI,  OR  WHITE  DOVES.  A  South  Russian  fanatical  sect,  who  prac- 
tice emasculation  as  the  Shakers  do  celibacy. 

SLAVERY.  Abolished  by  the  Dutch  in  their  West  India  colonies,  from 
July,  1863 ;  slave  trade,  by  the  Seyyid  (or  ruler)  of  Zanzibar,  by  treaty 
with  England,  June  5,  1873  ;  on  the  Gold  Coast,  by  agreement  with  several 
chiefs,  November  3,  and  proclamation  made  by  Gov.  Strahan,  December 
17,  1874;  slavery,  by  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  November  23,  1876. 

SLAVONIA,  a  province  of  Austria.  The  Slavonian  family  of  languages  in- 
cludes Bohemian,  Bulgarian,  Polabic,  Polish,  Russian,  Servian,  Slovak, 
and  Wend.  The  Slavic  races  in  Europe  are  estimated  to  number,  in  1875, 
as  follows:  Russians  and  Ruthenians,  66,129,590;  Serbo-Croats,  5,940.- 
539;  Bulgarians,  5,123,952;  Slovenes,  1,260,000;  Slovaks,  2,223,830; 
Czechs  (*.  «.,  Bohemians),  4,815,154  ;  Poles,  9,492,162  ;  total,  90,365.633. 
A  so-called  "Pan-Slavist  "  movement  has  of  late  years  been  set  on  foot, 
with  rather  vague  designs,  and  a  congress  of  Slavonic  deputies  met  at 
Moscow,  1867,  but  with  no  distinct  results. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  or  Sociology,  has  become  a  distinct  department  of  study 
within  fifty  years,  and  especially  since  1857.  Annual  meetings  of  the 
English  Social  Science  Association  have  been  held,  beginning  with  that  at 
Birmingham.  October,  1857,  and  an  annual  volume  of  its  transactions 
has  been  published.  The  American  Social  Science  Association,  whose 
headquarters  are  at  Boston,  Mass. ,  has  issued,  besides  a  tract  on  emigra- 
tion and  one  on  free  libraries,  annual  numbers  of  its  Journal,  beginning 
with  June,  1809.  It  holds  annual  meetings,  where  papers  are  read  and 
debate  is  had. 

SOONGARIA.     (See  Dsuningaria.) 

SOUND  DUTIES,  levied  by  Denmark  at  Elsinore  on  all  ships  passing  the 
Sound  there,  until  1855,  when  the  United  States  decided  to  pay  them  no 
longer,  and  the  Danish  Government  gave  them  up  for  a  compensation. 

SPAIN.  (See  pp.  184,  591.)  The  Government,  since  1867,  has  changed  as 
follows:  Queen  Isabella  leaves  Spain,  September  30,  1868;  Provisional 
Republican  government  established;  Marshal  Serrano  regent,  1869; 
Queen  Isabella  abdicates  January  25,  1870 ;  crown  declined  by  Leopold 
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  July  4 ;  Prince  Amadeo  of  Italy  chosen 
king  November  16,  1870  ;  abdicating,  a  republican  government  restored, 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  55 

1873  ;  Marshal  Serrano  President,  1874;  Alfonso  XII.,  son  of  Queen  Isa- 
bella, king,  1875 ;  the  present  constitution  proclaimed  June  80,  1876. 
An  attempt  by  Don  Carlos,  calling  himself  Carlos  VII.,  to  obtain  the 
throne;  he  enters  Spain,  May,  1872,  and  maintains  hostilities  with  more 
or  less  success  against  whomsoever  it  may  concern  until  February,  1876, 
when,  after  many  reverses,  he  leaves  Spain  and  surrenders  to  the 
Governor  of  Bayonne,  February  27,  1870.  Don  Carlos  (born  1848),  is  son 
of  Don  Juan,  who  was  brother  of  the  Count  of  Montemolin,  or  Carlos  VI. , 
who  was  son  of  Carlos  V.,  the  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Carlos  VI. 
renounced  his  rights  in  favor  of  Don  Juan,  and  the  present  Don  Carlos 
therefore  claims  under  Carlos  V. 

SPECIE  PAYMENT.     (See  Resumption.) 

SPECTROSCOPE.  First  constructed  and  used  by  Kfcrchhoff  and  Bunsen, 
1861 ;  since  variously  improved.  Spectrum  analysis,  or  the  examination 
of  light  through  the  spectroscope,  has  resulted  in  many  remarkable  dis- 
coveries, particularly  in  astronomy,  such  as  the  determination  of  the  sub- 
stances composing  the  sun,  some  nebulas,  fixed  stars,  comets,  etc.  ;  and 
also  in  analytical  chemistry,  including  the  discovery  of  two  new  metals, 
caesium  and  rubidium. 

SPELLING  REFORM.  The  Spelling-  Reform  Association  was  organized  in 
Philadelphia,  August  17,  1876,  for  •'  the  simplification  of  English  ortho- 
graphy." President,  F.  A.  March,  Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa.;  Cor- 
responding Secretary,  D.  P.  Lindsley,  Fern  wood,  Pa.  Efforts  in  the  same 
direction  have  for  some  years  been  made  in  England. 

SPIRITUALISM,  OR  SPIRITISM.  The  so-called  "  spiritual  manifesta- 
tions" began  at  Rochester,  New  York,  about  1848;  about  1851  much 
attention  was  given  in  England  to  the  raps,  '"table-turning,"  etc.  Some 
time  afterwards  a  little  machine  called  "Planchette"  was  a  leading 
topic  of  interest.  Various  sorts  of  "test-mediums"  and  "manifesta- 
tions "  have  appeared,  and  it  is  confessed,  even  by  the  most  ardent 
spiritists,  that  a  great  share  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  are  fraudulent. 
The  "Spiritual  Magazine,"  London,  began  January,  I860;  the  "  Spirit- 
ualist," November,  1869.  Many  very  intelligent  people  believe  in  some 
of  the  "manifestations,"  but  Spiritism  has  not  thus  far  (1877)  been 
demonstrated  either  good  morally,  or  true  scientifically. 

STADE  DUES.  Levied  on  the  Elbe  by  Hanover,  on  all  vessels  passing 
Stade!  Resisted  by  the  United  States,  1855  ;  abolished,  1861,  for  a  sum 
of  £3,000,000. 

STANDARD  GOLD  AND  SILVER.  English  standard  gold  is  22  parts  (by 
weight)  gold,  and  2  parts  either  silver  or  copper ;  standard  silver,  37  of 
silver  to  3  of  copper.  The  old-established  proportion  of  silver  to  gold 
was  15£  of  silver  equal  to  one  of  gold  by  weight. 

STEEL.  Bessemer's  process  patented  1856.  Tungsten  steel  made  in 
Germany,  1859.  Steel  is  very  rapidly  coming  into  use  (1877)  for  railroad 
rails,  cannon,  and  other  purposes  for  which  iron  has  heretofore  served. 

STORM  SIGNALS.     (See  Meteorology.) 
STORMS.     (See  Cyclones;  Hurricanes.) 

STRASBURG.  Invested  by  the  Germans,  August  10,  1870;  surrendered 
by  Gen.  Uhrich  with  17,500  men  and  400  officers,  September  27.  The 


56  THE  WORLT'^  PROGRESS. 

ancient  and  very  valuable  library  was  destroyed  during  the  siege,  and 
the  cathedral  much  injured. 

STREET  RAILWAYS,  STEAM  ON.     (See  Railways.) 

STRIKES.  (See  page  186  ;  see  also  St.  Crispins.)  In  1824,  combinations  by 
workmen  against  masters  ceased  to  be  criminal  by  English  law,  and  the 
history  of  workingmen  since  that  time  has  been  increasingly  a  history 
of  strikes,  which  have  occurred  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  In  March,  1867,  the  farm-laborers  of 
Buckinghamshire  struck  for  higher  wages,  and  with  some  measure  of 
success.  Same  month,  the  engine-drivers  on  the  London  and  Brighton 
Railway  struck  for  higher  wages  and  some  other  concessions.  Result,  a 
compromise.  April  10,  the  engine-drivers  and  others  on  the  (English) 
Northeastern  Railway  struck  in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  indoor- 
work  to  some  of  them — in  all,  1,100.  The  strike  was  defeated.  April 
28,  the  London  journeymen  tailors  struck  for  higher  wages,  but  returned 
to  work  on  the  employers'  terms  after  a  number  of  months.  In  a  trial 
arising  from  this  strike  the  practice  of  ' '  picketing  "  or  watching  for,  fol- 
lowing, and  abusing  non-union  men  was  exposed.  September,  1868,  the 
London  cab-drivers  and  owners  struck  work,  because  certain  so-called 
"privileged"  cabs  only  were  allowed  upon  the  premises  of  the  railways. 
The  strike  failed.  January,  and  again  March,  1870,  the  workmen  of  Schnei- 
der's great  iron  and  steel  *works,  at  Creuzot,  in  France,  struck  in  conse- 
quence of  a  quarrel  about  a  benefit  fund  and  the  dismissal  of  a  troublesome 
workman.  A  military  force  put  down  the  movement.  In  the  same  year, 
16,000  work-people  struck  at  Mulhouse,  and  before  the  troops  sent  could 
restore  quiet,  a  large  factory  was  burnt.  Other  strikes  had  already 
taken  place  at  Marseilles,  Perpignan,  and  other  places  in  the  south  of 
France.  December  8,  570  telegraph  clerks  of  the  Manchester,  Dublin, 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Belfast,  and  some  other  post-offices  struck  by 
arrangement,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  by  government  of  certain 
clerks  for  joining  a  "  protective  association."  The  strikers  were  mostly 
reinstated  after  making  written  apologies  and  leaving  the  association. 
October  9,  1871,  the  monster  strike  of  some  8,000  engineers  and  other 
workmen  at  Newcastle,  England,  having  lasted  since  the  end  of  May, 
ended  by  the  reduction  of  working  hours  from  ten  to  nine,  the  wages  re- 
maining the  same.  The  Newcastle  strike  of  1871  was  of  9,050  engineers 
for  nine  hours  instead  of  ten,  at  same  wages.  The  trade-unions  main- 
tained these  9,050  men  for  sixteen  weeks,  and  did  much  to  prevent 
others  from  taking  their  places.  At  one  time  during  this  year  were  on 
strike  these  engineers,  the  Newcastle  police,  the  colliers  of  Northumber- 
land, Dean  Forest,  and  Gloucestershire,  the  iron-workers  of  North  Staf- 
fordshire, the  dyers  of  Bradford,  the  quarrymen  of  Leeds,  and  the  crate- 
makers  of  the  potteries.  The  New  York  strike,  in  1872,  for  the 
eight-hour  working  day,  included  90,000  workmen.  March  25,  1873, 
60,000  Welsh  colliers  struck  against  a  10  per  cent,  reduction  in  wages. 
Many  strikes  occurred  in  the  United  States  about  1874,  as  wages  began 
to  be  lowered  from  the  high  standard  maintained  since  the  war.  April 
12,  1876,  20,000  miners  struck  in  Yorkshire.  At  Fall  River,  Mass.,  the 
mill-hands  were  on  strike  for  several  months  in  the  summer  of  1876,  but 
ultimately  in  part  resumed  work  without  obtaining  their  demands. 
February  12,  1877,  the  engineers  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad,  be- 
longing to  a  general  "Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers,"  presided 
over  by  one  Arthur,  an  Englishman,  struck  without  notice.  They  were 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  67 

not  taken  back,  and  the  road  in  a  few  days  obtained  other  men.  Report 
of  the  Massachusetts  Railroad  Commissioners  on  this  strike,  recommend- 
ing penal  statutes  against  such  action  in  future,  was  published  February 
21,  1877.  The  success  of  the  railroad,  and  some  subsequent  similar 
cases,  pretty  much  broke  the  power  of  the  "Brotherhood."  Extensive 
series  of  riots  and  railroad  and  other  strikes  in  the  United  States,  begin- 
ning at  Martinsburg,  in  West  Virginia,  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail- 
road, July  16,  1877.  The  strikers  were  in  many  places  joined  by  outlaws 
and  criminals,  who  set  fires,  robbed,  and  committed  violence  of  various 
kinds.  State  and  National  troops  were  called  out  in  large  numbers,  and 
the  trouble  gradually  ceased,  but  not  without  the  destruction  of  vast 
amounts  of  property  and  great  interruption  of  travel,  transportation,  and 
communication.  It  was  reckoned  that  about  9,000  miles  of  railroad  were 
blocked  on  this  occasion,  and  no  through  line  to  the  sea-coast  within  the 
United  States  was  left  open.  Board  of  Arbitration  for  amicable  settle- 
ment of  questions  between  workingmen  and  employers,  formed  by  Act 
of  Parliament  in  Great  Britain  in  1866,  after  a  great  strike  in  that  year, 
but  its  usefulness  was  only  temporary. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  (See  p.  186.)  Work  commenced  1858.  First  ship  goes 
through,  February  17,  1867.  Canal  formally  opened,  November  17,  1868. 
£4,080,000  voted  by  the  House  of  Commons,  for  the  purchase  by  England 
of  the  canal  shares  belonging  to  the  Khedive  of  Egypt;  purchase  an- 
nounced, November  26,  1875. 

SUICIDES.  (See  p.  602.)  Inquests  on  suicides  in  England  and  Wales  in 
ten  years : 


1865 1,397 

ISfifi 1,360 

1867... 1.356 

18*58 1,6-46 

1869 1,562 


1870 1,517 

1871 1,464 

1872 1,455 

1873 1,481 

1874 1,549 


SUN.  (See  p.  603.)  Cycle  of  changes  in  number  of  sun's  spots  fixed  at 
11  years  by  Schwabe  and  others,  1826-51.  Red  flames  at  edge  of  sun 
during  an  eclipse,  shown  to  be  burning  hydrogen  by  Janssen,  August  18. 
1868.  Unknown  substance  believed  to  exist  in  the  sun,  corresponding  to 
line  1474  of  the  spectrum,  1870-71.  Substances  already  shown  by  the 
spec  roscope  to  exist  in  the  sun :  Aluminium,  barium,  cadmium,  calcium, 
cerium,  chromium,  cobalt,  copper,  hydrogen,  iron,  lead,  magnesium, 
manganese,  nickel,  sodium,  strontium,  titanium,  uranium,  zinc — all  fused 
into  a  liquid  or  even  vaporous  state. 

SUNDAY ;  SUKDAY  LAWS.  Scientific  lectures  with  a  bearing  on  natural 
religion  were  given  in  London  in  January,  1867,  by  Huxley,  Carpenter, 
and  others,  with  sacred  music  in  the  intermissions.  On  legal  inquiry 
(case  of  Baxter  v.  Baxter  Langley,  Nov.  19, 1868),  held  that  this  was  not  an 
infraction  of  the  Sunday  Act  of  21,  George  III.  The  Boston  Public 
Library  Reading-Room  opened  to  the  public  on  Sunday,  after  much  op- 
position, February,  1873. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  (See  pp.  189,  604)  Religious  toleration  to 
some  extent  (previously  a  rigid  and  exclusive  state  Lutheranism  pre- 
vailed), 1860.  New  constitution.  December,  1864.  Charles  XV.  dies 
Sept.  18,  1872.  Oscar  II.,  his  brother,  succeeds.  Population  of  Sweden, 
Dec.  31,  1875,  4,383,2!)!,  and  Norway  1,817,237. 

SWIMMING  DRESS,  Boyton's.     (See  Life-Saving.) 
•6* 


58  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

SWITZERLAND.  (See  pp.  189,  606.)  Mermillod,  papal  nuncio,  expelled, 
January  16,  1873.  Revised  federal  constitution  adopted,  April  19,  1874. 
Swiss  National  Catholic  Church  ("Old  Catholic")  established  June,  1874 
Civil  marriage  law  adopted,  May  23,  1875.  Population,  1870,  2,669,147. 

SYLLABUS  of  errors  in  modern  times,  issued  along  with  an  encyclical  let- 
ter by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  December  8,  1864,  condemned  heresy,  modern 
philosophy,  political  liberalism,  etc.  Adopted  by  the  Vatican  Council, 
1870. 

TALMUD.  (See  p.  609.)  The  Talmud  has  been  translated  into  Arabic, 
and  parts  of  it  into  Latin  and  into  modern  languages.  Raphall  and  de 
Sola  translated  eighteen  treatises  of  the  Mishna  or  text  into  English,  Lon- 
don, 1847. 

TAXES.  (See  pp.  189,  610;  also  Revenue ;  National  Debt  ;  etc.)  National, 
State,  and  municipal  taxes  in  United  States,  estimated  in  1876  at  $730,- 
000,000  a  year,  or  about  $19.00  for  each  soul. 

TEA.  (See  pp.  189,  610.)  Importation  into  the  United  States,  and  value, 
1869-1876 : 

Lb».  Value. 

1869 39,141,755    813,687,750 

1870 40,812,188    13.871,546 

1871  46,972,787    17,254.617 

1872 56,974,100    22,943,575 

1873 57,870,700    24,466,170 

1874 49,831,800    21,112,234 

1875 64,858,899    22.673,703 

1876 62,887,153    19,524,166 

Imported  into  England  in  1875,  197,505,316  Ibs.  ;  worth  £13,766,961. 

TELEGRAPH.  The  English  Government  in  1869  bought  out  the  English 
telegraph  companies  on  the  basis  of  paying  twenty  years'  profits  for  the 
property.  The  companies  claimed  £7,035,977 ;  on  a  valuation  this  sum 
was  reduced  to  £5,715,047,  of  which  the  profit  item  was  £5,220,109. 
£700,000  were  also  paid  to  railroad  companies  for  telegraph  rights,  and 
some  other  items  carried  the  whole  government  expenditure  to  about 
£6,750,000,  or  $33,750,000.  The  government  estimate  of  returns  was, 
annual  revenue  expected,  £673,838;  expenses,  £359,484;  net  profit, 
£314,354 ;  and  deducting  three  and  one-half  or  four  per  cent,  interest  on 
the  government  securities  issued  to  buy  with,  there  would  remain  a  sur- 
plus of  £77,000  or  £44,000,  as  the  case  might  be.  The  result,  however, 
has  been  thus  far  (1877)  a  loss  instead  of  a  profit.  February  16,  1871,  at 
9.8  P.M.,  a  telegram  was  received  at  London  which  was  sent  from  Kur- 
rachee,  in  India,  at  12.43  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day. 

TELEPHONE.  Bell's,  Gray's,  and  Edison's  telephones  were  brought  before 
the  public  in  1876  and  1877.  One  was  invented  by  Philip  Reiss,  a  Ger- 
man, about  1862.  Bell's  operates  by  means  of  talking  and  listening  into 
a  "funnel"  or  small  drum-head  (or  an  equivalent  mechanism),  which 
vibrates  over  an  electro -magnet  in  an  electric  circuit.  Gray's  acts  by  the 
vibrations  of  tuning-forks.  They  are  all  contrivances  to  convey  sound 
along  an  electric  circuit. 

TELESCOPE.  (See  p.  611.)  Lord  Rosse's  great  telescope,  fifty-two  feet 
long,  seven  feet  diameter,  erected  1828-45,  cost  over  £20,000.  Newall's 
telescope,  with  object-glass  25  inches  aperture,  set  up  at  Gateshead,  Eng- 
land, 1870. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  59 

TENURE  OP  OFFICE  ACT.  Passed  March  2,  1867,  in  order  to  limit  the 
power  of  President  Johnson.  It  required  the  consent  of  the  Senate  to  re- 
move as  well  as  to  appoint  officials. 

THOMASSEN.     (See  Explosions.) 

TICHBORNE  CASE.  May  11,  1871,  this  case,  in  which  the  claimant  of 
the  Tichborne  estate,  calling  himself  Sir  Roger  Tichborne,  was  asserted 
by  the  defendants  to  be  a  butcher  named  Arthur  Orton,  came  on  for  trial. 
After  occupying  103  days  (the  Attorney-General,  Sir  J.  D.  Coleridge, 
spoke  twenty-six  days),  claimant  nonsuited,  and  held  for  perjury  and 
forgery ;  trial  began  April  23,  1872 ;  verdict  of  perjury,  February  28, 
1874.  Longest  trial  known  in  England ;  sentence  fourteen  years  at  hard 
labor. 

TICKET  OP  LEAVE.  A  permit  granted  to  convicts  supposed  likely  to 
behave  well.  2,666  persons  thus  liberated  in  England  in  1856.  In  1861-3 
the  system  appeared  a  failure,  these  liberated  convicts  committing  many 
crimes,  and  the  device  was  practically  discontinued  by  the  Penal  Servitude 
Act,  1864. 

TORPEDO.  For  sxibmarine  warfare,  invented  by  David  Bushnell,  of  Say- 
brook,  Conn.,  and  tried  on  British  vessels  unsuccessfully,  except  that  it 
greatly  frightened  them,  1777  ;  much  used  in  rebellion,  1861-5.  Torpedo 
departments  have,  since  the  introduction  of  iron-clad  war-ships,  been  in- 
troduced into  all  navy  organizations. 

TRADES-UNIONS.  (See  Rattening;  Strikes.)  National  Federation  of 
Employers  formed  in  England,  to  counteract  Trades-Unions.  Parliamen- 
tary report  on  persecutions  by  the  Saw-Grinders'  Union  of  Sheffield,  and 
similar  practices,  dated  August  21,  1867.  Forty-five  trades-unions  in 
New  York  City  in  1869  had  24,425  members  ;  in  1876  many  of  them  had 
been  discontinued,  and  the  membership  was  less  than  15,000.  The  whole 
number  in  the  United  States  in  1872-3  was  estimated  at  1,500,  of  which 
eleven  had  a  national  organization,  and  ten  an  international  one.  The 
fifth  annual  Trades-Union  Congress  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  at 
Leeds,  January  13.  1873,  included  representatives  from  ninety-nine  socie- 
ties, one  of  which  contained  140,000  members. 

TREASON-FELONY.  Term  applied  in  an  English  Act  of  1848,  to  certain 
treasons  mitigated  to  felonies,  and  made  punishable  by  imprisonment  or 
transportation.  The  Fenians  were  tried  under  this  act  in  1865. 

TRIALS.  (See  pp.  191,  623;  also  Tichborne  Case  ;  Ritualism,  and  Pm-chas 
Case.)  Saurin  v.  Starr,  •'  the  convent  case,"  by  an  ex-inmate  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  convent  at  Hull,  England,  against  the  Superior  and  others,  for 
conspiracy,  etc. ,  occupied  three  weeks  in  trying,  in  the  year  1889.  The 
plaintiff  recovered  £500.  July  15,  was  tried  at  Carmarthen,  Wales,  the 
"  Welsh  Fasting  Girl  Case."  The  girl's  parents,  Evan  and  Hannah 
Jacobs,  had  made  a  show  of  their  daughter,  pretending  that  she  had  lived 
for  months  without  food ;  and  when  some  competent  persons  were  sent 
from  Gray's  Hospital  to  watch  the  child,  the  parents  let  her  die.  They 
were  convicted,  and  imprisoned  at  hard  labor,  the  father  for  twelve,  and 
the  mother  for  six  months.  November  26,  1870,  Rev.  Mr.  Mackonochie, 
a  "  ritualist,"  incumbent  of  St.  Albans,  Holborn,  London,  was  suspended 
for  three  months  from  clerical  duty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  costs,  for  dis- 
obeying the  monitions  of  the  Privy  Council  about  elevating  the  paten  and 
prostrating  himself  before  the  consecrated  elements.  February,  1870, 


60  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

the  case  of  Lady  Mordaunt,  whose  husband  had  sued  for  a  divorce,  re- 
sulted in  a  stay  of  proceedings  on  the  ground  of  Lady  Mordaunt's  insanity. 
The  Prince  of  Wales  had  been  reported  concerned  in  the  scandal,  but 
denied  it  on  the  witness-stand.  November  10,  1871,  there  was  a  curious 
libel  suit  at  London.  One  John  Hampden,  who  maintains  that  the  earth 
is  flat  and  not  round,  had  bet  £500  with  a  Mr.  Wallace  on  this  question, 
and  the  money  had  been  paid  to  Mr.  Wallace  by  the  referee  on  deciding 
the  bet,  as  agreed.  Upon  this  Hampden  began  a  system  of  sendinj 
about  libellous  postal  cards,  accusing  the  referee  of  fraud.  On  trial 
he  made  an  ample  apology,  and  was  let  off.  February  11,  1871,  judgment 
was  given  by  the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  in  the  Voysey 
case,  in  which  Rev.  C.  Voysey  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  in  maintaining 
and  teaching  various  alleged  infidel  doctrines.  The  tribunal  found  that 
he  contradicted  and  impugned  the  thirty -nine  articles  in  respect  to  original 
sin,  the  incarnation,  the  atonement,  the  trinity,  the  authority  of  scripture, 
and  other  points,  and  sentenced  him  to  deprivation  and  payment  of  costs. 
By  final  decisions  in  1877,  Mrs.  Gaines,  after  forty  years'  litigation, 
obtains  title  to  a  great  mass  of  real  estate  in  New  Orleans. 

TRICHINA.  A  minute  worm  living  in  the  muscles  of  hogs  and  other 
animals  ;  transferred  into  those  who  eat  the  infected  meat,  and  causes  a 
disease,  sometimes  fatal,  called  trichiniasis.  First  found  in  human  mus- 
cle by  Owen,  1832.  Thorough  boiling  kills  them.  Much  attention  to  the 
subject,  18(55-6. 

TROY.  Dr.  Schliemann,  1872-3,  discovered  on  the  hill  of  Hissarlik  re- 
mains of  three  different  ancient  cities,  one  over  the  other,  and  much  an- 
cient treasure,  part  of  which  he  called  the  ''treasure  of  Priam."  He  be- 
lieved the  site  to  be  that  of  ancient  Troy  ;  his  book  translated  and  pub- 
lished in  English,  1875. 

TUNNEL.  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  seven  and  one-half  miles  long ;  began 
August  31,  1857;  boring  completed,  December  25,  1870;  cost  about 
$13,000,000.  A  tunnel  under  the  English  Channel,  from  Dover  to  Ca- 
lais, proposed,  August,  1869,  by  Bateman  and  Revy  ;  plans  by  Thome  de 
Gamond  shown  in  Paris,  1867  :  a  convention  in  favor  of  it  signed  for 
France  by  M.  Chevalier,  January.  1875,  and  a  thirty  years'  monopoly 
granted  ;  French  and  English  companies  formed ;  experimental  borings 
in  the  chalk  at  the  sides  of  the  channel  indicate  that  the  rock  is  such  as 
to.  make  the  scheme  practicable.  Hoosac  Tunnel,  under  Hoosac  Moun- 
tain, in  Western  Massachusetts,  begun  1856;  completed,  1873;  four  and 
three-fourths  miles  long.  Sutro  Tunnel,  to  drain  the  Comstock  Lode 
and  other  silver  mines  in  Nevada,  estimated  cost,  $8,000,000  ;  to  be  21,- 
178  feet,  and  with  all  branches  and  shafts,  43,088  feet. 

TURKEY.  (See  pp.  192,  626.)  Insurrection  in  Herzegovina,  June,  1875, 
extending  more  or  less  into  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Servia.  The  "  An- 
drassy  note,"  suggesting  reforms  in  Turkey,  presented  to  the  Sultan's 
Government  by  the  Austro-Hungarian,  German,  Italian,  and  Russian  am> 
bassadors,  January  31,  1876.  On  the  6th  February,  an  answer  promises 
religious  liberty  and  other  reforms.  February  14,  decree  issued  order- 
ing them.  Risings  in  Bosnia,  early  in  March,  1876.  Insurgents  in  Herze- 
govina blockading  Nicsics  ;  defeat  Turks  under  Mukhtar  Pasha,  April  15, 
1876.  Turks  defeat  insurgents  at  Prejeska,  April  23.  In  May,  1876, 
risings  in  Bulgaria  put  down  by  the  Turks  with  frightful  cruelty  and  out- 
rages. Consuls  of  France  and  Germany  assassinated  at  Salonica,  by  Mo- 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77. 


61 


hammedan  fanatics,  May  6,  1876.  May  11,  1876,  the  "  Berlin  memo- 
randum," agreed  on  by  Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria,  at  Berlin,  requir- 
ing prompt  fulfilment  of  the  Turkish  promises  made  in  reply  to  the 
Andrassy  note.  England  refused  to  join  in  this  demand,  and  it  was 
dropped.  May  12,  1876,  riots  at  Constantinople,  headed  by  the  softas 
(students  of  law  and  religion),  against  the  government.  Abdul  Aziz  de- 
throned by  his  ministers,  May  27th,  and  was  found  dead  (said  to  have 
committed  suicide),  June,  1876.  Murad,  nephew  of  Abdul  Aziz,  made 
Sultan,  May  30th ;  deposed,  August  31,  1876,  and  succeeded  by  hia 
younger  brother,  Abdul-Hamid  II.  June  12. 1876,  Prince  Milan  of  Servia 
proclaims  that  the  insurrections  around  him  force  him  to  put  Servia  under 
arms.  June  15,  1876,  Hassan  Bey,  a  Circassian  captain  in  the  Turkish 
army,  enters  the  ministerial  council-room,  shoots  dead  the  Ministers  of 
War  and  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  killed  or  wounded  six  other  officials  be- 
fore he  was  secured.  He  was  hanged  two  days  afterwards.  Prince  of 
Servia  and  Hospodar  of  Montenegro  jointly  declare  war  against  Turkey, 
July  2,  1876.  Turkey  announces  that  no  payments  can  be  made  on  the 
public  debt  "  until  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire  have  become  more 
settled,"  July  9,  1876.  Decisive  defeat  of  the  Servians  by  the  Turks  at 
Alexinatz,  October  28,  1876,  and  Alexinatz  occupied  the  31st  by  the  vic- 
tors. Mr.  Gladstone's  powerful  pamphlet  on  the  Bulgarian  atrocities, 
published  September  6,  1876.  Armistice  for  six  weeks  with  Servia 
granted  by  Turkey,  under  pressure  from  the  powers,  November  1,  1876. 
Conferences  of  the  powers  at  Constantinople  to  try  to  avert  war  begun 
December  11, 1876.  Represented  :  Great  Britain,  Austro-Hungary,  France. 
Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  Turkey.  A  constitution,  providing  for  represen- 
tatives, a  legislative  assembly,  etc.,  proclaimed,  December  24,  1876,  in 
order  to  avert  European  intervention.  For  the  war,  see  Russia. 


U. 

UNITED  STATES.  (See  pp.  193,631;  also  Centennial,  etc.;  Chronological 
Tables,  p.  205,  etc.)  In  1870  there  were  in  the  United  States,  3,603,844 
square  miles  or  1,942,000,000  acres,  half  of  it  public  lands,  and  less  than 
one-tenth  of  it  cultivated.  Population,  1870,  without  Indians,  38.558,371  ; 
estimated,  June  1,  1876,  45,627,000;  expected  at  census  of  1880  to  be 
fifty  millions.  Value  of  all  real  and  personal  property  (1870),  $30,068- 
518,507;  paupers,  116,102;  convicted  of  crime,  36,562;  in  prison,  June 
1,  1870,  32.901 ;  religious  congregations  of  all  kinds,  72,459;  church  edi- 
fices 63,082;  sittings,  21,665,062,  or  4  to  every  7  souls. 

UNIVERSITIES.   Students  and  professors,  etc. ,  in  German  ones,  June,  1876  : 


Professors 
and  Teachers. 

Berlin 197 

Bonn 100 

Breslau 107 

Erlangen 54 

Fretbnrg .59 

Giessen 64 

Gottingen 115 

Greifewald 57 

Halle 98 

jHeirtelberg 104 

Jeaa 73 

Kiel 61 


Students. 

2,143 
707 

1,116 
429 
274 
315 
986 
444 
870 
488 
440 
202 


Professor* 
and  Teachers. 
Konigsberg           .  .     83 

Students. 
611 

.156 

2,925 

Marburg  

.     65 

401 

.  116 

1,203 

.     29 

431 

.     39 

153 

Strassburg 

90 

077 

Tiibino'en       .... 

84        .... 

823 

.     67 

984 

21 

1.800 

16,022 

62  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Add  to  these  2,377  unmatriculated.  "permitted  to  attend  lectures"  (of 
which  1,962  at  Berlin  alone),  and  there  are  18,999  students  ;  14  universi- 
ties are  Protestant ;  the  theological  faculty  being  Roman  Catholic  at  Frei- 
burg, Munich,  Miinster,  and  Wurzburg,  and  mixed  at  Bonn,  Breslau,  and 
Tubingen. 

V. 

VATICAN  COUNCIL,  called  the  Twenty-first  (Ecumenical  or  General 
Council,  summoned  by  encyclical  letter  of  September  8,  1868 ;  met  at 
Rome,  December  8,  1869 ;  present,  803  members ;  there  were  four  public 
sessions,  and  from  90  to  100  "  congregations."  New  canons  issued  April 
24,  1870;  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  affirmed  by  547  to  2,  and  the 
doctrine  promulgated  July  18,  1870. 

VEDAS.  Hindoo  sacred  books,  consisting  of  hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgies. 
There  are  three  portions  of  them — the  Rig- Veda,  Yajur- Veda,  and  Atharva- 
Veda — the  first  being  much  the  oldest  and  dating  to  1,000  or  more  years 
B.C.  Max  Mullers  edition  (in  Sanscrit)  began  to  appear  1849  ;  Wilson's 
translation,  1850. 

VELOCIPEDE.  One  invented  by  Blanchard,  the  aeronaut,  about  1779  ; 
one  by  Niepce,  1818 ;  came  into  use  again  about  1861,  and  are  still  (1877) 
more  or  less  employed. 

VENDOME  COLUMN.  Pulled  down  by  the  communists,  May  16,  1871; 
restored  August  31,  1874 ;  statue  of  Napoleon  replaced  at  top,  December, 

1875.  Courbet  the  painter  was  condemned  to  a  fine  of  30,000  francs  for 
his  participation  in  overturning  it. 

VENEZUELA.  (See  p.  634.)  Presidents:  Falcon,  March  18,  1865 ;  Mo- 
nagas,  June  to  November,  1865  ;  Pulgar,  December,  1865  ;  Blanco,  July, 
1870,  and  re-elected  1873,  1875.  Conflict  with  Roman  Catholic  Church  on 
civil  marriage  ;  papal  authority  renounced  by  the  government,  September, 

1876.  Area  about  403,261  square  miles;  population  (1873),  1,784,194. 
VENUS,  TRANSIT  OF.     (See  Astronomy  ) 

VESUVIUS.  (See  pp.  194,  636.)  Recent  eruptions:  spring  and  sum- 
mer, 1860;  December,  1861;  February,  1865 ;  November  12,  1867  to 
April,  1868  ;  October  8  to  November  20,  1869;  April  23  to  May  3,  1872. 

VICTORIA,  IN"  AUSTRALIA.  (See  p.  194.)  Capital,  Melbourne.  Popula- 
tion, estimated  March  31,  1876,  at  829,824. 

VISIBLE  SPEECH.  A  universal  system  of  delineating  sounds  in  which 
each  letter  is  a  diagram  of  the  position  of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering  it. 
Invented  by  A.  M.  Bell ;  explained  by  him,  and  a  book  on  it  published, 
London,  1866 ;  introduced  in  America  by  him  and  his  son,  J.  G.  Bell, 
the  inventor  of  a  telephone,  about  1872. 

VIVISECTION.  Efforts  to  prevent  it  have  been  made  since  1859  ;  gener- 
ally opposed  by  scientific  physiologists  and  medical  men.  Bill  to  regulate 
it  in  Great  Britain,  August  15.  1876,  by  restricting  it  to  licensed  persons. 

W. 

WAGES.  (See  pp,  196,  640 ;  also  Strikes,  Trades-  Unions.')  In  New  York, 
from  1870  to  1876,  wages  in  fifty-eight  trades  fell  from  10  to  20  per  cent. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1867-77.  63 

In  England,  wages  were  often  raised  by  the  strikes,  1874-75.  Yearly 
total  of  wages  paid  in  United  Kingdom,  1866,  estimated  at  from  £250,- 
000,000  to  £418,300,000,  earned  by  10,697,000  working  people,  between 
20  and  60  years  of  age. 

WAHABEES.  Fanatical  reforming  Mohammedans,  a  kind  of  Puritans  ; 
arose  in  Arabia  about  1750;  in  1803  seized  Mecca  and  Medina;  were 
defeated  by  Egyptian  forces  1818 ;  are  at  present  prosperous  in  Arabia, 
and  there  are  some  of  them  in  India.  Palgrave's  Journey  in  Arabia,  1865, 
is  a  good  account  of  them. 

WAR.  (See  pp.  196,  643 ;  also  Army  ;  Battles  ;  Navy  ;  National  Debt ;  etc. ) 
An  estimate  from  1853  to  1877  shows  the  following  deaths  and  expenses 
in  one  quarter-century  of  Christian  war. 


Crimean  war $1,700,000,000 

Italian  war  ( 1859) 800. 000, 000 

U.  S.  rebellion  (North) 4,700,000,000 

U.  S.  rebellion  (South) '2,300,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 35,000,000 

And  deaths  (not  complete). 

Crimean  war 475,000 

Italian  war  1869 45,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 3,000 

U.  S.  rebellion 800,000 


Austro-Prussian  war  (1866)     330,000.000 

Franco- Prussian 2,500.000,000 

Other  wars,  etc 2(10,000,000 


Total  cost $12,065,000,000 


Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866..  ..      45.000 
Franco-Prussian  war 215,000 


Total  deaths 1,183,000 


These  deaths  are  nearly  all  of  the  strongest  young  men,  from  25  to  35 
years  old. 

WATCHES.     (See  p.  646 ;  also  Clocks  and  Watches.) 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.  Includes  all  New  Holland  west  of  190°  E. 
longitude,  being  estimated  at  978,000  square  miles.  The  settled  part  is 
not  more  than  one-eighth  of  this  area.  Population,  March  31,  1870,  in- 
cluding 1,470  convicts,  24,785.  First  settled  1829,  and  was  then  called 
the  Swan  River  Settlement. 

WOERTH.  Defeat  of  the  French  under  McMahon  by  the  Germans  under 
the  Crown-Prince  of  Prussia,  after  most  obstinate  and  bloody  fighting, 
August  6,  1870.  The  French  said  to  have  charged  the  German  line  and 
broken  it  eleven  times,  always,  however,  finding  fresh  troops  behind. 

WRECKS.  (See  pp.  198,  658;  also  Life-Saving  Seamen.)  Of  1803  casual- 
ties to  vessels  on  the  British  coast  in  the  year  1873-74,  346  were  total 
wrecks,  and  506  lives  were  lost.  Lives  (saved  chiefly  by  life-boats),  in 
1871,  on  British  coast,  4,336. 


T. 

YACHT.  (See  p.  199.)  July  4,  1870,  an  "  international  "  yacht  race  was 
begun,  from  Cork  to  New  York,  between  the  English  yacht  Cambria  and 
the  American  one  Dauntless.  The  Cambria  won,  arriving  at  4  P.  M.  of 
July  27,  the  Dauntless,  taking  a  more  northerly  route,  came  in  two  hours 
later.  October  16,  1871,  and  six  subsequent  days,  took  place  an  inter- 
national yacht  race  between  the  English  yacht  the  Livonia  and  the  yachts 
of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club.  The  Columbia  and  Sappho,  of  New  York, 
won  four  out  of  the  first  five  races,  deciding  the  match. 


64  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


z.  .  -• 

ZANZIBAR.  Set  off  from  Muscat,  1806,  for  Majid,  a  son  of  the  Seyyid 
(lord)  of  Muscat.  At  Majid's  death,  October  7,  1870,  Barghash,  his 
brother,  succeeded.  Treaty  with  England  abolishing  slave  trade,  June  5, 
1873. 

ZEND  AVESTA.  The  present  Zend  Avesta  is  said  by  the  Parsees  to  be 
only  three  out  of  the  original  twenty-one  nosks-or  books.  It  consists  of 
hymns,  prayers,  and  liturgies,  much  as  the  Vedas  do,  and  is  in  three 
parts,  the  Vispered,  Vendidad,  and  Yacnas.  The  five  Gathas  or  hymns 
in  the  Vendidad  are  considered  the  oldest  part.  Their  age  is  very  doubt- 
ful, though  in  part  unquestionably  great.  Anquetil  Duperron's  French 
version,  177t  ;  Burnouf's,  1829-43  ;  Spiegel's,  in  German,  a  later  one.  is 
the  best ;  and  an  English  version  of  this  by  Bleeck  was  published  at 
Hertford,  England,  18G4. 


BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  U.  8.  TREASURY  DEPARTMENT. 


;  Pa*  the  following  rtatistics  we  are  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Hon.  ALEXANDER  DELM  \n 
Director  of  the  Bureau.] 

CUSTOMS  DUTIES  RECEIVED  IN  1866. 

*  During  the  Quarter  ending  March  31,  1866 $46,645,597.83 

*  "                           "            June  30,        "     46,175,132.33 

*  "                           "            Sept.  80,        "    50,843,774.24 

f        '«                           "             Dec.  31,        "    37,803,027.54 


*  Official. 


$181,467,531.94 
t  Commercial  a.nd  Financial  Chronicle,  March  30,  1867. 


SHIPPING  STATISTICS:  TONNAGE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Total. 

Tonnaae. 
5,353.868 
5,539,813 
5,112,165 
5,126,081 
4,986.401 
3,516,787 
1,579.994 
942,299 
3,368,479 


EXPORTS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  from  New  York  during  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1867 

Domestic.  Foreign.  Total. 

In  Am,.  Vessels.   In  For.  Vessels.    In  Am.  Vessels.  In  For.  Vessels. 


Heffistered. 

Enrolled  and  Incensed. 

Year. 

Sail. 

Steam. 

Sail. 

Steam. 

1860, 

2,448,941 

97,296 

2,030,990 

770,641 

1861, 

2,540,020 

102,608 

2,122,689 

774,596 

1862, 

2,177,253 

113,998 

2,224,449 

596,465 

1863, 

1,892,899 

133,215 

2,660,212 

439,755 

1364, 

1,475,376 

106,519 

2,t50,690 

853.816 

1865,  $ 

old, 

1,031,465 

60.539 

1,794,372 

630,411 

1865,  ? 

new, 

482,110 

28,469 

730,695 

£38,720 

1866,  S 

old, 

341,619 

42,776 

443,635 

114,269 

1866,  J 

new, 

953,018 

155,513 

1,489,194 

770,754 

Gold  Bullion,... 

Gold  Coin, 

Silver  Bullion,. 
Silver  Coin,.... 


Total,. 


298,854 

1,500,041 

70«,081 

248,978 

2,753,954 


8,425,227 

15,800,152 

8,186,837 

1,581,763 

33,993,969 


none. 
1,183,580 
none. 
307,181 

1,490,761 


none. 
1,418,853 
18,939 
1,521,062 


8,724,081 

19,902,626 

8,911,857 

3,658,974 


2,958,854       41,197,538 


COFFEE  STATISTICS.  Statement  exhibiting  the  consut-ption  of  coffee  in  the 
United  States  during  the  years  ending  December  31,  1861,  1862,  1863,  1864, 
1865,  and  1866  : 

Tear.  Pounds.  Tear.  Pounds. 

187,046,00ft 
88,990,000 
79,720,000 


1861, 
1862, 
863, 


1864, 
'%5, 
1866, 


10»>087,OOC 
128,146,000 
169.915.840 


66 


UNITED   STATES   TREASURY   STATISTICS, 


See  page  68,  Reports  of  Revenue  Commission,  1865-66.  The  quantities  given 
for  the  first  five  year?  are  substantially  those  named  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  1865-66. 

The  quantity  for  1866  is  takeu  from  the  Supplement  to  H  E.  Horiug's  Monthly 
Coffee  Circular,  1867. 


COTTON  STATISTICS. 


Tear. 

1860-61, 

1861-62, 

1862-63, 

1863-64, 

1864-«5, 

1865-66, 

1866-67, 

The  figures  relative  to  production,  except  for  1866-67,  were  derived  from 
Neil  Bros.  &  Co.'s  Cotton  Circular  for  October  16,  1866.  The  receipts  at  all 
ports  from  September  1,  1866,  to  July  6,  1867,  are  given  as  1,863,000  bales,  and 
the  total  exports  for  the  same  period  as  1,463,000  bales.  Messrs.  Cornwall  & 
Zerega  in  their  Circular  give  the  receipts  from  September  1,  1866,  to  July  12, 
1867,  as  1,809,500  bales. 

The  number  of  pounds  exported  are  taken  from  Table  19,  page  349,  finance 
Report,  1866.  The  same  table  gives  the  exports  for  1860-61,  as  only  307,528,- 
489  pounds,  or  say  720,000  bales.  The  Rev.  Com.  (see  Report,  p.  74),  gives  the 
exports  for  1860-61,  including  stock  on  hand,  as  2,812,346  bales. 


fit 

Production. 
Bales. 

Exported. 
Pounds 

Bales. 

Peerage  Price 
per  pound. 

3,656,086 

3,126,622 

17.42    cents. 

est. 

4,800,000 

5,064,564  = 

say 

12,000 

42.15 

est. 

1.500,000 

11,384,986    = 

say 

26,000 

71  08 

est. 

'500,000 

10,830,534    - 

say 

25,000 

$111.14 

CBt. 

300,000 

6,607.186  = 

say 

15,000 

75.75 

2,214,476 

1,554,744 

44. 

est 

1,900,000 

est. 

1,500,000 

32.5 

JEA  STATISTICS.     Statement  exhibiting  the   consumption  of  tea  in  the  United 

States   during  the  years  ending  December  31,  1861,  1862,  1863,  1864,  1865, 
and  1866: 

Fear.                     Oreen,  Japan.  Slack.  Total. 

Pound*.  Pounds.  Pounds. 

1861,                            7,485,000  18,035,000  25,520,001 

1»62,                          13,871,600  13,597,000  27,468,600 

1863,                           14,490,680  12,415,685  26,906,865 

1H64,                           13,564,295  9,573,251  23,137,546 

1865,  18,874,199  10,979,234  29,853,433 

1866,  29,643,187 

.  See  Reports  of  Revenue  Commission,  1865-66,  pp.  53,  55.  The  above  are 
estimates  made  from  data  furnished  the  Commission  by  parties  in  the  trade  in 
New  York,  except  for  1866,  which  is  taken  from  Messrs.  Montgomery's  Tea  Cir' 
cular.  The  Commission  estimated  the  consumption  for  1866  at  30,000,000 
pounds. 

The  Pacific  States  are  not  included  in  the  above,  except  for  1866,  nor  is  any 
allowance  made  for  smuggling.  The  estimated  consumption  in  1860,  was  one 
pound  per  capita. 

TOBACCO  STATISTICS. 


Tear. 

1861, 
1862, 
1863 
1864, 
1866, 
HW. 


Production. 


Exported. 


Poundt.  Leaf,  pounds. 

200,000,000  est.  160,000,000 

136,736,596  est.  107,000,000 

276,850,870  est.  112,000,000 

197,460.229  est.  110,000,0nn 

185,316,953  est.  149,000.0«* 

380.S01.600  160,826.248 


>.d. 

Average  priot 

Manuf'd,  fos. 

Total. 

perlb.,  Leaf 

14,783,363 

174.783,363 

9.      cent*. 

4,071,963 

111,071.963 

11.9      " 

7,025,248 

119,025,248 

H9      " 

8.586,494 

118,586,494 

14.86    " 

7,294.165 

156.294,105 

12.6      '« 

6,515,706 

197,341,057 

13.        " 

THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  67 

The  production  for  1862, 1863,  1864  and  1865  is  given  as  found  in  the  lie- 
ports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  estimated  production  for  1866  u 
taken  from  the  Tobacco  Circular  of  M.  Rader  &  Son. 

The  quantities  of  leaf  tobacco  exported  are  estimated  from  the  returns  of 
commerce  and  navigation  for  the  years  1861,  1862,  1863,  1864,  and  1865.  The 
quantities  of  leaf  for  1866,  and  of  manufactured  tobacco  for  each  year  specified, 
are  taken  from  the  returns  of  commerce  and  navigation  for  those  years. 

In  1862,  the  production  of  only  twenty-one  States  is  given,  Kentucky  and 
the  disloyal  States  being  omitted.  In  1863, 1864,  and  1865  Kentucky  is  included, 
and  in  1866  all  the  States. 


WHEAT  STATISTICS. 

Tears.                Production.  Exported.  Av.  Price  per  bit 

Bushels.  Wheat,  bushels.  Hour,  bbls.  at  1'ew  Tork. 

1861,  31,238,057  4,323,756  $1,18  to  $1.46 

1862,  189,993,500  37,289,572  4,882,033  1.30  to     1.50 
1883,                     191,068,239  36,160,414  4,390,055  1.33  to     1.58 

1864,  171,695,823  23,681,712  3,557,347  1.48  to     1.83 

1865,  159,522,827  9,937,152  2,604,542  2.22  to     2.70 

1866,  151,999,906  5,579,103  2,183,050  1.85  to     2.75 

No  returns  of  the  production  of  1861  are  to  be  had,  although  inquiry  was 
made  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  figures  relative  to  production  in  1862,  1863,  1864,  1866,  and  1866  are 
taken  from  the  Monthly  and  Annual  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  embrace  22  States  and  Nebraska  Territory,  except  1866,  which  embraces  29 
States  and  Nebraska  Territory.  There  being  no  returns  from  California  in  1864 
and  1865,  the  crop  for  each  year  is  estimated  at  11,000,000  bushels,  which  ia 
believed  to  be  a  low  estimate,  the  crop  for  1863  being  11,664,203  bushels.  A 
barrel  of  flour  is  considered  as  equal  to  5  bushels  of  wheat. 


STATISTICS,  TEARS  1867-77. 


(From  public  documents  and  other  standard  sources.) 

REVENUE  of  the  United  States  from  customs  for  ten  years  (to  June  30), 
1867-1876. 


1867 $176,417,810.88 

1868 164,464.599.56 

1869 180,048,426.63 

1870....       194,538,374.44 

1871 206,270,408.05 


1872 $216,370,286.77 

1873 188,089,522.70 

1874 168,108,888.69 

1875 157,167,722.35 

1876 148,071,984.61 


For  the  first  five  months  of  the  years  ending  June  30,  1877  and  1876,  the 
revenue  from  customs  was  as  follows  : 

1877.  1876.  Decrease. 

$57,80.1,772.50  $68,170,576.48  $10,368,803.98 


COIN  AND  BULLION  exported  from  the  United  States  for  seven  years, 
1868-9  to  1874-5,  ending  June  30. 


1868-9 $42,915,966 

1869-70 43,881,861 

1870-1...  84.403,359 

1871-2 72,798,240 


1872-3 $73.905,546 

1873-4...  59.699,686 

1874-5 83,857,129 


68 


UNITED    STATES    TREASURY    STATISTICS. 


COTTON.     Production  and  exports  of  United  States  for  nine  years  (ending 
June  30),  1868  to  1876. 

Exported,  pounds. 

784,763,633 
644,327,921 
958,658,523 
1,462,928,024 
933, 537, 413 
1,200,063,530 
1,358,602,303 
1,260,418,903 
1,491,405,330 


1868. 
1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
1876. 


Production,  bales 
0/440  Ibs. 
2,593,993 
2,439,039 
3,154,946 
4,352,317 
2,974,351 
3,930,508 
4,170,388 
3,832,991 
4,600,000 


SHIPPING-  of  the  United  States,  nine  years,  1867-1875. 


Registered  (tons). 

Enrolled 
and 
Licensed. 

Licensed 
under 
20  tons. 

Total  JfercJiant  Marine  (tons). 

Sail. 

Steam. 

Sail 

Steam. 

All. 

1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 

1,187,714 
1,810,344 
1,353,170 
1,324.256 
1,244,228 
1,232,1)82 
1.229,865 
1,233.678 
1,362,138 

165,522 
221,939 
213,252 
192,544 
180,914 
177,666 
193,423 
195,245 
191,689 

2,563,232 
2,7.33,167 
2,526,093 
2,677,940 
2.805,274 
2,971,309 
3,215.915 
3,312,146 
3,238,390 

41,047 
62,860 
52,126 
51,767 
52,191 
55.790 
66,824 
59.583 
61,515 

2,834,535 
8,118,895 
3,041,073 
4,171,412 
3,194,970 
3,326,194 
5,539,584 
3,615,042 
3,685,064 

1,122.980 
1,199,415 
1,103.568 
1,075,095 
1,087,637 
1,111,553 
1,156,443 
1,185,610 
1,168,668 

3,957,515 
4,318,310 
4,144,641 
4,246.507 

4,282.607 
4,437,747 
4,696.027 
4,800,652 
4,853,732 

TOBACCO.     Product  and  exportation  of  United  States,  ten  years,  1867- 
1876. 

Production.  Ibs.         Exported,  Leaf,  Ibs. 

•1867...  313,724,000  

1868...  320.982.000 

1869 273,775,000 

1870...  250.628.600 

1871...  263,196,100 

1872...  342.304,000 

1873 372,810,000 

1874 178,355,000 


1875. 
1876. 


379,347,000 


181.537,630 
185,747,181 
215,«:67,604 
234,936,892 
213,995,176 
318,0117.804 
2*3,901,713 
218,310,265 


WHEAT.     Product  and  exportation  of  the  United  States,  nine  years,  end 
ing  June  30,  viz.,  1867-1875  (in  bushels). 


1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1S73. 
1874. 

isr 


Production. 
212,441,400 
224,036,600 
260,146,900 
225,884,700 
230.728,100 
240,997,100 
280,372,700 
806,102,70'J 


As  Wheat. 
6,146,411 
15,940,899 
17,557,836 
36,584,115 
34,304,906 
26,423,080 
39,204.385 
71,039.928 
63,047,175 


Exports. 


As  Flour. 
6,500,530 
10,382,115 
12,129.365 
67,273,925 
18,269,205 
12,572,675 
12,810,430 
20,470,470 
19,765,430 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS? 

1851  to  1867. 

BKISO  AN  ALPHABETICAL    RECORD    OF    IMPORTANT   FACTS    AND    OCCURRENCES   D0KIS8 
THOSE  TEARS ;    INCLUDING  ALSO   TOPICS  OMITTED  IN  FORMER  EDITIONS. 


ABATTOIRS,  slaughter-houses  for  cattle.  In  1810  Napoleon  decreed  that  five 
should  be  erected  near  Paris;  they  were  opened  in  1818.  An  abattoir  was 
erected  at  Edinburgh  in  1851;  and  abattoirs  form  part  of  the  new  London 
metropolitan  cattle-market,  opened  on  June  13,  1855.  In  New  York  City 
abattoirs  were  established  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Health,  1866. 

ABB  ASIDES.  A  Mohammedan  dynasty ;  held  the  power  of  the  Caliphs  for  400 
years  until  1258.  The  Caliph  Haroun  al  Rashid  was  of  this  line. 

ABECEDA.RIANS.  A  sect  appearing  in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  held  that  it  was 
better  not  to  know  how  to  read,  as  the  Holy  Spirit  would  convey  a  direct  un- 
derstanding of  the  Scriptures. 

ABSTINENCE,  TOTAL,  from  stimulating  beverages:  First  temperance  organi 
zation  in  the  United  States  is  said  to  have  been  effected  by  Dr.  B.  J.  Clark,  of 
Moreau,  N.  Y.,  1808;  "members  fined  fifty  cents  for  intoxication;"  Ameri- 
can Temperance  Union  formed  in  Boston  in  1826 ;  total  abstinence  from  dis- 
tilled spirits,  except  when  prescribed  as  medicine,  proposed  at  a  meeting  hi 
Philadelphia  in  1833,  but  voted  down.  See  Temperance.  Tetotallers  in  Eng- 
land organized  in  Lancashire,  1834. 

ABYSSINIA.  A  large  country  in  north-east  Africa.  Its  ancient  history  is  very 
uncertain.  The  kingdom  of  Auxumitae  (from  its  chief  town  Auxume)  flour- 
ished in  the  first  and  second  centuries  after  Christ.  About  960  Judith,  a 
Jewish  princess,  murdered  a  great  part  of  the  royal  family,  and  reigned  forty 
years.  The  young  king  escaped;  and  the  royal  house  was  restored  in  1268 
in  the  person  of  his  descendant,  Icon  Amlae.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  said 
to  be  ruled  by  Prester  John,  or  Prete  Janni.  The  Portuguese  missions  com- 
menced in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  they  were  expelled  about  1632  in  conse- 
quence of  the  tyranny  of  Mendez  and  the  Jesuits.  The  encroachments  of 
Gallas  and  intestine  disorders  soon  after  broke  up  the  empire  into  petty  gov- 
ernments. The  religion  of  Abyssinia  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Christianity  intro- 
duced in  the  fourth  century  by  Trumentius.  Missions  were  sent  from  Eng- 
land in  1829  and  1841.  Much  information  respecting  Abyssinia  has  been 
given  by  Bruce,  (1790,)  Salt,  (1805-9,)  Ruppell,  (1838,)  and  Parkyns,  (1853). 


70 


THE  WORLD'S  PEOGEESS. 


ACADIA.  Now  called  Nova  Scotia,  settled  by  the  French  So  1604,  and  finally 
ceded  to  the  English  in  1713.  It  was  three  times  conquered  by  the  English, 
and  as  often  restored  by  treaty.  Expulsion  of  French  settlers  (see  Longfel- 
low's Evangeline)  1^55. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  were  probably  written  by  Luke,  A.  D.  62  to  68. 

ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.— (p.  205.)  On  the  death  of  Pres- 
ideut  Taylor,  July  9,  1850—* 

MILLABD  FILLMORE,  of  NewYork  (Vice-President),  became  President.  He  appointed 
soon  after,  the  following  Cabinet,  viz. : 


t.ar<iel  "Webster, 
Th-rmas  Corwin, 
Churles  M.  Conrud, 
"W  .lliaro  A.  Graham, 
A.  H.  M.  Stuart, 
Nathan  K.  HM1, 
•John  J.  Crittenden, 
William  K.  King, 

Howell  Cobb, 
Linn  Boyd, 


Massachusetts, 

Ohio, 

Louisiana, 

North  Carolina, 

Virginia, 

New  York, 

Kentucky, 


Secretary  of  St»te. 
Secretary  of  Treasury. 
Secretary  of  War. 
Secretary  of  Navy. 
Secretary  of  Interior. 
Postmaster-Gener*]- 
Attorney -Gener«_ 


Alabama,  was  elected  President  of  the  Senate, 

and  became  Acting  Vice-Pres't  of  U.  S. 


Georgia,  (continued  in  office),  \ 
Kentucky,  December,  1861.    J 


Speakers  of  H.'  Reps. 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE,  of  New  Hampshire,  inangura.ed  March  4,  1853,  President. 
Vice-President—vacant,  by  death  of  Hon.  Wm.  R.  King,  April  18, 1853— 


William  L.  Marcy, 
James  Guthrie, 
Robert  M'Clelland, 
James  C.  Dobbin, 
Jefl'erson  Davis, 
James  Campbell, 
Caleb  Cushing, 
Jumes  L.  Orr, 


THE    CABINET. 

New  York, 
Kentucky, 
Michigan, 
North  Carolina. 
Mississippi, 
Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts, 
South  Carolina, 


Secretary  of  State. 
Secretary  of  Treasury. 
Secretary  of  Interior. 
Secretary  of  Navy. 
Secretary  of  War. 
Post  Master-General. 
Attorney-General. 
Speaker  of  H.  Reps. 


JAMES  BUCHANAN,  of  Pennsylvania,  inaugurated  March  4, 1857,  President. 
JOHN  C.  BBBCKiNiiiDGE,  of  Kentucky,  Vice-PreBident. 


Lewis  Cass, 

J.  8.  Black, 

Isaac  Toncey, 

John  B.  Floyd, 

Joseph  Holt, 

Howell  Cobb, 

Philip  Thomas, 

7ohn  A.  Dix, 

Jacob  Thompson,    Mississippi, 

Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky, 

Horatio  King,         Maine, 

J.  8.  Black,  Pennsylvania, 

E.  M.  Stanton,         Pennsylvania, 

Nathl.  P.  Banks,     Massachusetts, 

vVm.  Pennington,  New  Jersey, 


Michigan, 

Pennsylvania,  Appointed  Dec.  1860. 
Connecticut, 
Virginia, 
Kentucky, 
Georgia, 

Maryland,  Appointed  Dec.  1860. 

Appointed  Jan.  1861. 


Appointed  Jan.  1861. 


New  York, 


Jan.  1861. 
Dec.  1860. 


1856. 
1850. 


5  Secretary  of  State. 

Secretary  of  Navy. 

\  Secretary  of  War. 

£  Secretary  of  Treasury. 

Secretary  of  Interior. 
$  Postmaster-General. 

^  Attorney-General 
i  Speaker  of  H.  Reps. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  of  Illinois,  inaugurated  March  4,  1861,  President. 

HANNIBAL  HAMLIN,  of  Maine,  Vice-President. 

Wm.  H.  Soward,         New  York,  Secretary  of  State. 


*OMISSSIO.VS  on  page  205  "  World's  Progress." 

May  9,  dird  June  20, 1843,  .  _.( 

March  6, 1841,  to  March,  1, 1845,  fHecs-  or  8tat?- 


3ugh  S.  Legare, 
John  0.  Calhoun, 
George  M.  Bibb, 
William  Wilkins, 
Thomas  W.  Gilmer, 
John  Y.  Mason, 


S.  Carolina, 
8.  Carolina, 
Kentucky, 
Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 


June  15,  1844,  to  March  3, 1845,    Sec.  of  Treas. 
Feb.  15,  1844,  to  March  3,  1845,    Sec.  of  War. 
Feb.  15, 1844,  died  Feb.  28, 1844,  , 
March  14,  1844,  to  Mar.  3, 1845.  ' 


•  Sees,  of  Navy. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


71 


Salmon  P.  Chase, 
Wra.  P.  FessendeM, 
Hugh  McCulloch, 
Simon  Cameron, 
Edwin  M.  Stanton, 
Gideon  Welles, 
Caleb  B.  Smith, 
John  P.  Usher, 
Montgomery  Blair, 
Wm.  Dennison, 
Edward  Bates, 
James  Speed, 
Galusha  A.  Grow, 
Salmon  P.  Chase, 


Ohio, 

Maine,  Appointed  July,  1864. 

Indiana,  Appointed  March,  1865. 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania,  Appointed  Jan,  1862. 

Connecticut, 

Indiana, 

Appointed  Jan.  1863. 


Indiana, 

Maryland, 

Ohio, 

Missouri, 

Kentucky, 


Appointed  Sept.  1864. 


Appointed  Sept.  18b4, 
Pennsylvania,  1861-2. 

Ohio,  Appointed  Dec.  1&64. 


>  Secretary  of  Treaauiy. 

I  Secretary  of  "War. 

Secretary  of  Navy. 
£  Secretary  of  Interior. 

{  Postmaster-General 

>  Attorney-General 
Speaker  H.  Reps. 
Chief-Justice. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  of  Illinois,  inaugurated  March  4, 1865,  President. 
AKDREW  JOHNSON,  of  Tennessee,  Vice-President. 

[President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  at  Washington  by  Wilkes  Booth, 

April  14,  1865.] 

ANDREW  JOHNSON  became  President,  April  15, 1866. 
LAFAYETTE  8.  FOSTER,  of  Connecticut,  elected  President  of  the  Senate. 
[Succeeded  by  BEN.  F.  WADE,  of  Ohio,  1867.] 


Wm.  H.  Seward,           New  York,  (continued  in  qffice), 
Huah  McCulloch,        Indiana,                    do 
Euwiu  M.  Stanton,      Pennsylvania,          do 
Gideon  Welles,             Connecticut,             do 
John  P.  Usher,             Indiana,                    do 
James  Harlan,              Iowa,       Appointed  March,  1866. 
Orville  H.  Browning,  Illinois,    Appointed  June,  1866. 
W.  Dennison,                Ohio,     (continued  in  office), 
Alex.  W.  Randall,        Wisconsin,  Appointed  June,  1866. 
James  Speed,                 Kentucky,  (continued  in  office), 
Henry  Stanhery,           Ohio,    Appointed  June,  1866. 
Schuyler  Colfas,           Indiana,                                 1863-'65-'67 

Secretary  of  State. 
Secretary  of  Treasury. 
Secretary  of  War. 
Secretary  of  Navy. 

Secretary  of  Interior. 

Postmaster-General. 

Attorney  -General. 
Speaker  H.  of  Reps. 

.0  4,.,-..*-.  fra  Ann  *n  d>ti  AAA 

The  salary  of  each  member  of  the  Cabinet  was  raised  in  1853  liom  $6,000  to  $8,000. 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  ENGLAND  AFTER 

LOBD   JOHN   RUSSELL'S    ADMINISTRA- 
TION, July  6th,  1846. 

[He  and  his  colleagues  resign  Feb. 
1851,  but  resume  office  March  1851.] 

Earl  of  Derby,  Disraeli,  Spencer  H. 
Walpole,  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
<fec.  Feb.  1852. 

Earl  of  Aberdeen,  Viscount  Palmer- 
ston,  Lord  Russell,  &c  Dec.  1862. 

[Russell  retires,  and  Lord  Aberdeen 
and  Ministry  resign  Jan.  1855.  Pal- 
merston  recont-tructs  cabinet  with 
Lord  Cran-worlh,  &c.,  Feb,  1855,  but 
Gladstone,  Herbert  and  Graham,  se- 
cede from  it  and  Palmerston  forms  a 
new  ministry  with  Russell  and  Earl 
of  Clarendon,  &c.  Feb.  24th,  1855.] 

On  vote  of  censure  they  resign. 

Feb."  7th,  1858. 


1846. 

EARL  OF   DERBY'S  ADMINISTRATION  — 
Disraeli,  Walpole,  Stanley,  &c. 

Feb.  26th,  1858. 

[They  resign  on   vote  of  Parliament 

expressing  want    of    confidence   in 

them.  June  1859] 

LORDS  PALMEBSTON  AND  RUSSELL,  &c. 

June  18tb,  1859. 

y^almerston  dies,  Oct.  1865.] 
ARL     RUSSELL'S    MINISTRY  —  With 
Gladstone     Chancellor  of    the    Ex- 
chequer ;     Lord     Cranworth,    Lord 
Chancellor ;    Earl    Granville,  &c. 

Dec.  1865. 

DERBY  ADMINISTRATION  —  Earl  of 
Derby,  First  Lord,  &c.;  D' Israeli, 
Chancellor  of  Exchequer ;  Lord 
Stanley.  Sec.  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
&c.  '  June  19, 1866. 


ADULTERY  IN  ENGLAND,  (p.  211.)  By  20  Victoria,  c.  85,  (1857,)  the  "  action 
for  criminal  conversation  "  was  abolished,  and  the  "  Court  for  Divorce  and 
Matrimonial  Causes  "  was  established,  which  has  power  to  grant  divorces  for 
adultery  and  ill  usage.  See  Divorce. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  IN  NEWSPAPERS,  ENG.  (p.  211.)  The  duty  on  them  was  all 
together  abolished  in  the  United  Kingdom,  August  4,  1853.  For  a  copious 
article  on  this  subject  see  Appletorts  Cyclopaedia. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  IN  U.  S.  The  rate  of  charge  of  American  Dailies  is  from  5 
to  20  cents  a  line  ;  of  weekly  papers,  up  to  $2.00.  A  few  monthly  and  quar 


72  THE  WORLD'S  PEOGKESS. 

terly  periodicals  charge  $2.50  per  line.  The  price  of  one  page  for  advertise- 
ments in  Harper's  Magazine  is  $250.  In  1865,  the  advertising  receipts  of  the 
N.  Y.  Tribune  were  about  $359,000.  By  act  of  July,  1861,  advertisements  in 
American  papers  are  taxed  3  per  cent,  on  gross  receipts.  Papers  of  less  than 
2,000  copies  circulation  are  exempt.  The  duty  on  advertising  in  England  waa 
abolished  in  1853. 

ADVERTISING  VANS,  in  1853  a  great  nuisance,  were  prohibited  in  England. 
They  have  recently  appeared  in  New  York  and  other  places  in  the  U.  S. 

.iEOLIA,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  colonized  by  a  principal  branch  of  the  Hellenic  race : 
beginning  about  1124  B.  c.  The  ^Eolians  built  several  large  cities  both  on  the 
mainland  and  the  neighbouring  islands ;  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  was  considered 
the  capital. 

JSOLIAN  HARP.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Kircher,  1663,  but  it  was  known 
before. 

.^EQUI,  an  ancient  Italian  race,  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  and  their  lands 
annexed  after  a  conflict,  471-302  B.C. 

AERATED  WATERS.  Apparatus  for  combining  gases  with  water  have  been 
patented  by  Thomson  in  1807  ;  Bakewell  in  1832  and  1847;  Tylor  in  1840, 
and  by  several  other  persons.  Aerated  bread  is  made  by  processes  patented 
by  Dr.  Dauglish,  1856-7. 

ESTHETICS  (from  the  Greek  aisthesis,  perception),  the  science  of  the  beautiful 
(especially  in  art) ;  a  term  invented  by  Baumgnrteu,  a  German  philosopher, 
whose  work  '' ^Esthetica  "  was  published  in  1750. 

AFRICA,  (p.  213.)  Richardson  explored  the  great  Sahara  in  1845-6,  and  1849, 
(by  direction  of  the  government,)  he  left  England  to  explore  Central  Africa, 
accompanied  by  Drs.  Barth  and  Overweg.  Richardson  died  March  4,  1851, 
and  Overweg  September  27,  1852.  Dr.  Vogel  was  sent  out  with  reinforce- 
ments to  Dr.  Barth  Feb.  20,  1853.  Dr.  Barth  returned  to  England,  and  re 
ceived  the  Royal  Geographical  Society's  medal  May  16,  1856.  His  travels 
were  published  in  five  volumes  in  1858.  Dr.  David  Livingstone,  a  missionary 
traveller,  returned  to  England  in  December,  1856,  after  an  absence  of  sixteen 
years,  during  which  he  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  heart  of  South  Africa, 
and  walked  about  11,000  miles,  principnlly  of  country  hitherto  unexplored.  His 
book  was  published  in  November,  1857.  In  February,  185S,  he  was  appointed 
British  consul  for  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Africa,  and  left  shortly  after. 
Accounts  of  the  assassination  of  Dr.  Vogel  were  received  in  1857.  Lieut.  Bur- 
ton's Explorations  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  185- ;  his  journey  from  Zanzibar  to 
the  interior,  1858 ;  and  his  account  of  it  published  in  London  and  N.  Y.,  I860. 


The  publication  of  M.  du  Chalilu's 
travels  in  Central  Africa  created 
much  controversy  and  excitement  in 
1861. 

Second  expediton  of  Dr.  Livingstone, 
March,  1S58. 

Captains  Sprke  and  Grant  announce 
the  discovery  of  the  source  of  the 
Nile  in  Lake  Nyanza  Victoria,  Feb. 
23,  1863. 

[Capt.  Speke  was  accidentally  shot  by 
hin  own  gun  while  alone  near  Bath, 
St-pt.  15,  1 864] 

Some  Dutch  ladies  unsuccessfully  ex- 
plore the  White  Nile,  and  undergo 


Du  Chaillu  starts  on  a  fresh  expedition  6  Aug. 
1S63. 

Dr.  Livingstone  returns  July  23.  1?64. 

D«-ath  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Baikie,  sit  Sierra  Leone, 
Nov.  30,  1S64. 

[He  was  sent  as  special  envoy  to  the  Negro 
tribes  near  the  Nftrer  by  the  Foreign  Oftice 
about  1854.  He  opened  commercial  rela- 
tions with  Central  Africa.] 

Mr.  Samuel  Baker  discovered  a  lake,  snj, 
posed  to  be  another  source  of  the  Nile, 
which  he  naiin-d  Laku  Nyanza  Albert, 
March,  1864. 

Dr.  Livingstone  appointed  British  consul  for 
Inner  Africa,  March  24. 1SH5.  Repotted  to 


many  privations,  July,  1863—1864.     '      be  killed  by  natives,  Apr.  1867. 
AGRICULTURAL    CHEMISTRY.    In   England,  Sir   Humphry   Davy  delivered 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  7,'5 

lectures  on  this  subject  (afterwards  published)  at  the  instance  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture,  in  1812  ;  but  it  excited  but  little  attention  till  the  publication  of 
Liebig's  work  in  1840,  which  made  a  powerful  impression.  Boussingault's 
".Economic  Rurale,"  an  equally  important  work,  appeared  in  1844.  The 
immoderate  expectations  from  this  study  having  been  somewhat  disappointed, 
a  partial  reaction  has  taken  place,  and  much  controversy  ensued.  Liebig's 
"  Letters  on  Agriculture"  appeared  in  1859. 

AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS.  By  act  of  July  2,  1862,  Congress  made  pro- 
vision for  "  donating  public  lands  to  the  several  States  and  Territories  which 
may  provide  Colleges  tor  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts."  Up 
to  Sept.  1863,  15  States  had  taken  advantage  of  the  act,  and  many  colleges  in- 
troduced Agriculture  among  the  branches  of  their  scientific  course.  Agricultu- 
ral college  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  in  process  of  construction  (1867). 

AGRICULTURAL  STATISTICS  OF  1851 : 

GKEAT  BRITAIN.    FRANCE.    UNITED  STATES.    RUSSIA, 

Acres  of  Land  in  Cultivation  22,000,000       72,000,000     118,000,000       243.000,000 

Bushels  of  Wheat,  av.  per  annum,  336,000,000  576,000,000  100,000,000  1,400,000,000 
Number  of  Horned  Cattle,  18,000,000  9,000,000  19,800,000  25,000,000 

Number  of  Horses,  1,600,000         2,818,000         5.000,000        18,000,000 

Number  of  Sheep  and  Goats,  50,000,000       32,000,000       22,000,000        50,000,000 

Numberof  Swine,  19,000000          5,000,000        30,000,000         12,000,000 

Population  of  each  country,  27,000,000       36,000,000       23,000,000        68,000,000 

In  1866,  the  wheat  crop  in  the  U.  S.,  was  180,000,000  bushels,  (increase  of  80 
per  cent,  in  15  years.)  Cattle,  26,935,000,  (increase  about  40  per  cent.) ;  sheep, 
41,253,652,  increase  nearly  100  per  cent. 

AGRICULTURE.  Agriculture  is  the  most  important  material  interest  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  estimated  that  seven-eighths  of  the  population  are  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuits  or  in  occupations  immediately  dependent  thereon.  In 
1860  the  number  of  acres  in  culiivation  was  163,000,000,  valued  at  6,600  mil- 
lion dollars.  In  the  same  year  the  value  of  agricultural  implements  was  $247,- 
000,000. 

I860.  1862.  1865. 

Bushels  of  Wheat 132,000,000  181,00(1.000  148,000,000 

Bushc-ls  of  Oats 172,000,000  171,000,000  235,000,000 

Bushels  of  Bye 20,000,000  21,000,000  19.000,000 

Tons  of  Hay 19.000,000  20,000,000  23^:00,000 

Pounds  of  Wool 60,000,0011  114,00.000 

Bales  of  Cotton 4,000,000  .„ 1,000.000 

Bushels  of  Corn 800,000,000  500,000,000  600,000,000 

In  the  Statistics  of  1862  and  1865  the  states  in  rebellion  are  not  included.  In 
1862  the  shipment  of  wheat  from  the  U.  S.  to  Great  Britain  alone  amounted 
to  29,700,000  bushels.  Total  exports  of  grain  1863  were  77,^00,000  bushel?. 
The  cereals  of  the  northern  states  in  1805  amounted  to  1,228  million  bush- 
els, valued  at  $1.047,000,000.  The  southern  cotton  crop  for  1866-7  is  esti- 
mated at  2,000,000  bales.  "Department  of  Agriculture  "  established  May  15, 
1862,  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Its  object,  to  diffuse  informatfon  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  agriculture  among  the  people  of  the  U.  S. 

AIR  OR  ATMOSPHERE.  In  1858,  Dr.  Angus  Smith  made  known  a  chemical 
method  of  ascertaining  the  amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  air.  The  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Schonbein,  a  German  chemist  of  Basel,  led  to  the  discovery 
of  two  states  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  which  he  calls  ozone  and  antozone.— 
See  Ozone. 

ALABAMA.  One  of  the  United  States;  Population  in  1850;  whites,  426,515; 
free  colored,  2,250.  Total  free,  428,765  ;  slaves,  342,894.  In  1855:  white, 
464,456;  free  colored,  2,466;  slaves,  874,784.  Population,  in  1860:  white, 
4 


74  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGKESS. 

520,444 ;  slaves,  435,473.  The  slaves  have  increased  more  rapidly  than  the 
whites.  Ordinance  passed  "  seceding"  from  the  United  States  January  7,  1861. 
During  the  war  the  state  was  untouched  by  the  national  army  until  March, 
1865,  when  Gen.  Wilson  with  17,000  cavalry,  penetrated  its  most  productive 
region.  In  June,  1865,  L.  E.  Parsons  was  appointed  provisional  governor. 
The  state  sent  120,000  men  to  the  war,  and  lost  35,000.  Estimated  loss  in 
wealth,  $500,000,000.  Present  debt  (1865)  is  $3,400,OnO. 

ALBANY,  N  Y.  Population  in  1850,  50,700;  in  1860,  62,367;  in  1865,62,613. 
It  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1807.  The  most  important  article  of 
commerce  is  lumber;  in  1863,  $7,000,000  worth  was  received  there.  Its  Law 
Library,  the  best  in  the  country,  contains  70,000  volumes. 

ALDINE  PRESS,  that  of  Aldus  Manutius,  at  Venice,  where  were  printed  many 
of  the  first  editions  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  classics,  commencing  in 
1494  with  Musffius. 

ALE  AND  BEER,  U.  S.  By  act  of  Congress,  July  13,  1866,  a  tax  of  $1.00  is 
levied  on  every  barrel  of  ale  and  beer  manufactured  and  sold. 

ALEPPO  (anciently  Beroea),  a  large  town,  N.  Syria,  so  named  by  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator  about  299  B.  C.  The  pachalic  of  Aleppo  is  one  of  the  five  govern- 
ments of  Syria.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  638,  who  restored  its  ancient 
name  Haleb  orChaleb;  by  Saladin,  1193;  and  sacked  by  Timour,  1400.  Its 
depopulation  by  the  plague  has  been  frequent ;  60,000  persons  were  computed 
to  have  perished  by  it  in  1797.  It  suffered  by  the  plague  in  1827,  and  the 
cholera  in  1832.  Aleppo  suffered  severely  from  the  terrible  earthquakes 
in  1822  and  1830;  and  has  often  been  the  scene  of  fanatical  massacres. 
On  Oct.  16,  1850,  the  Mahometans  attacked  the  Christian  inhabitants.  They 
burnt  everything  in  their  way ;  three  churches  were  destroyed,  five  others 
were  plundered,  thousands  of  persons  were  slain,  and  the  total  loss  of 
property  amounted  to  about  a  million  sterling ;  no  interference  was  attempted 
by  the  pacha  or  the  Turkish  soldiers. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOLS  OF  PHILOSOPHY.  The  first  school  arose  soon  after  the 
foundation  of  Alexandria,  332  B.  c.  It  flourished  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Ptolemies  till  about  100  B.  c.  It  included  Euclid  (300),  Archimedes  ('287-212), 
Apollonius  (250),  Hipparchus  (150),  and  Hero  (150).  The  second  school  arose 
about  A.  i).  140,  and  lasted  till  about  400.  Its  most  eminent  members  were 
Ptolemy,  the  author  of  Ptolemaic  system  (150),  Diophantus,  the  arithmetician 
(200),  and  Pappus  the  geometer  (360). 

ALGIERS,  (p.  217).  An  insurrection  of  the  Kabyles  was  subdued  by  the 
French  in  Oct.,  1857.  In  1858,  the  government  was  entrusted  (for  a  short 
time)  to  Prince  Napoleon. 

ALHAMBRA.  A  Moorish  palace  and  fortress  near  Granada  in  Spain,  founded 
by  Mohammed  I.  of  Granada,  about  1253.  It  surrendered  to  the  Christians, 
Jan.  6,  1496.  The  remains  have  been  described  in  a  magnificent  work  by 
Owen  Jones,  and  Jules  Gowry,  published  1842-5.  There  is  a  fac-simile  of  a 
court  of  this  name  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham,  near  London. 

ALIENS,  (p.  218.)  The  rigor  of  the  Alien  laws  in  England  was  much  mitigated 
by  7  &  8  Viet.  c.  66, 1844.  In  1850  there  were  2,210,800  in  the  United  States.  In 
1868,  233,408  arrived.  Of  these  106,000  came  from  Germany  ;  68,000  from  Ire- 
land ;  86,000  from  England.  Aliens  now  pay  income  tax.  (Act  of  Congress, 
July,  1666.)  See  Emigration. 

AL1WAL,  BATTLE  OF,  India,  between  the  Sikh  army  (24,000),  and  the  British 
under  Sir  H.  Smith  (12,000).  Sikhs  defeated  with  loss  of  6,000,  Jan.  28, 1846 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


75 


ALLIANCE,  TREATIES  OF,  (p.  218)  between  the  high  European  powers: 

Alliance  of  Sweden  with  the  western 
powers Dec.  19,  1851 

Alliance  of  Prussia  and  Austria  against 
Denmark 1864 

Alliance  of  Prussia  and  Italy  against 
Austria 1368 


Alliance  of  England,  France,  and 
Turkey  (signed  at  Constantino 
pie) March  12,  1854 

Alliance  of  England  and  France, 


ratified April  3,  1854 

Alliance  of  Sardinia  with  the  west- 
ern powers  (signed  at  Turin), 

Jan.  26,  1855 


ALL  SOULS'  DAY  (Nov.  2).  A  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  com- 
memorate the  souls  that  are  in  purgatory,  instituted  it  is  said,  at  Cluny  about 
993  or  1000. 

ALMA.  A  river  in  the  Crimea,  near  which  was  fought  a  great  battle  on  Sept.  20, 
1854.  See  Rus$o-Turkish  War  and  Crimea.  The  English,  French,  and  Turk- 
ish army  (about  57,000)  and  the  Russians  under  Menschikoff  (46,OuO).  Latter 
defeated,  with  loss  of  6,000.  Allied  loss  3,000,  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing. 

ALMACK'S  ASSEMBLY-ROOMS,  King  street,  St.  James's,  London,  at  first  very 
exclusive,  were  erected  by  a  Scotchman  named  Almack,  and  opened  Feb.  12, 
1765. 

ALMANACS,  AMERICAN.  A  comprehensive  and  valuable  "National  Almanac," 
was  issued  by  G.  W.  Childs  of  Phila.,  in  1863-4,  but  was  not  continued.  Sixty 
eight  different  almanacs  are  registered  among  the  list  of  American  publications 
1861-6.  FRENCH.  First  French  Almanac  published  in  Paris  (1442),  in  a 
Bibliotheque.  "Almanac  Royal"  of  Paris  (1679),  noticed  fairs,  markets, 
genealogy  of  kings,  <fec.  "Almanac  of  Napoleon,"  and  "Almanac  of  Litera- 
ture and  Fine  Arts,"  are  widely  circulated.  The  "Connaissance  de  Terns"  is 
astronomical.  There  are  many  inferior  ones  devoted  to  burlesque  and  wit. 
GERMAN.  Almanacs  appeared  in  Germany  in  1475.  The  first  one  was  pub- 
lished in  a  series  in  a  periodical,  and  contained  only  the  eclipses  and  position 
of  the  planets.  The  author  was  the  German  Regiomontanus.  His  series  sold 
for  ten  crowns.  "Almanac  de  Gotha"  is  104  years  old,  and  of  very  high 
reputation.  Also  the  "  Astronomisches  Jahrbuche  "  conducted  by  Bode  and 
then  by  Encke. 


Franklin's  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac," 
(Phil.  1T32),  was  the  first  of  any  note 
in  the  U.  S. 

"  The  American  Nautical  Almanac" 
was  established  in  1849,  and  superin- 
tended by  Cant.  Davis,  U.  8.  1ST.  It 


The 


has  few  equais  in  scientific  accuracy. 
"American  Almanac"  of  Boston, 


was  discontinued  in   1857  (P),  after 
being  published  29  years. 


The  "  National  Almanac"  (valuable  and 
comprehensive),  published  t>y  Childs  of 
Phila.,  appeared  only  1863  and  18C4. 

At  the  present  time  (1867),  no  general  alma- 
nac of  any  special  value  is  published  in  the 
U.S. 

The  "  Family  Christian  Almanac"  of  the 
Tract  Society  has  a  wide  oircuiation. 


ALPACA  (or  Paco).  A  species  of  the  S.  American  quadruped  the  Llama,  the  soft 
hairy  wool  of  which  is  now  largely  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  cloths.  It 
was  introduced  into  England  about  1836,  by  the  Earl  of  Derby.  An  alpaca 
factory,  &c.,  (covering  11  acres),  was  erected  at  Saltaire,  near  Shipley,  York- 
shire, by  Mr.  Titus  Salt  in  1852. 

AMBASSADORS.  The  U.  S.  has  never  sent  any  person  of  the  rank  of  ambass- 
ador in  the  diplomatic  sense,  but  is  represented  by  ministers  plenipotentiary 
(Kent.)  In  1867  the  U.  S.  had  her  ministers  at  the  courts  of  Austria,  Brazil. 
China,  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Mexico,  Peru,  Prussia,  Russia,  Spain.  To 
the  smaller  states,  "  Ministers  resident "  are  sent,  22  in  all.  Number  of  con- 
suls from  U.  S.  to  foreign  countries  in  1862,  272.  Some  of  these  are  known 


76  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

as  agents  simply.  10  are  stationed  in  England  and  10  in  France.  The  highest 
salaries  are  given  to  the  consuls  at  London  and  Liverpool,  $7,500  each.  Num 
ber  of  foreign  consuls  in  U.  S.  in  1863,  356. 

AMERICA,  CENIRAL,  including  the  states  of  Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  which  see,  declared  their  independence  Sept.  21, 
1821,  and  separated  from  the  Mexican  confederation,  July  21,  1823.  The 
states  made  a  treaty  of  union  between  themselves  March  21,  1847.  There  has 
been  among  them  since,  much  anarchy  and  bloodshed,  aggravated  greatly  by 
the  irruption  of  American  filibusters  under  Kenny  and  Walker,  1854-5.  In 
Jan.  1863,  a  war  began  between  Guatemala,  (afterwards.joined  by  Nicaragua) 
and  San  Salvador,  (afterwards  supported  by  Honduras).  The  Litter  were  de- 
feated at  Santa  Rosa,  June  16,  and  San  Salvador  was  taken  Oct.  26 ;  the 
president  of  San  Salvador,  Barrios,  fled ;  and  Carrera,  the  dictator  of  Guate- 
mala became  predominant  over  the  confederacy.  Population,  1859,  about 
2,355,000.  See  Nicaragua,  Darien,  and  Panama. 

AMERICA,  SOUTH.     See  Brazil,  Argentine,  Peru,  Paraguay,   Uruguay,  &c. 

AMERICAN  FLAG.  Previous  to  1776  the  colors  used  by  the  American  army 
exhibited  a  snake  with  thirteen  rattles,  on  a  crimson  ground  interlaced  with 
white.  On  the  14th  June,  1777,  Congress  resolved,  "that  the  flag  of  the 
thirteen  United  States  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternately  red  and  white  ;  that  the 
union  be  thirteen  etars,  white,  on  a  blue  field — representing  '  a  new  con- 
stellation.' " 

AMERICANISMS.  A  useful  dictionary  of  Americanisms,  compiled  by  John  R. 
Bartlett ;  first  published  in  Boston,  in  1848. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY  commences  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  the  history  of 
Herodotus,  about  1687  B.C.  It  is  considered  as  ending  with  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  A.D.  476.  Modern  history  begins  with  Ma- 
homet (A.D.  622),  or  Charlemagne  (768). 

ANAESTHETICS.  Substances  to  alleviate  pain.  In  1863  Dr.  Colton  (dentist)  of 
N.  Y.  used  nitrous  oxide.  No  ill  effects  followed  the  3,000  cases  he  had  up 
to  1865.  (See  this  subject  in  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia,  1864.) 

ANIMALS,  CRUELTY  TO,  IN  ENGLAND.  The  late  Mr.  Martin,  M.P.,  as  a  senator, 
zealously  labored  to  repress  this  odious  offence ;  and  a  society  in  London, 
which  was  established  in  1824,  effects  much  good  this  way.  Laws  on  tin; 
s.ubject  were  passed  in  1827,  1835,  1837,  1849,  and  1854. '  Dogs  were  for- 
bidden to  be  used  for  draught  by  Act  of  Parliament,  1839.  A  society,  char- 
tered by  the  State  of  N.  Y.  in  1866,  chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  Mr. 
Henry  Bergh,  who  became  its  president  in  1866.  Its  object  is  to  prevent 
cruel  treatment  to  animals,  by  bringing  offenders  to  trial.  Laws  prohibiting 
cruelty  to  beasts  and  also  "game  fighting,"  passed  April,  1866.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania Legislature  incorporated  a  similar  society  in  the  Spring  of  1867. 

ANNUAL  REGISTER,  a  summary  of  the  history  of  each  year  (beginning  with 
1758,  and  continued  to  the  present  time)  was  commenced  in  London  by  R.  & 
J.  Dodsley.  The  somewhat  similar  but  more  elaborate  work,  the  Annuaire 
de  Deux  Mondes,  first  appeared  in  Paris,  in  1850.  An  American  Annual 
Register  was  published  for  several  years,  but  was  not  supported.  Appleton'g 
Annual  Cyclopedia,  1861-6,  is  a  similar  work,  and  very  comprehensive. 

ANNUALS,  the  name  given  to  richly-bound  volumes,  published  annually,  con- 
taining poetry,  tales,  and  essays,  by  eminent  authors,  and  illustrated  by  en- 
gravings. They  first  appeared  in  London,  in  1823.  They  were  imitations  of 


Amulet 1827-34 

Keepsake 1828-58 

Hood's  Comic  Annual 1830-38 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  77 

similar  books  in  Germany.  The  duration  of  the  chief  of  these  publications  ia 
here  given — 

Forget-me  not  (Aclrerman's)....  1823-48 

Kriendehip's  Olleiing    1824-44 

Literary  Souvenir  (first  as  The 
Graces) 1824-34 

The  earliest  American  "Annuals"  were  the  Talisman,  published  by  E.  Bliss, 
in  New  York,  about  1830,  3  vols.  (Bryant,  Sands,  and  others  contributors) ; 
the  Token,  S.  G.  Goodrich  (Peter  Parley),  in  Boston,  1837  (?)  to  (?),  about 
8  vols. ;  and  the  Gift,  Carey  &  Hart,  Philadelphia,  1840  (?),  about  5  vols. 

ANONYMOUS  LETTERS.  In  England,  the  sending  of  threatening  or  libellous 
anonymous  letters  was  made  felony  by  several  acts,  1722,  1827,  1847. 
Punishment — transportation,  imprisonment,  and  whipping. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of 
people  in  the  ancient  world,  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood,  reached  to  the 
enormous  amount  of  549,755  millions  in  the  year  of  the  world  1482. 

ANTIGUA.  A  West  India  island,  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493  ;  settled  hy 
the  English  in  1632. 

ANTIETAM  CREEK,  near  Sharpsburg,  Maryland,  U,  S.  Here  was  fought  a 
terrible  battle  on  Sept.  17,  1862,  between  the  Union  army  under  Gen.  Me- 
Clellan  and  the  rebels  under  Lee.  The  latter  after  his  victory  at  Bull  Run  or 
Manassas,  Aug.  30,  having  invaded  Maryland,  was  immediately  followed  by 
McClellan.  On  the  16th  Lee  was  joined  by  Jackson,  and  at  five  o'clock  next 
morning  the  conflict  began.  About  100,000  men  were  engaged,  and  the  con- 
flict raged  with  great  fury  from  daylight  to  dark.  The  battle  was  indecisive ; 
but  eventually  the  Rebels  retreated  and  repassed  the  Potomac  on  Sept.  18  and 
19.  The  Union  loss  was  estimated  at  12,469  ;  the  rebels  lost  14,000. 

APPEALS.  In  the  U.  S.  nearly  all  courts  can  hear  appeals  from  those  next 
inferior.  The  highest  courts  of  the  states  are  courts  of  appeal  only.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.  sits  on  appeal  from  Circuit  and  Territorial  Courts, 
and  also  from  the  highest  state  courts,  whenever  the  question  turns  upon  the 
validity  of  a  treaty  or  law  or  authority  of  the  U.  S.  (Statute  of  1789.) 

APPENZELL.  A  Swiss  canton,  threw  off  the  feudal  supremacy  of  the  abbots  of 
St.  Gall  early  in  the  15th  century,  and  became  the  thirteenth  member  of  the 
Swiss  confederation  in  1513. 

APPIAN  WAY.  An  ancient  Roman  road,made  by  Appius  Claudius  Caucus,  while 
censor,  312  B.C. 

AF'PLES.  The  Romans  knew  of  22  varieties  of  apples,  according  to  Pliny.  Ray 
reckons  78  kinds  in  his  day,  in  England  (1688).  In  the  U.  S.  200  varieties 
exist.  Apple-trees  of  finest  quality  last  80  years.  Some  reach  the  age  of  200 
years.  Throughout  the  U.  S.  the  following  appear  to  be  the  favorites :  For 
summer  apples,  the  Early  Harvest,  Sweet  Bough  and  Red  Astrachan  ;  for  au- 
tumn, the  Fall  Pippin,  Porter  and  Gravenstein  ;  for  winter,  the  Baldwin  and 
Rhode  Inland  Greening.  The  demand  for  the  fruit  is  greatly  in  advance  of 
the  supply,  and  in  London  the  American  apple  commands  fabulous  prices.  In 
1860,  the  yield  of  orchard  fruit  amounted  to  $19,000,000,  the  greater  part  of 
which  was  derived  from  the  apple  product.  In  1865,  the  orchards  in  the 
State  of  New  York  yielded  16,275,505  bushels  of  apples. 

APPRENTICES.  In  the  U.  S.  apprenticeship  is  not  so  common  as  in  En- 
gland. The  American  apprentice  rarely  pays  a  fee  to  the  master.  In  some 
eastern  states  farmers  take  them  to  learn  husbandry,  clothe  them,  and,  wheL 


78 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGBESS. 


they  leave  present  them  with  a  sum  of  money.  Whole  number  in  the  IT. 
S.  in  1860  was  about  55,000.  There  is  a  Library  in  Mechanics  Hall,  N.  Y. 
City,  containing  16,000  volumes,  for  youthful  apprentices.  For  laws  respect* 
ing  them,  see  Kent's  Commentaries.  Number  of  apprentices  in  N.  Y.  State  in 
1865,  1,861. 

AQUARIUM,  OR  AQUAVIVARIUM.  A  vessel  containing  water  (marine  or  fresh) 
in  which  animals  and  plants  may  co-exist,  mutually  supporting  each  other ; 
snails  being  introduced  as  scavengers.  In  1849,  Mr.  N.  B.  Ward  succeeded 
in  growing  sea-weeds  inartificial  sea-water.  In  1850,  Mr.  R.  Warington  dem- 
onstrated the  conditions  necessary  for  the  growth  of  animals  and  plants  in 
jars  of  water  ;  and  in  1853  the  glass  tanks  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's 
Park,  were  set  up  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  D.  Mitchell.  In  1850  Mr. 
Gosse  published,  "  The  Aquarium.  "  Mr.  C.  E.  Hamrnett,  jr.,  of  Newport,  R.  I., 
published  in  1859  his  observations  and  experiments  with  Aquaria,  which  were 
very  remarkable.  Aquaria  have  been  introduced  into  several  public  museums 
in  the  U.  S.,  and  they  are  also  largely  cultivated  in  private  houses. 

AQUEDUCT.  The  greatest  of  modern  or  perhaps  of  any  times  is  the  Croton 
aqueduct,  which  supplies  the  City  of  New  York  with  water  from  Croton  lake, 
40  miles  distant.  It  was  commenced  1837  ;  its  completion  was  publicly  cele- 
brated in  1842;  its  cost  was  $10,375,000.  It  is  carried  across  the  Harlem 
river  on  a  bridge  100  feet  high.  Chief  engineer  John  B.  Jervis ;  contractor 
for  the  bridge,  Geo.  Law.  The  aqueduct  which  supplies  Boston  from  lake 
Cochituate,  23£  miles,  was  commenced  in  1846;  its  completion  celebrated  Oct. 
25,  1848  ;  cost  $5,370,818.  That  which  supplies  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  L.  I., 
was  finished  1858 ;  engineer  J.  P.  Kirkwood ;  cost,  $640,828.  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  is 
supplied  by  an  aqueduct  8  miles  long  from  the  Passaic  river  at  Belleville ;  W.  S. 
Wliitwell,  chief  engineer.  It  was  completed  in  1856  and  cost  $640,000. 
Washington,  D.  C.  is  furnished  with  water  from  the  Potomac  by  an  aqueduct 
15  miles  long,  commenced  in  the  administration  of  Pres.  Pierce.  The  water 
was  first,  admitted  into  it  Dec.  5,  1863,  at  which  time  the  cost  amounted  to 
$2,900,000  ;  Capt.  M.  C.  Meigs  (U.  S.  A.)  chief  engineer.  This  aqueduct  dis- 
charges 67,596,400  gallons  in  24  hours,  or  nearly  3  times  as  much  as  the  Cro- 
ton aqueduct. 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS  (or  1001  Tales)  were  translated 
into  French  by  Galland,  and  published  in  1704;  but  their  authenticity  was 
not  acknowledged  till  many  years  after.  The  best  English  translation  from 
the  Arabic  is  that  of  Mr.  E.  W.  Lane,  published  in  1839,  with  valuable  notes 
and  beautiful  illustrations. 

ARCHITECTURE,    (p.  229.)    Dates  of  notable  buildings  : 


Egyptian  Pyramids, B.C.  1500 

Solomon's  Temple  beeun  ....B.  c.1000 
Temple  of  Jupiter,  Koine,... B.  c.  616 

Babylon  Imilt B.  c.  600 

Parthenon  finished B.  C.  438 

Pantheon  at  Rome A.  D.    18 


ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS. 
tions. 

Lt.  Hartstein  with  the  Arctic  and 
release  leaves  Brooklyn,  May  31, 
1855,  and  finds  Dr.  Kane  nt  Lieve- 
iey,  Greenland,  Sept.  13,  1855 ; 
and  returns  to  N.  Y.  with  him 

Oct.ll,  1856 


Coliseum A.  D.  70 

Basilicas  at  Rome A.  D.  330-900 

St.  Sophia's,  Constantinople   begun. A.  D.  532 

Canterbury  Cathedral A.  D.  602 

Mosque  ot  Omar A.  D.  637 

York  Minuter  begun A.  D.  741 

See   North-  West  Passage,  and  Franklin's   Expedi- 


Steamer  Fox.  Capt.  McClintock,  sails 
from  Aberdeen  (sent  by  Lady  Frank 
lin)  in  search  of  remains  of  Franklin's 
expedition  July  10, 185 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


79 


Capt.  MoClintock  returns,  bringing 
relics  and  remains  of  Franklin's 
expedition,  and  ascertaining  his 
fate 1869 

Mr.  C.  F.  Hall  sailed  from  New 
London,  Conn.,  in  ship  George 
Henry May  29,  1860 

Returned Sept.  18, 1862 

He  went  again  with  strong  hopes 
of  finding  some  of  Franklin's 
men.  Discoven-d  the  fate  of  four 
who  died  from  cold  and  starva- 
tion,  June  1864 


Dr.  Hayes  sailed  from  Bosx>n  in 
schooner  United  States,  and  returned 
in  fifteen  months.  Valuable  surveys 
and  experiments  made  by  him 

July  10,  I860 

Capt.  Parker  Snow  sailed  from  Eng- 
land in  schooner  Intrepid,  in  se:irch  of 
Franklin's  companions, June,  1861 

Expedition  from  Sweden  blockaded  by 
ice  and  unable  to  accomplish  its  ob- 
jects,  May  9, 1861 


ARGENTINE  (OR  LA  PLATA)  CONFEDERATION.  Originally  fourteen,  now 
thirteen,  provinces — Buenos  Ayres  having  seceded  in  1853.  This  country 
was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1517  ;  settled  by  them  in  1553,  and  form- 
ed part  of  the  great  viceroyalty  of  Peru  till  1778,  when  it  became  that  of  Rio 
de  la  Plata.  It  joined  the  insurrection  in  1811,  and  became  independent  in 
1816.  It  was  at  war  with  Brazil  from  1826  to  1828,  for  the  possession  of 
Uruguay,  which  became  independent  at  Montevideo.  It  was  at  war  with 
France  from  1838-40.  Urquiza  was  chosen  President  for  six  years  in  1854. 
See  Buenos  Ayres. 

ARIZONA,  known  as  the  Gadsden  purchase,  a  territory  of  30,000  square  miles, 
purchased  from  Mexico  by  the  U.  S.  for  $10,000,000,  in  1855.  It  had  in  1856 
about  5,000  inhabitants,  chiefly  Mexicans.  By  act  of  Congress,  Feb.  24, 
1863,  the  territory  was  organized  and  part  of  New  Mexico  added  to  it,  the 
whole  containing  131,000  square  miles.  The  capital  is  Prescott.  The  first 
Governor  appointed,  in  1863,  was  R.  C.  McCormick.  Population  in  1866, 
white,  about  8,000. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase. 
It  was  made  a  separate  territory  in  1819,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1836.  Population  in  1830,  30,388  ;  in  1840,  97,574,  including  19,935  slaves. 
Population  in  1860,  435,450,  of  whom  111,115  were  slaves.  The  state  "se- 
ceded "  from  the  Union  May  6th,  1861.  Being  unaided  during  the  war  by  the 
Confederate  Government,  she  manufactured  her  own  war  material.  At  the 
close  of  the  rebellion  I.  Murphy  was  appointed  provisional  governor  (1865.) 
Many  of  the  plantations  have  been  divided  up  for  sale,  and  land  can  be  bought 
at  $1  to  $5.000  per  acre  (L866). 

ARMY  OF  THE  U.  S.    INCLUDING  "VOLUNTEERS.    The  following  list  is  official : 


Date.  Regulars. 

July,  1861 14,108 

Jan.  1,1862 19.871 

Jan.  1,1863 19,169 

Jan.  1,  1864 17,237 

Jan.  1,1865 14,661 


Vulunterra.  Present  for  Duty.    Aggregate. 

169,480  ....      183,588       286,751 

507,^33  527,204       175.917 

679,633  69S,8<12      918.191 

594,013  621.250      860,737 

606.263  620,924       959,460 


May  1,1865 797,807 


1,034,064 


From  May  1,  1865,  to  Jan.  20,  1866,  918,722  volunteers  were  mustered  out  of 
service.  Entire  number  of  colored  troops  during  the  war,  178,975.  By  act 
of  Congress,  July,  1866,  the  regular  army  compri;-es45  regiments  of  infantry, 
10  of  cavalry.  5  of  artillery  ;  2  regiments  of  cavalry  and  4  of  infantry  are  col- 
ored troops.  Total  number  of  regulars  in  service,  Jan.  1867,  54,300.  The 
higher  officers  are ;  1  General,  1  Lieut.-General,  5  Major-Generals,  and  10 
Brigadier- Generals.  During  1861-5  the  Pay  Department  disbursed  $1,029,- 
239,000  among  the  troops.  The  loss  of  life  in  the  Northern  armies  during  the 
war  was  280,751,  of  whom  5,221  officers  and  90,886  men  were  killed  or  died 
of  wounds,  and  2,321  officers  and  182,329  men  died  of  disease.  See  EnJist 


80  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

ment.     The  following  is  a  list  of  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  furnished  tin 
army  during  1861-65 : 

Cannon — number 7,892 

Artillery  carriages— number 11,787 

Artillery  projectiles  (shot  and  shell)— number 6,335.595 

Grape  and  canister  shot— pounclb 6,539,999 

Field  artillery  ammunition—  round*- 2.802,177 

Small  arms,  muskets,  rifles,  carbinee,  and  p  ftoi;: 3,477,655 

Swords,  sabres,  and  lance* 544,475 

Infantry  accoutrements — compieiu  scle 2,146,175 

Cavalry  accoutrements— complete  sets 216,371 

Horse  equipment.-— sets 639.544 

Two-horse  artillery  harness — self 28,164 

Horse  blankets— number 732,526 

Cartridges  for  f-mall  arms — number 1,022,176.474 

Percussion  caps  for  small  arms— numu'ct 1,220,555,435 

Cannon-primers 10,281 ,305 

Fuses  for  shell 4,2^6,877 

Gunpowder — pounds 26,440,054 

Nitre— pom, ds 6,395,152 

Lead  in  pigs  ai.d  bullets— pounds 90,416,295 

This  only  includes  what  was  consumed  in  the  army,  and  not  what  was  used  by 
the  navy. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS  (from  Artesia,  now  Artois,  in  France,  where  they  frequently 
occur)  are  formed  by  boring  through  the  upper  soil  to  strata  containing 
water,  which  has  percolated  from  a  higher  level,  and  which  rises  through  the 
boring  tube  to  that  level.  The  fountains  in  Trafalgar  Square  in  London  are 
supplied  by  two  of  these  wells.  The  great  well  at  Paris  was  completed  in 
1841,  after  eight  years  of  exertion,  by  M.  Mulct,  at  an  expense  of  about 
£12,000.  It  yielded  880,000  gallons  of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  81°  Fahr., 
in  twenty-four  hours.  These  wells  are  now  becoming  common  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  are  said  to  have  existed  in 
China  from  an  early  age.  The  U.  S.  Government  have  contemplated 
making  them  in  the  vast  western  plains  on  the  overland  route  to  California. 

ARTISTS'  FUND  SOCIETY,  N.  Y.  In  Nov.  1865,  sixty  pictures  were  con- 
tributed to  it  by  members,  which  sold  for  $7,500.  The  object  of  this  society 
is  to  assist  indigent  and  disabled  artists.  Established  in  1859. 

ARTS,  FINK.  The  progress  in  the  fine  arts  has  been  very  marked  in  the  U.  S. 
since  1850.  The  National  Academy  of  Design  founded  1828 ;  its  new  build- 
ing, the  first  in  the  United  States  wholly  designed  for  such  a  purpose,  was 
completed  and  dedicated  1864.  The  amount  annually  expended  in  the  U.  S. 
for  works  of  art  has  increased  ten-fold  in  as  many  years.  In  1864,  30  collec- 
tions of  pictures  in  N.  Y.  sold  for  $500,000.  The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Philadelphia  had  on  exhibition  in  April,  1865,  a  collection  of  over  800  pictures 
and  sculptures.  A  handsome  building  ior  the  Yale  School  of  Fine  Arts  was 
completed  at  New  Haven  in  1866,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Street.  The  first  exhibition 
was  opened  with  much  distinction  July,  1867.  Over  70  paintings  and  13 
sculptures  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  (1867)  by  the  American  Com- 
mittee ;  See  Paintings  ;  Tucket-man's  Book  of  the  Artists. 

ART  UNION.  For  distributing  works  of  art  by  lot.  The  first  was  in  Germany 
founded  at  Munich  in  1823  ;  followed  by  those  of  Berlin  (1828),  Dresden, 
Leipzic,  Bremen,  Dusseldorf,  Frankfort,  Vienna,  &c.  "  Roman  Catholic  Art- 
Unions  "  were  started  in  1851.  London  Art  Union  founded  1837;  its  receipts 
increased  in  nineteen  years  from  $5,000,  to  $90,000  per  annum.  The  first  in 
the  U.  S.,  the  Ameiican  Art  Union  (originally  the  Apollo  Association)  was 
founded  at  N.  Y.,  in  1839.  It  continued  thirteen  years,  purchasing  and  distrib- 


SUPPLEMENT,    1951-C7.  81 

uting  works  to  the  amount  of  $453,853.      It  was   closed  in  1851   as  being 
forbidden  by  the  state  laws  against  lotteries. 

ASCENSION  DAY.  This  day,  also  called  Holy  Thursday,  is  that  on  which  the 
Church  celebrates  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  fortieth  day  after  hia 
resurrection  from  the  dead,  May  14,  A.  D.  33  ;  first  commemorated,  A.  D.  68. 
Some  Christian  writers  affirm  that  Christ  left  the  print  of  his  feet  on  that  part 
of  Mount  Olivet  where  he  last  stood  ;  and  St.  Jerome  says  that  it  was  vlaible 
in  his  time. 

ASSAY  OFFICE,  U.  S.  The  one  established  in  N.  Y.  City,  in  1854  assayed 
more  than  $180,000,000,  of  gold,  in  the  seven  yearspriorto  1866.  The  follow- 
ing table,  taken  from  the  official  returns  in  the  Treasury  Department,  shows 
the  collections  on  bullion  and  the  amount  of  bullion  assayed  in  each  state  and 
territory  of  the  United  States  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1866  : 
States  and  Territories.  Collectionx  on  Bullion.  Bullion  Assayed. 

California $294,121        149,020.250 

Colorado 1,219        219860 

Idaho 3,210        535,105 

Missouri 4        815 

Nevada 91.635        15,272,246 

New  Jersey 82        13,688 

New  York 43,774        7,295,803 

Oregon 28,711        4,785,221 

Pennsylvania 24,265        4,044,218 

Khodelsland 13        2,211 

Utah 361        60.278 

Washington 837        139,533 

Total $488,377        "'.'.'.'.*.*.'.'."         $81,389,541 

The  foregoing  compilation  does  not  include  the  coinage  of  the  United  States 
Mint  at  San  Francisco,  which  amounted  to  $20,000,000. 

ASTRONOMY.  Astronomy  received  little  attention  in  the  U.  S.  prior  to  1843. 
At  that  time,  a  large  comet  suddenly  appearing,  public  interest  in  the  science 
was  awakened.  Profs.  Bond  and  Pierce,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Capt.  Davis, 
U.  S.  N.,  Prof.  Hubbard,  Naval  Academy,  Profs.  Olmstead  and  Loomis,  of 
Yale,  Prof.  0.  M.  Mitchel,  of  Cincinnati,  and  Miss  Mitchell,  of  Nantucket, 
have  contributed  largely  to  the  science.  Asteroid  No.  66  was  first  seen  from 
Harvard  College,  April  10,  1861.  Others  have  since  been  discovered.  The 
La  Lande  Astronomical  Prize,  500  francs,  was  awarded  by  the  French  Acad- 
emy of  Science  to  For  the  planets  recently  discovered  see 
Planets.  The  Dudley  Observatory  at  Albany,  chiefly  the  gift  of  Mrs.  B. 
Dudley,  inaugurated  Aug.  28, 1856.  The  progress  of  this  science  in  theU.  S. 
has  been  much  accelerated  by  the  labors  of  W.  C.  Bond  at  Cambridge,  0.  M. 
Mitchel  at  Cincinnati,  and  Miss  Mitchell  at  Nantucket,  now  of  Vassar  College, 
Poughkeepsie. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH.     See  Submarine  Telegraph. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY.  The  first  experiments  in  England  at  Wormwood 
Scrubs,  1840.  First  in  Ireland  near  Dublin,  1843,  given  up  1855.  See  Pneu- 
matic Railway. 

AUGUSTINS.  A  religious  mendicant  order,  which  ascribes  its  origin  to  St. 
Augustine,  who  died  A.  D.  430.  These  monks  really  first  appeared  in  the  12th 
century,  and  the  order  was  constituted  by  Pope  Alexander  IV.,  in  1256.  Its 
rule  requires  strict  poverty,  humility  and  chastity.  Martin  Luther  was  an 
Augustin  monk.  The  Augustins  held  the  doctrine  of  free  grace,  and  were  the 
rivals  of  the  Dominicans. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.     The  confession  of  sin  at  the  ear  (Latin  awn's |  ol 
4* 


82 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


the  priest  must  have  been  an  early  practice,  since  it  is  said  to  have  been  for- 
bidden in  the  fourth  century  by  Neetarius,  archbishop  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  first  enjoined  by  the  Council  of  Lateran  in  1215.  It  was  one  of  Six 
Articles  of  Faith  enacted  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1539,  and  by  the  Council  of  Trent ; 
but  was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Reformation.  Its  revival  in  England 
was  attempted  by  the  church  party  called  Puseyites  or  Tractarians,  but  with- 
out success. 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  OR  NORTHERN  LIGHTS.  The  most  remarkable  exhibitions 
of  this  phenomenon  on  record  are  those  of  1560  in  London,  in  the  form  of 
burning  spears  ;  1574  (described  by  Stow),  and  the  close  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury ;  again  in  1835,  1836,  and  1837.  In  Northern  Europe,  this  phenomenon, 
now  very  common,  was  very  rare  previous  the  18th  century.  In  1859-60, 
the  Aurora  was  very  brilliant  at  several  times,  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
Slates,  and  the  telegraph  wires  were  sensibly  affected  by  the  electricity. 

AUSTRALIA.  The -smallest  continent  or  largest  island  in  the  world,  about  one- 
sixth  the  size  of  North  and  South  America,  and  ten  times  larger  than  Borneo, 
its  area  being  about  3,000,0(0  square  miles.  Its  colonization  by  convicts  was 
first  proposed  at  the  close  of  the  American  war  of  Independence.  It  is  now 
divided  into  four  provinces :  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  Victoria, 
(or  Port  Philip),  and  Western  Australia  (or  Swan  River). 


Capt  Cook  landed  at  Botany  Bay.  1770 

Sydney  founded .1788 

Gov.  Biigh   for    his  tyranny   de- 


First  Oh.  of  Eng.  Bishop  (Broughton)..1836 

Melbourne  founded Nov.  1837 

Trai  sportatiou  mispended 1839 


posed  by  an  insurrection 1808  |  Transportation  ceased 1853 


AUSTRIA    See  p.  239. 

Trial  by  jury  abolished 1862 

Marriage  of  the  emperor  to  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Maxinrlian, 
duke  of  Bavaria Apr.  24, 1864 

Alliance  with  England  and 
France  on  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion  Dec.  2,  1854 

Degrading  Concordat  with 
Rome AUK.  18,1855 

Diplomatic  relations  with  Sar- 
dinia broken  off  on  ace.  of  at- 
tacks of  Sardinian  press  March,  1857 

Excitement  on  the  address  of 
Napoleon  III.  to  Austrian 
minister,  Huimer Jan.  1,  1859 

Preparations  for  war.  Banks  of 
the  Ticino  fortified 

Feb.  and  March,  1859 

Austria  demands  that  Sardinia 
disarm.  Refused Apr.  26,  1859 

Austrians  cross  the  Ticino  Apr.  2ti,  1859 


French  troops  reach  Genoa Apr.  27, 1859 

French  emperor  declares  war...  .May  3,  1859 
Austrians  defeated  at  MonteLello, 

May  20,  1859 

do  do      Palestro,  May    80-1.  1859 

do  do      Magenta,    June    4,    18i9 

do  do      Mari^nano,  June  8,  1859 

Death  of  Prince  Metternich,  set.  86, 

June  11,  1859 
Austrians    def.   at  Solferino,  June  24,   1859 

Armistice  agreed  upon July  6,  1850 

Emperors  of  France    and  Austria  meet 

July  11, 1859 

Preliminaries  of  peace  at  Villa  Fran- 
ca,   Lombardy   tc    belong   to 

Sardinia Inly  12, 1859 

Fruitless    conference    of    envoys    at 

Zurich Aug.  8,  to  Sept.  1859 

For  war  against  Denmark,  and  against 
Prussia  and  Italy,  see  Prussia. 


B 

BAALBEC,  OR  HELIOPOLIS,  both  of  which  mean  "City  of  the  Sun."  An 
ancient  city  of  Syria,  of  which  magnificent  ruins  remain,  described  by  Wood 
(in  1757)  and  others.  Its  origin  (referred  to  Solomon)  is  lost  in  antiquity. 
Antoninus  Pius  is  stated  to  have  built  a  magnificent  Temple  of  Juj.iter  here. 
The  city  was  sacked  by  the  Moslems,  A.  n.  748,  and  by  Timour  Bey,  1400. 

BADEN,  (p.  242.)  1852,  Frederic  (born  September  9,  1826),  regent  to  Sept  5, 
1856,  when  he  was  declared  grand  duke,  and  still  remains  so  (1867).  Heir, 
his  son,  Frederic  William,  born  July  9,  1857. 


.SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  83 

BALAKLAVA  (small  sea-port  in  the  Crimea),  BATTLE  OF.  Russians  aboutl2,00<> 
commanded  by  Gen.  Liprandi,  British  by  Lord  Rnglan.  In  this  battle  Lord 
Cardigan's  cavalry  made  the  famous  "  charge  of  the  light  brigade  ;"  only  199 
out  of  607  returning  from  the  charge,  Oct.  26,  1854.  Another  engagement 
here,  Russians  defeated,  losing  2,000,  Allies  losing  600,  March  22,  1855.  Elec- 
tric telegraph  between  this  place  and  London  completed  April,  1855. 

BALLOON,  (p.  243.)  An  Italian  aeronaut  ascended  from  Copenhagen, in  Den- 
mark, Sept.  14,  1851 ;  his  corpse  was  subsequently  found  on  the  sea-shore  in  a 
contiguous  island,  dashed  to  pieces.  On  June  23,  1859,  Mr.  Wise  and  three 
others  ascended  from  St  .Louis  in  a  balloon.  After  travelling  1,150  miles  they 
descended  in  Jefferson  county,  New  York,  very  narrowly  escaping  with 
their  lives.  A  monster  balloon,  constructed  by  Mr.  Lowe  for  the  professed 
intention  of  an  air-voyage  to  Europe,  was  inflated  and  exhibited  at  New  York. 
May  1860,  and  again  in  Pennsylvania,  but  the  weather  or  accident  defeated 
the  project.  Equestrian  accents  were  made  by  Green  in  London  in  1850,  and 
stopped  by  law,  1852.  In  France  nscents  on  horses  in  balloons  have  been  fre- 
quently made  since  1850.  Balloons  were  used  for  reconnoitering,  during 
the  battle  of  Solferino,  June  24,  1859;  and  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
1861-5.  Ascents  lor  scientific  observations  made  in  England  by  Jas.  Glai- 
sher,  one  ascent  reaching  7  miles,  1862-5 

BALLOT.  Secret  voting  was  practised  by  the  ancient  Greeks.  A  tract  entitled 
'•  The  Benefit  of  the  Ballot,"  said  to  have  been  written  by  Andrew  Marvell, 
was  published  in  England  in  the  "State  Tracts,"  1693.  The  ballot-box  was 
used  in  a  political  club  which  met  in  1659  at  Miles's  coffee-house,  Westminster. 
The  ballot  has  been  an  open  question  in  British  Whig  governments  since  1835. 
On  June  30,  1857,  the  House  of  Commons  rejected  the  ballot,  257  being 
against,  and  189  for  it.  It  became  part  of  the  electoral  law  of  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia, in  1856.  Secret  voting  existed  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  France 
from  1840  to  1845,  and  was  employed  also  after  the  coup  d'etat  in  1851.  In 
the  United  States  the  ballot  is  used  in  all  public  elections. 

BALL'S  BLUFF,  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  Virginia  side. 
On  October  21,  1861,  by  direction  of  Gen.  C.  P.  Stone  the  heroic  Col.  E. 
D.  Baker  crossed  the  river  to  reconnoitre.  He  attacked  the  rebel 
camp  at  Leesburg,  and  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  the  force  of  the  rebels 
having  been  misrepresented.  Treachery  was  evident  somewhere,  and  Gen. 
Stone  himself  was  arrested,  but  released  without  trial. 

BALTIMORE,  (p.  243.)  Population  in  1860,  214,037,  including  2,213  slavas. 
On  the  19th  of  April,  1861,  U.  S,  troops  passing  through  the  city  to  the  de- 
fence of  Washington  were  fired  upon  and  two  men  killed.  Military  occupa- 
tion of  the  place  by  Gen.  Butler,  May,  1861.  President  Lincoln,  who  passe  i 
through  Baltimore  (1801)  in  disguise,  to  his  first  inauguration,  was  nomina- 
ted with  great  enthusiasm  for  his  second  term  by  convention  there  assem- 
bled (1864). 

BANKING  SYSTEM,  U.  S.  Before  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  paper  currencr 
issued  from  incorporated  independent  banks.  In  1860,  there  were  in  the  U, 
S.  1,562  banks,  having  an  aggregate  capital  of  $421,880,000,  and  a  circulatioi 
of  $207,104,400.  In  1861,  the  banks  generally  were  compelled  to  suspend 
specie  payments.  The  government  established"  by  act  of  Congress  Feb.  25, 
1863,  a  uniform  national  barking  system.  An  additional  act  was  passed  June 
3,  18«4.  In  Jan.  1866,  theie  were  1,579  National  Banks.  Capital,  $403,350, 
000.  Circulation,  $213,000,000.  These  banks  deposit  bonds  with  ths  U.  3. 
Treasurv  to  the  extent  of  one-third  of  their  caoital.  There  ar3  14  citiw  CC-»« 


84 

taining  218  banks,  which  are  selected  as  points  of  redemption.  Jan.  186*7,  the 
national  bank-note  circulation  was  $291,093,294  ;  total  currency  of  the  United 
States  (circulation  and  deposits),  $1,496,672,065. 

BANKRUPTS  IN  ENGLAND,  (p.  245.)  The  number  in  1850,  was  1,298;  in  1857, 
it  was  1,488 ;  in  1858,  there  were  1,346 ;  in  1859,  there  were  959 ;  and  in  1860, 
no  less  than  8,470.  In  Scotland,  there  were  453  in  1857,  and  445  in  1860.  In 
Ireland,  73  in  1857,  and  113  in  I860. 

BANKRUPT  LAWS  IN  THE  U.  S.  A  general  bankrupt  law  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress, April  4,  1800,  and  repealed  1803.  Another  was  passed  Aug.  19,  1841, 
and  repealed  1843.  An  act  "  establishing  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy  in 
the  U.  S.,"  passed  Congress,  March,  1867,  and  is  now  in  operation  (July,  1867), 
the  "  Registers  in  Bankruptcy"  throughout  the  Union  having  been  appointed 
by  Chief  Justice  Chase,  as  prescribed  in  the  law.  In  ENGLAND,  a  Court  of 
bankruptcy  was  first  established  1831.  An  important  act  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject was  passed  1849,  amended  1854,  and  further  discussed  for  amendment 
1859.  See  Commercial  Failures. 

BANNATYNE  CLUB,  named  after  George  Bannatyne  (the  publisher),  was  estab- 
lished in  1823,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  others,  for  printing  works  illustrative 
of  the  history,  antiquities,  and  literature  of  Scotland,  of  which  about  113  vol- 
umes were  issued. 

BANNERS  were  common  to  all  nations.  The  Jewish  tribes  had  standards  or 
banners — Num.  ii.  (1491  B.  c.)  The  standard  of  Constantine  bore  the  inscrip- 
tion, in  hoc  signo  vinces — "  By  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer,"  under  the  figure 
of  the  cross.  See  Gross.  The  magical  banner  of  the  Danes,  (said  to  be  a 
black  raven  on  a  red  ground),  was  taken  by  Alfred  when  he  defeated  Hubba, 
878.  f  t.  Martin's  cap,  and  afterwards  the  celebrated  auriflamma,  or  oriflam- 
me,  were  the  standards  of  France  about  1100.  See  Auriflamma,  Standards, 
&c. 

BAPTISTS,  U.  S.  A.  (p.  246).  In  1858,  they  had  12,000  churches  with  about 
1,000,000  members.  In  1762,  they  had  56  churches  only;  1792,  1,000;  1812, 
2,432;  in  1832,5,322;  1852,  9,500:  1866  (Baptist  Almanac),  they  had  59:', 
associations,  12,702  churches,  7,867  ordained  ministers,  and  1,040,300 
members. 

BATTLES,    (p.  248.) 
In  the  British  and  French  (allies)  war  with  Russia : 


Silistria June  13-15,  1854 

A'.ma Sept.  20, 1354 

Balaklava Oct.  25,1854 

Inkerman Nov.  5,  1854 

Eupatoria.  (Turks  mid  U.)  Feb.  17,  1S55 


Tchermiya Aug.  16,1853 

Malakoff  taken  by  the  French, 

Sept.  8,  1855 
Inpour,  (Eusa.  and  Turks) Nov.  6, 1855 


Sebnstopol March  22-4, 1855 

7a  British  war  against  mutineers  in  India : 


Buidar,  (KusB.  and  French) Dec.  8, 1855 


Conflicts  before  Delhi,  Mny  30 


to  July  23, 1857 


Have-lock's  victories  before  C»wn- 


Cawnpore,  victory  of  Campbell, 


Dec.  6,  1857 


Lucknow  taken March  14-19,  1858 


pore,  .fee July  12  to  Aug.  16,  1957  |  Gwailor  (Ko^e  victorious) Jui  el  ,1858 

Assault  and  capture  of   Dt-lhi,  Begum  of  Oude  defeated Feb.  10,  185S) 

September  16-20, 1857  | 

Allied  (French  and  Sardinians)  against  Austrian*  in  Italy : 

Austrians  cross  the  Ticino.  I  M«gentn,  (Allies  vict.)... June  4,  1859 

April  27.  1859  |  M»i  srnano,  do      June  8, 1859 

Montebello  (Allies  vict.)  May  20,  1859    Solf.  rino,  do      June  24,  1S09 

i'ulestro  do          May  30,  1859  |  See  Sardinia,  Naples,  &c. 


SUPPLEMENT,   1851-67. 


85 


Naval  conflict  in  China : 

Mouth  of  the  Peiho June  25, 1859  I 


French  and  English  attack   on 
Pekin Oct.  6,1360 


BATTLES,  Austrians  against  Prussians  and  Italians,  war  of  1866. 


Battle  of  CuBtozza,  between  Ital- 
ians and  Austrian,  [Italians 
defeated]  ..............  June  24,1866 

Battle  of  Bkalltz  in  Bohemia, 
between  Austrians  and  Prus- 
sians, [Austrians  retreat]. 

July  27,  1866 

Great  battle  of  Sadowa,  between 
Austrians  and  Prussians. 


[Nearly  500,000  men  engaged. 
Prussians  completely  victo- 
rious] ...................  July  3,  I860 

Austrians  defeated  at  Olmutz, 

July  15,  1868 

Nsval  fight  off  Lissa,  between 
Italians  and  Austrians.  [Ital- 
ians lose  two  war  ships].  July  20,  1866 


BATTLES,  U.  S.     In  the  War  for  the  Union,  1861-5. 

Fort  Sumter,  Charleston,  S.  C., 
bombarded  by  the  Rebels. 

April  12.  1861 

Wilson's  Creek,  Missouri,  (Na- 
tionals retreat  and  Gen.  Lyon 


killed.)  .................  Aug.  10,  1861 

Carthage,  Mo.  (Nat.  victory) 

July  10,  1861 

Rich  Mountain,  Va.,  (Nat.  vic- 
tory) ...................  July  11,  1861 

Bull  Run,  Va.,  (Nat.  defeated) 

July  21,  1861 

Lexington,    Mo.   (Nat.    surren- 
der) ...................  Sept.  20,  1861 

Balls  Bluff,  Va.,  (Nat.  defeated, 
Gen.  Baker  killed)  ......  Oct.  21,  1861 

Mill  Spring,    Ky.    (Nat.    victo- 
rious) ..................  Jan.  19,  1862 

Roanoke    Island,    N.    C.    (Nat. 
capture  46  guns,  2.500  prison- 
ers) ...................  Feb.  7-8,  1862 

Fort  Donelsou,  Tenn.,  (Nat.  cap- 
ture 13,300  prisoners,  55  guns.) 

Feb.  16,  1862 

Pea  Ridge,   Ark.,    (Nat.   victo- 
rious) .............  March  6,  7,  8,  1862 

Shiloh,  Tenn.,  (Rebels     retreat 
after    desperate  fighting). 

April  6-7,  1862 

Island  No.  10,  Miss.  River,  sur- 
renders to  U.  S.  forces,  with  125 
guns,  6,000  prisoners.     April  7,  1862 
Williamsburg,Va,,(Rebs.  retreat) 

May  5,  1862 
Winchester,  Va.,  (Nat.  retreat) 

May  25,  1862 
Fair  Oaks,  Va.,  (Nat.  defeated) 

M:iy  31,  1862 

Seven   Pines,  Va.,  (Nat.   victo- 
rious) ...................  June  1,  1862 

Seven  Days'  Battles  near  Rich- 
mond (Nat.  repulsed). 

June  26-July  1,  1862 
Bull  Run,  Va.,  ^at.  defeated). 

Aug.  80,  1862 
Anttetam,  Md.  (Rebs.  defeated) 

Sept.  17,  1862 

Fredericksburg,  Va.,    (Nat.  de- 
feated) ................  Dec.  13,  1862 

Murfreesboro',  Tenn.,  "  Stone 
River  "  (indecisive  ;  Rebs.  re- 
treat. Nat.  loss  very  heavy). 

Dec.  31,  1862  to  Jan.  8,  1863 


Grierson's   raid  through  Missis- 

sippi .......  April  17  to  May  2,  1863 

Chancellorsville,  Va.  (Nat.  re- 

pulsed) ................  May  2;-4,1863 

Champion     Hills,     Mississippi, 

(Nat.     victorious.      Siege     of 

Vicksburg  begins)  .....  May  16,  1863 
Gettysburg,    Penn.,    (Rebs.    de- 

feated) ...............  July  1-4,  1863 

Chickaraauga,    Ga.,   (Rebs.    de- 

feated) ............  .Sept,  19-20,  1863 

Vicksburg,  Miss.  (30,000  prison- 

ers and  220  guns   surrendered 

to   U.    S.  forces    under   Gen. 

Grant)  ..................  July  4,  1863 

Port  Hudson,  La.,  (7,000  prison- 

ers surrender  to  U.  S.  forces). 

July  8,  1863 
Chattanooga,    Ga,,    (Nat.  victo- 

rious) ...............  Nov.  23-26,  1863 

National    "  Red  River   Expedi- 

tion" under  Gen.  Banks,  (de- 

feated) .................  April  8,  1864 

Wilderness,    Va.     (indecisive*; 

loss  heavy  on  both  sides). 

May  5-6,  1864 
Spottsylvania.Va.,  (Heavy  nght- 

ing,  but  Rebels  retire). 

May  10-12,  1864 
Resaca,  Georgia,  (Rebs.  retreat) 

May  15,  1864 
Cold     Harbor,     Va.,    (Nat.    re- 

pulsed) ...............  June  1-3,  1864 

Battles  about  Petersburg,  Va., 

(indecisive)  .........  June  15-19,  1864 

Sherman  fills  in  an  attack  on 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  Ga. 

June  27,  1864 
Petersburg  Mine,  Va.,  (Nat.  de- 

feated) .................  July  30,  1864 

Terrible  fighting  about  Atlanta, 

Ga.,  (Rebs.  defeat.)  July  20-22,  1864 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  taken  by  (Sherman. 

Sept.  2,  1864 
Opequan,    Va.,  (Gen.    Sheridan 

defeats  Early,  Rebel)..  Sept,  19,  1864 
Fisher's  Hill,  Va.,  (Early  again 

defeated)  ...........   .Sept.  22,  1864 

Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  (Early  totally 

defeated  after   gaining   some 

success)  ................  Oct.  19,  1804 

Sherman  starts   on    his   march 

across  Georgia  ......  ...Nov.  11,  1864 


86  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Franklin,     Tenn.,     (Rebs.    de-  j  Grant    defeats     Lee     nt     Five 

Forks,  and  continues  fighting 


feated) Nov.  30,  1864 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  (Kebs.  com- 
pletely routed,  losing  60  guns). 

Dec.  15-19,  1864 

Sherman  enters  Savannah,  Ga. 

Dec.  21,  1864 

Fort  Fifher,  N.  C.,  taken  l>y  as- 
sult  of  U.  8.  forces Jan.  15,  1866 

Kingbton,  N.  C.,  (Rebs.  re- 
pulsed)  March  10,  1865 


until  the  latter  surrendered  at 
Appomatox  Court  House,  Va. 


April  1-9,  186i 


Gen.  Johnston  (Rebel)  surren- 
ders to  Sherman  near  Raleigh, 
N.  C ApriT26,  186i 

The  l:ist  rebel  army  under  Kir- 
by  Smitli  (surrenders  wef-t  of 
the  Mississippi May  26,  1865 

For  complete  list  of  battles  and  skirmishes,  see  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia, 
1 865.  See  Naval  Battles,  Atlanta,  Antietam,  Gettysburg,  Vicksburg^  Nashville, 
Corinth. 

BAVARIA.  Louis  II.  (b.  1845),  became  king  on  death  of  his  father  Maximilian, 
March  10,  1864.  Population  of  Bavaria  1861,  4,689,837. 

BEDOUINS.  Wandering  tribes  of  Arabs,  living  on  the  plunder  of  travellers,  &c. 
They  profess  a  form  of  Mahomntedanipm,  and  are  governed  by  sheikhs.  They 
are  said  to  be  descendants  of  Ishmael,  and  appear  to  fulfil  the  prophecy  respect- 
ing him,  B.  c.  1911,  Gen.  xvi.  12.  They  are  the  scourge  of  Arabia  and 
Egypt. 

BENEVOLENCE,  BRITISH.  During  1869,  there  were  contributed  to  about  thirty 
of  the  principal  religious  societies  of  Great  Britain,  $4,262,435,  an  average  of 
$82,cOO  a  week,  over  $11,000  a  day,  and  nearly  $500  an  hour.  And  yet  this 
is  but  a  portion  of  the  amount  given  in  that  country  for  evangelical  and  be- 
nevolent purposes.  The  income  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was 
$774,530;  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  $645,380;  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  $610,440;  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  $489,490;  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  $366,440. 

BENEVOLENT  SOCIETIES,  (p.  255).  The  receipts  of  some  of  the  principal  be- 
nevolent societies  of  NeT  York  for  the  year  ending  April  30  were  : 

1857  JS58  1859               1860           1866 

Amer.  Tract  Society $348,049 

"        Bible 441.805  390.759  415,011  429,799      642,625 

"        B.C.  Foreign  Missions,  ....388,932  334,000  350,815  435,956 

"        Home  Missionary  Boc 178,060  175,970  188,189  185.216 

«'        Sunday  S-chool  Vnion (sales),  202,426  234,436 

Charities,  Missions,  etc.  In  New  York  city,  in  1866,  there  were  about  300  re- 
ligious and  benevolent  societies,  hospitals,  dispensaries,  asylums,  &c.  Total 
receipts  of  28  leading  societies  in  1866,  $4,766,698,81.  These  are  national 
organizations,  and  the  proportion  contributed  by  New  York  city  is  from  10  to 
15  per  cent. 

BIBLE  DICTIONARIES.  The  most  remarkable  are  Calmet's  "Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,"  1722-8 ;  Kitto's  "  Cyclopasdia  of  Biblical  Literature,"  (3  vols.) 
1843  and  1866;  and  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  (3  vols.)  1860.  See 
Concordances. 

BIBLIA  PAUPERUM  (the  Bible  for  the  poor),  consisting  of  engravings  illus- 
trating Scripture  history,  with  texts,  carved  in  wood,  a  "  block  book,"  printed 
parly  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  compiled  by  Bonaventura,  general  of  the 
Franciscans,  about  1260.  Afac-simile  was  published  by  J.  Russell  Smith,  in 
1859. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  The  first  that  ever  existed  was  established  by  some  Ro- 
man Catholic  prelates,  in  France,  in  1774.  Chambers**  Ed.  Cl.  The  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  distributed,  during  the  forty-five  years  ending  Jan, 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  87 

1,  1851,  more  than  twenty-three  millions  of  copies  in  one  hundred  and  forty 
different  languages.  The  American  Bible  Society,  in  fifty  years  ending  1866. 
expended  $10,434,953. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BOOKS.  The  following  works  on  this  subjecJ 
nre  highly  esteemed:  Peignot,  Manuel,  1823 ;  Home,  Introduction  to.  the 
Study  of  Bibliography,  1814;  SCRIPTURAL — Orme,  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  1824; 
Burling,  Cyclopaedia  Bibliographica,  1854-8;  CLASSICAL — the  works  of  Fabri- 
cius,  Clarke,  and  Dibdin ;  ENGMSH — Watts'  Bibliotheca  Britanuica,  1824; 
Lowndes'  Manual,  1834  (new  edition  by  Bohn,  1857-61);  FRENCH — Querard, 
1828  et  seq.  As  a  general  work  of  reference,  Brunei's  Manuel  du  Librairt^ 
1842,  is  exceedingly  valuable.  The  most  important  work  on  English  and 
American  bibliography  is  Allibone's  Dictionary  of  Authors,  2  vols.  R.  8vo., 
1859-61.  In  1866,  Mr.  John  R.  Bartlett  published  the  bibliography  of  the 
American  Civil  War,  containing  6,073  titles  of  books  and  pamphlets  relating 
to  that  struggle,  and  issued  between  1860-6. 

BIRDS.  Divided  by  Linnaeus  into  six  orders  (1735);  by  Blumenbach  into  eight 
(1805);  and  by  Cuvier  into  six  (1817).  The  most  remarkable  works  ever 
published  on  birds  are  those  by  our  American  Audubon,  and  those  by  John 
Gould  in  England ;  the  latter  will  consist,  of  thirty-one  folio  volumes  of  color- 
ed i  late*,  &c.  Each  set,  bound,  will  cost  about  £500.  Audubon's  great  work 
on  Birds  of  America  was  engraved  and  published  by  him  in  Edinburgh,  in 
four  huge  folios,  about  1835 ;  the  subscription  price  was  $800.  It  was  repro- 
duced in  seven  smaller  volumes  in  1840,  and  in  the  original  form  in  1859-60, 
at  New  York. 

BISHOPS,  U.  S.  A.  In  1866,  there  were  forty-one  Episcopal  Bishops  in  the 
United  States.  Methodist  Episcopal  Bishops  in  1865  numbered  twenty-two. 
Lieut.-Gen.  Polk  (Confederate),  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop,  was  killed  near 
Kenesaw  Mountain,  Georgia,  June  14,  1864.  In  1859  the  Catholic  Bishops 
numbered  forty-five. 

BLACK  LETTER.  Employed  in  the  first  printed  books  in  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  first  printing  types  were  Gothic,  but  they  were  modi- 
fied into  the  present  Roman  type  about  1469,  Pliny's  Natural  History  being 
then  printed  in  the  new  characters. 

BLACK-MAIL.  A  compulsory  payment  made  in  parts  of  Scotland  by  the  Low- 
landers  to  the  Highlanders,  for  the  protection  of  their  cattle ;  existed  till  within 
a  few  months  of  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  1745.  It  rendered  agricultural 
improvement  almost  impossible. 

BLIND.  The  first  public  school  for  the  blind  was  established  by  Valentine 
Haiiy,  at  Paris,  in  1784.  The  first  in  England  was  at  Liverpool,  in  1791 ;  in 
Scotland,  in  Edinburgh,  in  1792  ;  and  the  first  in  London  in  1799.  Printing 
in  raised  or  embossed  characters  for  the  use  of  the  blind  was  begun  at  Paris 
by  Haiiy  in  1786.  The  whole  Bible  was  printed  at  Glasgow  in  raised  Roman 
characters  about  1848.  There  is  hardly  any  department  of  human  knowledge 
ih  which  blind  persons  have  not  obtained  distinction.  Laura  Bridgman,  bcrn 
in  1829,  became  dumb  and  blind  two  years  after :  she  was  so  well  taught  by 
Dr.  Howe,  of  Boston,  U.  S.,  as  to  become  an  able  instructor  of  blind  and  dumb 
persons.  By  the  census  of  1851,  there  were  in  Great  Britain,  21,487  blind 
persons,  11,273  males;  10,214  females:  about  one  blind  in  975.  ASYLUMS  FOR 
THE  BLIND.  The  number  in  the  U.  S.  in  1860  was  20.  The  first  one  was  the  "Per- 
kins Institution  and  New  England  Asylum,"  founded  at  Boston  in  1832,  by 
Dr.  Howe  and  Col.  Perkins.  New  York  Institute  for  the  Blind,  1832.  Phil- 


88  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

adelphia  Institute,  1833.  Institute  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  1837.  At  Raleigh,  R 
C.,  1848.  Number  of  blind  persons  in  the  U.  S.  in  1860,11,125.  Estimated 
at  about  the  same  number  in  1866. 

BOLIVIA.  A  republic  in  South  America,  formerly  of  Peru;  was  declared  indepen- 
dent, Aug.  6,  and  took  the  name  of  Bolivia,  in  honor  of  General  Bolivar,  Aug. 
11,  1826.  The  insurrection  of  the  ill-used  Indians,  under  Tupac  Amaru  Andres, 
took  place  in  1780-2.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  1836.  General  Sucre  govern- 
ed ably  from  1826-8;  Santa  Cruz  ruled  from  1828  to  1834;  after  which 
many  disorders  occurred.  In  1853  Iree  trade  was  proclaimed.  General  Cor- 
dova president,  1855-7,  was  succeeded  by  Jose  Maria  Lenares,  1859,  Gen. 
Cordova,  1860  and  Jose  M.  de  Acha,  1861.  Population  in  1855,  2,326,126. 

BOLOGNA,  (p.  264.)  During  the  Italian  war  of  1859,  the  Romagna  threw  off  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Pope,  and  voted  for  annexation  to  Sardinia.  On 
Oct.  2,  the  provisional  government  at  Bologna  decreed  that  all  public  acts 
should  be  headed  "  under  the  reign  of  Victor  Emmanuel." 

BOOK-TRADE,  UNITED  STATKS.  (p.  266.)  The  number  of  new  books  recorded  as 
published  during  one  year  ending  June  30,  1851,  was  1,261.  No  accurate 
statistics  have  been  compiled  in  recent  years.  In  1855  the  number  of  new 
works  and  new  editions  recorded  as  then  first  published  in  the  U.  S.  was  about 
2,400.  There  were  in  the  U.  6.  (1860)  about  3,000  booksellers  and  400  pub- 
lishers. In  1864  there  were  2,028  separate  publications;  in  1865,  1,802,  of 
which  about  80  were  histories  and  stories  of  the  late  war.  The  increased  cost  of 
paper  and  labor  has  raised  the  price  of  books  about  60  to  80  per  cent,  since 
the  rebellion  began. 

BOOK-TRADE  of  GREAT  BRITAIN,  (p.  265.)  Number  of  new  publications  in 
1850,  4,400.  In  1859  there  were  5,507  different  works  entered  for  copyright, 
and  4,066  volumes  and  pieces  of  music.  This  is  an  increase  of  700  per  cent, 
on  the  returns  of  1828:  about  400  percent,  on  those  of  1836,  and  about  50 
per  cent,  on  those  of  1854.  IP  18tf4  the  number  of  publications  was  3,553. 

BOOK-TRADE,  FRANCE,  (p.  266.)  The  value  of  books  imported  in  1855,  was 
1,829,470  francs.  Value  of  exports,  12,344,855  francs;  increased  of  exports 
since  1851,  30  per  cent.- 

BORNEO,  an  island  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  largest  in  the  world  except  Ai  s- 
tralia,  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1526.  The  Dutch  traded  here  in 
1604,  established  factories  in  1776,  and  still  remain  on  the  island.  The  Brit- 
ish chastised  Bornean  pirates  in  1813,  and  again  1843,  and  in  1846  they  took 
possession  of  a  part  of  the  island,  Sir  James  Brooke  being  appointed  "Rajah 
cf  Sarawak."  An  English  bishop  for  the  island  consecrated  at  Calcutta,  Oct.  18, 
1855.  Insurrection  of  Chinese  in  Sarawak,  Feb.  18,  1857  ;  subdued  by  Brooke, 
and  2,000  insurgents  killed.  British  government  urged  to  purchase  Sarawak, 
Nov.  1868,  but  declined. 

BOSTON,  U.  S.  A.  (p.  268.)  The  population  in  1850  was  136,881  ;  in  1856, 160,5^8 
in  18HO,  177,902.  Free  Public  Library,  a  noble  institution,  first  opened  18c8. 
Population  in  1867,  estimated  at  200,000.  In  1867,  an  act  was  passed  by 
the  legislature  uniting  Roxbury  with  Boston  ;  this  was  vetoed  by  the  governor. 
During  the  last  twelve  years,  she  has  spent  for  teachers.  $0,668,000 ;  for  school- 
houses,  $1,600,000 ;  incidentals,  $1,357,000— a  total  of  $6,  629,358,  which  is 
claimed  to  be  a  larger  proportionate  expenditure  than  that  of  any  other  city 
in  the  world  for  educational  purposes.  The  salary  of  the  Principals  iu  the  sev- 
eral high  schools  is  $4,000. 

BOUNDARY  QUESTIONS  BETWEEN  THE  TJ.  S.  AND  ENGLAND.    The  "  Nor  th-East 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  89 

Boundary  "  between  Maine  and  the  British  possessions  adjusted  by  the 
Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  at  Washington,  1842.  The  Oregon  Boundary, 
adjusted  by  treaty  at  London,  June  18,  1856. 

BRAZIL,  (p.  272.)  First  steamship  line  to  Europe,  1850  ;  Slave  trade  sup- 
pressed,  1852  ;  Railways  commenced,  1852  ;  Rio  Janeiro  lighted  with  gas, 
1854.  War  with  Uruguay.  Brazilians  march  on  Montevideo,  Feb.  2,  1865. 
Alliance  with  Argentine  Republic  ;  the  emperor  joins  the  army  against  Lopez, 
pres't  of  Paraguay,  Aug.  1865.  First  steamship  line  from  New  York  to 
Brazil,  established  through  the  agency  of  Rev.  J.  C.  Fletcher,  186-.  Kiddei 
and  Fletcher's  work  on  Brazil  (the  most  comprehensive)  published  in  succes- 
sive editions  1859-1867.  Prof.  Agassiz,  scientific  explorations  in  Brazil, 
1866.  Preliminary  steps  taken  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  empire,  April,  1867. 
The  plan  is  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  20  years. 

BREWERIES,  TJ.  S.  The  number  of  them  in  the  Northern  States  in  1860,  waa 
969.  In  that  year  3,235,345  barrels  of  ale  and  beer  were  manufactured. 
Number  in  New  York  State  in  1865,  201.  Philadelphia  has  a  greater  num- 
ber of  breweries  than  any  other  city. 

BRIBERY  IN  THE  U.  S.  An  attempt  to  bribe,  though  unsuccessful,  has  been 
held  a  criminal  offence  in  Virginia.  Indictments  for  bribery  have  been  rare 
in  this  country. 

BRIBERY  AT  ELECTIONS  IN  ENGLAND,  (p.  217.)  Borough  of  St.  Albans  disfran- 
chised for  bribery,  1852.  Elections  at  Derby  and  other  places  declared  void 
by  bribery  in  1853,  and  at  other  places  1857-9. 

BRICKS.  In  the  U.  S.  very  fine  bricks  come  from  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
Milwaukee,  Wis.  Number  of  brickmakers  in  1860,  13,700.  The  time  for 
burning  bricks  is  8  or  4  days  ;  16  cords  of  wood  are  necessary  to  100,000 
bricks  (Prof.  Mather).  A  patent  for  pressing  brick  was  granted  in  1847  to  Mr. 
Sawyer,  of  Baltimore.  A  brick-machine  patented  by  Mr.  Gard,  of  Chicago, 
1866,  turns  out  by  steam-power  25,000  bricks  per  day.  Number  of  manufac- 
tories in  the  U.  S.  in  1860,  1,595.  Annual  value-  of  "products,  $10,253,734. 

BRIDGES,  U.  S.  The  famous  natural  bridge  in  Virginia,  Rockbridge  co.,  is 
100  feet  long  over  a  chasm  215  feet  deep.  Another  in  Walker  co.,  Alabama, 
120  feet  long  and  70  high.  There  are  also  two  in  California,  Calaveras  co., 
remarkable  1'or  their  immense  arches.  The  finest  stone  bridge  in  the  U.  S.  is 
High  Bridge  across  Harlem  river,  N.  Y. ;  it  is  1,450  feet  long,  114  feet  high, 
and  is  supported  on  14  arches.  The  Schuylkill  R.  R.  bridge  at  Philadelphia, 
has  a  single  span  of  340  feet.  The  first  suspension  bridge  in  the  U.  S.  was 
built  by  Mr.  Finley  about  1800.  The  Wheeling  bridge  over  the  Ohio,  with  a 
span  of  1,000  feet,  was  put  up  in  1848  and  blown  down  in  1854.  The  R.  R. 
suspension  bridge  over  the  Niagara  was  built  by  Mr.  Roebling  ;  completed  in 
1858.  The  span  is  821  feet ;  height  245  feet ;  14,500  wires  are  used  in  the 
cables.  The  Covington  and  Cincinnati  suspension  bridge  is  2,252  feet  long. 
Height  of  pier,  80  feet ;  width,  45  feet ;  size  of  cable,  12  inches  ;  cost 
$1,750,000.  The  R.  R.  bridge  across  the  Susquchanna  at  Havre  de  Grace  is 
3,273  feet  long;  completed  in  1865,  after  4  years  work  of  about  1,000 men. 
It  is  a  trestle-work  with  arches,  and  rests  on  solid  piers  sunk  in  the  river. 
Cost,  $1,500,000. 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.  The  Rev.  Frnncis,  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  died 
in  April,  1829,  leaving  by  will,  £8,000  to  be  given  to  eight  persons,  appointed 
by  the  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  should  write  each  an  essay  on  the 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God  as  manifested  in  the  Creation.  Th« 


90  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

essays  (by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  Drs.  T.  Chalmers,  John  Kidd,  William  Buckia.id. 
William  Prout,  J.  M.  Roget,  and  the  Revs.  William  Whewell  and  William 
Kirby)  were  published  in  1834-37. 

BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE.  It  holds  annual 
meetings,  the  first  of  which  was  held  at,  York  in  1831.  One  of  its  main  ob 
jects  is  to  promote  the  intercourse  of  those  who  cultivate  science.  A  volume 
containing  reports  of  the  proceedings  is  published  annually. 

BRITISH  AMERICA.  United  by  act  of  Parliament  under  the  name  of  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  1867. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM,  (p.  275).  In  1846  the  Right  Hon.  Tbos.  Grenville 
bequeathed  to  the  Museum  his  library,  consisting  of  20,240  vols.  The  Assy- 
rian sculptures  and  other  treasures  were  collected  by  Mr.  Layard  between 
1847-50.  Great  additions  to,  and  improvements  in  the  building  have  lately 
been  made  by  the  munificence  of  Parliament,  independently  of  a  large  annual 
grant  for  scientific  purposes.  The  present  magnificent  reading-room  was 
opened  to  the  public,  May  11,  1857.  Tue  room  contains  about  80,000  vols., 
and  will  accommodate  300  readers.  The  library  contains  about  562,000  vols., 
exclusive  of  tracts,  MSS.,  &c.  The  alphabetical  catalogue  was  completed 
from  A  to  H  in  May,  1858  in  above  1,000  folio  vols. 

BROOKLYN,  on  Long  Island,  but  really  a  suburb  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in 
1800  had  but  3,298  inhabitants;  in  1830  it  had  15,292;  in  1855  (then  con- 
solidated with  Williamsburg)  it  had  205,250.  In  1860,  it  had  273,425  ;  in 
1865,  296,378.  See  Additions. 

rUDDIIISM.  The  religion  formerly  of  India,  and  now  of  a  large  part  of  Asia 
beyond  the  Ganges  and  Japan,  from  which  Brahminism  is  derived.  Buddha, 
or  the  Wise,  flourished  about  1,000  or  1,100  B.  c.  The  Buddhists  believe 
that  the  soul  is  an  emanation  from  God,  and  that,  if  it  continues  virtuous,  it 
will  undergo  various  changes  of  abode.  Buddhism  was  expelled  from  India 
about  A.  D.  596. 

BUENOS-AYRES,  S  America,  (p.  278.)  The  independence  of  the  province 
was  declared  July  19,1616,  and  it  was  recognized  in  February,  1822,  as  form- 
ing part  of  the  Argentine  Confederation;  but  for  some  years  the  country  was 
a  prey  to  civil  w>ir  under  various  leaders,  among  whom  were  Oribe,  Urquiza, 
and  Rosas  The  last  was  defeated  in  battle,  Feb.  3,  1852,  by  Urquiza,  to 
whom  Buenos-Ayres  capitulated,  and  Rosas  fleeing  to  England,  arrived  at 
Plymouth,  April  25,  1852.  General  Urquiza  having  been  deposed  Sept.  10, 

1852,  invested    the   city,  Dec.  28.        He    defeated  his   opponent's  squadron, 
April  18,  1853,  but  withdrew  his  forces,  July  13.  and  the  civil  war  ended.     In 

1853,  Buenos-Ayres  seceded  from  the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  has  been 
generally  recognized  as  an  independent  state.      Dr.  D.  Pastor  Obligado  was 
elected  governor,  Oct.  12,  1853.      Dr.  Valentin  Alsina  was  elected  governor 
for  three  years,  May,  1857.     Population  in  1854  about  350,000. 

BUILDING  SOCIETIES,  for  mutual  benefit  of  persons  of  limited  means  who 
would  build  or  buy  their  houses  economically,  are  said  to  have  originated  at 
Kirkcudbright,  Scotland.  A  large  number  were  organized  in  New  York  m 
1848-49,  but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  generally  sustained. 

BURMESE  OR  BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  For  the  events  of  war  with  England,  and  of 
the  Burmese  war  commenced  in  1851,  see  India.  The  province  of  Pegu 
annexed  to  British  empire,  Dec.  20,  1852.  War  declared  at  an  end,  June  20, 
1863. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  91 

c 

CABINET,  U.  S.,  See  Administration*. 

CABRIOLET.  One-horsed  cabriolets  (vulgo,  cabs)  were  introduced  in  Londol 
as  public  conveyances  in  1823,  when  the  number  in  use  was  12.  In  183C 
they  had  increased  to  165.  In  1859  there  were  in  London  5,500  cabs,  of 
which  about  1,500  ply  on  Sunday.  Hackney-coaches  there  are  now  almost 
extinct.  In  1853  the  legal  fare  was  made  6d.  per  mile.  In  New  York  and 
other  Amer.  cities,  a  clumsy  style  of  cab  was  introduced  in  1844-5,  but  not 
being  a  desirable  shape  they  were  not  popular,  and  soon  disappeared.  An 
improved  pattern — the  coupe,  was  again  introduced,  1865-6,  and  is  used  to  some 
extent. 

CALENDS  were  the  first  days  of  the  Roman  months.  The  Nones  of  March, 
May,  July,  and  October,  fell  on  the  7th  ;  and  their  Ides  on  the  1 5th.  The 
other  months  had  the  Nones  on  the  5th  and  the  Ides  on  the  13th.  As  the 
Greeks  had  no  Calends,  ad  Grcecas  Calendas,  "  on  the  Greek  Calends,"  meant 
never. 

CALIFORNIA,  (p.  286.)  In  1831  the  population  (Mexican)  was  estimated  at 
23,000.  By  the  census  of  1850  the  number  was  92,597  ;  by  that  of  1852  it 
was  2t>4,435,  of  whom  only  22,193  were  white  females.  In  1856  the  popula 
tion  was  518,380,  of  whom  336,380  were  Americans;  15,000  Mexicans; 
10,000  Irish;  10,000  Germans;  2,OoO  English;  and  15,000  various  (white) 
nationalities  ;  50,000  Chinese  ;  65,000  Indians.  From  1849  to  1857  inclusive, 
75,801  Chinese  arrived  at  San  Francisco,  of  whom  17,524  returned  during  the 
same  time.  Population  in  I860,  380,000  ;  in  1866,  nearly  500,000.  In  1865 
there  were  947  schools  in  the  State,  and  over  100  newspapers  and  periodicals. 
From  1848  to  1864,  her  mines  produced  $816,500,000.  Of  this  $541,600,000 
has  been  coined  at  the  mints.  In  1866,  the  export  of  gold  was  $44,360,000. 
Over  18,000,000  bushels  of  cereals  were  produced  in  1863;  17,000,000  vines 
were  growing  in  1866,  giving  1,252,000  gallons  of  superior  wine. 

CALORIC  ENGINE.  First  reduced  to  practice  by  John  Ericsson  in  London  in 
1833,  and  then  considered  a  success,  but  not  made  practically  available  till 
1862.  In  that  year  it  was  introduced  in  a  ship  of  2,000  tons  which  it  propelled 
from  New  York  to  Alexandria  in  the  Potomac  and  back  in  very  rough 
weather,  February,  1853.  This  achievement  created  great  excitement  in  the 
scientific  world,  but  the  speed  attained  was  not  commercially  sufficient. 
Subsequently  Ericsson  devised  an  engine  that  for  all  purposes  requiring  a 
moderate  power,  has  proved  entirely  successful,  and  is  now  extensively  used 
in  the  United  States,  Cuba,  Canada,  and  in  many  South  American  and  Euro- 
pean States.  It  is  inexplosive,  entirely  free  from  danger,  consumes  but  little 
fuel  and  requires  no  water.  Innumerable  motors  have  been  planned  and 
patented  by  men  of  science  during  the  last  hundred  years,  but  the  only  one 
(other  than  steam-engines)  that  has  become  an  article  of  use  and  commerce 
is  Ericsson's  Caloric  Engine,  patented  in  the  United  States,  Dec.  14,  1858. 
It  establishes  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  motive  power. 

CA.NADA.  Ottawa,  formerly  Bytown,  was  appointed  the  capital  in  1858.  A 
regiment  of  the  line  (the  100th)  spontaneously  raised  in  1858.  The  upper  and 
lower  provinces  united  and  designated  Canada  East  and  Canada  West.  Sir 
Edmund  Head  gov.  gen.  1854,  Grand  Trunk  Railway  850  miles  long,  from 
Quebec  to  Toronto,  with  branch  to  Portland,  Maine,  opened  Nov.  12,  1856. 
Victoria  Bridge  at  Montreal  completed  1860,  and  opened  with  great  ceremony 
by  tfie  Prince  of  Wales,  1860.  Population  in  1852:  Upper  Canada,  982,004; 


92  THE  WOBLD'S  PEOGBESS. 

Lower  Canada,  890,261.  In  1857  it  was  estimated  thus:  I'pper  Canada, 
1,305,923  ;  Lower,  1,220,514.  The  value  of  exports  in  1857  was  £6,751,666. 
Lord  Monck  gov.  gen.  Nov.  28,  1861.  Population  in  1861,  2,506,755.  Products 
of  the  U.  S.  imported  into  Canada  under  the  "  Reciprocity  Treaty,"  in  1862, 
$14,430,626.  Imports  in  1864,  $50,619,217.  Exports,  $33,317,873.  Total 
militia  force,  (1863)  305,140.  Length  of  Railways,  2,000  miles.  In  Oct.  1864, 
a  raid  from  the  Canada  side  into  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  by  fome  confederates, 
created  great  excitement  in  both  countries.  Gen.  Dix,  U.  S.  A.,  ordered  that 
U.  S.  troops  should  cross  the  lines  and  capture  such  raiders,  if  not  surrender- 
ed. The  government  revoked  the  order  promptly.  The  "Dominion  of  Can- 
ada," consisting  of  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Canadas,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  &c.,  established  by  the  Queen's  consent,  1867. 

CANALS,  (p.  288.)  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  (Md.),  cost  $10,000,000 ; 
completed  ;  the  Lachine  canal,  in  Canada,  32  miles,  cost  $235,934  per 

mile;  the  Erie  canal  cost  $19,679  per  mile.  Number  of  miles  completed  in 
1858,  388  ;  cost  $90,000,000.  Tolls  received  from  U.  S.  canals  in  1866,  $4,- 
436,639.  Number  of  boats,  485.  By  the  Erie  canal  2,235,700  tons  of  pro- 
duce  from  the  west  were  brought  to  tide-water. 

CANCER.  A  hospital  to  receive  persons  suffering  from  this  fearful  disease  was 
founded  by  Miss  Burdett  Coutts,  at  Brompton,  near  London,  on  May  30, 1859. 
Experiments  to  cure  it  by  acetic  acid  in  progress  in  New  Haven  and  New  York 
(1866-7). 

CANNON,  (p.  290.)  In  1820  the  maximum  size  of  guns  in  American  forts  was 
a  24-pounder;  in  1850  the  largest  was  10-inch  bore,  carrying  balls  of  124  Ibs. 
A  vol.  of  reports  of  experiments  in  gunmaking  was  published  by  the  U.  S. 
Ordnance  Department  in  1856.  Just  before  the  rebellion  Captain  Pairott  in- 
vented, at  West  Point,  a  rifled  gun  of  great  efficiency.  The  10-pounder  has 
a  range  of  5,000  yard?.  The  800-pounder  can  throw  a  shot  of  250  Ibs.  5J 
miles.  The  guns  invented  by  Major  Rodman  during  the  war  have  a  smooth 
chamber ;  calibre,  from  8  to  20  inches.  The  first  20-inch  gun  was  cast  at  Pitts- 
burg  in  1864;  weight,  116,000  Ibs.;  weight  of  shot,  1,000  Ibs.;  charge,  100 
Ibs.  of  powder.  The  guns  generally  in  use  in  the  navy  were  invented  by  Capt. 
Dahlgren,  U.  S.  N.  The  9  and  11-inch  bores  are  unequalled  i'or  powerful  ef- 
fect in  close  action.  An  enormous  Columbiad  is  mounted  at  Fortress  Monroe, 
carrying  shot  of  525  Ibs.  weight.  From  1861  to  1866  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment (U.  S.)  provided  7,892  cannon  for  the  army  and  navy.  Steel  cannon 
were  first  manufactured  in  the  U.  S.  by  Mr.  N.  Wiard  of  New  York,  June, 
1861.  In  England,  since  1850,  great  improvements  in  cannon  have  been, 
made  by  Whitworth,  Mallett,  Armstrong  and  others.  Dahlgren  of  the  U.  S. 
navy  (now  Admiral)  and  others  have  also  invented  new  constructions.  An 
American  cannon  weighing  35  tons  was  cast  in  1860. 

CANTON,  (p.  291.)  In  consequence  of  an  outrage  on  a  British  vessel  the  forts 
guarding  the  city  were  captured,  and  Canton  was  bombarded,  Oct.  29,  1856, 
by  order  of  Sir  J,  Bowring,  who  was  afterwards  censured  by  a  vote  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  Canton  taken  by  the  British  and  French,  Dec.  29, 1857, 
and  Yeb,  the  governor,  was  sent  to  Calcutta  a  prisoner. 

CAPITOL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  corner-stone  of  the  original  edifice  was 
laid  by  Washington,  Sept.  18,  1798.  It  was  burnt  by  the  British  1814;  re- 
stored 1818.  Corner-stone  of  the  new  wings  laid  by  Pres.  Fillmore,  July, 
1851.  The  present  structure  is  751  feet  long,  and  covers  3^  acres.  The  co- 
lossal statue  of  Freedom,  by  Crawford,  was  raised  to  the  top  of  the  dome  Dec. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  93 

2,  1868.  The  iron  dome  cost  $900,000.  Up  to  Nov.,  1862,  the  cost  of  the  mar- 
ble and  the  setting  of  the  same  was  $2,402,000. 

CARICATURES.  The  modern  caricatures  of  Gilray  Rowlandson  (H.  B.),  (John 
Doyle  Jo  =  HB),  R.  Doyle  and  J.  Leech  are  justly  celebrated.  The  well-known 
"Punch"  was  first  published  in  1841.  The  most  eminent  writers  of  fiction 
(Douglas  Jerrold,  Thackeray,  A'Becket,  Professor  E.  Forbes,  &c.)  have  con- 
tributed to  this  amusing  periodical.  "  Vanity  Fair,"  commenced  in  New 
York,  1860,  enlisted  some  of  the  best  American  talent  in  this  department,  but 
was  short-lived.  See  Satire. 

CARNIVAL.  (Carni  vale,  Italian,  i  e.,  Flesh,  farewell!)  A  well-known  festival  time 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  observed  in  Italy,  particularly  at  Venice,  about 
Shrove-tide  or  beginning  of  Lent.  This  is  a  season  of  mirth  and  indulgence, 
and  numbers  visit  Italy  during  its  continuance. 

CAROLINA.— See  N.  and  S.  Carolina. 

CARPET  MANUFACTURE. — The  value  of  carpets  manufactured  in  Mass,  in 
1855  was  $1,362,000.  Carpets  imported  into  the  U.  S.  in  1857,  valued  at  $2- 
181,200.  In  1866  there  were  200  carpet  manufactories  in  the  country,  but  of 
these  only  six  were  capable  of  producing  the  fine  class  of  carpeting  required., 
in  the  best  houses. 

CARTES  DE  VISITE.  The  small  photographic  portraits  thus  termed,  are  mid 
to  have  been  first  taken  at  Nice,  by  M.  Ferrier,  in  1857.  The  Duke  of  Pa..'ma 
had  his  portrait  placed  upon  his  visiting  cards,  and  his  example  was  soon  fol- 
lowed in  Paris,  London,  and  in  the  United  States. 

CASUALTIES  FOR  1865.  During  the  year  1865,  there  were  854  fires  in  the 
United  States  where  the  amount  ol  loss  was  $20,000  or  upwards,  at  which 
property  was  destroyed  amounting,  as  estimated,  to  $43,139,000.  The  losses 
by  fire  from  1855  to  1865,  inclusive,  were  $214,588,000.  During  the  year 
there  were  183  railroad  accidents,  by  which  335  persons  were  killed  and  1,4'27 
wounded;  and  32  steamboat  accidents,  by  which  1,788  were  killed,  and  265 
woundod.  During  the  last  twelve  years  there  were  1,413  railroad  accidents, 
by  which  2, '204  were  killed,  and  8,356  wounded ;  and  324  steamboat  accidents, 
by  which  5,372  were  killed,  and  1,579  wounded. 

CAUCASUS,  (p.  297.)  The  subjugation  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  has  long  been 
the  object  of  the  Russians,  and  seems  now  almost  achieved  by  the  capture  of 
Sohamvl  (Sept.  7,  1859),  who  was  honorably  received  by  the  czar. 

CAWNPORE.  A  town  in  India;  during  the  mutiny  in  1857,  was  garrisoned  by 
native  troops  under  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler.  They  revolted  and  were  joined  by 
Nana  Sahib,  who  captured  the  place,  June  26,  and  massacred  great  numbers 
of  the  British,  without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  Cawnpore  was  retaken  by  Have- 
lock,  July  17,  1857. 

CAYENNE,  (p.  298.)  Many  political  prisoners  have  been  sent  here  by  the 
French  emperor  since  1852. 

CEMETERIES,  NATIONAL.  For  soldiers  of  the  U.  S.  who  fell  in  battle  or  died 
in  the  service.  In  June,  1866,  there  were  41  National  Cemeteries,  with  104,- 
528  graves.  Ten  more  were  to  be  added,  containing  a  total  of  249, 397  graves. 
The  "  Antietam  National  Cemetery,"  has  8,0;>0  graves,  half  of  them  marked 
"  unknown."  Provision  made  by  Congress  in  1867  for  substantial  headstones 
and  improvements.  Oration  delivered  by  President  Lincoln  at  the  dedication 
of  the  Gettysburg  Cemetery,  July  4,  1864.  In  the  suburbs  of  New  York,  sev- 
eral new  rural  cemeteries  have  been  opened  (1840-67),  viz.,  Woodlawn, 
Calvary,  The  Evergreens,  &c. 


94  THB   WORLD'S  §  PROGRESS. 

CENSUS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  has  been  taken  at  eight  different  periods,  vir, 
1790.  1800,  1810,  1820,  1830,  1840,  1850,  and  1860.  See  Population.  The 
Census  is  taken  by  the  general  government  every  ten  years;  that  of  New 
York,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Florida  is  by  those  states  taken  decennially  at 
intermediate  periods,  thus  giving  returns  every  five  years.  Other  states  have 
different  periods  for  a  census.  In  1866,  it  was  taken  in  the  states  of  Illinois, 
Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Oregon,  Alabama,  Rhode  Island,  and  Iowa. 
The  number  of  persons  employed  in  taking  the  U.  S.  census  of  1860  was  4,481 ; 
expense  to  the  Government,  $1,045,206. 

CENSUS  REPORTS,  U.  S.  In  1700,  the  entire  population  of  the  Anglo-Ameri- 
can colonies  was  262,000;  in  1750,  it  was  1,000,000  ;  in  1775,  2,389,300.  In 
1790,  the  population  of  the  United  States  alone  was  3,929,827  ;  and  in  1860, 
81,443,621.  Anticipated  population  in  1900,  107,000,000.  The  unimproved 
lands  of  the  United  States,  in  1860,  amounted  to  244,101, 818  acres  ;  improved 
lands,  163,^10,720  acres;  cash  value  of  the  whole  estimated  at  $6,645,045,007. 
Estimated  product  of  our  manufactures  in  1860,  $4,000,OiOO,0(  "0.  Com- 
mercial railroads  in  the  United  States,  35,935  miles,  costing  $1,432,649, 
000.  Civy  railroads,  402  miles,  costing  $14,862,840.  Slack-water  canals 
and  branches,  118,  of  which  68  cost  $147,393,997.  Real  and  personal  property 
estimated  at  $19,089,156,289.  Educational  institutions  reported,  113,006  ; 
teachers,  148,742 ;  students,  5,417,880.  Collegiate  institutions,  445 ;  students, 
54,969.  Churches,  54,000.  Newspapers,  4,051  ;  circulation,  928,000,000 
copies.  Revolutionary  army,  from  1775  to  1783,  231,791;  vessels,  4.  In 
1812,  regulars,  32,360;  volunteers,  6,000;  militia,  30,000;  navy,  8  frigates, 
and  170  gun-boats.  In  1815,  276  vessels,  with  1,636  guns.  In  March,  1865, 
we  had  684  vessels  of  war,  with  4,477  guns,  many  of  them  of  large  calibre  ; 
and  the  aggregate  number  of  men  raised  for  the  Union  armies  was  2,688,uOO. 
If  the  Confederate  forces  be  added,  the  grand  total  would  be  reached  of 
4,000,000  of  men  at  arms — the  largest  force  ever  yet  raised  in  any  country 
or  age  of  the  world. —  Christian  Almanac, 

CHALDEA.  The  ancient  name  of  Babylonia,  but  afterwards  restricted  to  the  S. 
AV.  portion  of  it,.  The  Chaldeans  were  devoted  to  astronomy  and  astrology. 
See  Dan.  2,  &c. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD,  ENGLAND,    (p.  245) 


Sir  Thomas  Wilde,  created  Lord 

Truro 1850 

Sir  Edw.  jSuudcn,  created  Lord 

•    St.  Leo  nrds 1852 

Robert  Mousey   Rolfe,    created 
Lord  Oanwortb 1852 


Sir  Fred.  Thesiper,  created  Lord 

Chelingford 1858 

John,  Lord  Ctmipbeli 1859 

Richard  Bethel,  Lord  Wi-stbury. 

June'26,  1861 
Thomas,  Lord  Cranworth,  :ig;,in 

July  6, 1865 

CHANCE  LLORSVILLE,  Virginia,  U.  S.,  named  from  a  hotel,  once  kept  by  a  Mr. 
Chancellor,  was  the  site  of  severe  sanguinary  conflicts,  on  May  2,  3,  and  4, 
1863,  between  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  under  General  Hooker,  and  the  rebels 
under  General  Lee.  On  Apr,  28,  the  Union  army  ciossed  the  Rapp;ihannock ; 
on  May  2,  General  "  Stonewall "  Jackson  furiously  attacked  and  routed  the 
right  wing,  but  was  mortally  wounded  by  his  own  party  firing  on  him  by  mis- 
take. Gen.  Stuart  took  his  command,  and  after  a  severe  conflict  on  May  3 
and  4,  with  great  loss  to  both  parties,  Hooker  was  compelled  to  retreat  across 
the  Rappahannock.  The  struggle  has  been  compared  to  that  at  Hougomont 
during  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  Jackson  died  May  9. 

CHANCERY.  In  the  U.  S.  federal  courts  equity  and  law  are  both  administered, 
and  this  system  was  adopted  by  the  state  of  N.  Y.  in  her  Constitution  of  184ft 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  Ofl 

CHARITIES  OF  THE  WAR  IK  THE  TL  S.  A  careful  statement  made  o'(  the 
amount  contributed  by  the  people  of  the  loyal  states  for  philanthropic  pur- 
poses connected  with  the  war,  not  including  the  donations  for  religious  or 
educational  objects,  gives  the  following  noble  record  :  The  total  contributions 
from  states,  counties,  and  towns  for  the  aid  and  relief  of  soldiers,  amounted 
to  $187,209,608.62;  the  contributions  of  associations  and  individuals  for  tlr 
care  and  comfort  of  soldiers  were  $24,044,865.96  ;  for  sufferers  abroad,  $38'"<  • 
040.74;  for  sufferers  by  the  riots  of  July,  for  freedmen  and  white  refugees, 
$639,633.13:  making  a  grand  total,  exclusive  of  expenditures  of  the  ^overn- 
ment,  of  $212,274,248.45.  See  Sanitary  Comrnisaion,  &c. 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C.  Population  in  T860,  40,578.  A  severe  fire  ies,:-oyec 
the  business  portion  of  the  city,  December  11,  1861 ;  17  old  hulks  w>re  sunk 
by  U.  S.  forces  to  blockade  the  channel,  December  21,  J861.  The  .-.!tv  surreo 
dered  to  National  troops,  February  18,  1865. 

CHASTITY.  The  Roman  laws  justified  homicide  in  defence  of  one's  self  „ 
relatives;  and  British  laws  justify  a  woman  for  killing  a  man  in  defence  of  he- 
chastity;  and  a  husband  or  father  in  taking  the  life  of  him  who  attemptd  t.v 
violate  his  wife  or  daughter.  In  1,000  years  from  the  time  of  Numa.  "V;  B.  C., 
to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  A.  I).  394,  only  eighteen  Homan  vestals 
had  been  condemned  for  incontinence. 

CHATTANOOGA,  BATTLE  OF,  U.  S.  Fought  on  Nov  23,  1863,  between  th} 
Union  armies  under  Gen.  Grant  and  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Bragg.  The 
Confederates  were  driven  from  every  position.  Or.  tne  right,  Hooker  stormed 
Lookout  Mountain  ;  Thomas  in  the  centre  carriou  the  rifle-pits ;  Sherman  forced 
the  left  after  hard  fighting.  On  the  25th  ch?  A'hole  of  Missionary  Ridge  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Union  army,  and  the  eneuiy  completely  routed.  This  has 
been  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  war.  Union 
loss  about  4,000 ;  6,000  Confederate  prisoner?  and  42  guns  were  captured. 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.  Population  in  1860,  109,260 :  in  1865,  estimated  at  i80,- 
000.  This  city  is  the  largest  pork-packing  depot  in  the  country;  1,000,000 
hogs  are  annually  killed  and  packed  here.  Loss  by  fires  in  Chicago  in 
1866,  $2,457,673. 

CHICKAMAUGA,  BATTLE  OF,  U.  S.  A  creek  by  this  name  was  the  scene  of  a 
severe  battle  between  the  Union  and  Confederate  forces,  Sept.  19,  20,  1863. 
The  Union  right  was  completely  broken  and  retreated.  The  left  under  Gen. 
Thomas  withstood  the  fierce  assaults  of  the  enemy,  and  saved  the  army  from 
a  total  defeat.  Gen.  Bragg  (Confed.)  had  been  reinforced  by  Longsn-eet  from 
Va.  Gen.  Rosecrans  (Union),  withdrew  to  Chattanooga,  and  acted  entirely  on 
the  defensive  for  some  time  after.  The  entire  rebel  loss,  as  stated  in  their 
papers,  18,000.  Union  loss,  16,350,  and  36  guns. 

CHILI,  S.  America,  (p.  304.)  The  present  president  (1859),  Don  Manuel  Moutt, 
was  elected  Oct.  18,  18f>6.  Population  in  1855,  1,439,120.  Civil  war  was 
going  on  in  1859.  Population  in  1857,  was  1,558  468.  Exports  in  1857 
amounted  to  $20,126,461.  Jose  Perez  elected  pres.  1861.  Rupture  between 
Chili  and  Bolivia  respecting  the  Guano  isles,  March,  1864.  Pop.  i" 
1,558,319. 
CHINA,  (p.  305.) 

Death  of  Taon  Kwang. .  .Feb.  25,  1850  I  Rebels  take   Nnnkin,  March  19, 

Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Q.uantr-si,  Amoy,  May  19,  Hhangliae, 


Aug.  1850 
Rebel     emperor    or    pretender 
Tient«h  appear*... March,  1851 


Sept.  7,  1868 
Rebels   besiege    Canton    unsuc- 
cessfully  Nov.  1854 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Canton  forts  taken  by  the  Brit- 
ish (see  Canton) Oct.  8, 1856 

Americans  capture  3 f  >rts,  Nov.2t,  1856 

Chinese  bum  European  fac- 
tories, and  murder  English 
sailors Drc.  1856 

Lord  Elgin  sent  out  as  British 
envoy Murch,  1857 

brilish  destroy  the  Chinese  fleet, 

June  1,  1857 

British  blockade  Canton Aug.  1S57 

Canton  taken  by  English  and 
French Dec.  28-9,  1857 

TTeh,  gov.  of  Canton,  who  is  said 
to  have  beheaded  100,000 
rebels,  sent  to  Calcutta Jan.  1858 

Forts  at  inouih  of  Peiho  captured 
by  the  English  and  French. 

May  20, 1858 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  by  Key- 
ing, Lord  Elgin,  and  Bar.  Gros. 

June  28,  1858 

^Principal  articles:  Ambassa- 
dors to  be  at  both  courts  ;  free- 
dom of  trade  ;  Christianity  to 
be  tolerated  ;  expenses  of  war 
paid  by  China  ;  tariff  to  be 


revised ;  Chinese  epithet  of 
"  barbarian"  no  longer  to  be 
applied  to  foreigners.] 

Mr.  Bruce,  British  envoy,  stop- 
ped at  the  mouth  of  the  Peilio. 
Admiral  Hope  attempting  to 
force  the  passage  defeated, 
losing  81  killed,  300  wounded. 

June  25,  1851 

Pekin  taken  by  the  French  and 
English  forces,  and  the  em- 
peror's palace  sacked 1860 

Pekin  given  up  by  allies. .  .Nov.  5,  I860 

English  and  French  embassies 
established  there 1861 

Mr.  Burlingame  appointed  U.  8. 

Minister  to  China 1861 

Emperor  Hien-fung  dies,  and  is 
succeeded  by  Ki-tsiang.  Aug.  24,  1861 

Canton  restored  to  Chinese. 

Oct.  21,  1861 

English  and  French  aid  the  gov- 
ernment against  the  rebels 1862 

English  Capt.  Gordon  defeats 
rebels  and  takes  Nankin,  and 
rebel  emperor  Tienwang  kills 
himself .July  18,  1864 


CHINA  TRADE.  A  large  trace  is  developed  with  China  through  the  city  of  San 
Francisco.  "Flour,  wheat,  'umber,  bacon,  butter,  cheese,  lard,  wine,  and 
vegetables  are  exported  from  that  city  in  increasing  quantities."  The  value 
of  exports  from  the  U.  S.  to  China  in  1862,  was  $4,323,500.  In  1866,  2,530,- 
000  Ibs.  of  tea  were  received  through  San  Francisco  ;  in  the  same  year  one 
shipment  reached  New  York,  vi?,  California  and  Panama,  in  60  days.  In  1867, 
a  regular  line  of  steamers  was  established  between  China,  Japan,  and  Califor- 
nia, owned  by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  of  New  York.  Anson  Burlin- 
gume  appointed  U.  S.  Minister  to  China,  1861. 

CHLOROFORM.     See  Anaesthetics, 

CHOLERA.  The  Cholera  visited  America  again  in  1865-6,  and  was  most 
severe  at  the  west,  especially  at  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Nashville.  From 
July  to  Sept.,  1866,  there  were  573  deaths  from  this  disease  in  Brooklyn,  and 
583  in  N.  Y.  city. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL,  LONDON,  founded  by  Edward  VI.,  1552. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY.     See  Printing  in  colors. 

CHRONOLOGY,  (p.  309.)  The  following  works  are  much  esteemed  :  Play- 
fair's  Chronology,  1784  ;  Blair's  Chronology,  1753  (new  editions  by  Sir  EL 
Ellis  in  1844,  and  by  Mr.  Rosse  in  1856).  The  Oxford  Chronological  Tables, 
1838.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas's  Chronology  of  History  is  very  useful. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  (p.  309.)  The  number  of  churches  in  England  for 
Protestant  worship,  in  1851,  was  14,077.  Publication  of  "  Essays  and  Re- 
views," and  numerous  Replies,  1861-2.  The  Church  divided  into  High,  Low, 
(or  Evangelical)  and  Broad  church — the  latter  including  those  who  hold  the 
opinions  of  Dr.  Arnold,  F.  D.  Maurice,  and  others.  Publication  of  a  work  on 
the  Pentateuch  by  Dr.  Colenso,  Bishop  of  Natal,  causes  great  agitation, 
1863-6.  The  bishop  deposed  by  Bishop  of  Capetown,  April,  1864.  This  pro- 
ceeding declared  by  the  Privy  Council  to  be  null  and  void,  Oct.  21,  1865, 
"Oxford  declaration"  on  eternal  punishment  signed  by  about  3,000  clergymen, 
and  sent  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  May  12,  1864. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  97 

CHURCH  RATES  in  England  in  1854  amounted  to  £318,200.     Bill  to  abolish 
them  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  but  defeated  by  the  H.  of  7-ords,  1858. 
CIDER.     In  the  State  of  New  York  (1865),  591,379  barrels  of  cider  were  manu- 
factured. 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO,  the  most  populous  city  west  of  the  Alleghanies  in  the 
United  States,  was  founded  in  1789,  by  emigrants  from  New  England  and 
N\-w  Jersey.  Population  in  1795,  500;  in  1800,  750;  in  1810,  2,540;  in 
1820,  9,642;  in  1830,  24,831;  in  1840,  46,3S8;  in  1850,  115,486;  in  1860, 
Ifi  1,044. 

CINQUE  PORTS,  ENGLAND,  (S.  E.  coast.)  They  were  originally  five:  Dover, 
Hustings,  Hythe,  Rommey,  and  Sandwich  ;  Winchelsea  and  Rye  were  after- 
wards added.  They  are  governed  by  a  particular  policy  and  are  under  a 
lord  warden.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  filled  that  office  from  1828  to  his 
death,  1862. 

CIRCASSIA.  (p.  311.)  By  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  in  1830,  Circassia  was 
surrendered  to  Russia  by  Turkey.  But  the  Circassians,  particularly  under  a 
native  chief  named  Schamyl,  have  ever  since  carried  on  a  war  of  indepen- 
dence with  varying  success  against  the  whole  power  of  Russia.  In  June, 
November,  and  December,  18o7,  the  Circassians  were  defeated  by  the  Rus- 
siau  governor,  Prince  Orbelliani,  who  also  in  April,  1858,  conquered  a  large 
tract  of  country,  and  expelled  the  inhabitants.  On  Sept.  7,  1859,  Schamyl 
was  captured  by  the  Russians,  and  treated  with  great  respect.  The  Circas- 
sians became  Mahometans  in  the  18th  century. 

CIRCLE.  The  quadrature,  or  ratio  of  the  diameter  of  the  circle  to  its  circum- 
ference, his  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  mathematicians  of  all  ages.  Archi- 
medes, about  B.  c.  221,  gave  it  as  7  to  22.  Abraham  Sharp  (1717),  as  1  (and 
72  decimals)  to  3;  and  Layny  (1719),  as  1  (and  122  decimals)  to  3. 
CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  The  largest  circulating  library  in  the  U.  S.  is  the 
Mercantile  of  N.  Y.  city.  It  contains  86,000  volumes,  and  has  10,000  mem- 
bers ;•]  2,000  volumes  were  added  in  1866,  costing  $15,000;  200  copies  of 
the  "Coa  ,  of  Joseph  II."  were  bought  to  supply  the  demand,  and  liberal 
numbers  of  all  new  books  of  general  interest. 

CLE11MGNT  (France),  COUNCIL  OF.  The  celebrated  council  in  which  the  crusade 
agains;  the  infidels  was  determined  upon,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  appointed 
to  c»  minand  it,  in  the  pontificate  of  Urban  II.,  1095.  In  this  council  the 
tiaiue  of  pope  was  first  given  to  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
exclusively  of  the  bishops,  who  used  until  this  time  to  assume  that  title. 
1  hilip  I.  of  France  was  (a  second  time)  excommunicated  by  this  assembly. 
ffenault. 

CLOACA  MAXIMA.  The  chief  of  the  celebrated* sewers  in  Rome,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  attributed  to  King  Tarquinius  Priscus  (B.  c.  588),  and  his 
successors. 

CLOCK  (p.  258).  The  great  Westminster  (London)  clock  set  up,  May  30,  1859. 
The  London  watchmakers  established  the  Horological  Institute  in  1858,  which 
publishes  a  j  ur.ial.  In  1857,  266,750  clocks  and  88,621  watches  were  im- 
ported into  the  United  Kingdom.  Clockmaking  of  a  cheap  kind,  on  a  large 
scale,  was  commenced  in  Connecticut  in  18 — .  The  American  watch  compa> 
nies,  founded  1850,  at  Waltham,  Roxbury,  &c.,  make  large  quantities  of  supe- 
rior watches.  Number  of  clock  manufactories  in  the  U.  S.  in  1860,  23  ;  value 
of  products  annually,  $1,181,500. 

CLUBS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.   In  NEW  YORK  :  The  most  important  are  th« 
5 


98  THE  WOBLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

Athenceum,  founded  1859,  in  5th  avenue,  afterwards  in  Union  square,  now 
(1867)  in  Madison  square ;  Century,  founded  in  Broadway  in  1  48,  now  'n 
15th  street;  Eclectic,  founded  186- ;  Jockey,  founded  186- ;  New  York,  18-; 
Travellers',  186-;  Union,  5th  avenue  and  21st  street;  Union  League,  founded 
Feb.  6,  1863,  incorporated  Feb.  16,  1865;  University,  founded  186-.  The 
Century  and  the  Athenceum  were  originated  as  "  associations  for  the  advanc-i- 
»£"  it  of  literature  and  art."  The  Union  League  was  started  on  the  basis  of 
*'  unconditional  loyalty  "  to  the  government,  and  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of 
treason  and  rebellion.  It  was  said  to  have  made  loyalty  ''  fashionable  in  the 
best  circles."  It  raised  three  regiments  of  colored  troops  for  the  U.  S.  volun- 
teer forces,  and  otherwise  rendered  important  services.  In  PHILADELPHIA, 
the  Union  League  Club,  founded  Dec.  27,  1862,  was  the  foremost  of  its  kind 
in  the  U.  S.  It  raised  ten  regiments  for  the  government.  It  numbers  2,000 
members,  and  has  a  magnificent  club-house.  One  of  the  oldest  clubs  in  Phila- 
delphia was  the  Wistar.  In  BOSTON,  the  Union  League  Club  was  founded  in 
1863.  CLUBS  originally  consisted  of  a  small  number  of  persons  of  kindred 
tastes  and  pursuits,  who  met  together  at  stated  times  for  social  intercourse. 
The  club  at  the  Mermaid  tavern,  established  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  consisted  of  Raleigh,  Shakespeare,  and  others.  Ben  Jonson  set  up  a 
club  at  the  Devil  tavern.  Addison,  Steele,  and  others,  frequently  met  at  But- 
ton's coffee-house,  as  described  in  the  Spectator.  The  present  London  clubs, 
some  comprising  300,  others  about  1,500  members,  possess  luxuriously  fur- 
nished edifices,  several  of  great  architectural  pretensions,  in  or  near  Fall  Mall. 
The  members  obtain  the  choicest  viands  and  wines  at  very  moderate  charges. 
Many  of  the  clubs  possess  excellent  libraries,  particularly  the  Athenceum 
(which  see).  The  annual  payment  varies  from  £6  to  £11  11s.;  the  entrance 
fee  from  £9  9s.  to  £31  lls.  The  following  are  the  principal  clubs  : 


Kit-Cut 1703 

Beef-Steak 1735 

"White's  (Tory)  established..  .1736 

Boodle's 1762 

Literary  Club  (which  see), 
termed  also  "  The  Club," 

and  Johnson's  Club 1763 

United  Service 1815 


Travellers' 1819 

Oxford  and  Cambridge 1829 

Carlton  (Conservative) 1-832 

Reform  (Liberal) 1836 

Army  and  Navy 1837 

"Whittington  (founded  by  Douglas 
Jerrold  and  others) 1840 


FRENCH.  The  first  of  these  arose  about  1782.  They  were  essentia'ly  politi- 
cal, and  were  greatly  concerned  in  the  revolution.  The  Club  Breton  became 
the  celebrated  Club  des  Jacobins,  and  the  Club  des  Cordeliers  comprised  among 
its  members  Danton  and  Camille  Desmoulins.  From  these  two  club?  *;anie 
the  Mountain  party  which  overthrew  the  Girondists,  1793,  and  fell  in  Us  turn 
in  1794.  The  clubs  disappeared  with  the  Directory  in  1799.  They  were  re- 
vived in  1848  in  considerable  numbers,  but  did  not  attain  to  their  former 
eminence. 

COAL  IN  THE  U.  S.  Lehigh  coal  from  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania,  first  mined 
and  used,  1806.  According  to  Mr.  Lyell,  the  coal  strata  in  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  &c.,  extend  700  miles.  The  "Statistics  of  Coal,"  by  R.  C.  Taylor,  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia  in  1854,  give  a  full  and  reliable  account  of  coal  pro- 
ducts in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Anthracite  coal  of  Pennsylvania  was  first 
used  by  a  blacksmith  in  the  Wyoming  Valley  in  1775.  Bituminous  coal  first 
mined  in  the  U.  S.  in  1845.  Total  amount  produced  in  I860,  6,218,080  tons. 
Amount  of  all  coals  in  1860,  14,333,992  tons.  Coal  is  worked  in  fifteen  of  the 
states.  The  upper  seam  of  the  Pittsburg  coal  fields  is  estimated  to  contain 
53,516  tons.  A  single  lump  of  coal,  weighing  4  tons,  was  sent  to  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  18^7.  The  area  of  coal  in  the  U.  B.  is  206,939  squaw 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67,  99 

miles;  470  milea  is  anthracite  in  Pennsylvania.  The  product  in  1865  waa 
22,000,000  tons,  of  which  10,000,000  was  anthracite.  The  consumption  of  coal 
in  France,  in  1760  only  400,000  tons,  rises  to  6,000,000  tons  in  1845.  The 
United  States  produced  between  8  and  9  millions  of  tons  ;  Belgium,  5,000,- 
000 ;  and  France,  4,500,000,  m  1855 

COCHINEAL.  The  properties  of  this  insect,  which  derives  its  color  from  feed- 
ing on  the  cactus,  became  known  to  the  Spaniards  soon  after  their  conquest  of 
Mexico,  in  1518.  Cochineal  was  brought  to  Europe  about  1523.  It  was  not 
known  in  Italy,  in  1548,  although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there.  See 
Dyeing,  In  1858,  it  was  cultivated  successfully  in  the  Teneriffe,  the  vines 
having  failed  through  disease.  The  import  into  England  in  1850,  2,360,000 
Ibs.  In  the  United  States  the  importation  in  1858  amounted  to  $221,332. 

CODE  NAPOLEON.  The  Civil  Code  of  France,  promulgated  from  1803  to  1810. 
This  was  considered  by  the  emperor  as  his  most  enduring  monument.  It  was 
prepared  under  his  supervision  by  the  most  eminent  jurists,  from  the  400 
systems  previously  existing. 

COFFEE  AND  TEA.  The  consumption  in  the  United  States  at  different  periods 
is  reported  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  thus : 

1821 Tea,  4,586,223  Ibs Coffee,  11,886,063  !bs. 

1830 "    6.873,091  Ibs "       38,363,687  Ibs. 

1835 "  12.331,638  Ibs "       91  753,002  Ibs. 

1842 "  13,482,645  Ibs «       107,387-567  Ibs. 

1846 "  16,891,020  Ibs "     124  336,054  Ibs. 

1856 "      240,676,227  Ibs. 

In  1867  a  company  was  being  organized  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of 
coffee  in  South  Florida.  The  duty  on  imports  of  coffee,  by  tariff  of  July, 
1862,  is  five  cents  per  pound. 

CDD-LIVER  OIL  was  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  chronic  rheumatism  by 
Dr.  Percival  in  1782,  and  for  diseases  of  the  lungs  about  1838.  De  Jongh'a 
treatise  on  cod-liver  oil  was  published  in  Latin  in  1844;  in  English  in  1849. 

COIN  OF  THE  U.  S.  The  U.  S.  Mint  was  established  in  1792.  The  gold  coin- 
age consists  of  double  eagles  $20,  eagles,  half-eagles,  quarter  eagles,  and  dol- 
lars. Gold  dollars  were  first  coined  in  1849.  The  first  deposit  of  California  gold 
for  coining  was  made  by  Mr.  David  Carter,  1,804  ounces,  Dec.  8,  1848. 

COINAGE  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  from  1793  to  1866;  inclusive. 

9<M.  Total. 

1793  to  1850,  57i  years 117.569,825 190,054,037 

1851  to  1860, 9J  years 470,838,180 520,175,558 

1861  to  1866,  6years. -257,128,586 271,194,433 

Total, r,r. ........  1846,536,590 $987,424,026 

COLONIES.  The  population  of  the  British  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
was  estimated,  in  1852,  at  182,983,672,  of  vhich  176,028,672  belong  to  the 
East  Indies. 

COLORADO,  U.  S.  A  territory  of  the  U.  S.  organized  March,  1861.  Area, 
104,000  square  miles.  Capital,  Denver  City.  In  1862,  $12,000,000  in  gold  was 
produced  from  its  mines.  Population  in  1860,  34,230,  and  about  6,000 
Indians.  A  bill  to  admit  the  territory  as  a  state  passed  Congress,  but  waa 
vetoed,  May,  1866. 

COLUMBIA,  DISTRICT  OF.  A  tract  of  country  10  miles  square,  ceded  by 
Virginia  and  Maryland  to  the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the 
seat  of  government.  It  included  the  cities  of  Washington,  Georgetown,  and 
Alexandria  ;  but  in  1843  the  latter  was  receded  to  Virgina.  Population  in 


100  THE  WORLD'S  PEOGEESS 

1800,  14,093;  in  1840,  43,712,  including  8,361  free  colored  persons,  ai id 
4,694  slaves.  In  1850,51,687,  including  3,687  slaves;  in  1860,61,403; 
in  1864,  75,000,  including  31,500  blacks.  In  1866,  74  colored  schools  were 
in  opt-ration  in  the  district.  Its  area  is  60  square  miles.  Population  in  1867, 
118,800,  of  whom  there  were  several  thousand  more  women  than  men.  Im- 
partial suffrage  bill  passed  by  Congress,  admitting  colored  voters  in  the  dis- 
trict, 1867  ;  put  in  force  at  the  municipal  election  of  1867,  when  colored  votea 
.vere  cast  for  city  officers. 

COMBAT,  SINGLE,  IN  ENGLAND.  It  commenced  with  the  Lombards,  A.  D.  659. 
Introducefi  into  England,  and  allowed  in  accusations  of  treason,  when  no  other 
evidence  was  produced,  1096.  The  last  combat  proposed  was  prevented  by 
the  k;ng  in  1631. 

COMETS.  (P.264.)  Donati's  comet,  so  called  from  its  having  been  first  ob- 
served by  Dr.  Donati,  of  Florence,  June  2,  1858,  being  then  calculated  to  be 
228  millions  of  miles  from  our  earth.  It  was  very  brilliant  in  England  in  the 
end  of  September  and  October  following,  when  the  tail  was  said  to  be  40 
ml.lions  of  miles  long.  On  the  10th  of  October  it  was  nearest  to  the  earth  ; 
on  the  18th  it  was  near  coming  into  collision  with  Venus.  Two  new  comets 
were  discovered  in  1862 ;  one  at  Athens,  Greece,  July  2d,  another  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  July  18th.  Besides  these,  the  regular  return  of  Encke's  comet 
took  place  in  the  beginning  of  the  year.  In  1863,  five  new  comets  were 
found,  none  of  them  in  the  U.  S. ;  only  one  was  visible  to  the  naked  eye  with 
any  certainty. 

COMMANDERS-iN-CHiEF,  U.  S.  army. 

Jacob  Brown 1821  Geo.  B.  McClellan 1861 

Alexander  Macomb 1835  Henry  W.  Halltck 1862 

Winfield  Scott 1841  XHyBsea  £.  GraDt 18(54 

British  Army. 

Duke  of  Monmouth .....1674  Hon.  Geonre  Conway 1782 

Duke  of  Marlborouah 1690  Duke  of  York 17S5 

Duke  of  Schomberg 1691  Sir  David  Dundas 1809 

Dakeof  Ormond 1711  Duke  of  York  agai>. 1811 

Earl  of  Stair 1744  Duke  of  Wellington 1827 

Fieldmars!  al  Wade ..1745  Lord  Hill 1H?8 

Lord  Ligonier 1757  Duke  of  Wellington  again 1842 

Marquess  of  Granby 1 766  Lord  Hardinge ISft-J 

Lord   Amheret 1778  Dukeof  Cambridge 1856 

COMMERCE.     See  Exports  and  Imports,  Navigation  and  Shipping,  &c. 
COMMERCIAL  FAILURES      The   circular  of  Dun,  Boyd,  &  Co.,  of  N.  York 
gives  the  following  statistics  of  failures  in  the  U.  States : 

1857  1858  1859  1860 

Failures 4,937  4,225  3,913  3,676 

Amount $291,750,000    195,750.000  164.294,000  $79,807,000 

Of  the  3,676  failures  in  1860,  695  are  set  down  as  swindlers  ;  their  debts 
amounting  to  $10,664,000.  In  the  Northern  States  in  1862,  the  number  of 
failures  was  1,652  ;  liabilities  $23,049,300.  In  1865,  530;  $17,625,000. 

CONCEPTION,  IMMACULATE,  OF  THE  VIRGIN.  On  the  8th  of  September,  1854, 
the  pope  promulgated  a  bull  with  great  solemnity  and  pathos,  declaring  this 
dogma  to  be  an  article  of  faith,  and  charging  with  heresy  those  who  should 
doubt  or  speak  against  it.  The  Conceptionists  were  an  order  of  nuns  in  Italy, 
established  in  1488. 

CONCORDANCE.  (P.  324.)  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke's  Concordance  to  Shakespeare, 
0  remarkable  monument  of  a  woman's  intelligent  and  patient  industry,  wa» 
completed  in  1844,  after  ten  years'  labor. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  101 

•CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA."  The  effort*  of  the  Southern 
States  for  the  extension  of  slavery  ,  and  the  zeal  of  the  Northern  States  for 
its  abolition,  with  the  consequent  political  dissensions,  led  to  the  great  seces- 
sion of  1860-1.  See  United  States,  also  Chronological  tables.  On  Nov.  4, 

1860,  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  Republican  or  Abolitionist  candidate,  was  elected 
president  of  the  United  States.     Hitherto,  a  president  in  the  interest  of  the 

I  South  had  been  elected.  On  Dec.  20,  South  Carolina  seceded  from  the 
Union  ;  and  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Virginia 
(except  West  Virginia),  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  also  seceded 
early  in  1861.  Jefferson  Davis  was  inaugurated  president  of  the  Southern 
Confederacy  at  Montgomery  in  Alabama,  Feb.  18,  1861. 

CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH,  or  Creeds.  See  Apostles',  Atfianasian,  and  Nieent 
creeds.  Augsburgh  Confession.  Confession  of  Divines  at  Westminster  agreed 
to,  1643.  Congregational  confession  of  Faith  adopted  in  England,  1833. 

CONGRESS,  U.  S.  A.  The  apportionment  made  by  Congress,  March  4,  1862, 
under  the  census  of  1860,  increased  the  number  of  Representatives  to  242. 
There  were  also  9  Delegates  from  the  Territories,  who  deliberate  but  have  no 
vote.  The  Senators  in  1862  were  62  in  number.  Each  Senator  and  Repre- 
sentative is  allowed  $10,000  compensation  for  each  Congress  (two  years)  de- 
ducting for  absence  (1866).  In  the  89th  Congress  there  were  52  Senators 
and  192  Representatives,  the  Southern  States  not  yet  being  represented.  In 
the  40th  Congress,  (1867),  the  same  number,  with  the  addition  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  from  Tennessee. 

CONGRESS,  "  CONFEDERATE."  Delegates  from  seven  Southern  states  met  at 
Montgomery,  Georgia,  Feb.  4,  1861,  to  organize  a  congress  ;  Howell  Cobb, 
chairman.  On  the  8th,  a  constitution  was  adopted  similar  to  that  of  the  U.  S. 
On  the  9th,  a  President  and  Vice-Pres.  were  elected  for  the  "Confederacy ;" 
Jeff.  Davis  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens.  Virginia  was  admitted  into  it  May  7, 

1861.  May  22,   it  adjourned  to  meet  at  Richmond,  Va.,  on  July  20,  1861. 
The  Confederate  Government  was  compelled  to  leave  the  city  in  haste,  by  the 
approach  of  the  National  army,  April  3, 1865.    Its  Congress  never  assembled 
again. 

CONNECTICUT.  Population  in  1850,  370,792  ;  1860,  460,670.  This  state 
sent  54,882  men  to  the  National  armies,  1861-5. 

CONSCRIPTION.  A  mode  (derived  from  the  Romans)  adopted  for  recruiting  the 
French  and  other  armies.  On  Sept.  5,  1798,  a  military  conscription  was  or- 
dained in  France,  comprehending  all  the  young  men  from  20  to  25  years  of 
age:  from  these  selections  were  made.  The  present  law  of  1818  (modified 
in  1824  and  1832)  requires  a  certain  annual  contingent  from  each  department, 
— for  all  the  country,  80,000  men — which  may  be  increased.  The  duration 
of  service  is  seven  years.  Substitutes  and  exemptions  are  permitted.  A  con- 
scription for  350,000  men  took  place  in  Jan.  1813,  after  the  disastrous  Russian 
camp.'iign,  and  in  Dec.  of  same  year  another  for  300,000,  after  the  battle  of 
Leipsic.  In  the  U.  S.,  during  the  war  for  the  Union.  1861-5,  "  drafts"  were 
ordered  and  enforced  at  two  different  times.  The  first  draft  was  the  (nominal) 
cause  of  riots  in  New  York,  July,  1863. 

CONSERVATIVE,  U.  S.  A  term  used  in  American  politics,  to  denote  the 
opposite  of  extreme  and  sectional  views.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of 
1860,  Mr.  Fillmore  was  known  as  the  candidate  of  the  "  Conservative  party," 
in  distinction  from  the  anti-slavery  party  of  the  north  and  the  pro-slavery 
party  of  the  south. 


102  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGEESS. 

CONSOLIDATED  FUND  in  England,  (hence  the  term  *'  Consols,")  was  formed 
of  the  other  funds  in  1786.  On  Jan.  5,  1816,  exchequers  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  previously  separate,  were  amalgamated. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  U.  S.  The  great  amendment  to  the  constitution, 
abolishing  slavery  in  the  U.  S.,  passed  Congress,  Jan.  1865.  Three-fourths  ol 
the  states,  27  in  number,  ratified  it  and  it  became  the  law  of  the  land,  Dec. 
18,  1865.  Another  amendment  passed  Congress,  June  13,  1866,  declaring 
all  men  to  be  equal  before  the  law  ;  that  representatives  shall  be  apportioned 
according  to  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  state;  that  no  person  who 
shall  have  engaged  in  the  insurrection  shall  hold  any  office  under  the  U.  S. 
government ;  and  that  the  validity  of  the  national  debt  shall  not  be  ques- 
tioned nor  the  rebel  debt  recognized.  This  amendment  has  not  yet  (1867) 
been  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  states. 

CONSULS.     See  Ambassadors. 

CONTRABAND  OF  WAR.  A  term  said  to  have  been  first  employed  in  the  treaty 
of  Southampton,  between  England  and  Spain  in  1625.  During  the  struggle 
between  Spain  and  Holland  both  powers  acted  with  much  rigor  towards  ships 
of  neutrals  conveying  goods  to  the  belligerents.  This  provoked  the  resistance 
of  England.  A  milder  policy  was  adopted  by  the  treaty  of  Pyrenees,  1650; 
and  by  the  declaration  of  Paris,  April  26,  1856. 

CONTRABANDS.  U.  S.  In  May,  1861,  some  slaves  coming  into  the  lines  of 
Gen.  Butler  at  Fortress  Monroe,  Va.,  he  refused  to  surrender  them  to  their 
owners  on  the  ground  that  they  were  "  contraband  of  war."  Since  then  the 
term  has  been  used  for  "  blacks  or  slaves." 

CONTRACTORS  WITH  GOVERNMENT,  disqualified  from  sitting  in  the  British 
Parliament,  1782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  m  AID  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  U.  S.,  (1861-65.)  See 
Charities.  The  contributions  from  states  counties  and  towns  for  the  aid 
and  relief  of  Union  soldiers,  amounted  to  $187,209,608.  The  contributions  of 
associations  and  individuals  for  the  care  and  comfort  of  soldiers  were 
$24,044,865  ;  for  sufferers  abroad,  $380,040 ;  for  sufferers  by  the  riots  of 
July,  for  freedmen  and  white  refugees,  $639,633.  Total  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  the  people  of  the  loyal  states,  $212,274,248,  The  famous  Sanitary 
and  Christian  Commissions,  in  which  hundreds  volunteered  their  services  for 
the  relief  of  soldiers,  were  of  invaluable  assistance  to  the  government  during 
the  war.  See  Sanitary,  &c. 

CONVENTION,  IN  THE  U.  S.  In  Feb.  1861,  a  Convention  of  distinguished 
men  from  the  states  met  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  as  a  Peace  Conference,  to  pro- 
pose compromise  measures  between  the  north  and  south.  Their  propositions 
were  referred  to  Congress,  which  rejected  them.  "  Phila.  Convention  "  of 
delegates,  north  and  south,  supposed  to  favor  the  policy  of  Pres.  Johnson  in 
regard  to  reconstruction,  Aug.  14,  1866.  Southern  Unionists'  Convention, 
Sep.  1,  1866,  (opposing  the  policy  of  the  preceding.) 

COPPERHEADS.  A  name  given  about  1863  to  such  members  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  the  United  States  as  were  in  favour  of  peace  with  the  South  on 
any  terms. 

COPYRIGHT  OF  DESIGNS,  for  manufactures  in  England,  first  granted  1787, 
for  2  months,  extended  in  1794.  Copyright  on  sculpture  conferred  for  14 
years,  1814.  Copyright  on  other  designs  extended  to  12  months,  1839.  Or- 
namental designs  of  all  kinds  fully  protected,  from  9  mos.  to  8  jears,  by  act 
of  1842,  and  still  further  in  1860. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


103 


COPYRIGHT  IN  THE  TJ.  S.  The  law  modified  so  that  the  copy  of  the  book  ii 
to  be  sent  to  the  library  of  Congress,  instead  of  Smithsonian  Inst.  1865.  (?) 
The  law  of  1831  gives  an  author  exclusive  right  to  his  works  for  28  years, 
and  a  right  of  renewal  to  himself,  his  wife  and  children  for  14  yea*"9  more,  mak- 
ing 42  years  in  all.  No  foreigner  can  secure  a  copyright  unless  residing  in 
the  U.  S.  So  far  (1867),  the  American  government  has  refused  or  failed  to  re- 
spond to  the  British  otter  of  reciprocity  in  literary  copyright.  A  treaty  for 
this  purpose  was  framed  by  Mr.  Everett  in  1854,  but  never  acted  upon. 

COPYRIGHT  OF  BOOKS,  PRODUCE  OF.  The  most  profitable  copyrights  in 
the  U.  S.  have  been  those  on  school  text-books,  many  of  which  have  yielded 
large  sums  to  the  authors.  Of  literary  and  historical  works  the  most  profita- 
ble have  been  the  works  of  Prescott,  Bancroft,  Irving,  Longfellow,  Kane,  Mrs. 
Stowe,  and  the  several  histories  of  the  recent  war  (1865-7). 

COPTS.  In  Egypt,  the  supposed  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  mingled 
with  Greeks  and  Persians.  Their  religion  is  a  form  of  Christianity,  derived 
from  the  Eutychians,  a  sect  of  the  fifth  century. 

CORINTH,  U.  S.  A  town  in  northern  Mississippi;  important  during  the  war  as 
a  military  position.  After  the  battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  Gen.  Beauragard, 
(Confed.)  entrenched  himself  there,  and  was  partially  besieged  by  U.  S.  forces 
under  Gen.  Halleck.  Heavy  fighting  there  May  27,  1862.  The  place  waa 
evacuated  by  the  rebels,  May  29,  1862. 

CORN,  INDIAN,  U.  S.  See  Agriculture.  The  monthly  report  of  Agriculture 
for  December,  contains  a  final  estimate  of  the  corn  crop  of  1866.  The  total 
result  is  88C,000,OuO  bushels.  Corn  used  for  fuel  in  Iowa  in  1865.  It  is  said 
to  give  as  much  heat  per  bushel  as  coal.  Exports  of  corn  in  1866  amounted 
to  $1S>.299,879. 

COSTA  RICA.  A  republic  in  Central  America  established  in  1848.  It  has  been 
much  disturbed  by  filibusters  from  the  U.  S.  See  Nicaragua  and  Central 
America.  On  Aug.  14,  1859,  the  President,  Juan  Mora  was  suddenly  deposed, 
and  Dr.  Josfc  Montealegre  made  president. 

COSTUME.  An  attempt  to  introduce  a  semi-masculine  female  costume,  known 
as  Bloomers  (from  Mrs.  Bloomer  of  Seneca,  N.  Y.,  was  made  in  184-,  but  with 
very  limited  success.  It  was  overshadowed  by  the  other  extreme,  the  crinoline, 
ascribed  to  the  empress  Eugenie,  originating  a  few  months  before  the  birth  of 
the  heir  to  the  French  throne  (about  1854).  The  latter  was  the  prevailing 
fashion  until  1866-7  when  it  was  superseded  by  a  walking  dress  with  a  very 
small  expansion. 

COTTON,  U.  S.  (p.  334.)  The  exports  of  cotton  since  1821,  have  thus  advanced 
'^stated  in  millions  of  pounds  weight): 


1821 
1S30 
1S40 
1849 
1860 
1855 
1856 
1857 
1858 


124  mills.,  average  price  16  cts. 

298  «  "  "  9 
"  "  14 
«  it  6 
u  «  n 


743 
7.026 

635 
1098 
1351 
1048 
1118 


1859    1386m 
I860    1767 
1861      307 
1862          5 
1863        11 
1864        103- 
1865          6J 
1866      650 

ills.,  average  prl 

u 
« 

H 

U 

II                       ( 

CO  11  Ctf 

'   11  " 

•  11*  « 

1    234 
'    66 
«    83 
4    88 
'    43 

Total  value  of  cotton  exported  in  39  years,  2,883  millions  of  dollars.     Value 
in  1859,  161  millions.     The  ratios  of  cotton  imported  by  Great  Britain  in  the 

6  years    1844-9,  were   as   follows ;  U.  S.  78-J  per  cent.  ;    India,  10-J  ;  Brazil, 

7  :  Egypt,  3-^  ;  West  Indies,  Ac.,  4  per  cent.     In   England  a  cotton   supply 
association  to  obtain  from  Africa,  India,  &c.,  was  formed  at  Manchester  abou/ 


104  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

J857.  Lieut.  Burton,  who  explored  the  interior  of  Africa  in  1859,  stttes  'Jmt 
cotton  grows  there  in  great  profusion,  and  a  decent  kind  of  cotton  cloth  is 
manufactured  by  the  natives.  In  the  U.  S.  the  estimates  show  a  total  product 
of  1,750,000  bales  of  400  pounds  each  in  1866.  The  estimates  are  made  up 
as  follows  :  North  Carolina,  91,000  bales  ;  South  Carolina,  152,000  ,  Georgia, 
205,OuO  ;  Florida,  36,000  ;  Alabama,  220,000  ;  Mississippi,  270,000  ;  Loui- 
siana, 100,000  ;  Texas,  300,000  ;  Arkansas,  182,OuO  ;  Tennessee,  148,000  ; 
other  States,  87,000  bales.  In  1860  the  product  of  the  U.  S.  was  5,198,077 
bales.  Revenue  to  the  government  from  the  production  of  cotton  in  1866, 
$18,409,655.  Exports  of  cotton  in  1866  amounted  to  $281,385,223.  Imports 
of  cotton  manufactures  in  1866,  $30,166,300. 

COTTON  GIN.  This  invention,  in  1793,  by  Eli  Whitney  of  New  Haven,  gave 
an  extraordinary  impetus  to  the  culture  of  cotton  in  the  U.  S.  It  cleans  and 
prepares  300  Ibs.  per  day ;  by  the  old  mode  only  a  single  pound  a  day  could 
be  cleansed. 

COTTON  GOODS  Exported  from  Great  Britain. 

Official  Value.  .  Official  Value. 

1697        ....            £5,915    1860        ....  .£52,012,430 

1701 23,253    1861 46,872,489 

1780        ....           355,000  I  1862        ....  36,750,971 

1790 1,1 6^,369  11863 47,587,188 

1800        ....        5,406,501  I  1864        ....  64.856,289 

1820 20,509,926  ! 

In  1860, 12,419,096  cwt.  of  raw  cotton  was  imported  of  which  9,963,309  cwt. 
came  from  the  United  States,  and  1,822,698  cwt  from  India. 

COTTON  RAW  Imported  into  Great  Britain. 

Ibs.       |  Tbt. 

1697     ....            1,976,359    1836  ....  264.000,000 

1730        ....        1,545,472    1840  ....  6'.i2,500,000 

1764    .        .        .        .            3,870,392  i  1860  ....  1,390,938,752 


1790  ....  31.500,000 
1800  ....  56,000,000 
1810  ....  13i>,500.000 


1861  ....      1,256,984,736 

1862  .        .        .        .  523,973,296 

1863  .        .        .        .        669,583,264 


1820    .        .        .        .        151,500,000  I  1864    ....  893,304,720 

COTTON  SPINDLES  in  operation  in  Europe  and  America,  1851.  The  following 
was  the  estimated,  number  of  spindles  in  actual  operation :  Great  Britain, 
17,000,500;  France,  4,300,000 ;  Zollverein  States,  815,000;  Russia,  700,000, 
Switzerland,  650,000  ;  Belgium,  420,000  ;  Spain,  800,000  ;  Italy,  800,000  ; 
Total,  27,485,000.  In  the  U.  S.  in  1860,  the  number  of  spindles  employed  in 
the  five  New  England  states  was  2,751,078;  in  11  other  states,  236,480. 
Number  of  spindles  in  the  whole  country  in  1860,  5,335,727.  The  prices  of 
cotton  fabrics  in  the  U.  S.  increased  172  per  cent.,  or  81  per  cent,  in  gold  be- 
tween 1860  and  1866. 

COURT,  SUPREME,  OF  THE  U.  S.  By  Act  of  Congress,  July  23, 1866,  no  vacancy 
in  this  Court  is  to  be  tilled,  until  the  number  is  reduced  to  one  Chief-Justice, 
and  six  Associate  Justices.  Before  this  there  were  eight  Associate  Justices. 
The  U.  S.  is  divided  into  nine  districts  for  Circuit  Courts. 

COURTS-MARTIAL,  U.  S.  By  act  of  Congress,  May  29,  1830,  officers  comand- 
ing  distinct  posts,  and  all  general  officers,  can  convene  courts-martial.  There 
are  several  limitations  to  the  act.  The  number  forming  a  court  is  from  five  to 
13.  Great  numbers  of  these  courts  were  in  session  during  the  late  war.  In 
1866,  8,188  records  of  courts  martial  and  military  commissions  were  received 
and  reviewed  at  the  Bureau  of  Military  Justice,  Washington,  D  C. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER.     A  joint-stock  company  with  this  name  wab  established  al 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  105 

Paris,  Nov.  18,  1852,  by  Isaac  and  Emile  Pereire,  and  others.  It  takes  up  or 
originates  trading  enterprises  of  all  kinds,  applying  to  them  the  principle  o< 
commandit^,  or  limited  liabilities,  and  is  authorized  to  supersede  or  buy  in  any 
other  companies  (replacing  their  shares  or  bonds  in  its  own  scrip),  and  also  to 
carry  on  the  ordinary  business  of  banking.  The  funds  were  to  be  obtained  by 
a  paid-up  capital  of  2§  millions  sterling,  the  issue  of  obligations  at  not  less 
than  45  days'  date  or  sight,  and  the  receipt  of  money  on  deposit  or  current  ac- 
count. The  society  has  apparently  prospered,  but  is  nevertheless  considered 
by  experienced  persons  as  a  near  approach  to  Law's  bank  of  1716,  and  likely 
to  end  disastrously.  In  Sept.  1857,  several  of  the  directors  failed;  and  in  May, 
1858,  no  dividend  was  paid. 

CRIME,  NEW  YORK  CITY.  Who  Furnish  our  Criminals  and  Paupers.  A  recent 
publication  states  that  of  the  criminals  in  New  York  city  for  twenty-one 
months,  31,088  were  natives  of  this  country,  while  89,589  were  foreigners;  of 
whom  60,442  were  Irish,  9,488  German,  and  4,000  English.  Of  28,821  persona 
admitted  to  the  alms-house  in  ten  years,  22,468  were  foreigners  ;  15,948  were 
Irish.  1,240  Germans,  and  1,297  English.  During  the  same  time,  of  50,015 
admitted  to  Bellevue  hospital,  41,851  were  foreigners.  Of  4,335  inmates  of 
tne  lunatic  asylum,  3,360  were  foreigners.  Of  251,344  committed  to  the  city 
prison,  only  59,385  were  natives,  while  86,431  professed  to  be  members  of  the 
church  of  Rome.  Number  of  arrests  in  New  York  city,  in  1865,  39,616. 
11,222  were  convicted  in  the  court  of  Special  Sessions.  During  the  war, 
there  was  a  marked  diminution  of  punished  crime  throughout  the  country.  See 
Prisons.  IN  ENGLAND.  The  number  of  convictions  by  trial  in  England  and 
"Wales  was,  in 

Persons.  Capital  Offences. 

1849., 21,001 66 

1855 19,9T1 50 

1858 13,246 t>3 

1864. 14,726 32 

Since  1848  there  had  been  no  commitments  for  political  offences,  such  as  treason 
or  sedition,  until  the  Fenian  outbreaks  and  trials,  in  Ireland,  1867.  [n  1856 
there  were  2,666  persons  liberated  on  "  tickets  of  leave."  Expenses  of  crimi- 
nal prosecutions  in  1856  were  £194,912. 

CRIMEA,  OR  GRIM  TARTAR*.  War  having  been  declared  by  England  and 
France  against  Russia,  March  28,  1854,  large  masses  of  troops  were  sent  to 
the  East,  which  after  remaining  some  time  at  Gallipoli,  &c.,  sailed  for  Varna, 
where  they  disembarked  May  29.  The  expedition  against  the  Crimea  having 
been  determined  on,  the  allied  British,  French,  and  Turkish  forces,  amounting 
to  58,000  men  (25,000  British),  commanded  by  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St. 
Arnaud,  sailed  from  Varna,  Sept.  3,  and  landed  on  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th, 
without  opposition,  at  Old  Fort,  near  Enpatoria,  about  30  miles  from  Sebas- 
topol.  On  the  20th  they  attacked  the  Russians,  between  40  and  50,000  strong 
(under  Prince  Menschikoff),  intrenched  on  the  heights  of  Alma,  supposed  to 
be  unassailable.  After  a  sharp  contest  the  Russians  were  totally  routed.  See 
Alma  and  Rusno-Turkish  War.  Peace  was  proclaimed  in  April,  1856,  and  the 
allies  quitted  the  Crimea  in  July  following. 

CRINOLINE  (a  French  word,  meaning  stuff  made  of  crin,  hair)  is  the  modern 
name  of  the  "fardingale  "of  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  hoop-like  petticoata 
made  of  whalebone,  &c.,  revived  in  France,  England  and  the  United  State*, 
since  1855.  They  have  frequently  occasioned  loss  of  life,  by  coming  in  con- 
tact with  fire  and  machinery.  In  No.  116  of  the  Tatler,  published  Jan.  6, 
1710,  is  an  amusing  trial  of  the  hoop-petticoat  then  in  fashion.  See  Costume, 
5* 


106  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

CROSS.  That  on  which  the  Redeemer  suffered  on  Mount  Calvary,  was  said  to 
have  been  found  at  Jerusalem,  deep  in  the  ground,  with  two  others,  by  St. 
Helena,  May  3,  328  ;  Christ's  being  distinguished  from  those  of  the  thieves  by 
a  sick  woman  being  cured  by  touching  it.  It  was  carried  away  by  Chosroes, 
king  of  Persia,  on  the  plundering  of  Jerusalem ;  but  was  recovered  by  the 
emperor  Heraclius  (who  defeated  him  iu  battle)  Sept.  14,  615,  and  that  day  has 
since  been  commemorated  as  "  the  festival  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,"  es- 
tablished in  642.  It  is  asserted  by  church  writers  that  a  shining  cross,  two 
miles  in  length,  was  seen  in  the  heavens  by  Constantino,  and  that  it  led  him 
to  adopt  it  on  his  standards,  with  the  inscription  "/»  hoc  signo  vincex"  "in 
this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer."  With  these  he  advanced  to  Rome,  where  he 
vanquished  Maxentius,  Oct.  27,312.  Lenglet. 


Signing  with  the  cross  was  first 
practised  by  Christians  to  dis- 
tinguish .themselves  from  the 
pMgans,  about  110  ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Tertulian,  260,  it  was 
efficacious  against 


Crosses  in  churches  and  chambers 
were  introduced  about  431  ;  and 
set  up  on  eteples  about  568 

Crosses  and  idolatrous  pictures 
were  removed  from  churches, 
and  crosses  in  the  streets  demol- 


poison, witciicraft,  &.C.  j  ished  by  order  of  parliament.        1641 

CRYSTAL  PALACE  IN  J!EW  YORK,  built  chiefly  of  iron  and  glass,  in  form  of  a 
cross,  with  a  dome,  was  commenced  Oct.  1852.  Exhibition  opened 'to  the 
public  (Pres.  Pierce  being  present),  August,  1852.  The  building  destroyed  by 
fire,  with  its  contents,  as  exhibited  by  Amer.  Institute,  Sep.  1859. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  HYDE  PARK,  LONDON,  built  for  the  Exhibition  of  the 
World's  Industry  in  1851.  Its  length  was  1,851  feet,  width,  408  feet,  with  ad- 
ditional projection.  Entire  area,  772,784  square  feet,  or  about  19  acres. 
Building  commenced  Sept.  26,  1850,  and  finished  and  opened  May  1,  1851. 
Closed  to  the  public  Oct.  11,  same  year.  It  cost  £176,030. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE  AT  SYDENHAM,  near  London,  built  chiefly  of  the  materials 
used  in  the  foregoing,  was  commenced  August  5,  1852.  Capital  of  the  com- 
pany £1,000,000,  in  shares  of  £5.  each.  Area  of  grounds  300  acres.  In  its 
erection  6,400  men  were  engaged  at  one  time.  It  was  opened  by  the  Queen, 
June  10,  1854.  Great  Handel  festival  held  there  June  20-4,  1859.  In  1857 
the  receipts  were  £115,627  ;  expenditures,  £87,872. 

CUBA.  Second  expedition  of  Lopez,  in  connection  with  Col.  Crittenden,  of 
Kentucky,  Aug.  1851,  defeated  ;  Lopez  taken  and  garroted  at  Havana, 
Sept.  1.  Crittenden  and  50  companions  shot,  August  16.  Other  prisoners 
sent  to  Spain,  and  were  pardoned  by  the  Queen,  Dec.  1851.  See  Ostend  Con- 
ference. A  proposition  to  place  $30,000,000  in  the  hands  of  the  Pres.  of  the 
U.  S.,  with  reference  to  the  purchase  of  Cuba,  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Slidell, 
in  U.  S.  Senate,  1859.  See  Submarine  Telegraph. 

CUSTOM  DUTIES  IN  THE  U.  S.  The  amounts  collected  were  in  1850,  $39,000- 
000;  1855,  $53,000,000;  1863,  $69,000,000;  1866,  $179,046,630;  from  1789  to 
1861,  $1,575,152,579.92.  Expenses  of  collecting  Customs  and  duties  in  1863, 
$3,238,936  00. 

CYMRI,  OR  KIMRI  (from  which  comes  Cambria).  The  name  of  the  ancient  British 
who  belonged  to  the  great  Celtic  family,  which,  coming  from  Asia,  occupied 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  about  1500  B.  c.  About  A.  D.  640,Dyvnwal  Moel- 
mud  reigned  "  King  of  the  Cymri."  See  Wales. 

CYNICS,  a  set  of  philosophers  founded  by  Antisthenes  (about  896  B.  c.,  Diog^ 
Laerl.,  Clinton),  who  professed  to  contemn  all  worldly  things,  even  all  sciences. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  107 

except  morality  ;  were  very  free  in  reprehending  vice ;  lived  in  public,  and 
practised  great  obscenities  without  blushing.  Diogenes  was  one  (died 
323  B.  c) 


DACIA.  A  Roman  province,  now  part  of  Hungary.  After  many  contests  it  was 
subdued  by  Trajan,  A.  D.  106,  when  Decebalus,  the  Dacian  leader,  was  slain  in 
battle. 

DAGUERREOTYPES.  In  1855,  not  less  than  15,000  persons  were  engaged  in 
this  business  in  the  U.  S.  In  1867,  the  number  must  be  nearer  30,000.  The 
art  of  photography  on  paper,  however,  has  wholly  superseded  the  former  use 
of  metal  plates.  See  Photography. 

DALMATIA.  An  Austrian  province,  N.  E.  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  was  finally  con- 
quered by  the  Romans,  34  B.  c.  The  emperor  Diocletian  erected  his  palace  at 
Spalatro,  and  retired  there  A.  D.  305.  Dalmatia  was  held  in  turn  by  the  Goths, 
Hungarians,  and  Turks,  till  its  session  to  Venice  in  1699.  By  the  treaty  01 
Carnpo  Formio,  in  1797,  it  was  given  to  Austria.  In  1805,  it  was  incorporated 
into  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  gawe  the  title  of  duke  to  Marshal  Soult.  In 
1814,  it  reverted  to  Austria. 

DAMASCUS,  (p.  343).  Horrible  massacres  of  the  Christians  there  July  9,  1860. 

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES.  Wallachia  and  Moldavia ;  capitals,  Bucharest 
and  Jassy.  These  provinces  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia,  which  was  con- 
quered by  Tryjan  about  A.  D.  106,  and  abandoned  by  Aurelian  about  270. 
For  some  time  after  they  were  alternately  in  possession  of  the  barbarians 
and  Greek  emperors;  and  afterwards  of  the  Hungarians.  The  provinces 
having  participated  in  the  Greek  insurrection  in  1821,  were  afterwards  severely 
treated  by  the  Turks,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829,  they  were 
placed  under  the  protection  of  Russia.  The  Russians  quitted  these  provinces  in 
Sept.,  1854,  and  an  Austrian  army  entered  (by  virtue  of  a  convention  between 
the  Sultan  and  Austria),  and  remained  there  till  March,  1857,  The  govern- 
ment of  the  principalities  settled  at  the  Paris  conference,  Aug.  19,  1868. 

DARDANELLES,  PASSAGE  OF  THE.  (p.  343.')  The  allied  English  and  French 
fleets  passed  the  Dardanelles  at  the  Sultan  s  request,  Oct.  1853. 

DAUPHIN.  It  is  a  vulgar  error  to  suppose  that,  by  the  treaty  of  1343,  which 
gave  the  full  sovereignty  of  Dauphiny  to  the  kings  of  France,  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  should  bear  the  title  of  dauphin.  So  far  from 
it,  the  first  dauphin  named  in  that  treaty,  was  Philip,  second  son  of  Philip  of 
Valois.  Henault.  The  late  duke  of  Orleans,  eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  was 
not  called  the  dauphin.  . 

DEAF  AND  DUMB,  BLIND,  AND  INSANE  PERSONS,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In 
1840,  there  were  6,616  blind  persons,  or  1  in  2,467  of  the  population  ;  7,659 
deaf  and  dumb,  or  1  in  2,228  ;  17,434  insane  or  idiotic,  or  1  in  979.  There 
were  in  the  United  States  23  asylums  for  the  insane,  with  about  2,840  patients. 
In  the  United  States  in  1860,  there  were  14,269  deaf  and  dumb  persons.  The 
institution  for  such  persons  situated  at  N.  Y.  city,  is  the  largest  for  the  "  in- 
struction of  deaf-mutes  only,  in  its  accommodations  and  number  of  pupils,  in 
the  world"  (National  Almanac).  Number  of  teachers  in  Dec.,  1868,  16,  of 
whom  8  were  deaf-mutes.  Number  of  pupils  332.  The  asylum  was  founded 
in  1817.  Whole  number  of  graduates  1,300.  In  1862,  there  were  22  institu- 
tions in  the  country  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  with  130  teachers  and  2,000  pupils. 
Their  annual  support  requires  about  $350,000,  of  which  $300,000  is  appropriated 


108  THB  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

by  the  legislatures  of  29  states.  Among  the  most  prominent  and  successful 
*>f  the  philanthropists  who  have  promoted  the  education  and  good  treatment 
of  the  above  persons  in  the  United  States,  are  Dr.  Amariah  Brigham,  Dr.  But- 
ler, and  Rev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet,  of  Hartford  ;  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe  of  Boston. 

DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  OP,  U.  S.  Is  inflicted  for  the  crimes  of  murder,  treason,  and 
arson,  in  the  first  degree.  Capital  punishment  abolished  in  the  state  of  Wis- 
consin, 1865.  In  England  by  the  criminal  law  consolidation  acts  of  1861,  the 
death  penalty  was  confined  to  treason  and  wilful  murder.  A  parliamentary 
commission  respecting  capital  punishment  was  appointed  early  in  16(54.  Capital 
punishment  was  restricted  in  Italy  in  April,  1865. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM  of  Coinage,  WEIGHTS,  &c.,  was  established  in  France  in  1790, 
and  shortly  after  in  other  countries.  The  subject  was  brought  before  the 
English  Parliament  in  1824,  1838,  1843,  1853, 1854,  1855.  The  decimal  cur- 
rency was  adopted  in  Canada,  1858.  International  Decimal  Association 
formed  at  London,  1855.  Congress  of  the  U.  S.  passed  laws  legalizing  the  use 
of  the  Metric  system  in  the  country,  in  1866,  without  at  once  substituting  it  for 
our  present  system.  It  is  already  used  in  some  arts  and  trades.  By  act  of 
Congress,  July  27,  1866,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  to  furnish  each  state 
with  one  set  of  the  standard  weights  and  measures  of  the  Metric  system. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  The  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence  (North  Carolina),  was  passed  in  May,  1775,  two  months  before 
that  drawn  up  by  Jefferson  at  Philadelphia. 

DEDICATION.  The  dedication  of  books  was  introduced  in  the  time  of  Maece- 
nas, 17  B.  c.,  aud  the  custom  has  been  practised  ever  since  by  authors,  to 
solicit  patronage  or  to  testify  respect.  Maecenas  was  the  friend  and  counsel- 
lor of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  was  so  famous  a  patron  of  men  of  genius  and 
learning,  that  it  has  been  customary  to  style  any  one  imitating  his  example, 
the  Maecenas  of  his  age  or  country.  The  Scriptures  speak  of  the  dedication  of 
the  Tabernacle,  B.  c.  1490,  and  of  the  Temple,  B.  c.  1004.  The  Christians 
under  Constantino  built  new  churches,  and  dedicated  them  with  great  solem- 
nity, in  A.  D.  331  et  sc/j. 

DEGREES,  U.  S.  Academical  degrees  are  marks  of  distinction  conferred  on 
students,  in  testimony  of  their  proficiency  in  arts  and  sciences.  They  are  of 
pontifical  origin.  Bonnier.  Graduates  of  American  colleges  are  Bachelors  of 
Arts,  A.  B.  By  a  further  course  of  study  for  three  years,  they  become  Master 
of  Arts,  A.  M.  The  title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M.  D.),  is  conferred  on  students 
on  their  graduation  from  medical  schools.  But  Doctor  of  Divinity  (D.  D.),  and 
of  Law  (LL.  D.),  is  an  honorary  degree  conferred  by  faculties  on  distinguished 
persons. 

DELAWARE.'  The  smallest  of  the  U.  S.  except  Rhode  Island.  First  settled 
in  1630,  by  the  Swedes  and  Fins  under  the  patronage  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
and  received  the  name  of  New  Sweden.  They  were  subdued  in  1655  by 
the  Dutch,  who  in  turn  surrendered  it,  with  New  Netherlands,  to  the  English 
in  1664,  and  then  named  Delaware.  The  Duke  of  York  granted  it  to  Wm. 
Penu  in  1682,  and  it  remained  nominally  united  to  Pennsylvania  until  1775. 
This  State  bore  an  honorable  part  in  the  revolution,  and  suffered  much  in  the 
struggle.  She  adopted  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  by  a  unanimous  vote  ia 
Convention,  Dec.  8,  1787.  Population— 1790,  59,094  ;  1840,  78,085,  includ- 
ing 2,605  slaves.  Population  in  1850,  89,242,  and  2,290  slaves;  in  1860, 
110,548,  and  1,805  slaves.  The  Delaware  Breakwater  two-thirds  of  a  mile 
long  cost  the  Government  $2,000,000. 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS.    A  collection  of  the  Latin  authors,  originally  made  for 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


109 


the  use  of  the  Dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini),  son  of  Louis  XIV,  edited  oy 
fluet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  Madame  Dacier,  and  others.  Each  author  i,! 
illustrated  by  valuable  notes,  with  an  index  containing  every  word  in  the 
work.  The  number  of  volumes  published  was  sixty,  printed  between  164V 
and  1691,  except  Ansonius,  in  1750.  A  new  edition  with  additional  notes, 
published  by  Mr.  Valpy  of  London  early  in  the  present  century. 

DEMOCRATS.  Advocates  for  government  by  the  people  themselves  (demos,  peo- 
ple, and  kratein,  to  govern),  a  term  adopted  by  the  French  republicans  in  179C 
(who  termed  their  opponents  aristocrats,  from  aristos,  bravest  or  best).  The 
name  Democrats  was  adopted  by  the  pro-slavery  party  in  N.  America  (the 
southern  states),  and  the  abolitionists  were  called  Republicans.  Into  these 
two  great  parties  a  number  of  smaller  ones  were  absorbed  at  the  presidential 
election  in  1856.  In  1860,  the  Republicans  formed  "Wide-awake"  clubs  for 
electioneering  purposes,  and  succeeded  in  getting  their  candidate,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  elected  president,  Nov.  4.  Haydn.  See  United  States,  1860, 

DEMOCRACY  of  England,  France,  and  the  United  States,  compared  (1850): 


Votes 
No.  to 

Country.  Pop.    Votes.      Pop. 

England  ....17,000,000  630,721  *  1  in  26 

Wales 850,000    37,924     1  in  23 

Bcotiand....   8,rOO,000    72,720     1  in  38 
Ireland 8.000,000   98,006     linSl 


Fo. 

Votes. 


Votea 

to 
Pop. 


Country  Pop. 

Grand  frdand  \  ™><*°'™> 

France  .........  34,000,000     250.000  1  in  137 

United  States..  20,000,000  2,750,000    1  in  7 


DENMARK.  Frederick  VII.,  son  of  Christian  VIII.,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
1849.  Danes  defeat  the  Holsteiners  at  Idstedt,  July  25,  1850.  Friedrichstadt 
bombarded  by  Holsteiners,  Sept.  29-Oct.  9,  1850.  Treaty  of  European 
powers  for  settlement  of  succession  to  Danish  crown,  May  8,  1852.  New 
constitution  offered  by  the  King,  adopted  Oct.  1,1855.  Sound  dues  abolished 
for  a  compensation,  March  14,  1857.  Death  of  Frederick  VII.  and  accession 
of  Christian  IX.,  Nov.  15,  1863.  Danes  retire  from  Holstein,  Dec.  24,  1863, 
German  troops  enter  Holstein,  Jan.  21,  1864.  Prussians  tabe  Schleswig, 
Feb.  6,  1864.  Danes  defeat  the  Allies  in  a  naval  battle  ofl  Heligoland,  May  9, 
1864. 

DENOMINATIONS,  THE  THREE  (presbyterians,  congregationalists  or  inde 
pendents,  and  baptists),  were  organized  in  1727  as  an  association,  with  the 
privilege  of  direct  appeal  to  the  reigning  sovereign  of  Great  Britain.  —  Haydn. 

DEODAND  (Latin,  "  to  be  given  to  God").  Formerly  in  England,  anything 
(such  as  a  horse,  carriage,  &c.),  which  had  caused  the  death  of  a  human 
being  became  forfeit  to  the  sovereign  or  lord  of  the  manor,  and  was  to  be 
sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  The  forfeiture  was  abolished  (1B46), 

D'EON,  CHEVALIER,  who  had  acted  in  a  diplomatic  capacity  in  several  coun- 
tries, and  been  minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  in  London,  was  affirmed 
to  be  A  female,  at  a  trial  at  the  King's  Bench  in  1771,  in  an  action  to  recover 
wages  as  to  his  sex.  He  subsequently  wore  female  attire  :  but  at  his  death  it 
was  fully  manifested  that  he  was  of  the  male  sex. 

DEPUTIES,  CHAMBER  OF.  The  title  given  to  the  French  legislative  assembly, 
from  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814  till  1852,  when  it  took  tue 
name  of  Corps  Legislalif. 

DESIGN,  ACADEMY  OF,  OF  N.  Y.  Founded  in  1826.  A  beautiful  building,  in 
the  Gothic  style,  was  erected  in  1863.  Architect,  P.  B.  Wight  ;  cost,  $150,« 


*  The  Reform  Bill  of  1867,  largely  increased  this  number. 


110  THE  WOELD'S  PROGRESS. 

000.      There  is  an  annual   exibition  of  paintings,  lasting  from  April  to  July 
See  Arts,  Paintings. 

DETROIT,  MICHIGAN,  U.  S.  Established  as  a  military  post  by  the  French,  1670, 
Came  into  the  possession  of  the  British,  1760.  In  1783  surrendered  to  the 
United  States.  In  1812,  captured  by  the  British,  but  evacuated  in  the  same 
year.  In  1805,  the  town  was  completely  destroyed  by  fire.  It  was  the  capital 
of  the  State  until  1850.  Population  in  1865,  about  60,000. 

DIAMONDS.  The  Kohinoor,  or  "  Mountain  of  Light,  "  found  at  Golconda  in 
1550,  belonged  to  Nadir  Shah  and  other  Afghan  rulers,  brought  to  England 
and  presented  to  the  Queen,  1850.  Its  original  weight  800  carats,  reduced 
by  cutting  to  279  carats  ;  in  shape  and  size  like  the  pointed  half  of  a  small 
hen's  egg ;  value  about  two  millions  sterling. 

DICE.  The  invention  of  dice  is  ascribed  to  Palamedes,  of  Greece,  1244  B.  0. 
The  game  of  Tali  and  Tersera  among  the  Romans  was  played  with  dice. 

DICTIONARY,  TJ.  S.  Noah  Webster's  great  American  Dictionary  of  the  English 
language,  in  two  quarto  volumes,  was  first  published  at  New  Haven,  in  1828. 
It  was  reprinted  in  London,  under  the  supervision  of  E.  H.  Barker,  1832.  The 
revised  edition  of  Webster's  Dictionary,  in  one  volume  quarto,  was  issued  by 
its  present  proprietors  (Messrs.  Merriam),  in  1844-5.  A  new  and  enlarged 
edition  appeared  in  1864;  it  contains  114,000  words,  and  8,000  illustrations. 
Worcester's  edition,  in  quarto,  was  published  in  1860.  It  is  also  illustrated, 
and  contains  104,000  words.  The  former  is  edited  at  Yale  College,  *he  latter 
at  Cambridge,  Mass. 

DILETTANTI,  SOCIETY  OF.  Established  in  1734  by  several  noblemen,  desirous 
of  encouraging  a  taste  for  art  in  Great  Britain.  It  aided  in  publishing 
Stuart's  Athens  (1762-1816),  Chandler's  Travels  (1775-6),  and  other  works. 

DIPHTHERIA  (from  the  Greek  diphlhera,  a  membrane).  A  disease  developing  a 
false  membrane  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat.  So  named  by  Bnv 
tonnjau  of  Tours,  in  1820.  It  has  been  fatally  prevalent  in  many  parts  of 
the  U.  S ,  particularly  among  children,  1859-60.  The  number  of  deaths  by 
this  disease  in  New  York  State  from  Dec.  1864,  to  June  1'865,  was  2,942. 

DIPLOMACY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  List  of  ministers  plenipotentiary  to  Great 
Britain,  and  France.  (See  p.  ) 


OBEAT    BRITAIN. 


1852  James  Buchanan,  Pa.  min.  plen. 
1863  James  K.  Ingersoll  do.         do. 
1856  George  M.  Dallas,  do.         do. 
1801  Clis.  Francis  Adams,  Mass.  do. 


FRANCE. 


1853  James  Y.  Mason,  Va.       min.  plen. 
1857  Charles  J.  Faulkner,  Va.        do. 
1861  Wm.  L.  Dayton,  N.  J.  do. 

1865  John  Bigelow,  N.  Y.  do. 


1866  John  A.  Dix,     do.  do. 

By  Act  of  Congress  1856,  the  salary  of  ministers  plenipotentiary  was  raised 
as  follows:  Min.  Plen.  to  England,  $17,500;  to  France,  $17,500;  to  Russia, 
Spain,  Prussia,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Chili  and  Peru,  each  $12,000.  The  "  outfits" 
were  abolished  at  the  same  time.  Ministers  resident  to  19  other  countries 
are  paid  $7,500. 

DIRECTORY,  NEW  YORK  CITY.  The  earliest  published  was  in  1786:  a  small 
volume  of  eighty  two  pages,  printed  by  Shepherd  Kollock,  Wall  street.  The 
names  of  the  individuals  and  firms  include  about  900,  and  occupy  thirty-three 
pages,  the  remainder  being  filled  with  general  statistics  of  the  city,  United 
States  Government,  Post  Office  regulations,  &c.  In  his  address,  the  editor 
Ltates  it  was  the  "  first  directory  ever  attempted  in  this  country."  The  New 
York  Historical  Society  possesses  a  complete  set  from  its  first  publica- 
tion. The  Directory  of  1866-7  contains  176,511  names;  increase  of  10,367 


SUPPLEMENT,   1851-67.  Ill 

1865-6.  The  volume  for  1867-8  contains  177,317  names — a  further  ia 
crease  of  806  only. 

DISPENSATIONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL,  were  first  granted  by  pope  Innocent  III. 
in  1200.  These  exemptions  from  the  discipline  of  the  church,  with  indulgen- 
ces, absolutions,  &c.,  led  eventually  to  the  Reformation  in  Germany  in  1517, 
and  in  England  in  1534,  et  seq. 

DISPENSARIES,  to  supply  the  poor  with  medical  advice  and  medicines,  began 
in  London  with  the  Royal  General  Dispensary,  established  in  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Close,  in  1770.  It  relieved  about  20,000  persons  in  1861.  Low's 
Charities. 

DISPENSARIES,  U.  S.  There  are  eleven  in  New  York  city.  The  oldest  was 
founded  in  1795.  The  poor  receive  treatment  and  medicine  in  them  free  of 
charge. 

DISTILLATION,  U.  S.  The  number  of  distilleries  in  the  U.  S.  in  1860  wag 
1,138,  employing  a  capital  of  $24,253,000.  Number  in  New  York  state  in 
1865,  67.  The  consumption  of  distilled  spirits  in  U.  S.  in  1865  was  about 
40,000,000  gallons.  It  appeared  in  that  year  that  for  every  three  gallons 
that  paid  the  revenue  tax,  five  evaded  the  payment.  The  revenue  amounted 
to  $29,198,000. 

DOLLAR,  the  German  thaler  (the  h  not  sounded).  Stamped  Spanish  dollars 
were  issued  from  the  mint  in  March,  1797,  but  called  in  Oct.  following.  The 
dollar  is  the  principal  silver  coin  in  the  United  States. 

DON  QUIXOTE,  by  Saavedra  Miguel  de  Cervantes  (born  1547;  died  16J6). 
The  first  part  of  this  work  appeared  in  1605,  and  the  second  part  in  1608.  It 
is  said  that  upwards  of  12,000  copies  of  the  first  part  were  circulated  before 
the  second  could  be  made  ready  for  the  press.  Watts. 

DRAGOONS.  The  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  dragon, 
"  because,  mounted  on  horseback,  with  lighted  match,  he  seemeth  like  a  fiery 
dragon."  Meyrick.  The  DRACONARII  were  horse-soldiers,  who  bore  dragons 
for  ensigns.  The  first  regiment  of  dragoons  was  raised  in  England,  it  is  be- 
lieved, in  1681. 

DRUSES.  A  warlike  people  dwelling  among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon ;  derive 
their  origin  from  a  fanatical  Mahometan  sect  which  arose  in  Egypt  about  996, 
and  fled  to  Palestine,  to  avoid  persecution.  They  now  retain  hardly  any  of 
the  religion  of  their  ancestors ;  they  do  not  practise  circumcision,  pray  or  fast, 
but  eat  pork  and  drink  wine.  In  the  middle  of  1860,  in  consequence  of  dis- 
putes (in  which  doubtless  both  parties  were  to  blame),  the  Druses  attacked 
their  neighbors  the  Maronites  (wh  ch  see),  whom  they  massacred,  it  was  said, 
without  regard  to  age  or  sex. 

DIVINE  RIGHT  OF  KINGS.  The  absolute  and  unqualified  claim  of  sovereigns 
to  tue  obedience  of  their  subjects,  was  defended  in  England  by  many  persons 
of  otherwise  opposite  opinions,  e.g.  by  Hobbes,  the  free-thinker,  in  1642,  and 
by  Sir  Robert  Filmer,  in  his  Patriarcha,  in  1860,  and  by  the  High  Church 
generally. 

DIVORCE.  In  this  country  adultery  is  a  ground  of  divorce  in  all  the  States. 
In  Massachusetts,  Maine,  and  New  Jersey,  wilful  desertion  for  five  years,  and 
in  some  other  States,  desertion  for  two  and  three  years,  and  some  other  causes, 
are  ground  for  divorce.  Divorce  has  been  granted  most  frequently  in 
Vermont,  Connecticut,  and  Indiana.  In  Connecticut,  cruel  treatment  is  a 
ground  of  absolute  divorce.  The  Ministers  of  the  Gospel  in  that  State  have 
called  the  attention  of  the  Legislature  to  the  laxity  of  its  Divorce  laws. 


112  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

DOGS,  LAWS  ABOUT,  U.  S.  In  New  York  dogs  are  required  to  be  muzzled 
during  June,  «Tuly,  and  August.  A  reward  of  fifty  cents  is  given  for  every 
dog  brought  to  the  pound  unmuzzled.  Unless  redeemed  in  24  hours  they  are 
drowned.  In  1866,  4,819  dogs  were  drowned  in  New  York  City,  at  au  expense 


DUBLIN  INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITION.  Opened  by  the  lord  lieut.  May  12, 
1853  ;  closed  Nov.  1,  same  year. 

DUELLING,  (p.  356.)  Duel  between  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of 
Winchelsea,  March  21,  1829 ;  fifteen  noted  duels  have  since  occurred  in  Bug- 
land.  The  most  noted  American  affairs  of  the  kind  were  these :  two  during  the 
revolution,  viz.,  Gen.  Chas.  Lee  and  Col.  Jno.  Laurens ;  and  Gen,  Cadwallader 
and  Conway  (1778) ;  Gen.  Greene  was  challenged  by  a  Capt.  Gunn,  of  Ga.,  but 
refused  to  tight,  and  his  refusal  was  approved  by  Washington.  Gen.  Hamil- 
ton killed  by  Aaron  Burr,  July  11,  1804.  Com.  Decatur  killed  by  Com.  Barron, 
Mar.  22,  1820.  Henry  Clay  encountered  John  Randolph,  April  8,  1826.  Gen. 
Jackson  killed  Mr.  Dickinson,  and  had  other  duels.  Col.  Benton  killed  a  Mr. 
Lucas,  and  had  other  duels.  Cilley,  of  Maine,  killed  by  Graves,  of  Kentucky 
(both  mem.  of  Cong.),  1838.  Dewitt  Clinton  exchanged  five  shots  with  John 
Swartwout,  1802.  See  Millingen's  Hist,  of  Duelling,  and  Sabine's  Notes  on 
Duels,  1855. 

E 

EAGLE,  (p.  357.)  An  ancient  coin  of  Ireland,  made  of  a  base  metal,  and  cur- 
rent in  the  first  years  of  Edward  I.,  about  A.  D,  1272.  The  American  gold 
coinage  of  eagles,  half-eagles  and  quarter-eagles  began  Dec.  6,  1792  ;  an 
eagle  is  of  the  value  of  ten  dollars. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.  (Brit.)  Chartered  originally  by  queen  Elizabeth,  in 
1660,  with  a  capital  of  £30,000,  was  rechartered  and  extended  its  operations 
until  in  1856  it  maintained  a  military  force  at  an  annual  expense  of  more 
than  £10,000,000.  By  the  act  of  Parliament,  "  for  the  better  government  of 
India,"  Aug.  2,  1858,  the  Company's  jurisdiction  of  India  was  surrendered  to 
the  queen.  See  India. 

EARTHQUAKES,  (p.  358.)  An  elaborate  catalogue  of  earthquakes,  with  com- 
mentaries on  the  phenomena,  by  R.  P.  W.  Mallet,  was  published  by  Brit. 
Association,  1858-9. 

•Earthquake  at  Cape  Haytien,  St.  Do- !      April  16, 1854 

miugo,  5,000  lives  lost,  May  7,  1842.      Ona*aca,    in  Japan;    Shnoda,   in  Niphon, 
Rhod 


At  Rhodes,  snd  Macii,  mountains 
crushing  a  village,  600  lives  lost, 
March,  1851 . 

At  Valparaiso,  400  houses  destroyed, 
April  2,  1861. 

In  South  Italy,  Melfi  destroyed,  14,000 
lives  lost,  Ausr.  14,  1851 

At  Philippine  ieles,  Manilla  nearly  de- 
stroyed, Sept.— Oct..  1852. 

N.  W.  of  England,  slight.,  Nov.  9,  1852. 

Thebes  in  Greece,  nearly  dest.  Sept. 
1853 

St.  Salvador,  8.   America,  destroyed, 


nearly  destoyed,  Dec.  23,  1854. 
Jeddo  nearly  destroyed,  Nov.  11,  1855. 
Island  of  Sander  (Moluccas),  3,000  lives  lost, 

March  12,  1856. 
In     Calabria,     several    towns      destroyed, 

22,000  lives  lost,  Dec.  16,  1856. 
Corinth,  nearly  destroyed,  Feb.  21,  1858. 
Quito ;  much  injured,  and  5.000   lives  lost, 

March  29, 1859. 
Mendoza,  S.  America,  7,000  lives  lost,  March 

i'O,  1861. 

Manilla,    Philippine  Isles,    10,000     persons 
perish,  June  3, 1863. 


EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE,  off  the  port  of  Plymouth,  first  built,  1696; 
destroyed  by  tempest,  1703  ;  rebuilt  1706  ;  burnt,  1755  ;  rebuilt  by  Smea/on 
and  finished,  Oct.  9,  1759,  and  his  structure  still  stands,  1861. 

EDINBURGH    UNIVERSITY.     Founded   by  James  VL    (I.  of   Eng.)    1582 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  115 

New  buildings  erected  1789.  Lord  Brougham's  discourse  as  Chancellor  of 
the  Univ.,  1860. 

EGYPT.  Malta  and  Alexandria  telegraph  opened  Nov.  1,  1861.  Said,  Viceroy, 
July  14,  1854,  dies  Jan.  18,  1863.  Ishmael,  Viceroy,  Jan.  18,  1863  ;  visits 
France  and  England,  July,  1867. 

EL  DORADO  (the  "  Gilded  Man").  When  the  Spaniards  had  conquered  Mexico 
and  Peru,  they  began  to  look  for  new  sources  of  wealth,  and  having  heard  of 
a  golden  city  ruled  by  a  king  or  priest,  smeared  in  oil  and  rolled  in  gold  dust, 
(which  report  was  founded  on  a  merely  annual  custom  of  the  Indians),  they 
organized  various  expeditions  into  the  interior  of  South  America,  which  were 
accompanied  with  disasters  and  crimes,  about  1660.  Raleigh's  expeditions  in 
search  of  gold  in  1596  and  1617,  led  to  his  fall 

EDUCATION.  Some  of  the  most  noted  educational  theorists  were  Fenelon  and 
Rousseau,  in  France,  18th  century ;  Basedon,  Walke,  and  Pestalozzi  (Swiss), 
Fellenburg,  Jacotot,  and  others,  in  Germany;  Joseph  Lancaster  (d.  1839),  hi 
England.  In  Prussia,  all  children  from  7  to  14  are  compelled  by  law,  and  un- 
der penalty,  to  attend  school ;  but  this  governmental  system  does  not  appear 
greatly  to  advance  practical  civilization  and  progress  among  the  people.  In 
France,  a  national  system  was  adopted  by  Guizot,  in  1833,  from  reports  of  the 
Prussian  system  by  Cousin.  IN  ENGLAND  (p.  3(>6).  See  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Jf'on.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  numerous  "Charity"  schools  were  founded, 
and  many  others  by  "Society"  effort,  in  1641  etseq.  Jos.  Lancaster  started  his 
"Monitorial"  system,  1186,  and  originated  the  Brit,  and  For.  School  Soc.,  1808. 
The  Gov.  grant  of  £20,000,  in  1834,  lor  public  education,  was  increased  to 
£15f>,000  in  1852,  and  £450,000  in  1866.  In  1851,  there  were  2,466,481  day 
scholars.  Educational  Conference,  June  22,  1857,  Prince  Albert  presiding. 
Industrial  School  Act  passed  1857.  In  the  U.  S.  Has  been  largely  promoted 
and  systematized  since  1835,  by  the  efforts  and  publications  of  Horace  Mann, 
Henry  Barnard,  D.  P.  Page,  Alonzo  Potter,  Barnas  Sears,  and  others.  Am. 
List,  of  Instruction,  organized  at  Boston,  Aug.  19,  1830,  and  has  held  annual 
meetings  since.  During  the  last  two  years  of  the  war,  1864-5,  the  very  large 
sum  of  $848,000  was  donated  to  New  England  colleges.  The  New  England 
seminaries  for  young  ladies  meanwhile  received  less  than  a  fiftieth  part  of  the 
noble  subsidy.  The  munificent  donation  of  George  Peabody  ($2,000,000),  to 
promote  education  in  the  Southern  States  was  confided  to  a  Board  of  Trustees, 
Robert  C.  Winthrop  of  Boston,  President,  1867  ;  and  Barnas  Sears,  President 
of  Brown  University,  accepted  the  general  agency  of  this  Trust.  See  Colleges 
and  Schools. 

ELECTRIC  CLOCK  AND  BALL.  Alexander  Bain,  of  London,  is  said  to  have  firsi, 
conceived  the  idea  of  working  clocks  by  electricity  in  1837 ;  his  clocks,  as  well 
as  those  of  Mr.  Shepherd,  appeared  in  the  exhibition  of  1851.  An  electric 
clock  with  four  dials,  illuminated  at  night,  was  set  up  in  front  of  the  office  of 
the  Electric  Telegraph  Company,  in  the  Strand,  London,  July,  1852.  A  time 
ball  was  set  up  by  Mr.  French,  in  Cornhill,  in  1856.  A  time  ball  connected 
with  the  observatory  at  Albany,  placed  on  the  Custom  House,  New  York, 
1860. 

ELECTRICITY,  (p.  363.)  Oersted's  discovery  of  electro-magnetism,  1820.  Far- 
raday  (Lond.)  discovered  magnetic-electricity  in  1831,  and  published  il  Re- 
searches," in  3  vols.,  1833-55.  Sir  Wm.  Snow  Harris  received  £5,000  for  hia 
invention  of  lightning  conductors  for  ships.  Important  contributions  to  the 
knowledge  of  electricity  and  its  uses,  have  been  mado  by  Prof.  Jos.  Henry, 
and  Prof.  Page,  of  Washington,  Prof.  Draper,  of  Xew  York,  &c. 


114  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  The  electro-magnetic  force  was  applied  by  M.  Br* 
guet  of  Paris,  in  the  manufacture  of  theodolites  and  the  finer  kind  of  mathe- 
matical instruments,  in  1856. 

ELECTRO-PLATING.  Carried  to  great  perfection  by  Elkington  &  Mason,  oi 
Birmingham,  England,  and  the  process  has  been  introduced  successfully  into 
New  York,  1858-9. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH,  (p.  364.)  Prof.  Morse's  services  to  the  world  as  the 
originator  of  the  practiciil  application  of  electro-magnetism  to  telegraphing, 
were  acknowledged  by  the  French  government  in  1859,  by  the  voluntary  pre- 
sentation to  him  of  $80,000  (?) ;  and  by  public  honors  and  rewards  from  other 
governments  of  Europe  in  1860.  House's  printing  telegraph,  1846;  Bain'a 
electro-chemical  telegraph,  1846;  Huglies's  system,  1855;  the  American  com- 
bination system  (of  the  preceding),  which  can  convey  2,000  words  an  hour, 
adopted  by  the  American  Telegraph  Company,  Jan.,  1859.  Wheatstone's 
automatic  printing  telegraph  patented,  I860. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH  LINES.  In  1860,  in  America,  45,000  miles ;  in  Eng- 
land, 10,000;  in  France,  8,000;  in  Germany  and  Austria  10,000;  in  Prussia, 
4,000;  in  Russia,  5,000;  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  7,650;  in  India,  5,000;  in 
Australia,  12,000;  elsewhere,  500.  Total  in!858,  96,350.  Over  all  the  lines 
in  the  United  States  the  number  of  messages  per  year  is  estimated  at  4,000,- 
000.  It  is  supposed  that  a  telegraph  could  be  laid  around  the  globe  for  less 
than  half  the  cost  of  the  Erie  railroad.  See  Submarine  Telegraph.  In  the 
United  States  the  overland  line  from  Missouri  to  California  was  completed 
Oct.  22,  1861.  A  cable  was  laid  across  Chesapeake  Bay  from  Fortress  Mon- 
roe in  1861.  Ninety-five  lines  of  telegraph  are  laid  under  American  rivers. 

ELECTRO-TINT.  Mr.  Palmer  of  Newgate  street,  London,  has  patented  an  in- 
vention by  which  engravings  may  not  only  be  copied  from  other  engraved 
plates,  but  the  engraving  itself  actually  produced  by  electrical  agency.  There 
are  several  processes  by  which  this  is  accomplished,  one  of  which,  also  pro 
tected  by  a  patent,  Mr.  Palmer  called  Glyphography  (about  1842). 

ELZEVIRS.  A  celebrated  family  of  printers,  in  Holland,  whose  reputation  is  based 
on  fine  pocket  editions  of  the  classics.  Their  first  book  is  dated  1683. 

EMIGRATION  FROM  GREAT  BRITAIN,  (p.  365.)  increased  from  129,851,  in  1846, 
to  335,000  in  1851,  and  368,000  in  1852  ;  and  then  fell  off  as  follows:— in  1853, 
829,000;  in  1855,  176,000;  in  1857,  212,000.  About  three-fifths  of  this 
emigration  is  to  the  United  States;  one-eighth  to  Brit.  America;  remainder 
to  Australia.  To  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  total  number  of  alien  emigrants 
who  arrived  in  the  U.  S.  from  1819  to  1856,  was  4,212,624.  From  1784  to 
1819,  the  number  did  not  probably  exceed  150,000:  in  all.  say  5.000,000  ar- 
rived from  1784  up  to  January,  1859.  Of  this  number  about  2,600,000  came 
from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  1,600,000  from  Germany ;  200,000  from 
France ;  50,000  from  Sweden  and  Norway  ;  40,000  from  Switzerland,  and 
18,000  from  Holland.  (Appleton's  Cyclo.)  The  commission  for  receiving  emi- 
grants at  Castle  Garden,  N.  Y.  city,  was  established  in  1847.  From  that  time 
to  1867,  3,658,800  emigrants  have  landed  there.  The  number  in  1865  was 
237,397.  See  Aliens. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA.  Ths  Iconographic  Cyclopedia,  6  vols.,  based  on  a  German 
work,  published  at  New  York,  1853-4.  The  Enjlish  Cyelop&dia  (Charles 
Knight),  based  on  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  1855-60.  The  8th  edition  of  Ency- 
clop.  Britannica  completed  1860.  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  1857-62,  16  vois. 
(N.  York).  Appleton's  "  Annual  Cyclopaedia,"  begins  with  the  year  1861,  and 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  115 

is  a  complete  review  of  the  great  events  in  the  world,  of  each  year.    The 

volumes,  1861-5,  contain  a  valuable  history  of  the  war 

ENGLAND.     For  succession  of  events,  see  Chronological  Tables,  p.  160  to  120. 
ENLISTMENT,  U.  S.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  various  "calk'1'  for  troo^z 

by  the  Government  during  the  war : — 

Date  of  Call.  Number  of  Men.        Term  of  Service.          Number  obtai-.td 

April  15,  1862 75.000        3  mouths        93,326 

May  to  June  25,  1862 .....530,000        3  years  714,213 

July2, 1862    800,000        3  years  431,9E3 

Aug.  4,  1862  300,000        9  months        87,OOC 

Oct.  17, 1863 300,000        3  years         >  __.  „„„ 

Feb.  1,1864    200,000        3  years         $ <m,su. 

March  14, 1864 200,000        3  years  284,021 

July  18,  1864 500,000        ......  1-2-3  years  384,882 

Dec.  19,  1864 300,000        l-2-3years  204,668 

There  were  other  calls  for  30  and  100  days'  men.  The  whole  number  called 
for  was  2,759,049 ;  total  obtained,  2,656,553.  By  Act  of  March  3,  1863,  called 
the  "  Conscription  Act,"  the  President  was  authorized  to  draft  troops.  The 
act  provided  for  an  enrollment,  a  draft,  the  reception  of  substitutes,  and  arrest 
of  deserters.  About  3,000,000  men  between  the  ages  of  20  and  45  were  en- 
rolled. The  calls  from  Oct.  17,  1863,  were  orders  for  drafts.  But  probably 
not  more  than  50,000  drafted  men  performed  personal  service.  Substitutes 
were  obtained.  "  The  Substitute  Fund "  of  the  Government,  consisting  of 
money  paid  in  as  a  release  from  service,  and  which  was  used  as  a  '*  Bounty 
Fund"  for  volunteers,  amounted  to  $26,902,029.  See  Army  of  U.  8. 
EPIC  POEMS  (from  Greek  epot,  a  song).  Narratives  in  verse.  Some  of  the  most 
famous  are  : 


Homer's  "  Iliad  "  and  "  Odys- 
sey "  (Grek),  between  8th  and 
8th  century,  before  Christ. 

Virgil's  "^Eneid  ''  (Latin),  about 

B.  o.  19 

Ovid's,  "  Metamorphoses  "  (La- 
tin)  about  A.  D.  1 

Dante,  (died  1321)  "  Divina  Corn- 
media"  (Italian) A.  D.  1472 


Ariosto, "     Orlando     Furioso " 

(Ita!.) A.D.    156 

Ca-noene, "  Lusiad"  (Portuguese)  1569 
Tacso,  "  Jerusalem  Delivered" 

(ItaL) 1581 

Milton,  "Paradise  Lost" 1667 

Voltaire  "  Henriade  "  (French)... 1728 
Walter  Scott,  "  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel" 1805 


The  chief  American  epic  which  has  hitherto  been  recognized  as  at  all  worthy 
of  a  national  fame  is  Barlow's  "Columbiad." 

EPIPHANY.  The  feast  of  Epiphany  (Jan.  6),  called  Twelfth  Day,  celebrates  the 
arrival  of  the  wise  men  of  the  East,  and  the  manifestation  to  the  world  of  the 
Savior,  by  the  appearance  of  a  blazing  star,  which  conducted  the  Magi  to  the 
place  where  he  was  to  be  found.  Instituted  A.  D.  813.  Wheailey.  Pardon 
says,  "  The  heathens  used  this  word  to  signify  the  appearance  of  their  gods 
upon  the  earth,  and  from  the  heathens  the  Christians  borrowed  it." 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Episcopacy  established 
in  New  York  by  law,  1693 ;  introduced  into  Connecticut,  1706.  The  first 
bishops  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America  were  bishop  White 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Provost  of  New  York,  consecrated  in  London,  1787. 
First  Episcopal  convention,  1789.  Bishops  of  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  Kentucky 
and  Ohio  consecrated  at  New  York,  Nov.  2,  1832. 

EPITAPHS.  They  were  used  by  the  ancient  Jews,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  others. 
Mr.  T.  J.  Pettigrew  published,  in  England,  a  collection  called  Chroni:le3 
of  the  Tombs,  in  185-7. 

EQUATOR  (or  ECUADOR).  A  South  American  republic,  founded  in  1831,  when  the 
Colombian  republic  was  divided  into  three ;  the  other  two  being  Venezuela, 
and  New  Granada.  The  populat  on  of  Equstor  is  about  1,040,400,  of  which 


116  THE  WORLD'S  PEOGBESS. 

V6,000  are  in  Quito,  the  capital.  General  Franco,  president,  Aug.  21,  1889  : 
defeated  in  battle  by  General  Flores,  Aug.  1869.  President  (elected  in  1861)^ 
G.  G.  Moreno. 


COURTS  OF  U.  S.  In  New  England,  New  York,  and  several  other 
State?,  the  same  Juige  may  try  cases  of  Equity  as  well  as  of  Law.  There  are 
ao  Chancellors  in  these  States.  In  New  York  the  distinction  between  ac- 
'iions  at  law  and  suits  in  Equity,  was  abolished  in  1849.  In  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  other  States,  tlie  English  form  of  Chancery  Courts  and  practice 
:B  still  preserved  (1867). 

SRASTIANISM.  A  term  applied  to  the  opinions  of  Thomas  Lieber  (Latinized, 
Erastus),  a  German  physician  (]  523-84)  who  taught  that  the  Church  had  nol 
right  to  exclude  any  person  tro^a  the  ordinances  of  the  Gospel,  or  to  inflict  ex- 
communication. 

ERASURES.  In  England,  by  order  of  Sir  John  Romilly,  Master  of  the  Rolls  in 
1855,  no  document  corrected  by  erasure  with  the  knife  is  to  be  henceforth 
received  in  the  Court  of  Chancery.  The  errors  must  be  corrected  with  the  pen. 

ESQUIRE,  TITLE  OF,  U.  S.  A  title  applied  by  courtesy  to  officers  of  almost 
every  description,  to  members  of  the  bar,  and  others.  No  one  is  entitled  to 
it  by  law,  and,  therefore,  it  confers  no  distinction  in  law.  —  Bouvier. 

ETHIOPIA.  The  name  was  applied  anciently  rather  vaguely  to  countries  the 
inhabitants  of  which  had  sun-burnt  complexions,  in  Asia  and  Africa  ;  but  is 
now  considered  to  apply  properly  to  the  modern  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and  North- 
ern Abyssinia.  Many  pyramids  exist  at  Napata,  the  capital  of  Meroe,  the 
civilized  part  of  ancient  Ethiopia. 


Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  defeated  by 
Aza B.  c.      841 

A  dynasty  of  Ethiopian  Kings 

reigned  over  Egypt  from  B.  c.  765-715 
Terhakah,    King   of    Ethiopia, 


marches  against   Benr.acherib 


Ethiopia  invaded  by  the  Cam- 
byees  without  success  between 


B.  c.  322-326 

Candace,   Queen   of  M<To6,  ad- 
vancing   against   the    Roman 
settlements  at  Elephantine,  de- 
710  ft-ated  and  subdued  by  Petr->- 

ruis A.  D.  22-23 

ETHNOLOGY.  The  study  of  the  relations  of  the  different  divisions  of  mankind 
to  each  other.  It  is  of  recent  origin.  Balbi's  Ethnographic  Atlas  was  pub- 
lished in  1826,  and  Dr.  Prichard's  great  work,  Researches  on  the  Physical  His- 
tory of  Mankind,  1841-7.  The  London  Ethnological  Society,  established  in 
1843,  publishes  its  transactions.  Dr.  R.  S.  Latham's  works,  on  the  Ethnol- 
ogy of  the  British  Empire  appeared  in  1851-2.  The  American  Ethnological 
Society  was  founded  in  New  York  in  184-.  Albert  Gallatin  was  its  first  presi- 
dent. "  It  has  published  3  or  4  vols.  of  "  Transactions."  The  works  of  School- 
craft  on  the  history  of  American  Indians  are  copious  and  valuable.  The  belief 
in  the  original  unity  of  the  human  race  has  been  opposed  in  the  works  of  Nott 
and  Gliddon  (Ethnological  Researches),  Agassiz  and  others,  1854-9.  Mr. 
George  Peabody,  in  1866,  donated  to  Yale  College  $150,000  to  maintain  a 
museum  and  Professorship  of  Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  also  a  Irke  amount 
for  the  same  purpose  to  Harvard  College. 

ETNA,  MOUNT  (Sicily).  Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops.  Eruptions 
are  recorded  by  Thucydides  as  occurring  in  1784,  477,  425,  B.  c.  Eruptions 
also  A.  D.  40,  264,  420,  1669,  1830,  1832,  and  1852. 

ETRURIA,  or  Tuscia,  hence  the  modern,  name  Tuscany.  An  ancient  province  of 
Italy,  whence  the  Romans  in  a  great  measure  derived  their  laws,  customs,  and 
superstitions.  Herodotus  asserts  that  the  country  wae  conquered  by  a  colonv 
of  Lydians.  It  was  most  powerful  under  Porsena  of  Clusium,  who  attempted 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


117 


to  reinstate  the  Tarquins,  506.  B.  c.  The  vases  and  other  works  of  the  Etrus- 
cans still  remaining  show  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which  they  had  attained. 
See  Tuscany.  Etruria,  the  site  of  Mr.  Wedgewood's  porcelain  works,  was  found- 
ed 1771. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  England,  founded  by  Sir  Culling  Eardley  Smith 
and  others  in  1845,  with  the  view  of  promoting  unity  among  all  denominations 
of  Christians.  It  holds  annual  meetings.  It  met  Sept  1857  at  Berlin;  in  1858 
at  Liverpool;  1859  at  Belfast. 

EXAMINATIONS  of  persons  preliminary  to  their  employment  in  the  civil 
service  in  England,  has  been  enforced  since  1855.  [Mr.  Gladstone  in  1862  said 
that  the  present  might  be  termed  the  "  age  of  examinations."]  A  bill  for  a 
similar  system  in  the  U.  S.  was  introduced  in  the  senate  by  Mr.  Sumner,  1865. 

EXCHANGE  (MERCHANTS')  IN  NEW  YORK.  The  present  building,  on  the  site  of 
the  one  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1835,  was  commenced  in  1836,  and  fin- 
ished in  1840.  It  is  of  blue  granite,  and  cost  $1,800,000.  In  1864  it  was 
purchased  by  the  U.  S.  government  for  use  as  the  Custom  House.  That  of 
Boston,  also  of  Quincy  granite,  finished  in  1846. 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS.  In  England  the  government  securities  so  called,  were 
first  issued  in  1697,  and  first  circulated  by  the  bank  in  1796.  About  £20,000, 
000  of  these  are  often  in  circulation. 

EXCISE  Revenue  in  Great  Britain  in  1855,  £16,389,486 ;  in  1858,  £17,902,000; 

1860,  £20,361,000;  1864,  £19,558,000. 
EXCISE  LAW,  U.  S.     See  Internal  Revenue. 


EXHIBITION  OF  1851,  in  LONDON.  See  Crystal  Palace.  This  exhibition  origi- 
nated with  the  Society  of  Arts  ;  Prince  Albert,  President.  It  was  started  by 
a  royal  commission,  appointed  Jan.  3,  1850.  The  Crystal  Palace,  designed 
by  Paxton,  begun  Sept.  1850,  and  the  exhibition  was  opened  by  the  Queen, 
May  1,  1851.  The  No.  of  exhibitors  exceeded  17,000.  Number  of  visitors 
0,170,000,  averaging  43,000  daily.  Largest  No.  in  one  day,  109,760.  Exhi- 
bition open  144  days.  Amount  of  entrance  fees  £505,107.  Net  profits 
£150,000.  Of  1862.  A  proposal  in  1858  for  another  great  exhibition,  to 
be  held  in!861,  was  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  the  war  in  Italy  in  1859, 
&c.  The  scheme  was  revived  in  April  1860,  when  the  prince-consort  en- 
gaged to  guarantee  £10,000,  if  £240,000  should  be  subscribed  by  other  persons. 


The  exhibition  was  opened  by 
the  duke  of  Cambridge  and  a 
distinguished  company  on 

May  I, 

The  Exhibition  was  closed  on 
Nov.  1.  when  the  total  number 
of  visitors  (exclusive  of  attend- 
ants) bad  been  6,117,450. 


862 


The  success  of  the  Exhibition 
was  much  impared  by  the  de- 
cease of  the  prince  consort, 
Dec.  14, 1861,  and  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war  in  the 
United  States  of  America. 
The  foreign  exhibitors  in  1861, 
were  6666;  in  1862, 16,456. 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITION.  U.  S.,  consisting  of  the  Vincennes,  sloop  of  war  ; 
Peacock,  ditto  ;  Porpoise,  brig  ;  Relief,  Flying  Fish,  and  Sea  Gull,  smaller 
vessels,  under  Lieut.  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.,  sailed  frcm  Hampton  Roads,  Vn.,  Aug. 
19th,  1838.  Antarctic  continent  discovered,  July  19,  1839.  Attack  on  the 
Fejees  for  murdering  two  of  the  officers,  July  25,  1846.  The  Peacock  lost  on 
the  bar  of  Columbia  river,  July,  1841.  The  Vincennes  (flagship)  returned  to 
New  York,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  four  years,  June  11,  1842.  Captain 
Wilkes's  Narrative  of  the  Expedition,  in  6  vols.  imp.  8vo.  and  quarto,  was 
published  in  1845.  The  scientific  reports  ~*  the  expedition  form  about  20 
quarto  and  folio  volumes. 


118 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EXPORTS   AND  IMPORTS  OF  THE  U.  S.  (Stated  in  round  millions.) 


1849 
1850 
1860 
1861 
1862 
186:i 
1864 
1865 
1866 


Exports  of  Produce, 


of  Manufactures. 


Total. 


Imports. 


|131  millions 16  millions 147  millions 147  million!. 


134 
816 
204 
182 
249 
217 
254 
406 


.15 

.48 
.43 

.ys 

.50 
.45 

.04 
.61 


149 
364 
247 
'215 
299 
-.'62 
318 
530 


.178 
.362 
.286 
.275 
.252 
.329 
.234 
.437 


EXPORTS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  (p.  318.)    Total  exports  in  1850,  £175,126,706.     lu 

1851,  £190,397,810.     Exports  of  British  and  Irish  produce,  in  1856  £115,826,. 

948.     In  1857,  £122,156,257  ;  1861,  £125,115,133 ;  1863,  £146,489,768  ;  1865, 

£218,865 
EXTENSION  OF  TERRITORY  OF  U.  S.     Since  the  formation  of  the  government 

in  1787,  the  following  additional  territory  has  been  acquired : 


Sqaar*  Miles. 

699,599,  Louisiana,  &.C.,  by 
purchase  of 
France,  for  $150,- 
000,000. -1803 

66,900,  Florida,  by  treaty 
•with  Spain  cost 
$6,489,000 1820 

818,000,  Texas,  by  annexa- 
tion, tendered  by 
its  people 1845 

808,052,  Oregon,  settled  by 
tbe  treaty  with 
Great  Britain.. ..1846 


Square  Miles. 


650,445, 


'  California,  by  neaty 

with  Mexico 1848 

Mesillia  Valley  (Ari- 
zona), by  purchase 
of  Mexico  for  $10,- 
000,000 158 

Russian  America  by 
purchase  from  Rus- 
sia, negotiated  by 
Mr.  Seward.  Sec.  of 
(State ....1867 


F 

5"AIROAKS,  near  the  Chickahominy,  Virginia,  the  site  of  two  sanguinary  indecli- 
sive  battles  between  the  rebels,  under  Gen.  Joseph  Johnston,  and  the  army  of 
the  Potomac,  under  Gen.  McClellan,  May  31,  and  June  1,  1862. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  in  the  South  Atlantic,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain.  Seen  by  Americus  Vespucius;  visited  by  Davis,  1592.  Taken 
possession  of  by  France,  1763;  French  expelled  by  the  Spaniards,  and  in  1771 
Spain  gave  up  the  sovereignty  to  England.  A  colony  from  Buenos  Ayres  set- 
tled at  Port  Louis,  which  was  destroyed  by  Americans  1831.  In  1833  the 
British  nag  was  hoisted  at  Port  Louis,  and  a  British  officer  has  since  resided 
there. 

FARTHINGS.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the  English  coins.  Farthings  in  silver 
were  coined  by  King  John ;  the  Irish  farthing  of  his  reign  is  of  the  date  of 
1210.  Farthings  were  coined  in  England  in  silver  by  Henry  VIII.  First  coined 
in  copper  by  Charles  II.,  1665 ;  and  again  in  1672,  when  there  was  a  large 
coinage  of  copper  money.  Half-farthings  were  first  coined  in  the  reign  of 
Victoria,  1843. 

FASTS,  (p.  875.)  Fast-days  are  appointed  by  the  Reformed  Churches  in  times 
of  war  and  pestilence.  The  British  gov.  appointed  a  fast,  March  21,  1855,  for 
the  Russian  war,  and  Oct.  7.  1857,  for  the  Indian  mutiny.  Pres.  Buchanan 
appointed  a  public  fast  on  account  of  threatened  secession  of  slave  states,  which 
was  observed  Jan.  4,  1861.  National  Fasts  appointed  by  Pres.  Lincoln  at  dif. 
ferent  times  during  tbe  war.  Fast  on  account  of  his  assassination,  May  1865. 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH.    The  following  are  the  principal : 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


119 


HCOHD  CENTURY.      Greek. 
Justin  Martyr,  d.  about     , 
IreiiSeus    .     .     d.  about 
Athenagoras. 

THIRD  CENTURY.    Greek. 
Clements  .    .    d.  about 
Origvn     .    •    d.  about 

Latin. 
Tertullian     .    d.  about 

Minutius  Felix,.//  about 
Cyprian    .     .     d.  about 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  CENTURIES. 

Eusebius  .    .    d.  about 


c. 

•         * 

166 
200 

217 

Athanasius,      .       d.          .        •        • 
Epbrern  Syrus,        d.  about           . 
Basil                         d.         .         . 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  df.             .        . 
Gregory  Nazianzen,d.         .        .        • 
Gregory  Nysseu,     d.  about    .      . 

Greek. 

9         • 

253 

220 
230 
258 

340 

(jiir^soslom        .      d.     .        .        • 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d.      ,        .        . 

Latin. 

Arnoliius         .         Jl.        .        .         . 
Lac  i  antius        .       d.  about        .        . 
Ambrose        •          d.          .         • 
Jerome        .        .     d.     .        .        . 
Augustine       *       d.        .        .        . 

8T» 

378 
879 
380 
389 
394 
402 
407 
444 


3i '3 
330 


420 
430 


FAUSTUS,  a  professor  of  magic,  renewed  in  cheap-books,  flourished  about  the 
end  of  the  15th  century.  Goethe's  poem,  "Faust,"  appeared  in  1790. 

FEEJEE  ISLANDS,  or  FIJI,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  80  inhabited 
islands,  the  largest  about  360  miles  in  circumference,  with  20,00  inhabitants. 

FENIANS.  A  society  of  Irishmen  in  the  TT.  S.  and  in  Ireland,  pledged  to 
work  tor  the  liberation  of  Ireland.  Organized  in  1857.  First  attracted 
notice  in  the  U.  S.  in  1863.  In  that  year,  Nov.,  a  Fenian  Congress  met 
in  Chicago,  composed  of  200  delegates.  In  1865  the  regular  members  of  the 
order  numbered  80,000.  "  Head  Centre  "  Stephens  figured  conspicuously 
as  the  leader.  In  1866,  Fenian  meetings  were  held  all  over  the  country.  la 
the  Spring  considerable  numbers  assembled  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  St.  Albans, 
Vermont,  apparently  with  hostile  intentions  towards  Canada.  June  1, 1866,  a 
body  of  them  crossed  over  and  engaged  in  a  skirmish  with  Canadian  troops. 
They  were  compelled  to  re-cross  with  slight  loss.  The  Fenian  officers  were 
arrested  by  the  U.  S.  government,  and  the  men  sent  to  their  homes.  In  1867, 
the  excitement  over  this  organization  had  greatly  subsided.  Attempts  to 
create  a  revolt  in  Ireland  proved  unsuccessful.  Several  of  the  leaders  were 
arrested  and  tried  and  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentences  were  commuted 
to  imprisonment  for  life.  This  movement  was  unquestionably  originated  and 
carried  on  by  men  of  Irish  birth  and  immediate  descent,  and  was  not  an  Amer- 
ican movement  as  indicated  by  Haydn,  p.  297. 

FILIBUSTERS.  A  name  given  to  the  freebooters  who  plundered  the  coasts 
of  Ajnerica  in  the  17th  century.  See  Buccaneers.  It  was  applied  to  Walker 
and  other  adventurers  from  the  United  States,  who  within  the  last  few  years 
endeavored  to  obtain  possession  of  Central  America  and  Cuba. 

FINLAND.  A  Russian  principality,  was  conquered  by  the  Swedes  in  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  who  introduced  Christianity.  It  was  several  times  con- 
quered by  the  Russians  (1714,  1742,  and  1808),  and  restored  (1721  and  1743); 
but  in  1809  they  retained  it  by  treaty. 

FIRE  ANNIHILATORS.  An  article  so  called  was  exhibited  in  New  York,  185-. 
but  its  practical  usefulness  has  not  been  demonstrated. 

FIRE-ARMS,  U.  S.  The  Sharpe's  Rifle  was  the  first  breech-loader  used  in  this 
country.  During  the  war,  great  improvements  were  made  in  this  branch  of 
ordnance.  The  Spencer  Repeating  Rifle  patented  in  1860,  carries  seven  cart- 
ridges. The  Henry  Rifle  can  be  fired  15  times  before  reloading;  patented  1861. 
120  shots  have  been  fired  from  it  in  5J  minutes,  including  the  time  for  reloading. 
The  standard  musket  used  in  the  U.  S.  Army,  is  the  Springfield  Rifle, 
muzzle-loader.  They  are  being  converted  into  breech-loaders  at  the  arsenal 
(1866-7). 


120  THE  WORLD'S  PKOGEESS. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENTS,  with  steam  engines  and  paid  employees.     In  1867,  th« 
following  cities  had  introduced  the  new  system  as  follows: — 


Steamers.  Men.  Cost 

Baltimore,           7  114  $73,000 

Boston,               11  281  162,098 

Buffalo,                 7  189  46,470 

Cleveland,           6  56  39,000 


Steamers.  Men.             Cost. 

Chicago,               13  110  $245,50fi 

Cincinnati,           12  140               141,000 

New  York,          34  664               869,957 


FIRE-ESCAPES.  In  England  the  Royal  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Life  from 
Fire  was  first  established  in  1836  ;  its  object  was  not  fully  attained  till  1843, 
when  it  was  reorganized,  beginning  with  six  escape  stations  in  London  ;  in 
March,  1859,  it  possessed  67.  In  1858,  504  fires  had  been  attended,  and  57 
persons  rescued  by  the  Society's  officers.  In  New  York  city  the  necessity  for 
effectual  means  of  escape  from  fires  in  large  buildings  was  sadly  shown  by  the 
loss  of  life  by  fires  in  tenement  houses,  1859-60.  Two  or  three  different  fire- 
escapes  were  exhibited  in  the  autumn  of  1860. 

FIRES  IN  THE  U.  S.  The  losses  by  fire  from  1855  to  1866  inclusive  were 
$214,588,000.  In  1865,  there  were  354  fire*',  where  the  loss  was  upwards  of 
$20,000,  at  which  property  was  destroyed  to  the  amount  of  $43,419,uOO.  The 
largest  fire  of  late  years  was  at  Portland,  Maine,  July  4,  1866.  1,6DO  build- 
ings were  burned  ;"  loss,  $9,000,0  )0  ;  insurance,  $3,500,000.  Fire  in  Nash- 
Tille,  Tenn.,  July  24,  1866,  loss,  $1,000,000.  Colt's  Armory,  Hartford,  burned, 
Feb.  8,  1864  ;  Loss,  $1,000,000.  Academy  of  Music  and  University  Medical 
College,  N.  Y.,  burned,  May  21,  1666.  Pike's  Opera  House,  Cincinnati, 
March  23,  1866.  The  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington,  partially  burned 
Jan.  24, 1865;  the  Meteorological  department  suffered  heavily. 

VLAG.  See  American  Flag.  The  flag  acquired  its  present  form  in  the  sixth 
century  in  Spain  ;  it  was  previously  small  and  square.  Ashe.  The  flag  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  there  by  the  Saracens,  before  which  time  the 
ensigns  of  war  were  extended  on  cross  pieces  of  wood.  Pardon  The  term 
flag  is  more  particularly  used  at  sea,  to  denote  to  what  country  a  ship  belongs. 
The  honor-of-the-flag  salute  at  sea  was  exacted  by  England  at  a  very  early 
date,  but  it  was  formally  yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  A.  i>.  1673,  at  which  period 
they  had  been  defeated  in  many  actions.  Louis  XIV.  obliged  the  Spaniards 
to  lower  their  flag  to  the  French,  1680.  Henault.  After  an  engagement  of 
three  hours  between  Tourville  and  the  Spanish  Admiral  Papaehin,  the  latter 
yielded  by  firing  a  salute  of  nine  guns  to  the  French  flag,  June  4,  1688. 

FLORIDA,  (p.  378.)  Passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  from  the  U.  S.,  Jan. 
11,  1861,  and  seized  the  U.  S.  Navy  Yard  at  Pensacola.  Population,  1850, 
87,445.  In  1860,  81,885  free,  and  63,800  slaves.  In  186fi,  77.747  white  ; 
62,677  colored  ;  total  140,424.  Mr.  Marvin  appointed  Provisional  Governor, 
July  13,  1865. 

FOREIGN  LEGION.  Foreigners  have  frequently  been  employed  as  auxiliariea 
in  the  pay  of  the  British  government.  An  act  for  the  formation  of  the 
Foreign  Legion  as  a  contingent  to  the  Russian  war  (1855)  was  passed  Dec.  23, 
1854.  The  endeavor  to  enlist  for  the  legion,  in  1854,  in  the  United  States, 
gave  great  offence  to  the  American  government.  Mr.  Crampton  was  dis- 
missed, and  Lord  Napier  sent  out  as  English  representative. 

FRANCE,  (p.  382.)  For  the  succession  of  events  in  France,  see  Chronological 
Tablet,  page  65  et  seq. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


121 


GOVERNMENT. 


New  Republic  proclaimed  ;  provi 
slonal  government  established, 
Lamarune  at  the  head 1848 

Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  declar- 
ed Pres.  by  the  Nat.  Assembly, 

Dec.  19,  1848 

Louis  Napoleon,  Emperor  of  the 
French.     Votes  for  the  empire, 
7,839,552  ;  noes,   254,501  :    null, 
63,609 Nov.  21,  1852 


The  Emperor proclatrned.. Dec.  2, 186J 

Empress  :  MARIE  KCOENIF.  (a  Spa- 
niard), born  M»y  6, 1826,  married 

.Ian.  29,  1853 

Heir :  NApotEON-EcGENiE-Louis- 
Jean  Joseph,  bom. ...March  16,  1856 

Heir  presumptive,  in  default  of 
Louis  Napoleon's  issue  :  Prince 
JEROME  NAPOLEON,  and  his  heirs 
male 


FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN.  (p.  383.)  The  restricted  diet  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  was  constituted  at  Frankfort,  Aug.  10,  1850.  The  plenipoten- 
tiaries of  Austria,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtemberg,  Mecklenburg, 
assembled  here,  and  constituted  themselves  the  Council  of  the  Germanic 
Diet,  Sept.  1,  1860.  Prussia  refused  to  recognize  it.  Frankfort  annexed  to 
Prussia  after  the  war  with  Austria,  1866. 

FRANKING  PRIVILEGE,  U.  S.  This  privilege  was  granted  to  the  widows  of 
Presidents  Madison  and  Harrison.  An  act  granting  the  same  privilege  to 
Mrs.  Lincoln,  passed  Feb.10,  1866. 

FRANKLIN,  SIR  JOHN.  His  last  Arctic  expedition  in  command  of  H.M.  Ships 
Erebus  and  Terror  sailed  from  Greenhithe,  May  24,  1845.  His  last  despatches 
home  were  dated  July  12,  1845.  As  no  later  news  came  from  him,  the 
British  gov.  in  1850  offered  £^0,OOD  reward  to  any  who  might  discover  or 
assist  the  missing  ships.  Several  expeditions  were  sent  in  search  of  them 
from  England  and  the  U.  S.,  viz.  : 


1.  H.  M.  Bhip  Plover,  Capt.  Moore, 

J»n.  1,  1848 

2.  Land  Expedition  under  Sir  J. 
Richardson  and  Dr.  Rae,  Me  1 1. 25, 1848 

8.  Sir  Jaa.  Ross,  in  the  Enterprise 
anil  Investigator June  12,  1848 

4.  Capt.  Collinson  and  Com.  Mc- 
Clure  sailed  in  same  vessels 

June  20,  1850 

5>  Capt.  Austin,  in  the  Rex,  lute, 
&o Apr.  25  1850 

6.  Cnple.  Penny  and  Steward,  in  the 
Ltxly  Franklin,  &c Apr.  13,  18CO 

7.  The  QRINNELL  (AMEB.)  exm-d  - 
tion,  under  Ue  Haven  (Dr.  KANE, 
surgeon),  in  the  Ai/vdnoe  and 
Rescu* May  25,  1850 

8.  8ir  John    Ross  in  the  Felfa. 

May  22,  1850 

9.  Sir  Ewd.   Belcher's  exnedition 
(5  vessels),  Assistance,  Ac. 

Apr.  15,  1862 

Lady  Franklin  fitted  out  the 
four  next  (private)  expeditions, 
viz.  : 


10.  The  Prince  A lliert.... June  5,  1850 

11.  The  same  vessel .June  4,  1851 

12.  The    Isabel,  Com.  Inglefield, 

Nov.  1852 

13.  The  same  vessel 1853 

14.  H.  M.  S.  Rattlesnake.... Aut;.  1853 

15.  Second  AMERICAN  expid.  (Dr. 
KANE,  In  the  J.c/e<mce)...June  1853 

16.  The  PltoKnix  and  others  under 
Capt.  Inglefirld May,  1854 

17.  3d  AMKRICAN  exped.  ( .  .1  se.irch 
of  Dr.  Kane),  Lieut.  Hartstene, 
in    the     Release   and    steamer 
Arctic May  Bl,  1855 

19.  The  18ih  British  exp.  equipped 
by  Lady   Franklin  and   frie./ds, 
in    the    Fax,  dipt.    Mi-Clintock 
(found  remains  of  the  Frankl  n 
Expedition),  sa  led July  1,  1857 

20.  4th. AMERICAN expt-d.(  nce*rch 
of  Polar  sea),  under  Dr.  Hayes 
(surgeon  to  Kane  exped.).  s.iilcd 
from  Bosto:i July.  ISfiO 

Returned 1863 


FREE  TRADE.  Principles  advocated  by  Adam  Smith  in  his  "  Wealth  of 
Nations"  (1776),  triumphed  in  England  when  the  corn  laws  were  abolished  in 
1846,  and  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  was  adopted  in  I860.  Mr.  Richarl 
Cobden,  who  was  very  instrumental  in  passing  these  measures,  has  been 
termed  "The  Apostle  of  Free  Trade."  Since  1880  the  British  exports  have 
been  tripled.  In  New  York  the  advocates  of  Free  Trade  established  a 
"  League  "  in  1866  (?)  Win.  Cullen  Bryant,  President;  and  a  monthly  periodical 
called  the  League  was  first  issued  May  1867. 

FRESCO  PAINTINGS  are  executed  on  plaster  while  fresh.  Very  ancient  oncf 
6 


122  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

exist  in  Egypt  and  Italy,  and  modern  ones  in  the  British  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, at  Berlin,  and  other  places.  The  fresco  paintings  by  Giotto  and  others 
at  the  Campo  Santo,  a  cemetery  at  Pisa,  executed  in  the  13tb  century,  are 
justly  celebrated. 

FRONDE,  CIVIL  WARS  OF  THE,  in  France,  in  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  (1648-53), 
during  the  government  of  the  queen,  Anrie  of  Austria,  and  Cardinal  Maza- 
rin,  between  the  followers  of  the  court  and  the  nobility,  and  the  Parliament 
and  the  citizens.  The  latter  were  called  Frondeurs  (slingers),  it  is  said,  from 
an  incident  in  a  street  quarrel. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  BILL,  introduced  In  the  U.  S.  Senate  by  Mr.  Mason  of  Va., 
and  passed,  Sept.,  1850.  It  imposes  a  fine  of  $1,000  and  6  mos.  imprisonment 
on  any  person  harboring  fugitive  slaves  or  aiding  their  escape.  It  was  de- 
clared by  the  Sup.  Court  of  Wisconsin  to  be  unconstitutional,  Feb.  3, 1865. 
This  law  was  repealed  by  Congress,  June  23,  1864. 

G 

GALAPAGOS.  Islands  on  the  coast  of  Ecuador  (N.  Pacific),  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  Ecuador,  Nov.  3, 1854,  the  British,  French,  and  other  powers  pror 
testing  against  it. 

GALATJA.  An  ancient  province  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the  3d  century 
B.  c.  the  Gauls  under  Brennus  invaded  Greece,  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont, and  conquered  the  Troas  278 ;  were  checked  by  Attalus  in  a 
battle  about  239 ;  and  then  settled  in  what  was  called  afterwards  Gallogrse- 
cia  and  Galatia.  The  country  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire 
B.  c.  25,  on  the  death  of  the  king  Amyntas.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
was  probably  written  A.  D.  58. 

GAME  LAWS  (p.  386),  have  been  enacted  in  several  states  for  the  protection  of 
game  during  certain  seasons,  to  prevent  its  entire  destruction. 

GAMUT.  The  invention  of  the  scale  of  musical  intervals  (commonly  termed 
do,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si),  for  which  the  seven  first  letters  of  the  alphabet  are 
now  employed,  is  ascribed  to  Guido  Aretino,  a  Tuscan  monk,  about  1025. 

GAS  (p.  388).  Introduced  in  Boston,  1822  (?);  New  York,  1823  (N.  Y.  Gas 
Light  Co.) ;  now  used  in  nearly  every  large  town  of  the  United  States.  Used 
in  43  towns  of  N.  Y.  State,  1860.  Price  in  1860  ranged  from  $1  50  per  cu- 
bic foot  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  to  $7  in  Belfast,  Me.,  and  other  places. 

GAUL,  Gallia.  The  ancient  name  of  France  and  Belgium.  The  natives  were 
termed  by  the  Greeks,  Galatse,  by  the  Romans,  Galli  or  Celtse.  They  came 
originally  from  Asia,  and  invading  eastern  Europe,  were  driven  westward 
and  settled  in  Spain  (in  Gallicia),  North  Italy  (Gallia  Cisalpina),  France  and 
Belgium  (Gallia  Transalpina),  and  the  British  Isles  (the  lands  of  the  Cymri  or 
Gaeli).  They  gave  great  trouble  to  the  rising  Roman  republic  by  their  fre- 
quent invasions,  528  to  591  B.  c.  The  Gauls  under  Brennus  defeated  the 
Romans  and  sacked  Rome,  but  were  expelled  by  Camillus,  B.  c.  390  They 
overran  Northern  Greece,  B.  c.  280.  Gaul  invaded  by  Julius  Caesar  and 
subdued  in  eight  campaigns,  B.  c.  58-50.  Christianity  introduced  in  Gaul, 
A.  D.  160.  Franks  and  other  invaders  defeated  by  Aurelian,  A.  D.  241.  Ju- 
lian proclaimed  emperor  at  Paris,  360.  Invasion  and  settlement  of  Burgun- 
dians,  Franks,  Visigoths,  &c.,  406-450.  Huns  under  Attila  defeated  near 
Chalon?,  451.  Paris  taken  by  Childerick,  the  Frank,  464.  Frank  kingdom, 
established,  476.  History  of  Gaul  by  Parke  Godwin,  pub.  New  York,  1860. 

GAUNTLET.    An  iron  glove,  first  introduced  in  the  13th  century,  perhaps 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  123 

about  1225.  It  was  a  part  of  the  full  suit  of  armor,  being  the  armor  for  the 
hand.  It  was  commonly  thrown  down  as  a  challenge  to  an  adversary. 

GAUZE.  This  fabric  was  much  prized  by  the  Roman  people,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1st  century.  "  Brocades  and  damasks,  and  damasks  and  gauzes, 
have  been  lately  brought  over"  (to  Ireland). — Dean  Sieift,  in  1698.  The 
manufacture  of  gauze  and  articles  of  a  like  fabric,  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland, 
where  they  maintain  great  repute,  was  commenced  about  1769. 

GENEALOGY  (from  the  Greek,  genea,  birth,  descent).  The  art  of  tracing  pedi- 
grees, &c.  The  earliest  pedigrees  are  those  contained  in  the  5th,  10th,  and 
llth  chapters  of  Genesis.  The  first  book  of  Chronicles  contains  many  geneal- 
ogies. The  pedigree  of  Christ  is  given  in  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.  Many 
books  on  the  subject  have  been  published  in  all  European  countries :  one  at 
Magdeburg,  Theatrum  Genealogicum,  by  Henninges,  in  1598;  Anderson, 
Royal  Genealogies,  London,  1732 ;  Sims's  Manual  for  the  Genealogist,  &c., 
1856,  will  be  found  a  useful  guide.  The  works  of  Collins  (1756  et  seq.\  Ed- 
mondson  (1764-84),  and  Nicolas  (1825),  on  the  British  peerage  universally 
esteemed.  The  Genealogical  Society,  London,  was  established  in  1853.  The 
New  England  Hist,  and  Genealogical  Soc.,  founded  184-,  publishes  a  quarterly 
magazine  on  those  subjects.  A  volume  called  American  Genealogies,  publish- 
ed in  Albany,  1855,  and  numerous  private  publications  of  family  genealogies, 
have  been  printed  in  New  England.  Savage's  Genealogical  Hist,  of  N.  Eng- 
land. 4  vols.  8vo.,  Bost.  1860-1. 

GENOA  (N.  ITALY),  (p  389.)  April,  1849,  the  city  was  seized  by  insurgents, 
who,  after  a  murderous  struggle,  drove  out  the  garrison,  and  proclaimed  a 
republic,  but  soon  after  surrendered  to  General  Marmora.  Genoa  warmly 
supported  its  sovereign,  Victor  Emanuel,  in  the  struggle  with  Austria  (1859), 
and  furnished  many  volunteers  for  Garibaldi's  demonstration  on  Naples,  1860. 

GEOGRAPHY,  U.  S.  The  Am.  Geographical  and  Statistical  Society  was  incor- 
porated April  3,  1852,  at  N.  Y.  It  publishes  occasionally  a  Journal  chiefly  of 
original  papers. 

GEOLOGY  WORKS  ON,  U.  S.  "  Geology  of  the  Globe  "  by  Prof.  E.  Hitchcock, 
1853.  Prof.  St.  John's  Elements  of  Geology,  1855.  "  Text-book  of  Geology," 
Prof.  Dana,  1863.  Besides  these  text-books  there  are  many  treatises  and 
reports  on  Geology  which  are  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  large  libraries  in  the 
country,  such  as  Prof.  Hall's  Geology  of  New  York ;  Owen's,  of  Indiana ;  Per- 
cival's,  of  Wisconsin ;  Hitchcock's,  of  Massachusetts ;  each  in  quarto  volumes. 

GEORGIA.  Population  in  1860  (including  462,198  slaves),  1,057,286.  Act  of 
•'secession"  passed  Jan.  19,  1861.  The  state  was  occupied  by  Sherman's 
army  in  his  great  march,  and  Savannah  surrendered  to  him  Dec ,  1864.  Debt 
of  the  state  in  Oct.,  1866,  $5,706,500.  GEORGIA,  the  ancient  Iberia,  now  a 
province  of  S.  Russia,  near  the  Caucasus,  submitted  to  Alexander,  323  B.  c., 
but  threw  off  the  yoke  of  his  successors.  It  was  subjugated  to  Rome  by 
Pompey,  65  B.  c.,  but  retained  its  own  sovereigns.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  it  in  the  3d  century.  In  the  8th  century,  after  a  severe  struggle, 
Georgia  was  subdued  by  the  Arab  caliphs;  by  the  Turkish  sultan  Alp-Arslan, 
1068;  and  by  the  Tartar  hordes,  1235.  From  the  14th  to  the  18th  centuries, 
Georgia  was  successively  held  by  the  Persian  and  Turkish  monarchs.  In  1740 
Nadir  Shah  established  part  of  Georgia  as  a  principality,  of  which  the  last 
ruler,  Heraclius,  surrendered  his  territories  to  the  czar  iii  1*799;  and  in  1802 
Georgia  was  declared  to  be  a  Russian  province. 

GERMANY,  (p.  390.) 


124 


THE  WORLD'S  PBOGRESS. 


German  National  Assembly 
elected  the  King  of  Prussia 
emperor  of  Germany,  (but  de- 
clined)  March  28,  1849 

Treaty  between  Austria  and 
Prussia Sept.  30,  1849 

Treaty  of  Munich  betw.  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  and  Wurtemburg. 

Feb.  27, 1850 

German  Confederation  Assem- 
bly, at  Frankfort Sept  2, 1850 

Austrian  and  Bavarian  demon- 
stration against  Hesse-CasseL 

Nov.  1,1850 

See  Austria,  Prussia,  Hanover,  &c. 


Conference  at  Dresden,  for  set- 
tling German  affairs. 

Dec.  1850  to  May,  18al 

Great  excitement  throughout 
Germany  in  regard  to  French 
successes  in  Lombardy ;  appre- 
heneion  of  French  designs  on 
German  territory... May-June,  1859 

Meeting  of  new  Liberal  Party  at 
Eisenach,  in  Saxe-Weimar, 
proposing  a  strung  central 
gov't,  (no  practical  results). 

Aug.  14, 1859 


GETTYSBURG,  BATTLE  OF,  U.  S.  Fought  July,  1, 2,  3, 1863,  at  Gettysburg,  Penn. 
near  the  Maryland  line.  Union  forces  60,000  and  200  guns;  Confederate 
about  80,000.  On  the  first  day  the  1st  and  llth  corps,  (U.  S.  forces)  were  at- 
tacked and  beaten  by  the  superior  numbers  of  the  enemy:  Maj.-Gen.  Reynolds 
(U.  S.  A.)  killed.  On  the  second  day,  the  12th  3d  and  2d  corps  came  up,  and 
the  whole  under  command  of  General  Meade  formed  line  on  Cemetery  Ridge. 
No  fighting  until  4  P.  M.,  when  a  terrible  artillery  fire  was  opened  by  the 
rebels,  and  fierce  assaults  made  on  the  left  and  then  on  the  right  of 
the  Union  army.  The  contest  was  heavy  and  doubtful  until  evening,  when 
the  enemy  retired.  On  the  third  day  the  same  furious  charging  and  stubborn 
resistance  was  continued  The  Union  army  bravely  held  its  ground,  and  at 
night  the  enemy  retreated.  Union  loss  2,834  killed,  13,709  wounded,  6,643 
missing.  In  the  brief  campaign  which  ended  with  this  battle,  the  rebels  lost 
3  guus,  41  standards,  13,621  prisoners,  besides  an  enormous  number  of  killed 
and  wounded.  Over  6,000  men,  loyal  and  rebel,  were  buried  on  the  field. 
The  Union  victory  was  of  immense  importance  to  the  country  at  that  critical 
period. 

GHOSTS  are  now  produced  by  optical  science.  Mr.  Dircks  described  his  method 
at  the  British  Association  meeting  in  1858.  Dr.  John  Taylor  exhibited  scien- 
tific ghosts  in  March,  1863.  Mr.  Pepper  exhibited  the  ghost  illusion  at  the 
Royal  Polytechnic  institution,  July,  1863.  See  Cock-lane  Ghost. 

GIRONDISTS.  The  name  of  a  party,  which  played  an  important  part  in  the 
French  Revolution,  and  was  principally  composed  of  deputies  from  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Gironde.  At  first  they  were  ardent  republicans,  but  after  the 
cruelty  of  Aug.  and  Sept.,  1792,  they  labored  strenuously  to  restrain  the  cru- 
elties of  the  Mountain  party,  to  whom  they  succumbed.  Their  leaders,  Brissot, 
Vergmand,  and  many  others  were  guillotined,  Oct.  13,  1793,  at  the  instigation 
of  Robespierre.  Lamartiue's  eloquent  "  Histoire  des  Girondins,"  published  in 
1847,  tended  to  hasten  the  revolution  of  1848. 

GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND,  (p.  393.)  Erected  into  a  burgh,  A.  D.  1180.  Its  pros- 
perity dates  from  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  in  1707,  and  was  much  increased 
by  American  trade.  Population  in  17u7,  about  12,000;  in  1861,  394,857. 

GLYCERINE,  discovered  by  Scheele,  about  1779,  and  termed  by  him  the 
"  sweet  principle  of  fats,"  and  further  studied  by  Chevreul,  termed  the  "  father 
of  the  fatty  acids."  It  is  obtained  pure  by  saponifying  olive  oil  or  animal  fat 
with  oxide  of  lead,  or  litharge.  Glycerine  is  now  much  employed  in  medicine 
and  the  arts. 

GNOSTICS  (from  the  Greek,  gnosis,  knowledge).  "  Heretics,"  who  appeared 
from  the  first  rise  of  Christianity,  and  who  endeavored  to  combine  the  simple 
principles  of  the  Gospel  with  the  Platonic  and  the  other  philosophies  They 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  125 

•were  so  called  because  they  pretended  to  extraordinary  illuminations  and 
knowledge.  Priscillian,  a  Spaniard,  was  burnt  at  Treves  as  a  heretic,  in  384, 
for  endeavoring  to  revive  Gnosticism. 

GOLD  MINES,  (p  839.)  On  April  28,  1858,  a  nugget  from  Australia,  said  tc 
weigh  146  pounds,  was  shown  to  Queen  Victoria.  In  1858,  gold  was  discov- 
ered in  what  is  now  termed  New  Columbia,  British  America.  Said  to  have 
been  found  in  Vermont,  1859.  Australia  pi  oduced  as  follows : 

1851.  1852.  1856.  1857. 

£907,000  £9.735,000  £12,740,000  £11,764,000 

GOLD  AND  SILVER,  (p.  395.)  Chevalier  estimated  the  total  amount  of  gold 
and  silver  existing  in  various  forms  in  1848,  at  8,500  millions  of  dollars,  of 
which  one-third  was  supposed  to  be  gold.  The  annual  gold  product  from 
18<;0  to  1850,  was  16  millions  of  dollars.  The  U.  S.  Mint  received  41  millions 
in  1858,  all  but  $400,000  being  from  California.  The  exports  of  gold  from 
the  U.  S.  in  recent  years  were  as  follows  (stated  in  millions  of  dollars). 

1850. 1851.  1852. 1853.  1854. 1855.  1866.  1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862.  1863.  1864. 1865. 1866. 
7*.  ^9J.  42£.  27J.  41.  66.  45.  69.  53.  64.  66J.  28.  36.  63.  69.  64.  86. 

GORGET.  The  ancient  breastplate,  or  gorget,  was  very  large,  and  extended  to 
the  body  and  limbs  of  the  warrior  or  knight,  as  armor  ;  but  its  size  and  weight 
varied  at  different  periods.  The  present  modern  diminutive  breastplate  was 
in  u^e  at  the  period  of  the  Restoration,  1660,  or  shortly  after. 

GORILLA.  A  large  ape  of  West  Africa,  in  anatomical  structure  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  man  of  any  known  animal.  It  is  a  match  for  the  lion,  and  attacks 
the  elephant  with  a  club.  It  is  considered  to  be  identical  with  the  hairy  peo- 
ple called  Gorullai,  by  the  navigator  Hanno,  in  his  Periplus,  about  B.  c.  400  or 
500.  Preserved  specimens  have  been  recently  brought  to  Europe,  and  a  living 
one  died  on  its  voyage  to  France.  In  1859,  Prof.  Owen  discoursed  on  Goril- 
las. The  Gorilla  was  not  known  to  Cuvier.  Du  Chaillu  in  his  African  adven- 
tures, 1860-1,  killed  21  of  them,  and  exhibited  some  of  their  skulls  in  London 
and  the  U.  S. 

GRANADA.  A  renowned  city  of  Spain  ;  was  subdued  by  the  Moors  in  the  10th 
century,  and  formed  at  first  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Cordova.  1'236,  Mohammed- 
al-Hamar  made  it  the  capital  of  his  new  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  was  highly 
prosperous  till  its  subjugation  by  the  great  captain  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  in 
I4y2.  In  1609-10,  the  useful  and  industrious  Moors  were  expelled  from 
Spain  by  the  bigoted  Philip  III.,  to  the  lasting  injury  of  his  country.  Granada 
was  taken  by  Marshal  Soult  in  1810,  and  held  till  1812. 

GREECE,  (p.  398.) 


Harbor  of  Pirsens  blockaded  by 
British  fleet  under  Admiral 
Paiker,  to  enforce  some  mer- 
cantile claims Jan.  18, 1850 

The  dispute  sett  ed Aprill9,  1850 

Rupture  between  Greece  and 
Turkey March  18,1864 

Olympic  uaines  ^reposed  to  be 
revived! Oct.  1868 

The  national  assembly  elects  M. 
Balbis  president.  Jar,.  29;  and 
declares  Prince  Alfred  of  Eng- 
land elected  King  of  Greece, 


by  230,016  out  of  241,202  votes. 


Feb.  3,  1863 


Militnry  revolt  of  Lieut.  Canaris 
against  Bulgaria  and  otliers, 
•who  resign,  Feb.  20  ;  the  as- 
sembly appoint  a  new  ministry 
under  Balbis Feb.  23,  1863 

The  assembly  ik-c'des  to  offer  the 
crown  to  Prince  William  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Murch  18, 
and  proclaim  him  as  King 
Gecrgel March  £0, 1863 

Military  revolt  at  Athens,  sup- 
pressed  Ju  e  30,  July  9,  1863 

Tlie  King  arrives  at  Athens,  Oct. 
30  ;  takes  the  onth  to  the  con- 
stitution  Oct.  81,  1863 


1  GREENBACKS,"  U.  S.  A  term  given  to  legal-tender  notes  issued  by  the  U. 
S.  Treasury,  in  1862.  So  called  on  account  of  the  green  print  on  their  backs. 
All  national  bank  notes  are  known  by  this  name.  The  merit  of  the  green  tint 


126  THE  WOBLD'S  PROGRESS. 

is  that  it  cannot  be  photographed  or  in  any  way  counterfeited.  It  was  first  dis- 
covered by  a  Canadian.  The  "  American  Bank  Note  Company  "  primt  the  notes. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY,  near  London,  built  in  reign  of  Charles  II. 
The  "Astronomers  Royal,"  who  have  superintended  astronomical  observation? 
here,  were  Flamsteed,  1675;  Halley,  1719;  Bradley,  1742;  Maskelyne,  1764; 
John  Pond,  1811;  Geo.  B.  Airy  (the  present  A.  R.),  1835. 

GUANO,  OR  HUANO.  (The  Peruvian  term  for  manure.)  The  excrement  of  sea- 
birds  that  nestle  in  prodigious  swarms  along  the  Peruvian  shores.  This  sub- 
stance is  found  chiefly  on  certain  small  islands,  called  the  Lobos,  lying  off  the 
coasts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia.  Humboldt  was  one  of  the  first  by  whom  it  was 
carried  to  Europe,  on  ascertaining  its  value  in  agriculture. — McCulloch,  It 
is  also  found  on  Jarvis's,  Baker's,  and  Rowland's  islands,  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
from  which  it  is  brought  by  the  American  Guano  Co.,  of  New  York,  who  im- 
ported in  1858,  15,000  tons,  and  exported  in  1860,  no  less  than  100,000  tons.  In 
1857,  the  U.  S.  imported  213,000  tons,  and  Great  Britain,  205,000  tons. 
In  1864,  4,131,358  tons. 

GUATEMALA.  A  republic  in  Central  America;  declared  independent  1821 
President  (1859),  General  Carrera,  elected  1851.  It  is  the  most  populous  of 
five  states  of  Cent.  Amer.,  having  971,450  in  1851. 

GUIANA  (N.  E.  coast  of  South  America),  was  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  16th, 
century  ;  explored  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1596  and  1617.  The  French  set- 
tlements here  were  formed  in  1626-43  ;  and  the  Dutch,  1627-67.  Demerara 
and  Essequibo  were  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1814. 

GUN-COTTON,  A  highly  inflammable  and  explosive  substance,  discovered  by 
Professor  Schonbein,  of  Basil,  and  made  known  by  him  in  1846.  It  is,  to  all  ap- 
pearance, common  cotton  wool,  and  is  purified  cotton  steeped  in  a  mixture 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  nitric  and  suphuric  acid  and  afterwards  dried.  Dr. 
Boettenger  and  others  also  lay  claim  to  the  discovery. 

GUNTER'S  SCALE.  Invented  by  Edmund  Gunter,  an  English  mathematician, 
who  died  1626. 

GUTTA  PERCHA,  is  procured  from  the  sap  of  the  Isonandra  Gutta,  a  large 
forest  tree,  growing  in  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  and  on  the  islands  near  it. 
Previous  to  1844,  the  very  name  of  gutta  percha  was  unknown  to  European 
commerce.  In  that  year  two  cwt.  were  shipped  experimentally  from  Singa- 
pore. The  exportation  of  gutta  percha,  from  that  port  rose  in  1845  to  169 
piculs  (the  piculis  1,330  Ibs.);  in  1846,  to  5,364  ;  in  1847,  to  9,292  ;  and  in 
the  first  seven  months  of  1848,  to  6,768  piculs.  In  the  first  four  and  a  half  years 
of  the  trade,  21,598  piculs  of  gutta  percha,  valued  at  $274,190,  were  shipped 
at  Singapore,  the  whole  of  which  was  sent  to  England,  with  the  exception  of 
15  piculs  to  Mauritius,  470  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  922  to  the  United 
States.  The  great  variety  of  articles  for  domestic  use,  the  ornamental  arts, 
&c.,  to  which  this  material  has  been  applied,  has  given  employment  to  thou- 
sands, not  only  in  the  factories  of  our  own  and  other  countries,  but  also  to  the 
gatherers  in  the  Indian  Archipebigo,  with  whom  it  at  present  constitutes  one  of 
their  most  profitable  articles  of  export.  In  1848,  S.  T.  Armstrong,  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  first  applied  it  for  coating  telegraph  wires.  J.  J.  Craven,  of 
Newark,  N.  J.,  claims  to  have  applied  it  thus  at  the  same  time  or  before. 
Charles  Goodyear  used  it,  in  connection  with  caoutchouc,  for  various  articles 
of  common  use  ;  a  large  boat  made  of  gutta  percha  was  exhibited  in  New  York, 
1858. 

GYROSCOPE.  (From  gyrare,  to  revolve.)    The  name  of  a  new,  popular,  rotatoty 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  ill 

apparatus,  invented  by  Fessel,  of  Cologne  (1853),  since  improved  by  Professof 
Wheatstone,  and  Mr.  Foucault,  of  Paris.  It  is  similiar  in  appearance  to  the 
rotatory  apparatus  of  Bohnenberger,  of  Tubingen  (born  1765,  died  1831).  The 
gyroscope  exhibits  the  combined  effects  of  the  centrifugal  and  centripetal 
forces,  and  the  remarkable  results  of  the  cessation  of  either.  It  thus  illustrates 
the  great  law  of  gravitation. 

H. 

HAARLEM.  An  ancient  town,  once  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Holland ;  was 
taken  by  the  duke  of  Alva,  in  July,  1573,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months.  He 
violated  the  capitulation  by  butchering  half  the  inhabitants.  The  lake  was 
drained  in  1849-51. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  constitution  of  the  U.  S.  provides  that  this  law  (adopt- 
ed from  that  of  England)  "shall  not  be  suspended  unless  when  in  case  of  rebel- 
lion or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it,"  1787.  President  Lincoln 
authorized  Gen.  Scott  to  suspend  the  privilege  if  it  became  necessary,  April 
27,  1861.  In  Sept.  1862,  it  was  not  allowed  to  relieve  persons  arrested  by 
military  authority  for  disloyal  practices.  The  President  (authorized  by  express 
Act  of  Congress)  proclaimed  a  general  suspension  of  the  privilege  of  habeas 
corpus,  to  "  continue  throughout  the  duration  of  the  rebellion,"  Sept.  15,  1863. 
C.  L.  Vallandigham,  ex-member  of  Congress,  being  arrested  for  disloyal  ut- 
terances, was  refused  the  privilege  of  the  writ,  and  sent  into  the  rebel  lines, 
May,  1863.  Great  excitement  among  his  friends  and  sympathizers  in  the 
country. 

HANOVER.  Population  in  1864,  1,923,492,  of  whom  1,584,700  belonged  to  the 
Lutheran  church,  and  226,000  to  the  Catholic.  The  army  numbered  26,900 
men.  3,618  vessels  of  all  kinds  composed  the  merchant  navy.  This  state 
was  annexed  to  Prussia,  Aug.,  1866,  against  its  will. 

HARPER'S  FERRY,  VA.  A  village  at  the  junction  of  the  Potomac  anu  Shen- 
andoith.  Population  in  1860,  about  5,000.  The  scene  of  "John  Brown's  raid." 
On  Oct.  17,  1859,  he  with  16  white  and  five  colored  men  seized  the  II.  S. 
arsenal  at  this  point,  took  60  citizens  prisioners,  and  gave  out  as  his  object 
"to  free  the  slaves."  The  insurgents  were  overcome  on  the  morning  of  the 
18th.  Those  who  did  not  escape  or  were  not  killed,  were  executed.  This  af- 
fair created  intense  excitement  throughout  the  country.  At  the  breaking  out 
of  the  rebellion,  Lieut.  Jones  evacuated  and  blew  up  the  arsenal,  April  18,  1861. 
Sept.  16,  1862,  Col.  Miles  and  11,000  U.S.  troops  surrender  to  "  Stonewall 
Jackson,"  at  Harper's  Ferry.  In  1867  it  was  decided  not  to  re-establish  the 
arsenal  there. 

HARVARD  COLLEGE,  U.  8.  Established  1638,  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  Denom- 
ination,  Unitarian.  In  1863,  it  had  44  instructors;  814  students  in  all  depart- 
ments ;  7,440  alumni,  of  whom  2,679  were  living.  Value  of  its  buildings  and 
endowments,  over  $2,000,000.  Annual  expenses  of  the  University,  $130,000. 
Its  commencement  occurs  the  third  Wednesday  of  July.  President  :  Rev. 
Thomas  Hill,  D.  D. 

HAYTI.  (p.  406.)  Faustin  I.,  deposed  Dec.  26,  1858,  and  Gen.  Geffrard  made 
President  of  the  Republic  of  Hayti. 

HEALTH,  BOARD  or,  N.  Y.  Act  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York,  Feb. 
26,  1866,  establishing  a  "  Board  of  Health  and  Sanitary  District  for  the  preser- 
vation of  life  and  health,  and  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease."  It  was  organ- 
ized March  5,  1866;  Dr.  E.  B.  Dalton,  Superintendent  The  district  includes 
the  counties  of  New  York,  Kings,  Westchester,  Richmond,  and  part  of  Queens. 


128  THB  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

First  annual  report  NOT.  1,  1866.  It  issued  22,692  orders  ra/uiring  nuisances 
to  be  removed.  Death  rate  in  New  York  city,  1  in  33.33 ;  in  London,  1  in  45. 
HELLENES.  The  Greek  race  which  supplanted  the  Pelasgians  from  the  16th  to 
llth  cent.  B.C.,  derived  their  name  from  Hellen,  king  of  PhUiiotis,  about  B.O 
1600.  From  them  came  the  Dorians,  ^Eolians,  lonians,  and  Achseans. 

HELVETII.  A  Celto-Germanic  people,  who  inhabited  what  is  now  called  Swit- 
zerland. The  "Helvetian  Republic"  was  established  in  Switzerland,  in  1798. 

HERCULANEUM.  (p.  408.)  The  Antichita  di  Ercolano.  8  vols,  folio,  publish- 
ed  by  Neapolitan  government,  1757-92. 

HESSIAN  FLY.  This  plague  to  agriculturists  was  introduced  in  this  country  by 
the  foreign  mercenaries  on  Long  Island,  1777,  from  their  baggage  or  in  the 
forage  of  their  horses. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  (Greek,  river  horse).  A  native  of  Africa,  known  to,  bufc 
incorrectly  described  by  ancient  writers.  Hippopotami  were  exhibited  at 
Rome  by  Commodus,  and  others,  about  A.  D.  138.  The  first  in  England, 
in  1850,  is  now  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  London ;  another  (a  female, 
four  months  old)  was  placed  there  in  1854.  Two  young  ones,  born  at 
Paris,  in  May,  1858,  and  June,  1859,  were  killed  by  their  mother. 

HISTORICAL  SOCIETIES,  U.  S.  The  one  in  New  York  City  was  organized 
Dec.  10,  1804,  and  incorporated  Feb.  10,  1809.  It  now  numbers  nearly 
2,000  members.  After  occupying  rooms  many  years  in  the  New  York  Uni- 
versity Buildings,  it  was  removed  in  1857  to  a  new  fire-proof  building  on  2d 
avenue,  corner  of  llth  street,  which  was  dedicated,  Nov.  17,  of  that  year. 
The  society  possesses  a  library  of  over  30,000  volumes,  particularly  rich  in 
historical  works  and  manuscripts,  a  choice  gallery  of  paintings,  and  a  collection 
of  antiquities,  coins,  medals  and  charts.  Among  its  collections  are  a  series  of 
large  tablets  of  Assyrian  sculpture,  the  gift  of  James  Lenox,  Esq.  The 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  founded  1791,  is  limited  to  fifty  members. 
This  society  has  a  valuable  library,  including  a  very  choice  collection  of  books 
in  English  literature,  bequeathed  to  it  by  the  late  Thomas  Dowse,  of  Cam- 
bridge-port, a  leather-dresser,  whose  library  was  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind  in 
the  country.  The  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  has  published  about  30 
vols.  of  transactions  and  historical  collections.  There  are  historical  societies 
also  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union,  several  of  which  have  valuable  col- 
lections, and  have  published  transactions. 

HOMOEOPATHY.  This  science — the  essential  characteristic  of  which  consists  in 
the  use  of  such  remedies  against  any  disease  as,  in  a  healthy  person,  would 
produce  a  similar  but  not  precisely  the  same  disease,  its  fundamental  prin- 
ciple being  similiasimiltbtiscuranlur — was  introduced  by  Samuel  Hahnemann, 
a  native  of  Meissen,  in  Saxony  (born  April  10,  1765,  died  at  Paris,  1843).  The 
first  periodical  organ  of  the  system  was  established  1822.  Although  violently 
attacked  and  ridiculed  by  "  allopathic  "  practitioners  the  system  WHS  practised 
in  1860  by  about  1,200  physicians  in  Europe,  and  2,600  in  the  United  States. 
It  has  3  hospitals,  3  colleges,  and  3  journals,  and  about  30  societies  in  the  U.  S., 
and  all  these  are  numerous  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  (1861.)  An 
attempt  to  establish  a  State  Homoeopathic  Hospital,  in  Connecticut,  was  stren- 
uously opposed  (1866).  The  matter  was  compromised,  the  Legislature  allow- 
ing the  Homoaopathists  certain  rights  in  the  hospitals. 

HONDURAS.  One  of  the  republics  of  Central  America  (which see).  Great  Britain 
ceded  the  Bay  Islands  to  Honduras,  Nov.  28,  1859.  Its  present  president, 
general  J.  M.  Medina,  was  elected  for  four  years,  Feb.  1,  1864.  Population, 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  129 

about  350,000  (1860).  British  Honduras,  Central  America,  was  settled  bj 
English  from  Jamaica  soon  after  a  treaty  with  Spain  in  1667.  They  were 
often  disturbed  by  the  Spaniards  and  sometimes  expelled,  till  1783.  Balize 
or  Belize,  the  capital  is  the  great  seat  of  the  mahogany  trade.  In  1861,  the 
population  was  25,635,  and  the  revenue  £35,757. 

HONG-KONG.  An  island  off  the  coast  of  China.  The  British  under  Capt. 
Elliott  took  possession  of  it  in  1839;  founded  the  chief  town,  Victoria,  in 
1842;  made  it  a  bishopric  in  1849.  Sir  John  Bowring  was  governor  from 
1854  to  1859. 

HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.  Founded  1804,  Publishes  annual 
volumes  of  transactions ;  has  had  annual  exhibitions  since  1831. 

HUMAN  RACE.  Dr.  Pickering  enumerates  eleven  different  races,  of  which  the 
names  and  numbers,  supposing  the  whole  human  family  to  be  900,000,000,  are 
as  follows : 


White 850,000,000 

Mongolian 300  000,000 

Malayan 120,000,000 

Telingan 60,000,000 

Negro  55,000,000 

Ethiopian   5,000,000 

HUNGARY.     (See  p.  414.) 

Kossuth,  Bern,  &<x.  escape  to  the 

Turkish    frontiers,     and    are 

placed  under  tho  protection  of 

Turkey,  at  New  Orsova,  (See 

^Turkey), Aug.  21,  1849 

Komorn  surrenders  to  the  Aus- 
triai!g  ;  close  of  the  \var..Sep  27  1849 

Batthyani  tried  at  Pesth,  and 
shot ;  many  other  insurgent 
chiefs  put  to  death Oct.  6, 1849 

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Hun- 
garian insurgents,  who  return 
home  Oct.  16,  1849 


Abyssinian 3,000,000 

Papuan 3000,000 

Negrillo  3,000,000 

Australian 500,000 

Hottentot  500,000 


Bern  dies  at  Aleppo,  ....Deo.  10,  1850 

The  country  remains  in  an  un- 
settled state, in:»ny  executionsl853-6 

Crown  of  St.  Stephen  and  royal 
ins  gnia  discovered  and  sent  to 
Vienna Sept.  8,  1853 

Amnesty  for  political  offenders 
of  1S48-9 July  12,  1856 

The  Emperor  of  Austria  crowned 
king  of  Hungary,  with  great 
pomp June,  1867 

Kossuth  elected  to  Hungarian 
Parliament July,1867 


HYDROGEN  (from  hydor,  water),  under  the  name  of  combustible  air  was  ob- 
tained by  Paracelsus  in  the  16th  century,  In  1766,  Cavendish  de-cribed  its 
properties ;  and,  in  1781,  he  and  Watt  tirst  showed  that  in  the  combination 
of  this  gas  with  oxygen,  which  takes  place  when  it  is  burnt,  water  is  produced  ; 
subsequently  Lavoisier  decomposed  water  into  its  elements.  One  volume  of 
oxygen  combines  with  two  volumes  of  hydrogen,  and  forms  water.  Hydrogen 
is  never  found  in  the  free  state.  Q-melin. 

HYDROPATHY.  A  term  applied  to  a  treatment  of  diseases  by  water,  commonly 
called  the  cold  water  cure.  The  system  was  suggested  in  1828  by  Vincenz 
Priessnitz,  of  Grafenberg,  in  Austrian  Silesia;  and  though  he  is  considered 
as  its  founder,  the  rational  part  of  the  doctrine  was  understood  and  maintained 
by  the  eminent  Dr.  Sydenham,  before  1689.  Priessnitz  died  Nov.  26,  1851. 
Brande.  Hydropathic  Society  formed  in  London,  1842.  First  Hydro,  estab- 
lishment in  U.  S.,  at  63  Barclay  St.,  N.  Y.,  1844.  Those  at  New  Lebanon, 
N.  Y.,  and  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  opened  1845. 

I 

ICE  TRADE,  THE,  in  the  United  States,  was  commenced  by  Frederick  Tudor,  of 

Boston,  in   1805,  who  shipped  the  first  cargo  to  Martinique  and  the  first  to 

Calcutta,  in  1833.     The  ice-houses  of  the  dealers  near  Boston  at  present  are 

capable  of  containing  141,332  tons.      In  1854,  Boston  shipped  156,540  tons 

6* 


130  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGEESS. 

In  New  York  in  1855,  305,000  tons  were  stored  up.  The  exports  of  Ice  from 
1860  to  1866,  averaged  about  48,OUO  tons.  During  the  four  years  ending  June 
80,  1861,  $712,000  worth  was  exported  from  the  U.  S.  In  1856,  $8,000,000 
were  invested  in  the  ice  trade,  giving  employment  to  8,000  or  10,000  men. 
Ice  is  not  subject  to  duty  in  the  U.  S.  600,000  tons  were  provided  for  the 
consumption  of  N.  Y.  city  in  1867. 

ICHTHYOLOGY.    The  science  of  fish.     Eminent  writers  are  Willoughby,  Ray, 
.      Valenciennes,  Cuvier,  Owen,  Agassiz,  &c.     Yarrell's  "British  Fishes"  (1836- 
59),  is  a  classical  work. 

ICONOCLASTS  (image-breakers).  The  controversy  respecting  images  (which 
had  been  introduced  into  churches  for  popular  instruction  about  800),  was 
begun  about  726,  and  occasioned  many  insurrections  in  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. Leo  Isauricus  published  two  edicts  for  demolishing  images  in  churches 
in  that  year,  and  enforced  them  with  great  rigor  in  736.  The  defenders  of 
images  were  again  persecuted  in  752  and  761,  when  Constantino  forbade  his 
subjects  becoming  monks.  The  worship  of  images  was  restored  by  Irene  in 
780.  This  schism  was  the  occasion  of  the  second  council  of  Nice,  787.  The- 
ophilus  banished  all  the  painters  and  statuaries  from  the  Eastern  Empire,  832. 
The  Iconoclasts  were  finally  excommunicated  in  869.  This  controversy  led  to 
the  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  In  the  contests  between  the 
Iconoclasts  and  their  opponents,  thousands  perished.  Many  images  in  churches 
were  destroyed  in  England  and  Scotland  during  the  Reformation  and  the 
civil  war,  1641-8. 

IDAHO,  U.  S.  Organized  as  a  territory  March  3, 1863.  Area,  326,373  square 
miles.  Population  in  1864  about  24,000.  This  territory  has  been  settled 
rapidly  by  adventurers  and  gold  seekers,  within  the  past  few  years  (1867). 
Boise  City  is  the  capital.  Estimated  product  of  gold  and  silver  in  1865, 
$7,000,000. 

IDES.  In  the  Roman  calendar,  the  thirteenth  day  of  each  month,  except  in 
March,  May,  July,  and  October,  in  which  it  was  the  fifteenth  day ;  in  these 
four,  it  was  six  days  before  the  nones,  and  in  the  other  months,  four  days. 
The  Ide  of  March  was  the  day  on  which  Julius  Caesar  was  assassinated  in  the 
senate  house  by  Brutus,  Cassius,  Casca,  and  other  conspirators,  44  B.  c. 

IDIOTS,  EDUCATION  OF.  The  first  efforts  for  the  education  of  idiots  in  America, 
were  in  1839.  In  that  year,  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  New 
York  received  a  mute  boy,  who  was  instructed  for  three  years,  by  Professor 
Morris,  with  favorable  results.  The  same  year,  Dr.  Howe  of  Boston  treated 
and  greatly  improved  a  blind  idiotic  child,  and  afterwards  two  others.  Two 
or  three  children  were  also  under  instruction  at  the  American  Asylum  at  Hart- 
ford before  1848. 

ILLINOIS,  U.  S.  Population  in  1850,  851,470;  in  1860,  1,691,233.  Increase 
1840-50,  80  per  cent. ;  1850-60,  99  per  cent.  Population  in  1865,  2,151,007  ; 
gain  since  1860  of  459,774.  Assessed  valuation  of  property  in  1865,  $391, 
683,284.  From  April  1861  to  Jan.  1863,  the  State  placed  in  the  field  119,400 
men.  Amount  expended  for  school  purposes  in  1861,  $2,007,000.  Number 
of  schools  9,811.  There  are  in  the  State,  1  institution  for  deaf  mutes,  1  for 
the  insane,  1  for  the  blind. 

IMPORTS,  TJ.  S.  The  value  of  imports  during  the  war  greatly  decreased.  In 
1860  they  amounted  to  $362, 000,000;  in  1862  $206,000,000;  in  1865  $234, 
000,000  ;'  in  1866,  $437,000,000.  See  Exports.  Into  Great  Britain,  from  all 
parts  of  the  world : 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


131 


In  1710 ,£4,753,777      In  1850 £05,252,084 

1800 30,570.605         1857 187,844,441 

1810 41,136,135         1&59 179,182,355 

18-20 36,514,564         1861 217.483,024 

1840 62,004,000         18G4 274.563,924 

1865 ...271,134,969 

INCOME  TAX,  BRITISH  (p  420),  was  doubled  during  the  Crimean  war  (1854). 
It  produced  in  1855,  £13,718.185.  In  1856,  £15,717,155.  In  1858,  £11,396, 
435;  in  1861,  £10,923,186;  in  1865,  £7,958,000.  UNITED  STATES.  Levied 
by  act  of  Congress  July  1,  1862.  Tax  on  incomes  from  $600,  to  $10,000,  3 
per  cent. ;  over  $10,000,  5  per  cent.  Receipts  from  this  source  in  1863, 
$455,741;  in  1864,  $14,919,280;  in  1865,  the  rate  being  10  per  cent,  over 
$5,000,  $20,740,451 ;  in  1866,  $61,071,932.  In  1866  a  single  merchant  of 
New  York  paid  the  sum  of  $407,125  as  a  Tax  on  his  income  for  1865,  the  in- 
come being  stated  by  himself,  as  amounting  to  $4,07 1,250;  probably  the  largest 
personal  tax  of  the  kind  ever  paid.  The  law  of  1866  taxed  all  income  over 
$1,000,  5  per  cent. 

INDEPENDENTS,  (p.  420.)    In  1851,  they  had  3,244  chapels  in  England  and 

Wales. 
INDIA,  (p.  366.)  Mutiny  and  war  against  the  British,  1857. 


Begun  at  Barrack  pore....  March,  1857 
Mutiny  at  Meerutnear  Delhi. 

May  10,  1857 

Martial  law  proclaimed May,  1857 

Muti  ny  at  Lucknow May  30, 1857 

Cawnpore  surrenders  to  Nana 
Baliib,  who  kills  the  garrison, 
&c.,  June  28  ;  he  is  defeated  by 
General  Have'.ock,  July  16, 
who  recaptures  Cawnpore. 

July  17, 1867 

Assault  of  Delhi  begins,  Sept.  14  ; 
the  city  taken,  Sept.  20 ;  the 
king  captured  Sept.  21  ;  and  his 
son  and  grandson  slain  by  Col- 
onel Hudson Sept.  22,  1857 

Havelock  marches  to  Lucknow 
and  relieves  the  besieged  resi- 
dency ;  retires  and  leaves  Out- 
ram  in  command  ;  Neill  killed. 

Sept.  25,  26,  1857 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  (since  Lord 
Clyde),  appointed  comm-mder- 
in-chief.  July  11  ;    arrives  at 
Cawnpore Nov.  3, 1857 


Havelock  dies  of  dysentery  at 
Alumbagl) Nov.  25,1867 

Trial  of  king  of  Delhi;  sentenced 
to  transportation. 

Jan.  27  to  March  9,  1858 

SirC  Campbell  marches  to  Luck- 
now,  Feb.  11 ;  the  siege  com- 
mences March  8,  taken  hy 
successive  assaults  ;  the  enemy 
retreat;  Hudson  killed. 

March  14-19,  1858 

The  government  of  the  East  In- 
dia Company  ceases Sept.  1,  1858 

The  ex-kins  of  Delhi  sails  for  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Dec.  4-1 1  ; 
the  colonists  refuse  to  receive 
him  ;  he  is  sent  to  Rangoon 1858 

Defeat  of  the  Begum  of  Oude  and 
Nana  Sahib  by  General  Hors- 
ford Fe  h.  10, 1869 

Thanksgiving  in  England  for 
pacification  of  India May  1,  1859 


INDIANA,  (p.  422.)  One  of  the  western  United  States,  first  settled  at  Vincennes 
by  the  French;  ceded  to  England  at  the  peace  of  1763,  but  no  settlement 
made  by  them  until  1787.  Was  part  of  the  N.  W.  Territory  in  1801.  Suf- 
fered much  during  the  war  of  1812.  Population  in  1860,  1,350,428.  Number 
of  public  schools  6,098  in  1862.  Common  school  fusd  $4,991,202.  The  State 
sent  195,147  men  to  the  war.  In  1865,  the  Legislature  voted  that  negroes 
could  be  competent,  witnesses  in  courts.  The  "  filibuster"  General  Morgan 
invaded  the  State,  July  9,  1863.  In  24  hours  60,000  men  offered  their  ser- 
vices to  drive  him  out.  He  effected  no  damage  and  retreated  rapidly. 

INDIANS,  U.  S.  According  to  the  best  data  in  the  possession  of  the  Indian  De- 
partment, at  Washington,  there  are  now  (1867),  between  320,000  and  350,000 
Indians  within  the  limits  of  the  U.  S.,  comprised  in  about  seventy-five  tribes, 
and  occupying  about  one  hundred  localities. 

INDIAN  WARS,  U.  S.    In  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  the  Choctaws,  Chickasawi 


132  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

and  Cherokees,  took  sides  with  the  Confederates.  They  furnished  thret 
regiments.  The  war  upon  the  plains  commenced  in  April,  1864,  in  Colorado. 
It  was  inaugurated  by  apparently  too  hasty  action  of  the  U.  8.  troops  towards 
the  Cheyennes.  An  Indian  village  was  soon  destroyed  and  40  warriors  killed. 
Fearful  massacre  of  Indians  near  Fort  Lyon,  Nov.  28.,  1864,  by  forces  under 
command  of  Col.  Chivington.  After  this  several  Indian  tribes  formed  an  alli- 
ance, and  committed  murders  and  depredations  on  the  lines  of  travel.  On 
Dec.  21,  1865,  the  Sioux  massacred  a  company  of  soldiers  at  Fort  Kearny.  A 
general  Indian  War  fairly  begun  in  May,  1867.  Gen.  Sherman  takes  the  man- 
agement of  it  into  his  hands.  Gen.  Meagher  declares  war  against  the  Indiana 
of  Montana  Territory,  April  24,  1867. 

INDIA  RUBBER,  (p.  422.)  See  Caoutchouc. 

INFANTICIDE,  FEMALE,  was  very  prevalent  in  barbarous  countries.  Lord  Ma- 
cartney stated  that  20,000  infants  were  killed  annually ;  it  is  now  gradually 
decreasing  in  India.  On  Nov.  12,  1851,  Mr.  Raikes  induced  the  Chohau  chiefs 
to  agree  to  resolutions  against  it,  and  a  great  meeting  in  the  Punjab  was  held 
for  the  same  purpose,  Nov.  14,  1853. 

INKERMANN,  BATTLE  OF,  Crimean  war,  Nov.  5,  1854.    See  Battles. 

INQUISITION,  (p.  425.)  Restored  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  July  21,  1814 ;  Finally 
abolished  by  the  Cortes,  1820.  (Llorente  states  that  in  236  years  the  total 
number  in  Spain  of  persons  put  to  death  by  the  Inquisition,  was  about  32,000; 
291,000  were  subjected  to  other  punishments.  The  last  person  burnt  was  at 
Seville,  Nov.  7,  1781,  being  a  woman  accused  of  making  a  contract  with  the 
devil.) 

INSOLVENCY  IN  THE  U.  S.  In  May,  1837,  a  "commercial  crisis"  was  at  its 
height.  The  heavy  failures  in  two  months,  in  New  York  alone,  amounted  to 
260,  besides  countless  smaller  ones.  Failures  in  New  Orleans  to  the  amount 
of  $27,000,000  in  two  days.  In  Boston  168  failures  from  Nov.  1,  1836,  to  May 
12,  1837.  New  York  city  banks  all  suspended  specie  payments  May  10,  1837. 
The  New  England  banks  generally,  immediately  after.  See  Bankruptcy. 

INSTITUTE  OF  FRANCE.  In  1793,  the  Academies  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles 
Lettres  and  of  the  Sciences,  were  combined  in  one  body  under  the  above 
title. 

INSURANCE.  The  marine  risks  assumed  by  the  Insurance  companies  of  New 
'York  alone,  in  1860,  amounted  to  $80,379,892  ;  in  1866,  they  were  $37>,SSO,- 
003.  The  fire  risks  in  1860,  were  $1,049,551,594;  in  1866,  $2,753,7da,107. 
The  losses  paid  in  1866,  were  $15,312,750. 

INSURRECTIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Shays's  Insurrection  in  Massachusetts, 
(caused  by  the  scarcity  of  money  and  heavy  taxes),  1786.  Insurrection  in 
Pennsylvania,  caused  by  duties  on  spirits,  1794  See  the  accounts  of  Conspi- 
racies, Massacres,  Rebellions,  Riots,  &c. 

INTEREST  OF  MONEY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  rates  vary  in  different  States, 
viz. :  In  La.,  five  per  cent.,  in  Maine,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N. .!.,  Pa., 
Del.,  Md.,  Va.,  N.  C.,  Tenn.,  Ky.,  Ind.,  III.,  Mo.,  Ark.,  and  t!ie  United  States  gov- 
ernment claims,  the  rate  is  six  per  cent.  In  N.  Y.,  S.  C.,  Mich.,  and  Wis.,  seven 
per  cent.  In  Geo.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  and  Fin.,  eight  percent.  Laws  ngainst  usury,  with 
penalty  of  forfeiting  the  whole  debt,  in  Maine.  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Penn.,  Del. 
Forfeit  of  the  usury  and  double,  or  treble  the  usury  in  14  other  States.  Usurious 
contracts  void  in  Md.,  N.  C.,  Ga.,  Tenn.,  Ohio,  Ark. 

INUNDATIONS,  (p.  426.)  Disastrous  one  in  the  centre  and  south-west  ol 
France,  on  the  Loire,  &c.,  damage  over  £4,000,000  sterling,  Oct.,  1846.  In 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


133 


south   of  France  with   immense  damage,  May  and  June,   1866.      At  Han* 
burg,  the  city  half  flooded,  Jan.  1,  1855. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS  (on  W.  coast  of  Greece).  The  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands, 
Corfu,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  Ithaca,  St.  Muura,  Cerigo,  and  Paxo,  which  were 
colonized  by  the  lones,  and  partook  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Greek  people ; 
were  subject  to  Naples  in  the  18th  century,  and  in  the  14th  to  Venice,  which 
ceded  them  to  France,  in  1797,  by  the  treaty  of  Campo-Forniio.  They  were 
seized  by  the  Russians  and  Turks  in  1800 ;  and  formed  into  a  Republic. 
They  were  restored  to  the  French  in  1807,  but  retaken  by  the  English  in 
1809.  A  new  and  very  liberal  constitution  was  granted  in  1846.  They  are 
now  among  the  free  states  of  Europe ;  Corfu  is  the  seat  of  government. 
Population  in  1856,  49,663. 

IOWA.  One  of  the  U.  S.  (territory  1838),  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state, 
Dec.  28,  1846.  Population  in  1840,  42,924;  in  1850,  191,881  ;  in  1856,  519,- 
148,  and  271  colored;  in  1860,  682,000.  In  1S63  she  had  800  miles  of  rail- 
road completed.  Value  of  the  exports  from  her  river  ports  in  1862,  $8,2oO,- 
000.  Population  in  1865,  754,732,  of  whom  3,607  were  black.  The  State 
furnished  72,300  men  for  the  war.  In  1865  the  women  of  Iowa  made  14,538,- 
216  pounds  of  butter,  and  1,000,738  of  cheese.  There  are  institutions  for  the 
insane  and  blind  in  the  State. 

IRON.  The  value  of  the  annual  product  of  the  CT.  S.  in  1860,  was  about 
$7,000,000,  or  about  1,200,000  tons.  The  quantity  of  pig  iron  produced  in 
the  U.  S.  in  1866,  was  939,956  tons.  339,764  tons  were  manufactured  into 
new  and  re-rolled  rails;  129,858  in  nails;  946,613  in  castings  over  10  pounds 
weight.  The  mountains  of  Missouri,  it  is  computed,  would  yield  1,000,000 
tons  of  wrought  iron  yearly  for  400  years. 

ITALY  (p.  429). 

"Napoleon  III.  et  1'Italio,"  published 

Feb.,  1859 

The  Austrian  ultimatum  rejected  by 
Saidinia April  26,  1859 

The  Austrians  cross  the  Ticino,  April 
27  ;  and  the  French  enter  Genoa, 


May3, 1859 

Peaceful  revolutions  at  Florence, 
April  27  :  Parma,  May  3 ;  Modenu, 

June  15,  1859 

The  Austrians  defeated  at  Montebel- 
lo,  May  20 ;  Talestro,  May  30  31 ; 
Magenta,  June  4 ;  Mariguano,  June 
8;  SollVr.no June  24,  1859 

Provisional  governments  established 
at  Florence,  April  27  ;  Parma,  May  ; 
and  Modena.  (The  sovereigns  re- 
tire.)  Juno  15,  1859 

Insurreciionsin  the  Papal  States  :  Bo- 
lojraa,  Fcrrara,  &c June  13-15,  1859 

Massacre  of  the  insurgents  at  Peru- 
gia by  the  Swiss  troops June  20, 1859 

Armistice  between  Austria  and 
France July  6, 1859 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Vil- 
lafranca ;  Lombardy  surrendered  to 
Sardinia , July  12, 1859 

Italy  dismayed  at  first  at  the  peace; 
great  agitation  at  Milan,  Florence, 
Modcna,  Parma,  &c July,  1859 

Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  abdicates 
about July  28,  1859 

The  Pope  appeals  to  Europe  asrainst 
the  King  of  Sardinia .July  12,  1859 


Garibaldi  becomes  commander  of  the 
Italian  nrmy,  and  exhorts  the  Ital- 
ians to  arm Juiy  19, 1859 

Constitutional  assemblies  meet  at 
Florence,  Aug.  11,  and  at  Modena, 

Aug.  16,  1859 


Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  the 
Komiigna  declare  for  annexation  to 
Piedmont Sept.  3-7,  1859 

Garibaldi  appeals  to  the  Neapolitans ; 
subscriptions  in  Italy  and  elsewhere 
to  supply  arms  for  the  Italians.. Oct.,  1S59 

Garibaldi,  with  a  force  of  about  1 ,200 
men,  in  two  small  steamers,  em- 
barks from  near  Genoa  for  Sicily, 

May  6,1860 

Garibaldi  lands  at  Marsala,  May  10 ; 
and  after  several  victories  takes 
possession  of  Palermo,  May  27  ;  and 
establishes  a  provisional  govern- 
ment fur  Sicily,  which  is  entirely 
evacuated  by  Neapolitan  troops, 

June  3,  1860 

Garibaldi  victorious  at  Melazzo, 

July  20-1, 186(1 

Garibaldi  lands  in  Calabria,  Aug.  8; 
enters  Salerno,  Aug. ;  enters  Na- 
ples  Aug.,  1860 

Francis  II.,  King  of  Naples,  retires 
to  Gaeta.  Aug.;  siege  of  Gaeta 
commenced  by  Victor  Emanuel, 

Oct..  18f« 

Gaeta  capitulates Feb.  14, 1861 


134  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBE8S. 

IRVINGITES,  or  the  followers  of  the  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  in  England,  who  now 
call  themselves  the  "Holy  Catholic  Apostolic  Church."  They  use  a  liturgy 
(framed  in  1842,  and  enlarged  in  1853),  and  have  church  officers  named  apos- 
tles, angels,  prophets,  &c.  In  1852,  lights  on  the  magnificent  altar  and 
burning  of  incense  during  prayers  were  prescribed.  Their  Gothic  church  or 
cathedral  in  Gordon  square  was  solemnly  opened  Jan.  1,  1854.  It  is  said  that 
all  who  join  the  church  offer  a  tenth  of  their  income  for  its  support  and  exten- 
sion. They  had  30  chapels  in  England  in  1861. 


JAPAN.  U.  S.  exped.  under  Com.  Perry  (7  ships  of  war),  entered  the  Bay  of 
Yeddo,  Feb.,  1854,  to  demand  protection  for  American  seamen  and  ships 
wrecked  on  the  coast,  and  to  effect  a  treaty  of  commerce,  which  was  agreed 
upon,  March  31.  A  British  squadron  for  the  same  purpose  reached  Nagasaki, 
Sept.,  1854,  and  effected  a  treaty.  The  Russians  followed ;  and  the  Dutch 
made  a  new  treaty,  Nov.  9,  1855.  Mr.  Townsend  Harris,  consul-general  for 
the  U.  S.,  made  a  new  treaty,  June  17,  1857,  by  which  Nagasaki,  Simoda, 
and  Hakodadi  were  opened  to  American  trade.  Harris  was  received  in 
Yeddo  in  1858,  and  effected  another  treaty.  Lord  Elgin's  treaty  opening  sev- 
eral ports  to  British  trade,  Aug.  26,  1858.  Death  of  the  Tycoon,  August, 
1858.  Japanese  embassy  to  the  U.  S.  (with  attendants,  70  persons),  reaches 
San  .Francisco,  March  28,  1860;  Washington,  May  14;  Philadelphia,  June  9; 
New  York,  where  they  were  received  with  a  great  military  display,  June  16; 
embarked  for  home  in  U.  S.  frigate  Niagara,  July  1 ;  reached  Yeddo,  Nov.  If), 
1860.  A  troup  of  Japanese  jugglers  arrived  in  the  U.  S.  in  1866.  In  the 
spring  of  1867,  their  performances  in  N.  Y.  city  excited  much  sensation.  Their 
proprietor  is  under  bonds  to  return  them  to  Japan  in  two  years.  Commission- 
ers from  Japan  again  visited  Washington  in  1867,  and  made  purchases  of 
large  quantities  of  school  books  for  public  schools  in  Yeddo,  and  also  bought 
from  the  government  the  iron-clad  frigate  Stonewall,  for  the  sum  of  $400,000. 
Ministers  of  the  U.  S.,  England,  France,  &c.,  notified  May,  1867,  that  Yeddo 
and  other  ports  would  be  opened  to  foreign  nations  in  Jan.,  1868. 

JEDDO,  or  YEDDO  (p.  432).  Severe  earthquakes,  Dec.  23,  1854,  and  Nov.  11, 
1855;  during  the  latter  57  temples,  100,000  houses,  and  30,000  persons  were 
said  to  have  been  destroyed. 

JESUITS  (p.  433).  In  1851  this  body  published  in  Italy  a  "  Catechismo  Filoso- 
fao"  or  dialogue  on  Monarchical  Constitutions,  containing  instructions  for 
kings,  how  far  they  may  go  with  a  safe  conscience  in  breaking  promisee 
made  to  their  people. 

JEWS  (p.  434).  Alderman  Salomons,  first  Jewish  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  1865 
Seizure  of  Mortara,  a  Jewish  child,  by  the  Cath.  Archbp.  of  Bologna,  June  24 
1858.  Baron  Rothschild  takes  his  seat  as  M.  P.  for  London  (first  Hebrew  in 
Brit.  Parliament),  July  24,  1858. 

JOCKEY  CLUBS,  U.  S.  One  was  organized  in  N.  Y.  City  in  the  summer  of 
1866,  by  Messrs.  Jerome,  Belmont,  and  others.  Its  object  is  to  improve  the 
breed  of  horses,  and  establish  a  better  system  of  races.  A  park  and  course 
have  been  laid  out  at  Fordham,  near  the  city,  at  the  expense  of  Mr  Jerome. 
The  races  were  inaugurated  Sept.  25,  1866.  The  celebrated  horse  "Kentuc- 
ky "  won  the  4  mile  heat  in  7.25. 

JUGGERNAUT  (p.  436).  The  state  allowance  to  the  temple  was  suspended  by 
the  Indian  government  in  June,  1851. 


SUPPLEMENT.    1851-67.  135 


KAFFRARIA,  An  extensive  country  in  South  Africa  extending  from  the  north 
of  Cape  Colony  to  the  south  of  Guinea.  The  Kaffirs  or  Caffres  first  invaded 
the  British  colony  at  the  Cape  in  1831,  and  continued  a  warfare  up  to  Dec. 
20,  1852,  when  they  were  defeated  and  sued  for  peace. 

KANSAS.  One  of  the  United  States  (the  34th),  organized  as  a  territory,  May, 
1854,  and  by  the  same  act  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820  was  declared 
"inoperative  and  void"  in  both  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  Emigrant  companies 
from  Mass,  began  to  arrive  in  July  and  founded  the  town  of  Lawrence.  An 
association  formed  in  Missouri,  July  29,  to  "remove  all  emigrants"  coming 
"  under  the  auspices  of  northern  emigrant  aid  societies  ; "  another  formed 
Aug.  12  to  introduce  slavery.  A.  H.  Reeder  of  Pa.,  app.  governor,  arrived 
Oct.  6.  Election  for  delegate  to  Cong.,  Nov.  29 ;  the  polls  mobbed  by  armed 
bands  from  Missouri;  another  election  March  20,  1855,  similarly  controlled; 
Reeder  superseded  July  26  by  Wilson  Shannon  of  Ohio ;  Topeka  ("  free  State") 
Convention  promulgates  a  Constitution  Nov.  11;  collisions,  with  bloodshed, 
between  the  "free  state"  and  "pro-slavery"  people  commenced  at  this  time, 
and  continued  more  or  less  for  many  months.  Topeka  Const,  accepted  by 
the  people  Dec.  15,  and  under  it  Charles  Robinson  chosen  governor,  Jan.  15, 
1856.  Armed  men  from  Ga.,  Alabama,  &c.,  arrived  in  the  territory  April, 
1856.  Report  of  H.  Repres.  of  U.  S.  on  Kansas  affairs,  proving  fraud  and 
violence  of  pro-slavery  invaders.  Robinson  arrested  for  treason,  May  5,  and 
imprisoned  four  months  for  taking  office  under  Topeka  Constitution.  Raid  of 
pro-slavery  men  on  the  town  of  Lawrence,  May  21.  Fight  at  Potawatamie  May 
26,  and  several  other  collisions  for  several  months.  Free  State  legislature  at 
Topeka  dispersed  by  U.  S.  troops  under  Col.  Sumuer,  July  4.  Shannon  re- 
moved, and  John  W.  Geary  of  Pa.  appointed  in  his  stead  Aug.  A  party  led 
by  Ex-Senator  Atchison  of  Mo.  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  Osawatomie  Aug.  29. 
Free  state  men  driven  by  Missourians  from  Leavenworth,  Sept.  1.  Robinson 
and  others  released  on  bail  Sept.  8,  and  Geary  promising  protection  to  free 
state  men  they  gave  up  their  arms.  Topeka  legislature  met  Jan.  6,  1857 ; 
the  Speaker  and  others  arrested  by  U.  S.  Marshal.  Pro-slavery  legislature  at 
Lecompton  provides  for  a  convention.  Geary  resigned  in  consequence  of  ille- 
gal acts  of  Lecompte,  U.  S.  judge,  1857.  Robert  J.  Walker  appointed  gov- 
ernor, and  F.  P.  Stanton  of  Tenn.,  secretary,  June.  M.  J.  Parrott  elected  del- 
egate to  Cong.  Lecompton  Constitution  promulgated,  and  caused  great  ex- 
citement Dec.,  1857.  Walker  denounces  it  as  a  fraud,  and  resigns  because 
the  Const,  is  approved  by  the  President.  J.  W.  Denver  of  Cal.  app.  governor 
Dec.,  1857.  Lecompton  Const,  submitted  to  the  people  and  repudiated  by 
10,226  votes.  Convention  at  Wyandot  adopts  a  Const,  prohibiting  slavery, 
July  27,  which  is  ratified  by  the  people  (4,000  majority),  Oct.  4.  Under  it 
Charles  Robinson  chosen  governor  Dec.  6.  Kansas  admitted  into  the  Union 
under  the  Wyandot  Constitution  Jan.  29,  1861.  Population  in  1859,  69,950; 
in  1860,  143.645.  Act  establishing  an  "Agricultural  College "  passed  Jan., 
1863.  The  state  furnished  19,500  men  to  the  war.  Efforts  to  advance  the 
internal  condition  of  the  state  are  being  made  by  the  legislature  every  year. 
Asylums  for  the  deaf,  blind,  and  insane,  have  been  organized. 

KARS,  a  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  defended  5  mos.  by  the  Brit,  under  Gen.  Wil- 
liams against  a  Russian  siege,  June  18  to  Nov.  28,  1855. 

KENTUCKY.  Population  in  1850,  771,424  and  210,981  slaves.  In  1860,  933,707, 
and  226,902  slaves.  Increase  of  free  persons  in  10  years  19  per  cent.,  inc.  of 


136  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

slaves  7  per  cent.  There  was  a  slight  decrease  of  the  population,  caused  by 
the  war,  in  1865.  The  state  sent  63,995  white  and  20,400  colored  soldiers 
(Union)  to  the  war.  Population  in  1865,  1,155,668. 

KINDER-GARTEN  (children's  garden).  A  system  of  education  devised  by  Fro» 
bel,  but  practically  carried  out  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ronge,  in  Germany,  in  1849, 
and  in  England  in  1851.  The  system,  founded  mainly  on  self- tuition,  and  en- 
livened by  toys,  games,  and  singing,  is  set  forth  in  Ronge's  "  Kinder-Garten," 
published  in  1858. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS,  or  the  "  American  party."  A  political  organization  in  the 
U.  S.,  1853,  to  insist  that  the  Americans  shall  rule  America. 


LACE.  (p.  444)  This  manufacture  has  been  so  advanced  by  improvements, 
that  a  piece  of  lace  which  about  1809  cost  £17,  may  now  be  had  for  7s.  Ure. 

LANGUAGE.  Hon.  George  P.  Marsh,  in  a  recent  lecture,  stated  that  there 
were  nearly  100,000  English  words  found  in  use  by  good  writers,  but  that  no 
single  writer  employed  more  than  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  whole.  Few 
scholars  used  as  many  as  10,OuO  English  words,  and  ordinary  people  not 
more  than  3,000.  In  all  Shakespeare  there  were  not  15,000  words,  and  in 
all  Milton  but  8,000.  TSere  were  but  800  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

LAW.  (p.  447.)  The  numbe."  of  lawyers  in  the  United  States,  in  March,  1851, 
was  21,979,  or  about  one  to  uvery  fifteen  hundred  inhabitants.  Monthly  Law 
Magazine.  '  Estimating  their  average  receipts  a  $1,000  per  annum,  their  ag- 
gregate income  would  reach  within  a  fraction  of  twenty  two  millions  of  dollars. 
In  1851  there  were  in  New  York,  4,740  lawyers;  in  Pennsylvania,  1,848;  in 
Ohio,  2,031  ;  in  Massachusetts,  1,132;  in  Kentucky,  1,066;  and  in  Georgia, 
908.  Livingston's  Law  Register. 

LEGACY  DUTY,  INTERNAL  REVENUE,  U.  S.  By  the  Revenue  laws  of  1861-62- 
63,  Legacies  were  included  on  the  taxable  list.  A  tax  of  75  cents  to  $5.  is 
imposed  on  "  every  hundred  dollars  of  the  clear  value  of  interest  in  such  prop- 
erty."  In  1863,  the  revenue  from  legacies  to  parent,  child,  &c.,  was  $25, 869, 
to  nephew,  niece,  &c.,  $11,333,  to  uncle,  &c.,  $921,  to  corporations,  strangers 
&c.,  $18,470.  Total  Revenue  from  legacies  and  successions  in  1S64,  $310, 
836;  in  1865,  $546,703  ;  in  1866,  $1,170,979. 

LIBEL,  LAW  OF,  U.  S.  Action  for  libel  lies  against  the  proprietor  of  a 
newspaper  edited  by  another,  though  the  publication  was  made  without  the 
knowledge  of  such  proprietor. 

LIBERIA.  The  number  of  American  Africans  in  1860,  was  about  10,000;  na- 
tives under  jurisdiction  of  the  republic  about  250,000.  In  1 856  the  sugar  cane 
was  introduced,  and  in  May,  1860,  a  cargo  of  sugar  was  sent  to  N.  Y.  Palm 
oil  reported  in  1859,  $500,OuO.  A  college,  several  schools,  2  newspnpers,  and 
several  churches  bave  been  established  (1859).  Population  in  1863,  422,000, 
of  whom  16,000  were  born  in  the  U.  S.,  and  6,000  rescued  from  slave-ships. 
The  government  is  republican.  Capital  Monrovia.  Revenue  of  the  Republic 
in  1861,  $149,550 

LIBRARIES.  The  Astor  Library,  founded  by  the  late  J.  J.  Astor,  who  left,  by 
will,  $400,000  "for  the  establishment  of  a  public  library  in  New  York," 
"  which  should  be  open  at  all  reasonable  hours,  free  of  expense,  to  persons  re- 
•orting  thereto."  The  original  buildiug  opened  to  the  public  Jan.  9,  1854. 
Another  building  of  similar  style  and  eitent  was  added  by  W.  B.  Astor,  1860. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  137 

The  whole  contained  in  1860  about  120,000  volumes,  including  the  most  val- 
uable, rare,  and  costly  works  purchasable.  The  free  Public  Library  in 
Boston,  opened  Sept.  17,  1858,  is  a  noble  institution  of  a  similar  kind  found- 
ed at  a  similar  expense  by  several  munificent  citizens.  It  is  wholly  free  to  the 
public,  and  about  30,000  volumes  are  provided,  which  may  be  taken  from  the 
library  by  any  resident  of  Boston.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  these  30,000 
volumes  had  thus  been  freely  loaned  to  all  comers  without  loss  or  damage  to 
the  amount  of  $100  in  2  years.  In  1864  there  were  104  libraries  in  the  U.  S. 
of  over  100,000  volumes,  distributed  among  23  of  the  states  and  containing  2,- 
404,000  books,  or  about  £  the  total  number  in  all  the  public  libraries  of  the 
country.  The  Church  and  Sunday-School  libraries  were  estimated  to  contain 
from  5  to  6  million  volumes.  In  the  work  entitled  "  Private  Libraries  of 
New  York"  (Dr.  Wynne)  are  found  notices  of  over  40  collections  of  4,000  and 
12  with  10,000  volumes  (1864).  In  1859  the  following  statistics  were  com- 
piled :  Number  of  Libraries  in  the  U.  S.  with  volumes  reported,  1,297,  es- 
timated, 1,593  ;  libraries  of  common  schools,  18,000;  Sunday-Schools,  30,000; 
total,  50,890  libraries,  number  of  volumes,  12,720,686. 

LICENSE  TAX,  U.  S.  Levied  by  act  of  Congress,  July  1,  1862.  Total  receipts 
from  this  source  in  1863,  $6,824,178;  in  1864,  $7,  146,389 ;  in  1865,  $12,613,- 
478 ;  in  1866,  $18,038,098.  In  1865,  the  largest  amount  was  received  from 
wholesale  dealers,  $5,4-28,345.  Retail  dealers  in  liquors  paid  $2,807,225.  Re- 
ceipts from  bowling  alleys  were  the  smallest,  $19,749. 

LIGHTHOUSES.  In  1859,  there  were  491  light  stations  on  the  coasts  of  the 
U.  S.,  including  the  Pacific  and  the  lakes,  the  annual  cost  to  govt.  being  $932,- 
000.  The  No.  of  buoys  and  beacons  was  about  5,000.  A  large  number  of  the 
lighthouses  from  Cape  Henry  to  the  Rio  Grande,  were  destroyed  by  the  Con- 
federates in  the  late  war. 

LOANS,  U.  S.  The  following  are  the  principal  loans  of  the  Government  in 
support  of  the  war  against  the  Rebellion. 

Name  of  Loan.                        Length  of  Loan.  Amount  Issued^ 

Loan  of  Feb  8, 1861 20  years $18,415,000 

7.30Dotes 3      "      139,999,750 

Five-Twenties 5  or  20  years 514,780,000 

Ten-Forties 10or40    "    172,770,100 

Five-Twenties 5  or  20    "    91,789.000 

Treasury  Notes 3  years 178,756,000 

7.30  Notes "      " 134,400,000 

"  "        "     "     "     437,210,400 

See  Arpleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia,  1865.     Finances- 

LONDON,  (p.  458.)     The  population  of  London  in  1861  was  2,803,034. 

LONGEVITY,  IN  THE  U.  S.  In  1860  there  were  2,960  persons  over  100  years 
of  age.  In  the  State  of  N.  Y.  (1865)  there  were  108. 

LOTTERIES.  In  N.  Y.  and  Pa.  Lotteries  have  been  declared  by  law  to  be 
"  public  nuisances,"  and  to  be  indictable  as  such.  The  Am.  Art  Union  was  pro- 
nounced illegal,  as  a  lottery,  1851.  About  1820  there  was  a  lottery  at  Natchez 
for  building  a  Presbyterian  church.  At  other  times  colleges,  roads,  ferries, 
hospitals,  &c.  have  been  aided  by  lotteries.  They  were  still  tolerated  in 
Maryland,  Georgia,  and  perhap's  other  States  (1861).  The  "Crosby  Opera 
House  "  Association,  in  1866,  was  a  lottery,  in  which  the  "opera  house  "at 
Chicago,  was  the  principal  prize.  All  who  invested  received  a  prize  equivalent 
to  their  amount  immediately  on  payment.  The  proprietors  made  large 
profits,  as  subscriptions  came  in  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 

LOUISIANA,  (p.  460.)     Population  in  1850,  517,  762.     In  1855,  by  state  census, 


138  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

587,774,  including  244,000  slaves.  In  1860,  666,413,  including  312,186  slaves 
Ordinance  of  secession  from  the  U.  S.  passed  by  Convention,  Jan.  26,  1861 
Motion  to  submit  the  question  to  the  people  was  defeated  by  a  large  ma- 
jority. The  principal  portion  of  the  state  came  under  the  authority  of  the 
Government  before  the  close  of  the  war.  Number  of  men  furnished  to  the 
Union  army,  mostly  blacks,  40,000.  Debt  of  the  State  in  1867,  $13,358,0,)0. 

LOUVRE,  (p.  460.)  The  magnificent  buildings  of  the  New  Louvre  begun  by 
Napoleon  I.,  and  completed  by  Napoleon  III.,  were  inaugurated  by  the  latter 
in  groat  state,  Aug.  14,  1857. 

LYNCH  LAW.  Punishment  inflicted  by  private  individuals,  independently  of  the 
legal  authorities,  said  to  derive  its  name  from  John  Lynch,  a  farmer,  who  ex- 
ercised it  upon  the  fugitive  slaves  and  criminals  dwelling  in  the  "  dismal 
swamp,"  North  Carolina,  when  they  committed  outrages  upon  persons  and 
property  which  the  colonial  law  could  not  promptly  redress.  This  mode  of  ad- 
ministering justice  began  about  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  and  has  prevailed 
more  or  less  in  recent  years  in  the  western  border  of  southern  states. 
LYNCH  LAW,  "A  common  phrase  used  to  express  the  vengeance  of  a  mob, 
inflicting  an  injury,  and  committing  an  outrage  upon  a  person  suspected  of 
some  offence.  In  England  this  is  called  Lidford  Law." — Bouvier. 

M 

MACADAMIZING.  The  inventor  of  this  system  of  repairing  roads  (Mr.  John 
Macadam),  received  a  grant  from  Parliament  in  1825  as  a  reward. 

MACCABEES,  a  family  of  patriotic  Jews,  who  commenced  their  career  during 
the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.  c.  167,  when  Mattathias,  a  priest, 
resisted  the  tyranny  of  the  governor.  Ills  son  Judas  Maccabeus  defeated  the 
Syrians  in  three  battles,  B.  c.  166,  165  ;  but  fell  in  an  ambush,  B.  c.  161. 
His  brother  Jonathan  made  a  league  with  the  Romans  and  Lacedaemonians, 
and  after  an  able  administration,  was  treacherously  killed  at  Ptolemais  by 
Tryphon,  B.  C.  143.  His  brother  and  successor,  Simon,  was  also  murdered, 
B.  c.  135.  John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon,  succeeded.  His  son  Judas,  called 
also  Aristobulus,  took  the  title  of  king,  B.  c.  107.  The  history  of  the  Macca- 
bees is  contained  in  five  books  of  that  name,  two  of  which  are  included  in 
our  Apocrypha,  and  are  accounted  canonical  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
but  not  by  Protestant  communions. 

MADAGASCAR,  (p.  464.)  The  French  were  defeated  in  an  attack  on  this 
island,  Oct.  19,  1855.  The  native  Christians  have  suffered  much  persecution, 
although  the  prince,  the  son  of  the  reigning  queen,  embraced  Christianity  in 
1846.  The  Rev.  W.  Ellis  in  1858  published  an  interesting  account  of  his 
three  visits  to  the  island,  on  behalf  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  in 
1854-5-6. 

MADEIRA,  (p.  464.)  Since  1852,  the  vintages  here  have  been  totally  ruined 
by  the  vine-disease. 

MAGENTA,  a  small  town  in  Lombardy,  memorable  for  the  victory  of  the  French 
and  Sardinian  army  over  the  Austrians,  June  4,  1859.  The  emperor  Louis 
Napoleon  commanded,  and  he  and  the  king  of  Sardinia  were  in  the  thickest 
of  the  fight.  It  is  said  that  55,000  French  and  Sardinians,  and  75,000  Aus- 
trians were  engaged.  The  former  are  asserted  to  have  lost  4,000  killed  and 
wounded,  and  the  Austrians  10,000,  besides  7,000  prisoners  ;  these  numbers 
are  still  doubtful.  The  Austrians  fought  well,  but  were  badly  commanded. 
The  emperor  and  king  entered  Milan  on  June  8  following.  MacMahon  and 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  139 

Regnault  d'Angely  were  created  marshals  of   France   for  gallantry  in  the 
action. 

MAGNETISM.  In  1831  electricity  was  produced  from  a  magnet  by  Professof 
Faraday,  who  has  since  published  his  researches  on  the  action  of  the  magnet 
on  light,  on  the  magnetic  properties  of  flume,  air,  and  gases  (1845),  on  dia- 
magnetism  (1845),  on  magne-crystallic  action  (1848),  on  atmospheric  magnet- 
ism (1850),  and  on  the  magnetic  force  (1851-52).  In  the  present  century 
our  knowledge  of  the  phenomena  of  magnetism  has  been  greatly  increased 
by  the  labors  of  Arago,  Ampere,  Hansteen,  Gauss,  Weber,  PoggeudorS', 
Sabine,  Lament,  Tyndall,  Du  Moncel,  &c. 

MAINE,  (p.  466.)  Population  in  1850,  583,169;  increase  in  10  years,  16  per 
cent.  Population  in  1860,  619,958 ;  increase  in  10  years  6-J  per  cent.  No. 
men  furnished  to  the  army  and  navy  1861-5,  71,558. 

MALAKHOFF,  a  hill  near  Sebastopol  on  which  was  situated  an  old  tower,  which 
the  Russians  strongly  fortified  during  the  siege  in  1854-5.  The  allied  French 
and  English  attacked  it  on  June  17  and  18,  1855,  and  after  a  conflict  of  48 
hours  were  repulsed  with  severe  loss  ;  that  of  the  English  being  175  killed 
and  1,126  wounded  ;  that  of  the  French  3,338  killed  and  wounded.  On  Sept. 
8,  the  French  again  attacked  the  Halakhoff;  at  8  o'clock  the  first  mine  was 
sprung,  and  at  noon  the  French  flag  floated  over  the  conquered  redoubt  In 
the  Malakhoff  and  Redan  were  found  3,000  pieces  of  cannon  of  every  calibre, 
and  120,000  Ibs.  of  gunpowder. 

MANASSAS  JUNCTION,  VIRGINIA,  an  important  military  position,  where  the 
Alexandria  and  Manassas  Gap  railways  meet,  near  a  creek  named  BULL  RUN. 
It  was  held  by  the  rebels  under  Beauregard  in  1861,  when  they  were  attacked 
by  General  McDowell.  He  began  his  march  from  Washington  on  July  16,  and 
gained  some  advantage  on  the  18th  at  Centreville.  On  the  21st  was  fought  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  McDowell  had  the  advantage  till  about  three  o'clock, 
p.  M.,  when  the  rebel  Gen.  Johnston  brought  up  reinforcements,  which  at  first 
were  taken  for  Union  troops.  After  a  brief  resistance,  the  latter  were  seized 
with  sudden  panic,  and  in  spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  their  officers,  fled  in  dis- 
graceful rout,  abandoning  a  large  quantity  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  baggage. 
The  Federal  army  is  said  to  have  had  481  killed,  1,011  wounded,  1,216  missing. 
The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  stated  to  be  about  1,500.  In  March,  1862, 
when  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  under  General  McClellan,  marched  into  Vir- 
ginia, they  found  that  the  Confederates  had  quietly  retreated  from  the  camp  at 
Manassas.  On  Aug.  30,  1862,  this  place  was  the  site  of  another  great  battle 
between  the  northern  and  southern  armies.  In  August,  General  "  Stonewall  " 
Jackson,  after  compelling  Gen.  Pope  to  retreat,  defeated  him  at  Cedar  moun- 
tain on  the  9th,  turned  his  flank  on  the  22d,  and  arriving  at  Manassas,  repulsed 
his  attacks  on  the  29th.  On  the  30th  General  R.  E.  Lee  (who  had  defeated 
McClellan  before  Richmond,  June  26  to  July  1),  joined  Jackson  with  his 
army,  and  Pope  received  reinforcements  from  Washington.  A  desperate  con- 
flict ensued,  which  ended  in  the  Confederates  gaining  a  decisive  victory,  com- 
pelling the  Union  army  to  a  hasty  retreat  to  Centreville,  wheiv  they  were 
once  more  routed,  Sept.  1.  The  remains  of  their  army  took  refuge  behind  the 
lines  of  Washington  on  Sept.  2.  Pope  was  at  once  superseded,  and  McClellan 
resumed  the  command,  to  march  against  the  Confederates,  who  had  crossed 
the  Potomac  and  entered  Maryland.  See  United  States. 

MARONITES.  A  body  of  Christians  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  who  recognize  the 
authority  of  the  pope.  They  live  near  Mt.  Lebanon,  and  in  Aleppo,  Damaa- 


140  THE  WOBLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

c  is.  and  other  places.  They  suffered  severely  in  the  massacre  by  the  Dtuset 
in  1860,  and  some  accounts  make  the  Maronites  the  original  aggressors. 

MAROONS.  A  name  given  in  Jamaica  to  runaway  negroes.  When  the  island 
was  conquered  from  the  Spaniards  a  number  of  the  negroes,  abandoned  by 
their  former  masters,  fled  to  the  hills  and  became  very  troublesome  to  the 
colonists.  A  war  of  eight  years'  duration  ensued,  when  the  Maroons  capitu- 
lated on  being  permitted  to  retain  their  free  settlements,  about  1730.  In 
1795  they  again  took  arms,  but  were  speedily  put  down  and  transported  to 
Nova  Scotia.  JBrande.  They  were  also  sent  to  Sierra  Leone ;  and  many  of 
them  are  among  the  Dutch  of  Surinam. 

MARQUESAS  ISLANDS  (Polynesia),  were  discovered  in  1595  by  Mendana, 
who  named  them  after  the  viceroy  of  Peru,  Marquesa  de  Mendoca.  They 
were  visited  by  Cook  in  1774,  and  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  French 
admiral  Dupetit  Thouars,  May  1,  1842. 

MARRIAGE,  (p.  470.)     The   number  of  marriages   in   England  and   Wales  in 
1750  was  40,300  1820  was  96.883  1850  was  152,744 

1800    "    73,228  1840    "  121,083  1858    "    156,207 

Of  these  marriages,  in  1850,  it  is  stated,  in  the  registrars'  returns,  that 
47,570  men  and  70,601  women  could  not  write,  and  that  they  signed  the 
marriage  register  with  their  marks.*  See  Divorce.  It  has  frequently  been 
attempted  to  legalize  a  marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister,  without  success. 
A  bill  for  this  purpose  passed  the  Commons,  July  2,  1858,  but  was  rejected 
by  the  Lords,  July  23  following. 

MARSEILLAISE  HYMN.  The  words  and  music  of  this  hymn  are  ascribed  to 
Rouget  de  Lille,  a  French  engineer  officer,  who  composed  it  at  the  request  of 
Marshal  Lucknow,  in  1791,  to  cheer  the  spirits  of  the  conscripts  of  the  army 
then  at  Strasburg.  The  hymn  derived  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of 
some  troops  from  Marseilles  marching  into  Paris  to  the  tune  at  a  time  when 
it  was  little  known  there,  in  1792.  JBrande. 

MARYLAND,  (p.  471.)  Population  in  1850,  583,034,  including  74,723  free 
colored,  and  90,368  slaves.  Increase  in  ten  years,  24  per  cent.  In  1860,  the 
population  was  646,183,  and  85,382  slaves.  Increase  of  free  persons  in  10 
years,  11  per  cent.;  decrease  of  slaves,  6  per  cent.  In  1861  desperate  at- 
tempts were  made  by  the  Secessionists  of  the  State  to  carry  it  into  the  "  Con- 
federacy" and  to  betray  the  National  cause — but  they  were  defeated  by  the 
predominant  Union  sentiment.  See  Baltimore.  In  1865,  the  Legislature  dis- 
fanchrised  all  Marylanders  who  had  fought  against  the  Union.  Union  troops 
furnished  for  the  war  .  Disbursements  for  Union  troops,  $4,212,479. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  Population  in  1850,  994,514;  increase  in  10  years,  34  per 
cent.  In  1855  (state  census),  1,132,369,  increase  in  5  years,  16  per  cent. 
These  returns  placed  Mass,  the  6th  in  the  Union  in  population,  In  I860  the 
population  was  1,231,494.  Increase  in  10  years  24  per  cent.  Total  industrial 
production  in  1855,  295  millions  of  dollars.  Exports,  1859, 18  millions.  Rail- 
roads, 1,602  miles,  which  cost  63  millions.  Number  of  troops  sent  to  the  war 
in  1861-5,  159,165,  of  whom  about  6,500  were  blacks.  Population  in  1865, 
1,267,329. 

MATCHES,  U.  S.  The  tax  on  matches  imposed  Aug.  1864,  is  one  cent  per  hun 
dred.  The  revenue  from  this  source  in  1865,  was  about  $1,000,000. 

*  In  France,  the  marriages  were  208,893  in  1S20  ;  248,«74  In  1825  ;  and  259,177  in  1830.  As 
reppcctg  Paris,  the  statistics  of  that  city,  which  are  very  minute  .ind  curious,  furnish  the 
following  classes  as  occurring  in  7,754  marriages  : — Bachelors  and  maids,  6,456 ;  bachelon 
a-id  \vidowa,  368  ;  widowers  and  maids,  708  ;  widowers  ai.d  widows,  222. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  141 

MEDICAL  COLLEGES,  U.  S.  There  were  54  medical  schools  and  colleges  in  the 
U.  S.  in  1862.  The  oldest  is  the  University  of  Peun.  at  Phila.,  1765. 

MEDICI  FAMILY.  Illustrious  as  the  restorers  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts  in 
Italy  ;  were  chiefs  or  signori  of  the  republic  of  Florence  from  1434,  in  which 
year  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  who  had  been  banished  from  the  republic,  was  re- 
called, and  made  its  chief,  presiding  over  it  for  thirty  years.  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  styled  "the  Magnificent,"  and  the  "Father  of  Letters,"  ruled  Florence 
from  1469  to  1492.  John  de'  Medici  (Pope  Leo  X.),  was  the  son  of  Lorenzo. 
Roscoe.  From  1569  to  1737,  the  Medici  family  were  hereditary  grand  dukes  of 
Tuscany. 

MEMPHIS.  An  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  ("of  which  the  very  ruins  are  stupendous;") 
is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Mcnes,  3890  B.  c. ;  or  by  Misraim,  2188  B.  c.  It 
was  erected  by  Alexander,  332  B.  c. ;  and  restored  by  Sepdmus  Severus,  A.  D. 
202.  The  invasion  of  Cambyses,  526  B.  c.,  began,  and  the  founding  of  Alex- 
andria, 332,  completed  the  ruin  of  Memphis. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.  Several  religious  orders  commenced  alms-begging  in 
the  13th  century,  in  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  They  spread  over  Europe 
and  embraced  many  communities;  but  at  length  by  a  general  council,  held  by 
Gregory  X.  at  Lyons,  in  1272,  were  confined  to  four  orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines.  The  Capuchins  and  others  branched 
off. 

MENU,  INSTITUTES  OF.  The  very  ancient  code  of  India.  Sir  W.  Jones,  who  trans- 
lated them  into  English  (1794),  considers  their  date  should  be  placed  between 
Homer  (about  962  B.  c.)  and  the  Roman  Twelve  Tables  (about  449  B.  c). 
Haughton's  translation  appeared  in  1825. 

MEROVINGIANS.     The  first  race  of  French  kings,  418-752. 

MESMERISM.  So  called  from  Frederick  Anthony  Mesmer,  a  German  physician, 
of  Mersburg.  He  first  made  his  doctrine  known  to  the  world  in  1766;  con- 
tending, by  a  thesis  on  planetary  influence,  that  the  heavenly  bodies  diffused 
through  the  universe,  a  subtle  fluid  which  acts  on  the  nervous  system  of  ani- 
mated beings.  Quitting  Vienna  for  Paris,  in  1778,  he.  gained  numerous  pro- 
selytes to  his  system  in  France,  where  he  received  a  subscription  of  340,000 
livres.  The  government- at  length  appointed  a  committee  of  physicians  and 
members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  investigate  his  pretensions.  Among 
these  were  Franklin  and  Dr.  Bailly,  and  the  result  of  their  inquiries  appeared 
in  an  admirable  paper  drawn  up  by  the  latter,' exposing  the  futility  of  animal 
magnetism,  as  the  delusion  was  then  termed,  and  the  quackery  of  Mesmer. 
Mesmerism  excited  attention  again  about  1848,  when  Miss  Harriet  Martineau 
and  others  announced  their  belief  in  it.* 

METEOR.  Remarkable  instances  of  the  phenomenon  are  recorded  by  the  Chi- 
nese as  early  as  644  B.  c. ;  by  Greeks  and  Romans  (a  few  only);  by  Kepler 
(1623),  H.-illey,  Humboldt,  Ca'vallo,  Bowditch,  and  others,  1676,  17i9.  1783, 
1819.  A  meteor  passed  over  N.  Y.,  Conn.,  R.  I.,  Delaware,  &c.,  July  20,  I860. 
Extraordinary  meteoric  display  in  Nov.  1833,  partially  recurring  every  Nov.  till 
1839,  and  again  in  1841  and  1846.  These  weie  described  by  Prof.  Olmstead 
of  New  Haven. 

METHODISTS,  (p.  478.)  The  first  Methodist  organization  in  the  U.  S.  was  at 
Baltimore,  1784,  Wesley  sanctioning  it  as  the  "Meth.  Episcopal  Church  of 
America."  Introduced  in  S.  Carolina  and  Georgia,  1785.  Secession  of  And- 

•  In  1859  the  Mesmeric  Infirmary  issued  its  tenth  annual  report,  Archbishop  "Whately 
being  president,  and  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  and  Mr.  Monckton  Milnes  among  the  vice 
presidents. 


142  THE  WORLD'S  PEOGBESS. 

Episcopal  branch,  1830.    Secession  (on  account  of  the  slavery  question)  of  the 
"Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,"  1844.     The  northern  branch  had  in 

1860,  956,555  members,  and  13,000  preachers,  under  51  "annual  conferences," 
24  colleges,  2  biblical  institutes,  and   120  seminaries.     The  "M.  E.  Church 
South"  in  1845,  had  6  bishops,  24  conferences,  330,710  white  members,  124, 
811  colored  members,  2,978  Indians.      In  1859  the  total  membership  was 
721,023,  with  21  colleges  for  males,  28  colleges  and  27  high  schools  for  females; 
and  a  publishing  house  at  Nashville  which  issued  600  million  pages  in  5  years. 
The  Meth.  Prot.  Church  in  1858,  had  90,000  members  and  2,000  ministers. 
No.  of  Methodists  in  U.  S.  in  1863,  1,650,000;  number  of  churches,  11,638 ; 
ministers,  10,911. 

MEXICO,  (p.  479.)  Herrera,  president,  1848;  succeeded  by  Gen.  Arista,  Jan.  15, 
1851 ;  who  was  compelled  by  revolution  to  resign,  1853,  and  Santa  Anna  was 
recalled  and  made  president  with  unlimited  powers.  Insurrection  of  Alvarez, 
Jan.  1854  ;  flight  of  Santa  Anna,  Aug.  1855,  and  elevation  of  Carrera  for  27 
days.  Alvarez  made  president  by  a  Junta,  but  after  a  few  weeks  resigned  in 
favor  of  Comonfort,  who  confiscated  Church  property,  March,  1856.  New 
constitution  promulgated  by  Congress,  March,  1857,  opposed  by  the  army,  and 
a  new  revolution  (Jan.  1858),  suppressed  Comonfort,  and  elevated  Zuloaga  to 
the  presidency.  Juarez  (chief-justice),  claims  this  post,  and  retires  to  Vera 
Cruz,  May  4,  I860,  assuming  there  to  be  the  "Constitutional  president."  Zu- 
loaga deposed,  and  Gen.  Miramon  as  chief  of  the  Conservatives  or  Church 
party  leads  a  war  against  Juarez,  which  ends  in  the  triumph  of  Juarez,  Jan. 

1861.  In  July,  1863,  an  assembly  of  notables  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  declared 
Mexico  a  moderated  monarchy,  and  offered  the  crown  to  Maxmilian  arch-duke 
of  Austria,  who  accepted  it;  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  June,  1864;  defeated 
the  liberals  in  several  engagements.     In  the  spring  of  1867,  the  French  troops 
who  had  been  sent  in  1861,  to  enforce  certain  claims  made  by  France,  and  by 
whose  assistance  Maximilian   had  established  himself  in  Mexico,  were  with- 
drawn.   The  liberals  after  this  regained  their  lost  ground,  besieged  Maximilian 
in  Queretaro,  and  compelled  his  surrender.     The  Juarez  government  declared 
him  a  usurper,  and  sentenced  him  to  be  shot.     His  execution  took  place, 
against  the  protest  of  all  foreign  ministers,  June  19,  1867.     Miramon  and 
Mejia  executed  as  traitors  at  the  same  time.     A  state  of  anarchy  has  existed 
in  Mexico  for  years,  and  Maixmilian's  object  was  to  reduce  the  country  to  order 
under  a  monarchy.    The  contest  was  waged  with  great  bitterness  and  cruelty. 
City  of  Mexico  surrendered  to  the  Republicans,  June,  1867. 

MICHAELMAS.  The  feast  of  St.  Michael,  the  reputed  guardian  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  under  the  title  of  "St.  Michael  and  all  Angels."  St.  Michael 
is  supposed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  to  be  the  head  of  the  heavenly  host.  This 
feast  is  celebrated  on  the  29th  of  September,  and  the  institution  of  it,  accord- 
ing to  Butler,  was  A.  D.  487. 

MICHIGAN,  (p.  479.)  Population  1850,  399,654;  in  1860,  754,291.  Increase  in 
1840-50,  87  per  cent.;  1850-60,  89  per  cent.;  in  1864,  803,745.  In  1864, 
600,000,000  feet  of  lumber  was  sawed  in  this  State.  Number  of  men  sent  to 
the  army  in  1861-5,  90,119. 

MILITIA,  (p.  480.)  In  England  a  volunteer  militia  was  raised  during  the  Cri- 
mean war,  1854,  and  again  during  the  Indian  mutiny,  1857.  U.  S.  The  mili- 
tia force  of  the  United  States  in  1860,  as  near  as  can  be  ascertained  from 
official  reports,  consisted  of  53,589  commissioned  officers,  and  2,036,520  non- 
commissioned officers,  musicians,  artificers,  and  privates ;  a  total  of  2,090,109 
men.  Since  the  late  war,  most  of  the  states  have  organized  their  militia  into 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  143 

»  more  efficient  system  than  formerly.  Volunteers  in  the  war  are  exempt  from 
duty  for  a  certain  period  ;  in  Conn,  for  3  years. 

MINCIO.  A  river  of  Lombardy.  Here  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  French 
under  Brune,  Dec.  26,  1800 ;  and  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  Feb.  8,  1814.  The 
provinces  of  Verona  and  Mantua  are  watered  by  the  Mincio. 

MINES,  (p.  481.)  The  deepest  coal  pit  in  England  was  opened  about  1860,  after 
nearly  12  years'  labor.  The  shaft  is  686-J  yards  deep,  and  its  sinking  cost 
some  1500,000.  The  seam  of  coal  is  4  ft.  8£  in.  thick,  arid  is  calculated  to 
yield  500  tons  a  day  for  30  years.  The  shaft  is  12£  feet  in  diameter,  and  near 
the  bottom  19  feet.  Here  it  meets  an  "incline"  nearly  half  a  mile  long.  U. 
S.  The  famous  Hayward  gold  mine,  in  Ainadon  county,  California,  extends 
1,200  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  In  thirteen  years,  $7,000,000  have 
been  produced  from  it.  The  greatest  silver  mine  is  known  as  the  "  Comstock 
lode,"  in  Nevada,  discovered  in  1860.  It  is  owned  by  about  100  different 
companies.  The  length  of  mining  shafts  in  the  West  varies  from  500  to  1,000 
feet.  The  annual  yield  of  gold  and  silver  mines  in  the  U.  S.,  is  nearly 
$150,000,000. 

MINIE  RIFLE.  Invented  at  Vincennes,  about  1833,  by  M.  Minie  (born  about 
1800).  From  a  common  soldier  he  raised  himself  to  the  rank  of  chef  d' 
escadron.  His  rifle  is  considered  to  surpass  all  made  previous  to  it,  for  ac- 
curacy of  direction  and  extent  of  range.  It  is  adopted  by  the  French,  and 
with  various  modifications  by  the  British  army  in  1852. 

MINNESOTA,  U.  S.  Made  a  territory,  1849 ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State, 
1857.  Population,  1850,  6,077  ;  1860,  176,535  ;  1865,  248,848.  A  terrible 
Indian  massacre  occurred  in  this  State  in  August,  1862.  The  Sioux  rose  in  a 
body,  and  commenced  a  series  of  fiendish  outrages.  500  whites  were  mur- 
dered in  cold  blood,  and  millions  worth  of  property  destroyed.  Their  depre- 
dations extended  over  an  area  of  20,000  square  miles  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State.  Gen.  Sibley  finally  checked  and  defeated  them  ;  2,000  prisoners 
were  taken,  of  whom  38  were  hung  as  murderers.  In  Sept.  1862,  over  8,000 
fugitive  whites  were  receiving  aid  in  Eastern  Minnesota. 

MINT.  (p.  482.)  In  England,  first  regulated  by  Athelstan,  about  A.  D.  928.  See 
Coinage. 

MIRRORS,  (p.  482.)  In  1851  Mr.  Pettigrew  made  known  a  mode  of  silvering 
glass  by  a  solution  of  silver,  thus  avoiding  the  deleterious  use  of  mercury. 

MISSIONS,  PROTESTANT.  The  number  of  Protestant  missionaries  in  the  world 
in  1860,  was  1,369,  who  are  distributed  as  follows:  North  America,  125  ; 
South  America,  11  ;  the  Antilles  and  Guiana,  218  ;  Northern  Africa,  6  ; 
West  Africa,  107  ;  South  Africa,  152  ;  Western  Asia,  74  ;  India  and  Ceylon, 
419  ;  Burrnah  and  Siam,  39  ;  China,  72  ;  Oceanica,  146.  To  the  above 
must  be  added  934  assistant  missionaries,  and  2,737  native  helpers  (1860). 
Modern  missionary  effort  has  given  to  20  millions  of  people  the  benefits  of  a 
written  language.  20  dialects  of  Africa  have  been  thus  supplied,  and  500,000 
persons  enjoy  oral  teaching.  See  Benevolent  Societies.  ROMAN  CATHOLIC. 
The  receipts  of  the  great  Romish  missionary  society,  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith,  for  1857,  from  all  parts  of  the  globe,  amounted  to 
$838,000.  Their  expenditures  in  Europe  were  about  $159,000  ;  in  Asia, 
$284,000  ;  in  Africa,  $54,000  ;  in  America,  $177,000  ;  in  the  South  seas, 
$73,000.  The  whole  amount  contributed  on  this  continent  was  about  $32,- 
000.  It  is  stated  that  Protestants  in  the  U.  S.  alone,  give  more  for 
foreign  missions  than  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  Catholics  in  all  part* 
of  tne  world. 


144  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

MISSISSIPPI,  (p.  482.)  This  State  repudiated  $5,000,000  of  its  bonds,  in  1839  (?) 
Population  1850,606,326;  1860,  836,658;  increase  from  1840  to  1850,  61 
per  cent.  The  literal  translation  of  the  aboriginal  name  is  Great  River  ;  vhe 
Indian  title  is  written  variously  by  the  early  journalists ;  Marquette  spells  it 
"Missoissippy  /"  Hennepin  "  Meschasipi."  Sape  is  river,  running  water  ;  the 
prefix  means  "  great, "  "  big,  "  "Ordinance  of  Secession  "  from  the  U.  S. 
passed  Jan.  9,  1861.  Wm.  D.  Sharkey  appointed  Provisional  Governor, 
June  13,  1865.  The  delegates  of  the  State  Convention  petition  for  the 
pardon  of  Jefferson  Davis,  Aug.,  1865. 

MISSOURI.  Population  in  1850,  682,044,  including  87,422  slaves.  In  1856 
911,001,  including  101,605  slaves.  Increase  in  10  years,  77  per  cent.  From  1830 
to  1840,  it  was  133  per  cent.  Pop.  1860,  1,201,214,  including  115,619  slaves. 
Desperate  attempts  were  made  by  rebels  in  this  State  to  effect  secession,  but 
they  were  defeated.  This  State  was  the  scene  of  numerous  minor  conflicts 
and  some  important  battles,  during  the  slaveholder's  war  1861-5.  Sue  United 
Staf.es  and  Battlet.  War  debt,  $7,546,575  ;  Common  School  fund  in  1865, 
$678,660. 

MOHOCKS,  ruffians,  who  went  about  London  at  night,  wounding  and  disfiguring 
the  men,  and  indecently  exposing  the  women.  One  hundred  pounds  were 
offered  by  royal  proclamation,  in  1712,  for  apprehending  any  one  of  them. 
Northouck. 

MOLUCCAS,  an  archipelago  (the  chief  of  Amboyna)  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  about  1511,  who  held  them  secretly  till  the  arrival 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  claimed  them  till  1629,  when  Charles  V.  yielded  them  to 
John  III.  for  a  large  sum  of  money.  The  Dutch  conquered  them  in  1607,  and 
have  held  them  ever  since — except  from  1810  till  1814,  when  they  were  sub- 
ject to  the  English. 

MONACHISM  (from  the  Greek,  monos,  alone).  Catholic  writers  refer  to  the 
prophet  Elijah,  and  the  Nazarenes  mentioned  in  Numbers,  ch.  vi.,  as  early  ex- 
amples. The  first  Christian  ascetics  appear  to  be  derived  from  the  Jewish 
sect  of  the  Essenes,  whose  life  was  very  austere,  practising  celibacy,  &c. 
About  the  time  of  Constantino  (A.  D.  306-322)  numbers  of  these  ascetics 
withdrew  into  the  deserts,  and  were  called  hermits,  monks,  and  anchorets  ;  of 
whom  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Pachomius  were  most  celebrated.  Simeon,  the 
founder  of  the  Stylitae  (or  pillar  saints),  died  A.  D.  456.  He  is  said  to  have 
lived  on  a  pillar  30  years.  St.  Benedict,  the  great  reformer  of  monachism, 
published  his  rules  and  established  his  monastery  at  Monte  Cassino,  about  A.  n. 
629.  The  Carthusians,  Cistercians,  &c.,  are  so  many  varieties  of  Bene- 
dictines. 

MONROE  DOCTRINE,  a  term  applied  to  the  determination  expressed  by  James 
Monroe,  president  of  the  United  States,  1817-24,  not  to  permit  any  European 
power  to  interfere  in  restraining  the  progress  of  liberty  in  North  or  South 
America.  Upon  thi*  doctrine  the  U.  S.  protested  against  the  establishment  of 
French  troops  in  Mexico  in  1861-6.  They  were  finally  withdrawn  in  1867. 

MONTEBELLO,  a  village  in  Piedmont,  where  Lannes  defeated  the  Austrians 
June  9,  1800,  and  acquired  his  title  of  duke  of  Montebello;  and  where  (May 
20,  1869),  after  a  contest  of  six  hours,  the  French  and  Sardinians  defeated  the 
Austrians,  who  lost  about  2000  killed  and  wounded,  and  200  prisoners.  The 
French  lost  about  700,  including  general  Beuret. 

MONTENEGRO,  an  independent  principality  in  European  Turkey,  was  con- 
quered by  Solyman  II.  in  1626.  It  rebelled  in  the  last  century,  and  establish 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  145 

ed  an  hereditary  hierarchical  government  in  the  family  of  Petrovitsch  Njegoach, 
endured,  but  not  recognized  by  the  Porte. 

MONTEREY  (Mexico),  was  taken  by  general  Taylor  after  a  three  days'  conflict 
with  the  Mexicans,  Sept.  21-3,  1846. 

MONTI  DI  PIETA,  charitable  institutions  for  advancing  money  on  pledges, 
were  first  established  at  Perugia,  Florence,  Mantua,  and  other  Italian  cities, 
1462  et  seq.  The  Franciscans,  in  1493,  first  began  to  receive  interest,  which 
was  permitted  by  the  pope,  in  1515.  Monts  de  Piete  were  not  established  in 
France  till  1777.  They  were  suppressed  by  the  Revolution,  but  restored, 
1804  ;  regulated  by  law,  1851-2.  See  Pawnbroker,  p.  464. 

MONUMENT  OP  LONDON,  begun  in  A.  D.  1671,  and  finished  in  1677.  The 
pedestal  is  forty  feet  high,  and  the  edifice  altogether  202  feet,  that  being  the 
distance  of  its  base  from  the  spot  where  the  fire  which  it  commemorates  com- 
menced. It  is  the  loftiest  isolated  column  in  the  world.  Its  erection  cost 
about  £14,500. 

MORAT  (Switzerland),  where  Charles  the  Bold  of  Hungary  was  completely  de- 
feated by  the  Swiss,  June  20,  1476.  A  monument,  constructed  of  the  bones 
of  the  vanquished,  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1798,  who  erected  a  stone 
column  in  its  place. 

MORAVIANS,  U.  S.  In  1863  they  numbered  32  ministers,  46  churches,  and 
5,760  members. 

MORMONS.  In  Utah,  their  chief  settlement,  Brigham  Young,  their  leader,  was 
made  Governor  by  Pres.  Fillmore  in  1850.  The  TJ.  S.  chief  justice  being  repu- 
diated by  Young,  and  the  U.  S.  laws  disowned,  Col.  Steptoe,  U.  S.  A.  was  ap- 
pointed governor  in  place  of  Young,  and  sent  with  a  battalion  to  enforce  the 
U.  S.  authority,  Aug.,  1854.  His  authority  being  defied,  he  resigned.  Alfred 
Cummings  appointed  gov.  by  Pres.  Buchanan,  and  arrived  with  2,500  U.  S. 
troops,  Oct.  5.  His  trains  were  attacked  and  open  rebellion  proclaimed  ;  but 
in  March,  1858,  the  Mormon  leaders  submitted  and  order  was  restored.  Army 
withdrawn  May,  1860.  In  April,  1851,  their  elders  and  preachers  were  gath- 
ering converts  to  their  principles  in  Italy  and  Switzerland,  and  especially 
among  the  Waldenses;  also  in  Paris.  Their  celebrated  "  Bible,"  professed  to 
have  been  delivered  to  Joe  Smith,  was  really  written  by  Rev.  Sol.  Spaulding, 
about  1812,  as  a  supposed  history  of  some  ancient  mounds  in  Ashtabula  Co., 
Ohio.  The  MS.  is  said  to  have  been  borrowed  by  one  of  the  Mormons,  who 
copied  it,  and  subsequently  printed  it.  In  Europe  the  number  of  Mormoiia 
has  been  estimated  as  high  as  100,000;  and  some  are  reported  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Polynesia.  Their  number  in  Utah  was  estimated  at  50,000,  in  1862,  and 
composed  the  greater  part  of  the  white  population.  They  denominate  them- 
selves the  "  Church  of  Jesus  of  the  Latter  Day  Saints."  Their  church  organ- 
ization is  composed  of  a  series  of  hierarchies,  the  highest  being  the  First  Pres- 
idency, consisting  of  their  chief  prophet  Brigham  Young,  Heber  C.  Kimball, 
and  Daniel  H.  Wells;  next  the  Twelve  Apostles  ;  then  the  quorums  of  Seven- 
ties, of  which  there  are  said  to  be  62  organized  in  the  territories,  each  having 
seven  presidents  and  63  members;  then  follow  quorums  of  High-Priests,  Elders, 
Priests,  Teachers,  and  Deacons.  A  somewhat  anomalous  office  is  that  of  pa- 
triarch, which  has  been  conferred  on  John  Smith  (son  of  Hyrum  and  nephew  of 
their  first  prophet  Joseph  Smith)  and  on  a  few  others.  There  is  also  in  each 
settlement  a  High-Council,  composed  of  12  members,  and  a  bishop  for  eaci 
ward,  the  wards  containing  from  500  to  1,000  persons.  (National  Almanac^ 
Reported  schism  among  the  Mormons,  1867. 

MORTALITY  IN  WAR.     The  Provost-Marshal-General  has  compiled  a  com 

7 


146  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGEESS. 

plete  list  of  all  the  deaths  in  battle  and  from  wounds  and  disease,  of  every  reg- 
iment from  all  the  Northern  States  during  the  war.  This  record  shows  that 
280,751  officers  and  men  lost  their  lives  in  the  service;  of  whom  5,221  com- 
missioned officers  and  90,886  enlisted  men  were  killed  in  action  or  died  of 
wounds,  and  2,321  commissioned  officers  and  182,329  men  died  of  disease. 

MOSQUITO  COAST  (in  Central  America).  The  Indians  inhabiting  this  coast 
have  been  long  under  the  protection  of  the  British,  who  held  Belize  and  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  bay  of  Honduras.  The  jealousy  of  the  United  States 
has  long  existed  on  this  subject.  In  April,  1850,  the  two  governments  cove- 
nanted not  to  "  occupy  or  iortify,  or  colonize,  or  assume,  or  exercise  any  do- 
minion over  any  part  of  Central  America." 

MOUNT  VERNON.  The  home  of  Washington,  on  the  Potomac  ;  purchased 
for  the  nation  for  the  sum  of  $ 200,000,  raised  by  ladies'  associations,  origi- 
nated by  Miss  Pamela  Cunningham  of  South  Carolina,  1858-60.  During  the 
war  of  secession  this  place  was  carefully  protected  by  the  government. 

MUNICH,  .the  capital  of  Bavaria,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sites  in  Germany, 
was  founded,  it  is  said,  A.  D.  962.  It  was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of 
Sweden,  in  1632 ;  by  the  Austrians  in  1704,  1741,  and  1743  ;  and  by  the 
French,  under  Moreau,  July  2,  1800.  Munich  abounds  in  schools,  institu- 
tions and  manufactories.  The  University  was  founded  bv  king  Louis  in 
1826. 

MUKFREESBORO,  (Tennessee).  Near  here  severe  conflicts  took  place  between 
the  U.S.  troops  under  Rosencrans  and  the  Rebels  under  Bragg,  Dec.  30,  1862, 
and  Jan.  2,  1863.  The  rebels  were  defeated. 

MUSIC,  U.  S.  Music  seems  to  have  engaged  public  attention  first  through  the 
theatre.  There  was  one  established  at  the  Capital  during  Washington's  ad- 
ministration ;  also  afterwards  at  New  Orleans.  About  1826  an  opera  troupe 
appeared  in  New  York,  under  Signer  Garcia,  a  fine  artist.  Madame  Malibran, 
his  daughter,  met  with  great  success  as  an  opera  singer.  Other  Italian  troupes 
followed.  Large  Opera  Houses  are  at  Boston,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  New 
Orleans,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  Cincinnati.  Miss  Kellogg,  the  Amer- 
ican Prima  Donna,  first  appeared  on  the  stage  early  in  1861.  Her  success 
has  been  complete.  Philharmonic  and  musical  societies  are  to  be  found  in 
all  large  towns  of  the  U.  S.,  and  musical  concerts  are  greatly  encouraged. 
The  excellence  of  American  Pianos  is  acknowledged.  Among  eminent  playera 
are  Gottschalk,  Mason,  Mills.  About  $15,000,000  worth  of  Pianos  are  man- 
ufactured yearly.  See  Pianos. 


NAPLES  (p.  489). 

A  martial  anarchy  prevails  .......  Dec.,  1849 

The  chiefs  of  the  Liberal  Party  arrest- 
ed in  ................................  1849 

BettembriEi,  Pofrio,  Carafa,  and 
others,  after  a  mock  trial,  are  con- 
demned, and  consigned  to  horrible 
dungeons  for  life  ..............  Jui  e,  1850 

After  n  monstrances  with  tlie  king  on 
his  tyrannical  government  (May), 


tyr 

the  English,  and   French   amhas^a- 
d?rs  are'withdrawn  .........  Oct   28,  1856 

Attempted   as.-assination  of  the  king 
by  Milans  .....................  Dec.,  1856 

The  <  imiitiri  seized....  .........  .hi    r,  1857 


Italian  refugees,  under  Count  Pisac- 
cane,  landing  in  Calabria,  are  defeat- 
ed, and  their  leader  killed,  June  27- 

July  2, 1867 

Death  of  Ferd:nand  II.,  afier  dreadful 
sufferings May  22.  1859 


Accession  of  Francis  II. 

The  city  of  Naples  suriendeis  to  Gari- 
ba!di  without  a  struggle,  und  the 
king  retires  to  Gaeta Sept.,  1860 

Gaeta  surrenders  'o  the  Sardinians, 
and  the  king  takes  refuge  inn  Frei.cb 

vessel Feb.  13, 1861 

Si  e  Italy  and  Sicily. 

NASHVILLE,  U.  S.     The  capital  of  Tenn.,  occupied  by  the  Union  forces,  Feb. 
23,  1862.     Great  battle  fought  here  Dec.  16,  1864,  between  the  forces  of 


SUPPLEMENT,    185 1-6  Y. 


147 


Gen.  Thomas  (Union)  and  Hood  (Confederate).  The  former  had  been  be- 
sieged for  several  days  when  he  marched  ont  and  attacked  Hood,  taking  18 
guns.  On  the  16th  he  completely  routed  him,  taking  20  guns.  This  was  the 
last  campaign  of  the  Southern  army  of  the  West. 

NASSAU,  a  German  duchy,  was  made  a  county  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  I., 
about  1180,  for  Wolram,  a  descendant  of  Conrad  I.  of  Germany;  from  whom 
are  descended  the  royal  house  of  Orange  now  reigning  in  Holland  and  the 
present  Duke  of  Nassau.  Population  of  the  duchy  in  1857,  434,064.  Wies- 
baden was  made  the  capital  in  1839.  In  1866,  after  the  war,  this  duchy  was 
annexed  to  Prussia. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN  (at  New  York),  founded  1826.  The  first 
President  was  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  who  was  succeeded  by  A.  B.  Durand  in 
1845,  and  he  by  D.  Huntington  in  1862.  Corner  stone  of  new  Academy 
building  laid  Oct.  21,  1863.  Building  opened  and  inaugurated  April  17, 1865. 
See  Design,  Paintings. 

NATIONAL  DEBT  OF  ENOLAND.  The  annual  interest  in  1850  was  £23,862,257; 
and  the  total  interest,  including  annuities,  amounted  to  £27,699,740.  On 
Jan.  1,  1851,  the  total  unredeemed  debt  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was 
£769,'272,56'2  ;  the  charge  on  which  for  interest  and  management  was 
£27,620,449.  On  Jan.  1,  1852,  it  was  £765,126,582;  the  charge,  £27,501,783. 
Mr.  GLADSTONE'S  ESTIMATE  : 


England $3,995,<KX),000,  or  $125  per  head. 

United  States  3,000,000,000,  or    100        " 

Fr.-xnce 2,400,000,000,  or      53        " 

Austria 1,580,000,000,  or      45        •• 

Russia I,3!'5,00n,('ii0,  or     43        " 

Italy 760,000,000,  or     84       «• 


Spain $725,000,000,  or  $46per  head. 

Holland 425.000,00i>,  or    121      " 

Turkey 255,000  000,  or     115     * 

Prussia 215,000,000,  or      12     «• 

Portugal 175,000,000,  or      40     «• 


Great  Britain's  revenue  has  never  exceeded  £70,000,000  per  yenr;  but  the 
United  States  Government  are  now  raising  $540,000,000  per  year.  UNITED 
STATES.  At  different  times:  See  Loans. 


In  1791  the  debt  was $75,463,476 

In  1800      "        "        82,976,294 

In  1810      "        «        53,173,217 

In  1816      "        «        127,334,934 

In  1820      "        «        9  ,015,566 

Jan.  1,  1865.  it  was. 66,243,721 

Dec.   1,  1*61       "        267,654,153 

Jan.  1,  1863         "         764,535,854 

Dec.  1,  1863       -        1,293,243.544 

Fel..  13,  1865     «        2,279.552^484 


In  1830  the  debt  was $13,565,406 

In  1(^35        '«        "      37,733 

In  1845        «        "      16,^01,647 

In  1848        "        "      65,804,450 

Aug.  31,  1865  it  was 2,757.089,571 

(It  reached  its  highest  figure  at  this  date.) 

Jan.  1,  1866  it  was     2,716,581,536 

Nov.  1,   1866      «'  2,551,31i',o05 

May  1,  1867         "          :2,520,7S6,ti9C 

Sept.  It67  "          2.500.000,000 


NATURALIZATION  LAWS,  U.  S.  By  the  Constitution,  Congress  has  power  to 
establish  "  one  uniform  rule  of  naturalization."  Over  fifteen  different  acts 
have  been  passed  since  1787  on  the  subject.  In  1860,  the  law  required  a  re- 
sidence of  five  years  in  the  country  to  entitle  any  one  to  citizenship.  In  the 
city  of  New  York  between  1860  and  1860,  about  60,000  persons  were  natu- 
ralized. 

NATURE-PRINTING.  This  process  consists  in  impressing  objects,  such  as 
plants,  mosses,  feathers,  &c.,  into  plates  of  metal,  causing  these  objects,  as  it 
were,  to  engrave  themselves ;  and  afterwards  taking  casts  or  copies  fit  for 
printing  from.  In  1847,  Mr.  Twining  printed  ferns,  grasses,  and  plants;  and 
in  the  same  year  Dr.  Branson  suggested  the  application  of  electrotyping  to 
the  impressions.  In  1849,  Professor  Leydolt  of  Vienna  obtained  impressions 
of  agates  a"d  fossils.  The  first  practical  application  of  this  process  in  England 
wae  in  "  The  Ferns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,'1  edited  by  Dr.  Lindley. 


148 


THE  WOKLD'S  PROGRESS. 


NAVAL  ACADEMY  (U.  S.)  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  founded  during  the  Presidency 
of  Mr.  Polk,  chiefly  at  the  instance  of  Mr.  George  Bancroft,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  During  the  wur  it  was  removed  to  Newport,  R.  I.  It  has  since  been 
re-established  at  Annapolis. 

NAVAL  BATTLES,  U.  S.  in  the  war  of  Secession : 


The  Confederate  forts  at  Hatteras 
Inlet,  N.  C.,  bombarded  by  fleet 
Of  Com.  Stringham,  and  taken  by 
land  forces  of  Gen.  Builer.Aug.  28,  29,  1861 

Fort  Henry,  Tenn.,  taken  by  Coin. 
Foote Feb.  6,1862 

Great  naval  action  in  Hampton 
Road^Va^MMrchS.O.ieeZ  The 
Coi  ifi'd.  ram  Merrimac  from  Nor- 
folk, attacks  the  U.  S.  frigates 
"Cumberland"  and  "  Congress," 
and  sinks  them.  On  the  follow- 
ing day  the  U.  S.  "Monitor" 
(battery  of  2  guns),  arrived  in, 
time  to  save  the  frigate  Minneso- 
ta, and  finally  forced  the  Merri- 
mac to  withdraw  in  a  disabled 
condition. 

'Com.  Farnigut,  with  a  fleet  of  50 
ves-els  and  2£6  guns,  passes  fortB 
Jackson  and  Philips,  destroys  the 
enemy's  rams,  and  takes  New  Or- 
leans  April  18,28,1862 

Grand  military  and  naval  expedi- 
tion, under  Dupont,  captures 
forts  at  Hilton  Head,  8.  C Nov.  7, 1861 

Fierce  action  at  Port  Hudson,  Miss. 
Admiral  Farraput,  in  attempting 
to  pass  the  batteries,  loses  his 
flagship  "Mississippi," March  14,  1863 

Combined  attack  of  ironclads  upon 


Fort  Sumter,  8.  C.,  five  disabled, 
the  fort  receiving  no  great  injury. 

April  7, 1863 

The  Confed.  ram  Albemarlo  at- 
tacks U.  S.  gunboats  at  Plymouth, 
N.  C.,  sinks  one,  and  disperses 
the  rest April  19,  1864 

Brilliant  engagement  off  Cher- 
bourg, France,  between  U.  8. 
gunboat  "  Kearsarge,"  and  Con- 
fed. privateer  "Alabama."  The 
latter  sunk  in  two  hours June  19, 1864 

Admiral  Farragut,  with  32  vessels 
and  231  guns,  enters  Mobile  Bay, 
silencing  the  fort*, and  capturing 
two  heavy  ironclads.  One  U.  8. 
Monitor  sunk  by  a  torpedo. . . .  Aug.  5,  1864 

Gunboat  fight  near  Memphis, 
Tenn.  The  Union  fleet  com- 
pletely routed  the  enemy's,  cap- 
turing 3  and  disabling  4  of  their 
vessels June  6,  1864 

Formidable  fleet  of  ironclads  and 
frigates  with  300  guns,  under 
Admiral  Porter,  attack  Fort 
Fisher,  N.  C.  Under  cover  of 
the  terrible  fire,  land  forces 
storm  and  capture  the  fort..  ..Jan.  15, 1865 

For  list  of  minor  engagements,  t-ee 
Greeley's  "  Amer.  Conflict,"  VoL  IL 


NAVY  OF  ENGLAND  (p.  496).  In  July,  1856,  it  consisted  of  271  sailing  ves- 
sels, carrying  9,594  guns ;  and  258  steam  vessels,  carrying  6,582  guns ;  also 
155  gunboats,  and  111  vessels  on  harbor  service. 

NAVY  OF  FRANCE  (p.  496)  has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  present  empe- 
ror. In  1859  it  consisted  of  51  ships  of  the  line  (14  sailing  vessels  and  37 
steamers),  and  398  other  vessels,  in  all  449. 

NAVY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (p.  495).  In  1860  consisted  of  10  ships  of 
the  line,  10  frigates,  21  sloops  of  war,  3  brigs,  8  steamers,  first  class,  6  screw 
do.,  second  class,  15  do.,  third  class,  9  side-wheel  steamers,  3  storeships,  6  re- 
ceiving ships — total,  91  vessels.  At  the  opening  of  the  war  in  1861,  there 
were  58  serviceable  vessels,  with  1,110  guns.  The  home  squadron  consisted 
of  but  12  ships,  with  187  guns.  In  1862  there  were  427  vessels  and  3,268 
guns;  in  1863,  588  vessels,  4,443  guns;  in  1864,  671  vessels,  4,610  guns.  At 
the  close  of  1864  there  were  62  ironclads  completed  or  on  the  docks.  Total 
number  of  seamen  in  1861,  7,600;  in  1866,  51,500.  Since  1861,  208  vessels 
were  commenced,  and  418  bought,  of  which  313  were  steamers,  costing 
$18,366,681.  Total  expenses  of  Navy  Department  from  March  4,  1861,  to 
June  30,  1865,  $314,170,960.  The  first  ironclad  was  the  Monitor,  built  by 
Capt.  Ericsson  at  N.  Y.  in  100  days,  completed  March  5,  1862.  In  1866,  the 
navy  was  reduced  to  278  vessels,  2,351  guns.  In  commission,  115  vessels,  1,029 
guns.  Number  of  seamen  in  the  naval  and  coast  survey  service  in  1866, 
13,600. 

ITEBRASKA,  U.  8.   Organized  as  a  territory,  1854.   Capital,  Omaha  City.   Area 


SUPPLEMENT,   1851-67. 


149 


about  100,000  square  miles.  Population  in  1860,  28,841 ;  also  5,000  Indijms. 
Admitted  into  the  Union,  March  1st,  1867. 

NEVADA,  U.  S.  Organized  as  a  territory,  March  2,  1861.  Capital,  Carsou 
City.  Area,  about  80,000  square  miles.  Population,  I860,  50,668,  of  whom 
16,260  were  Indians  on  reservations,  and  7,550  tribal  Indians.  Admitted  ai 
a  State,  Oct.  31,  1864.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  mineral  States  in  the  Union. 

NEW  GRENADA  (South  America),  visited  by  Columbus,  and  in  1586  conquer- 
ed and  settled  by  the  Spaniards.  It  formed  part  of  the  new  republic  of  Bo- 
gota, established  in  1811 ;  and,  combined  with  Caraccas,  formed  the  republic 
of  Colombia  in  1819.  After  several  reunions  and  dissolutions,  the  republic  of 
New  Grenada,  in  June,  1858,  merged  into  the  Grenadine  Confederation,  which 
includes  Bolivar,  Antioguia,  Panama,  and  other  small  States. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  (p.  497).     Population  in  1850,  317,976;  increase  in  ten 
years,  11   per  cent.     In  1860,  326,072;    increase,  3  per  cent.     Number  of 
troops  furnished  to  the  army  in  the  war  of  1861-5,  33,427. 
NEW  JERSEY  (p.  498).  Population  in  1850,  488,552,  including  22,269  colored 
persons.     In  1860,676,084.      Increase  in  10  rears,  35  per  cent.     Number  of 
troops  furnished  to   the   army  in    the   war   of  1861-5,  79,348.     Population, 
1865,  773,700. 
NEWSPAPERS  (p.  500).     Some  of  the  chief  dailies : 

N.  Y.  Herald  founded  1835  |  Times 1850  |  Evening  Post 1801 

Tribune 1841  |  Sun 1833  |  Commercial  Advertiser.1797 

Washington  Intelligencer... 1801 

In  1860  there  were  3,364  newspapers  published  in  U.  S.,  of  which  613  were 
in  New  York  ;  419  in  Pennsylvania  ;  382  in  Ohio  ;  221  in  Illinois  ;  and  219 
in  Mass.  In  England  and  Wales  there  were  272  ;  in  France,  about  600  ;  in 
Germany,  1,500  ;  in  Russia,  100.  In  1866,  the  number  of  newspapers  in 
U.  S.  about  4,000  ;  circulation,  928,000,000  copies.  In  1865,  number  in  State 
of  New  York,  623;  circulation  412,591,900.  GREAT  BRITAIN  (p.  445).  la 
1855  the  stamp  duty  on  newspapers  was  abolished,  except  for  postal  purposes. 
In  1857,  71,000,000  newspapers  passed  through  the  London  post-office. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OP  THE  PRESENT   PRINCIPAL  LONDON   NEWSPAPERS. 


PuMic  Ledger 1759 

Morning  Chronicle 1770 

Morning  Post 1772 

Morning  Herald 17S1  | 


Observer 1792 

Bell's  Htssenger 179S 


Daily. 
Times....  ...1788 


Sun. 


.1792 


Morning  Advertiser.  .1803 


Globi- 


Standard 1827 

Daily  News 18^6 

Daily  Telegraph 1855 


.1803  |  Morning  Star 1368 


Weekly. 


Bell's  LilV  in  London.lSSO 
Sunday  Times....  182'.' 
Atlas  1826 

Llovd's  Weekly  Paper.t8J2 
News  of  the  World  1843 

Athenaeum  1828 
Spectator  1828 

Leader  1  850 
Press  18a3 

Illustr'd  London  Newsl8i2 

Saturday  Review  leC- 

Weekly  Dispatch 1801 

Examiner 1808 

Literary  Gazette 1817 

John  Bull 1820 

NEW  MEXICO,  U.  S.  Ceded  to  the  U.  S.  in  1848.  Organized  as  a  territory, 
1850.  Capital,  Santa  Fe.  Population  in  I860,  83,000  ;  besides  55,100  tribal 
Indians. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  U.  S.  (p.  500.)  The  chief  city  of  Louisiana,  called  the 
"  Crescent  City  "  on  account  of  the  circular  bend  of  the  river  on  which  it 
stands.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1718.  Ceded  to  the  U.  S.  in  1803. 
Population  then,  8,000  ;  in  1840,  102,000  ;  in  1860,  168,800,  of  whom  13,- 
800  were  slaves.  In  the  war  for  the  Union,  New  Orleans  surrendered  to  th« 


150  THB  WOELD'B  PEOGBESS. 

TT.  S.  forces, — the  naval  commanded  by  Admiral  Farragut,  and  the  land  forces 
commanded  by  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler,  April  26,  1862.  The  misrepresentations  aa 
to  Butler's  "  brutal  tyranny,  especially  towards  females,  "  as  recorded  by 
Haydn  (p.  613),  and  believed  in  England,  have  been  long  since  exploded. 
Butler  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  city  and  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf  by  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  1863.  Gen.  Canby  appointed  to  the  post,  1864. 
Rebel  riots  against  the  negroes  and  their  friends,  in  the  "  Radical  Conven- 
tion," July,  1866. 

NEWPORT,  R.  I.  One  of  the  principal  places  of  summer  resort  in  the  U.  S. 
In  1861  the  Naval  Academy  was  removed  from  Annapolis  to  this  place.  In 
1865  it  was  re-established  at  Annapolis. 

NEW  YORK,  STATE  OF.  Population  in  1860,  3,851,563  ;  increase  in  ten  years, 
24  per  cent.  No.  of  school  districts,  11,621.  Pupils  in  public  schools,  851,- 
533.  Volumes  in  school  libraries,  1,360,507  (1860).  Population  in  1865, 
3,831,777  ;  decrease  of  2  per  cent.  No.  of  voters  in  1865,  823,484,  of  whom 
683,611  were  natives.  The  number  of  widows  in  the  State — principally  a  re- 
Bultof  the  war — was  137,980.  It  sent  473,443  troops  to  the  war.  Number 
of  convicts  in  State  Prisons  in  1865,  1,873.  CITY  OF.  Population  in  1850, 
514,547;  in  1860,  805,651;  in  2855,  726,386.  The  density  of  the  popula- 
tion is  about  32,000  to  the  square  mile,  including  1,100  acres  of 
parks.  Debt  of  the  city  in  1867,  $51,000,000.  Value  of  real  and 
personal  property  in  1865,  $608,784,355.  On  the  eleven  street  railroads 
in  the  city  of  New  York  there  were  carried,  during  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1864,  the  enormous  number  of  60,328,795  passengers,  exceeding  that  of  the 
previous  year  by  nearly  20,000,000.  The  earnings  of  the  roads  for  the  same 
period  were  $4,623,583,  and  the  expenses  $2,821,625. 

NICARAGUA,  a  State  in  Central  America,  which  see.  In  1855  Walker,  the  fili- 
buster, became  sole  dictator  of  the  State.  By  the  united  efforts  of  the  con- 
federated States  the  filibusters  were  all  expelled  in  May,  1857. 

NICOLAITANES.  This  sect  (mentioned  Rev.  ii  6,  15)  is  said  to  have  sprung 
from  Nicolas,  one  of  the  first  seven  deacons.  Nicolas  is  said  to  have  made  a 
vow  of  continence,  and  in  order  to  convince  his  followers  of  his  resolve  to 
keep  it,  he  gave  his  wife  (who  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty)  leave  to  marry 
any  other  man  she  desired.  His  followers  are  said  afterwards  to  have  main- 
tained the  legality  of  a  community  of  wives,  as  well  as  holding  all  other  things 
in  common,  and  are  accused  of  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

NIGHTINGALE  FUND.  On  Oct.  21,  1864,  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  left  Eng- 
land  with  a  staff  of  thirty-seven  nurses,  and  arrived  at  Scutari,  Nov.  5  ;  they 
rendered  invaluable  services  to  the  army  in  the  Crimean  war :  a  fund  was  raised 
in  England  to  commemorate  her  services  by  founding  an  institution  for  the 
training  of  nurses.  The  subscriptions  closed,  April  24,  1857,  amounting  to 
£44,039.  The  queen  gave  Miss  Nightingale  a  valuable  jewel. 

NINEVEH.  The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  (see  Asxyria),  founded  by 
Ashur,  who  called  it  after  himself,  about  2,245  B.  c.  Ninus  reigned  in  Assyria, 
and  called  this  city  also  after  himself,  Nineveh,  2069  B.  c.  Abbe  Lenglet. 
Jonah  preached  against  Nineveh  (about  862  B.  c.),  which  was  taken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  606  B.  c.  The  discoveries  of  Mr.  Layard  and  others  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mosul,  the  supposed  site  of  this  ancient  capital,  since  1839, 
have  in  a  manner  disinterred  and  repeopled  a  city  which  four  centuries  hnn 
uot  only  ceased  to  figure  on  the  page  of  history,  but  whose  very  locality  had 
long  been  blotted  out  of  the  map  of  the  earth.  The  forms,  features,  costume, 
religion,  modes  of  warfare,  and  ceremonial  customs  of  its  inhabitants,  stand 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  lol 

before  us  distinct  as  those  of  a  living  people  ;  the  most  interesting  of  the 
sculptures  brought  to  England  and  now  with  Br.  Museum  is  the  bas-relief  of 
the  eagle-headed  human  figure,  presumed  to  be  a  representation  of  the  Assy- 
rian god  Nisroch  (from  Ifisr,  an  eagle  or  hawk),  whom  Sennacherib  was  in  the 
act  of  worshipping  when  he  was  assassinated  by  his  two  sons,  about  710  B.  c. 
2  Kings  xix.  37.  In  1848  Mr.  Layard  published  his  "  Nineveh  and  its  Remains," 
and  in  1853  an  account  of  his  second  visit  in  1849-50.  A  collection  of  bas- 
reliefs  from  Nineveh  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Jas.  Lenox,  of  New  York,  and 
presented  to  the  Hist.  Soc.  1859  (?) 

NITROGEN  OR  AZOTE  (from  the  Greek  a  no,  and  zoo,  I  live,)  an  irrespirable  ele- 
mentary gas.  Before  1777  Scheele  separated  the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  the 
nitrogen,  and  almost  simultaneously  with  Lavoisier  discovered  that  t^ 
atmosphere  is  a  mixture  of  these  two  gases.  Nitrogen  combined  with  hydro- 
gen forms  the  volatile  alkali  ammonia  so  freely  given  off  by  decomposing 
animal  and  vegetable  bodies. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  One  of  the  United  States.  Population  in  1860,  whites, 
679,965,  slaves,  328,377,  total  1,008,342.  Ordinance  of  "secession"  passed 
May  21,  1861.  Loss  by  the  State  in  the  war,  $250,000,000.  Gen.  Sherman 
marched  across  the  State  in  the  spring  of  1865.  May  29,  W.  W.  Holden  wa8 
appointed  provisional  governor.  Legislature  declared  the  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion "  null  and  void"  Oct.  7,  1865. 

NORTHWEST  PASSAGE,  (p.  504.)  The  honor  of  actually  effecting  the  north- 
west passage  was  achieved  by  Capt.  McClure,  in  the  British  ship  Investigator, 
which  sailed  with  the  Enterprize,  Capt.  Collinson,  Jan.  20,  1850.  Admiralty 
chart  showing  the  discovery  published  1853. 

NOVARA  (SARDINIA),  BATTLE  OF,  March  23,  1849,  when  the  Austrian  marshal 
Radetzky  totally  defeated  the  king  Charles  Albert  and  the  Sardinian  army. 
The  contest  began  at  10  A.  M.  and  lasted  till  late  in  the  evening  ;  the  Austrians 
lost  396  killed,  and  had  about  1850  wounded;  the  Sardinians  lost  between 
8,OUO  and  4,000  men,  27  cannons,  and  3,000  prisoners.  The  king  of  Sardinia 
soon  after  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel,  the  present  king 
(1867). 

NUMIDIA  (N.  Africa),  the  seat  of  the  war  of  the  Romans  with  Jugurtha,  which 
began  111  B.  c.,  and  ended  with  his  subjugation  and  captivity,  106.  The  last 
king,  Juba,  joined  Cato  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus,  46  B.  c., 
when  Nuuiidia  became  a  Roman  province. 

NUMISMATICS,  the  science  of  coins  and  medals,  an  important  adjunct  to  the 
study  of  history.  In  England  Evelyn  (1697),  Addison  (1726),  and  Pinkerton 
(1789),  published  works  on  medals.  Ruding's  Annals  is  the  great  work  on 
British  coinage  (new  edition,  1840).  The  Numismatic  Society  in  London  was 
founded  by  Dr.  John  Lee  in  1836.  It  publishes  Numismatic  Chronicle.  Mr. 
Yonge  Akerman's  Numismatic  Manual  (1840),  is  a  useful  introduction  to  the 
science.  Other  foreign  works  are  numerous.  Eckfeldt  and  Dubois,  work  on 
the  coins  of  the  U.  S.  pub.  1842,  with  later  editions.  Works  by  Bushnell, 
Prime,  and  others,  published  at  N.  York,  and  by  Snowden  at  Philad. 

O 

OBSERVATORIES,  U.  S.  The  first  one  was  established  in  the  country  in  1834 
at  Washington,  for  the  Naval  Depot  of  Charts.  It  was  equipped  with  a  three 
and  three-quarter  inch  transit-instrument.  In  1835,  a  five-inch  telescope  was 
placed  in  a  tower  at  Yale  College.  In  1838,  a  small  observatory  was  estab- 
lished at  Hudson,  Ohio,  through  the  exertions  of  Prof.  E.  Loomis.  In  1840, 


152  THE  WORLD'S  PROGEESS. 

one  at  Philadelphia  for  the  "High  School."  In  1841,  one  at  West  Point,  for 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Bill  to  provide  for  a  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory  pas- 
sed Congress,  Aug.,  1842.  In  ]844,  under  the  superintendence  of  Lieut.  Gilliss, 
U.  S.  N.,  a  building  was  completed  at  Camp  Hill,  Washington,  and  furnished 
with  European  instruments.  Lieut.  Maury  assigned  to  its  charge,  Oct.,  1844. 
Capt.  Gilliss  appointed  in  1861,  vice  Maury  absconded.  First  volume  of  astro- 
nomical observations  appeared  in  1842,  compiled  by  Lieut.  Gilliss.  The  Dudley 
Observatory,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  founded  by  Mrs.  B.  Dudley,  1858.  The  one  at 
Cincinnati  founded  by  Prof.  Mitchel,  1843.  Cambridge  Observatory,  1845. 
Ann  Arbor  Observatory,  1854.  The  Chicago  Observatory  has  the  largest 
telescope  in  the  country.  The  Yale  "  Scientific  school "  has  a  revolving  turret 
for  observations.  Telescopes  have  been  mounted  at  various  places  by  private 
individuals;  the  principal  one  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  under  the  charge  of  Misa 
Mitchel. 

OHIO,  U.  S.  In  1850  the  wheat  crop  of  Ohio  amounted  to  30,000,000  bushels. 
April  1851,  completed  62  years  since  the  first  band  of  white  settlers  entered 
Ohio.  Population  in  I860,  2,377,917  ;  increase  in  ten  years  about  20  per  cent. 
Number  of  men  sent  to  the  War  in  1861-5,317,133.  In  1866  there  were 
erected  in  Ohio,  at  a  cost  of  $4,889,900,  4,850  houses,  1,158  barns,  78  mills, 
811  factories. 

OIL  WELLS,  which  supply  a  good  burning  oil,  were  discovered  at  Titusville, 
Pa.,  1859.  The  first  was  through  29  feet  of  earth,  and  30  feet  of  rock.  There 
were  in  1861  numerous  wells  in  that  vicinity  yielding  about  15  barrels  per 
day.  In  August,  1861,  the  excitement  on  petroleum  increased  wonderfully  by 
the  discovery  of  wells  which  threw  up  immense  quantities  of  oil  in  the  valley 
of  Oil  Creek,  Pa. ;  30uO  barrels  were  obtained  from  a  single  well  in  one  day. 
Wells  were  discovered  later  in  Ohio,  California,  Kentucky,  and  West  Virginia. 
From  Penn.  in  1860,  2,000,00u  galls,  were  sent  to  market ;  in  1861,  20,000,000. 
In  186*2,  $60,(. 00,000  worth  was  exported  to  foreign  countries  from  the  U.  S. 
The  daily  yield  from  the  wells  of  the  Oil  Creek  region  was  stated  to  be  5,717 
barrels  per  day  in  1862.  From  1861-65,  petroleum  was  the  subject  of  number- 
less speculations,  and  fortunes  were  daily  made  and  lost.  In  Jan.  1862,  the  price 
of  refined  oil  was  40  cents  in  New  York  ;  in  Nov.  it  rose  as  high  as  $1,10; 
in  Dec.  it  fell  to  40  cents  again.  In  1866-7  the  petroleum  fever  had  greatly 
diminished. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES  (p.  508).  In  1858,  M.  Zappas,  a  wealthy  Peloponnesian,  gave 
funds  to  re-establish  these  games  under  the  auspices  of  the  Queen  of  Greece. 

OMNIBUSES  (p.  508).  In  New  York  City,  in  1866,  there  were  8  lines  of  omni- 
buses with  2<)4  vehicles.  Their  average  number  of  trips  a  day  is  10  up  and  10 
down  the  city. 

OPIUM.  The  Custom-house  returns  state  that  in  1858,  300,000  Ibs.  of  opium 
were  imported  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  calculated  from  reliable  data  that 
not  more  than  one-tenth  of  this  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  Druggists  and 
physicians  say  that  the  habit  of  taking  opiates  is  very  prevalent,  and  extending 
every  year.  The  duty  on  opium  is  $2.50  per  Ib. ;  on  opium  prepared  lor  smok- 
ing, 100  per  cent,  (acts  of  Congress  1864-5). 

OREGON  (p.  511).  Received  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  1859.  Population  in 
1860,  52,566.  In  1865  about  70,000. 

ORGANS  (p.  511).  A  monster  organ  erected  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham, 
England,  June,  1857,  which  at  times  overpowered  the  2,400  vocal  and  instru- 
mental performers.  The  largest  organ  in  the  U.  S.  is  that  in  the  Music  Hall  at 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  153 

Boston,  Mass.,  completed  1862.  The  next  largest  in  H.  W.  Beecher's  church  at 
Brooklyn,  1866. 

OSTROGOTHS,  or  EASTERN  GOTHS,  were  distinguished  from  the  Visigoths  (West- 
ern Goths)  about  A.  D.  330.  After  ravaging  eastern  Europe,  Thrace,  &c.,  their 
great  leader,  Theodoric,  established  a  kingdom  in  Italy,  which  lasted  from 
493  to  553. 

OUDE,  a  large  and  rich  province  in  North  India,  formerly  a  vice-royalty  held  by 
the  vizier  of  the  Great  Mogul.  On  the  dismemberment  of  his  empire  about 
1760,  it  was  seized  by  the  vizier  Shuja-ood-Dowlah,  ancestor  of  the  late  royal 
family. 

0  YES !  A  corruption  of  the  French  Oyez,  hear  ye !  The  term  used  by  a  public 
crier  in  law  courts,  &c.,  to  enjoin  silence  and  attention  ;  very  ancient,  and  the 
date  not  known. 

OYSTER  TRADE,  U.  S.  The  oyster  product  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1858 
was  valued  at  $20,000,000.  From  Baltimore  in  1860,  $3,500,000  worth  was 
distributed  through  the  country.  The  trade  of  the  town  of  Fair  Haven,  Conn., 
is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  cultivation  and  export  of  oysters. 

OZONE  (from  ozein,  to  yield  an  odor),  a  name  given  in  1840  by  M.  Schonbein 
of  Basel  to  the  odor  in  the  atmosphere  developed  during  the  electric  dis- 
charge. It  is  considered  to  be  a  modification  of  the  oxygen,  and  when  occur- 
ring naturally,  to  have  an  effect  on  health.  It  is  also  produced  by  the  action 
of  moist  air  on  phosphorus.  In  1858  ozonometers  had  been  constructed  by 
Dr.  Lankester  and  others  in  England.  M.  Schoubein  has  since  discovered 
another  modification  of  oxygen,  which  he  terms  aidozone. 


PAINTING,  IN  THE  U.  S.  (p.  513.)  Allston  of  S.  C.  and  Boston,  Morse  of  New 
York,  historical  painters.  More  recently,  Cole,  Doughty,  and  Durand,  in  land- 
scape, and  Inman,  Sully,  Harding,  and  Elliot  in  portrait.  In  landscape  paint- 
ing during  the  last  20  years  great  advances  have  been  made ;  and  the 
works  of  Church,  Bierstadt,  Gifford,  and  others  have  won  fame  and  honor 
beside  the  best  European  works.  See  List  of  Painters  in  Biographical  Index, 
also  Tuckerman's  Book  of  the  Artists,  Spooner's  Biog.  Hint,  of  fine  Arts,  etc. 

PALAEONTOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  palaios,  ancient,  and  onta,  beings),  treats  of 
the  evidences  of  organic  beings  in  the  earth's  strata.  It  is  a  branch  of  Geol- 
ogy. Cuvier,  Mantell,  Agassiz,  Owen,  Edward  Forbes,  and  Blainville,  all  of 
the  present  century,  may  be  reckoned  as  the  fathers  of  this  science.  The 
Palaeontographical  Society,  which  publishes  elaborate  monographs  of  British 
organic  remains,  was  founded  in  1847.  Prof.  James  Hall  of  Albany  is  the 
author  of  an  elaborate  work  on  the  Palaeontology  of  New  York.  A  Professor- 
ship  of  Palaeontology  established  at  Yale  College  in  1866.  It  was  endowed  by 
Geo.  Peabody,  Esq. 

PALESTINE.  After  being  several  times  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  and  re- 
taken, from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  century,  and  after  being  the  scene  of  the 
wars  of  the  Crusades,  and  other  conflicts,  Palestine  was  united  to  the  Ottoman 
empire  by  Selim  I.  in  1516. 

PANAMA.  The  isthmus  which  joins  North  and  South  America.  A  new  State, 
named  Panama,  was  formed  out  of  New  Grenada  in  1855.  The  present  pres- 
ident (1860)  is  Jose  de  Osbaldin.  The  Panama  Railroad  opened  1855. 

PAPER.    The  manufacture  of  printing  and  writing  papers  in  the  United  Statei 
7* 


154  THE  WOELD'S  PROGRESS. 

has  been  greatly  advanced  in  the  last  20  years.  Printing  paper  is  now  made, 
especially  in  Conn.,  Mass.,  Maine,  N.  J.,  and  Pa.,  fully  equal  in  quality  to  the 
best  in  England.  The  amount  of  capital  employed  in  this  business  is  estima- 
ted at  $20,000,000.  The  quantity  produced  cannot  be  precisely  calculated, 
but  it  is  now  (1867)  probably  greater  than  the  product  of  Great  Britain. 
Mass,  manufactures  more  paper  than  any  other  State.  Number  of  mills  in 
18«R,  77;  value  of  stock  $5,381,671 ;  Capital  $3,875,000.  The  materials  for 
making  paper  in  the  U.  S.  are  various,  such  as  rags,  flax,  worn-out  bagging, 
cable-rope,  straw,  hay.  hemlock,  corn-husks,  mulberry  leaves  and  bark,  canes 
and  reeds.  In  1855  there  were  in  the  U.S. 750  paper  mills,  3,000  engines,  pro- 
ducing 280,000,000  Ibs.,  which  at  10  cts.  per  Ib.  would  amount  to  $28,000,000. 
The  manufacture  of  printing  and  stationery  papers  in  1860  was  153,776,000 
Ibs.  An  examination  of  the  returns  of  the  incomes  paid  by  persons  and  firms  in- 
terested in  tlie  manufacture  of  paper,  in  a  single  collection  district  of  the  United 
States,  for  the  year  1865-'66  gives  the  following  results:  Total  income  of 
ninety-nine  persons,  firms  and  corporations,  $948,988.  Of  these,  one  corpora- 
tion reported  an  income  of  $17  8,000,  and  ten  individuals  an  aggregate  of 
$314,000;  being  an  average  of  $31,400  each.  The  annual  value  of  paper  pro- 
duced in  the  U.  S.  is  estimated  at  $17,500,000,  nearly  as  large  as  in  England. 

PAPER  CURRENCY.  In  1857  the  Bank  of  England  had  $98,800,000,  other 
banks  in  England,  $89,585,000,  total,  $188,385,000;  France,  $121,1)70,000; 
United  Slates,  $148,929,000;  in  1863  the  circulation  of  the  1466  banks  in  the 
U.  S.  was  $238,677,218. 

PATENTS,  U.  S.  The  patent  Office  of  the  U.  S.  at  Washington,  an  extensive 
and  imposing  edifice,  was  completed  1858.  The  number  of  patents  issued  has 
rapidly  increased  during  the  last  seventeen  years,  being  nearly  nine  times  as 
great  in  18-^6  as  in  1843.  The  numbers  in  some  of  these  years  are  thus  stated  : 
(from  I79v»  to  1850  the  whole  No.  was  16,290): 


Ye:irs.        Applied  for.  Granted. 

1843 819 531 

1850 2193 995 

18S5 44:;5 2024 

1856 4960 2910 


Years.  Applied  for.        Granted. 

1857 4771 2710 

1858 5364 3710 

1859 6225 4538 


The  receipts  of  the  office  increased  from  $35,315,  in  1843,  to  $245,942,  in  180ft. 
Of  the  patents  granted  in  1859,  4,491  were  to  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  (1,237 
being  from  N.  Y.),  23  to  British  subjects,  16  to  French,  and  8  to  other  foreign 
applicants.  No.  of  patents  issued  in  1863,  3,887.  Receipts  of  office  $179,378. 
Expenditure  $189,803. 

PARKS.  The  great "  Central  Park,"  N.  Y.  city,  originated  1851  by  the  sug- 
gestions of  late  A.  J.  Downing,  and  first  officially  recommended  by  A.  C.  Kings- 
land,  then  mayor.  It  was  authorized  both  by  the  Common  Council  and  by 
the  Legislature,  within  100  days  after ;  the  award  of  the  commissioners  of  as- 
sessments, made  July  2,  1855.  The  park  came  into  possession  of  the  city, 
Feb.,  1856.  It  originally  extended  from  50th  to  106th  St.:  in  1859  it  was 
extended  to  110th  St.,  and  then  included  in  all  843  acres  ;  being  2i  miles  long, 
•J  mile  wide.  The  cost  before  extension  was  $5,444,369,  of  which  $1,657,590 
was  assessed  on  adjoining  property  ;  the  net  cost  being  greater  than  was  ever 
before  known  to  be  expended  on  a  public  park.  It  is  now  more  than  twice 
the  size  of  Hyde  Park  in  London ;  but  of  its  area  142  acres  is  occupied  bv  the 
two  Croton  reservoirs.  Preliminary  surveys  by  Mr.  Viele  (185(1)  wen;  follow 
ed  by  the  adoption  of  plans  by  Olmstead  and  Vaux,  April  28, 1868,  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  Mr.  F.  L.  Olmstead  as  Superintendent  and  "  Architect-in-chief." 
Work  on  this  plan  commenced  June  1,  1858,  since  which  from  500  to  3600 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


155 


persons  have  been  employed  to  this  time  (1867)  under  the  general  direction 
of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Legislature.  A  park  of  about  equ;il  extent 
to  the  "  Central  Park,"  is  projected  but  not  yet  (1867)  completed  for  the  City 
of  Brooklyn.  Public  Park  at  Baltimore  opened  1860.  The  "Common  "at 
Boston  (Mass.,)  though  small  in  extent,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  city  en- 
closures in  the  world. 

PAPIER  MACH&  This  manufacture  (of  paper  pulp  combined  with  gum  and 
sometimes  China  clay)  has  existed  for  above  a  century.  Martin,  a  German 
snuff-box  maker,  is  said  to  have  learnt  the  art  from  one  Lefevre  about  1740. 
In  1745  it  was  taken  up  by  Baskerville,  the  printer  at  Birmingham,  and  soon 
spread  over  that  district.  Papier  macne  is  now  largely  employed  in  ornament- 
ing the  interior  of  buildings,  &c. 

PARADISE  LOST,  the  great  epic  of  Milton,  appeared  first  in  10  books  in  1667  ; 
in  12  books  in  1674.  The  author  received  for  it  the  sum  of  £10,  and  his 
widow  £8  more  as  full  payment  for  the  copyright. 

PARAGUAY,  a  province  in  South  America,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in 
1526;  and  conquered  by  Alvarez  Nunez  in  1535,  and  civilized  by  the  Jesuits, 
who  established  an  exclusive  government,  which  they  held  till  their  expulsion 
in  1768.  Paraguay  rose  against  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1811.  In  1814  Dr. 
Francia  was  elected  dictator,  succeeded  on  his  death  in  1840  by  Vival.  From 
1814  to  1844  the  country  was  rigidly  closed  against  foreigners.  The  present 
(1859)  president,  C.  A.  Lopez,  was  elected  in  1844.  Paraguay  was  recognized 
as  an  independent  State  by  the  Argentine  Confederation  in  1852,  by  Great 
Britain  in  1853,  by  the  U.  States  in  185-. 

PARSEES,  the  followers  ofZerdusht,  dwelt  in  Persia  till  638,  when,  at  the  battle 
of'Kadseah.  their  army  was  decimated  by  the  Arabs,  and  the  monarchy  anni- 
hilated .it  the  battle  of  Naharand  in  641.  Many  submitted  to  the  conquerors, 
but  others  fled  to  India,  and  their  descendants  still  reside  at  Bombay,  where 
they  numbered  114,698  in  1849.  Mr.  Dadabhai  Naoroji,  a  Parsce  merchant, 
has  been  several  years  professor  of  Gujerati  at  University  college,  London. 

PARIS,  (p.  516.)  Immense  improvements  at  great  expense  by  Louis  Napoleon, 
1853-6.  Great  Industrial  Exhibition  opened  by  him  May  15,  1855  ;  visited  by 
Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert,  Aug.  24,  1855,  the  first  visit  of  an  English 
sovereign  to  Paris  since  that  of  the  infant  Henry  VI.  in  1422.  The  gieat  Ex- 
position of  18f>7,  opened  April  1,  attracted  tens  of  thousands  from  all  parts  of 
the  world — and  was  visited  by  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  King  of 
Prussia,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  &c. 

PARISHES.  The  boundaries  of  parishes  in  England  were  first  fixed  by  Hono- 
rius,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  A.  D.  636.  The  parishes  of  England  and  Wales 
now  amount  to  11,077.  Parish-registers  were  commenced  A.  n.  1538 

PARLIAMENT,  (p.  517.) 


The  Peers  took  possession  of  their 
honse,  that  portion  of  the  palace 
being  ready ....April  15, 1847 

The  members  of  the  Commons' 
House  of  Parliament  assem- 


bled in  their  new  house 

Nov.  4,  1852 

Baron  L.  Rothschild,  the  first 
Jew  admitted July  26, 1868 


PARMA,  (p.  518.)  When  the  war  in  Italy  began  in  1859,  the  Parmeans  rose, 
and  established  a  provisional  government,  May  3 ;  the  duchess-regent  retired 
to  Switzerland.  On  Sept.  3,  the  annexation  to  Sardinia  was  voted. 

PASSPORT  SYSTEM  forbids  subjects  to  quit  one  country  or  enter  another 
without  the  consent  of  the  sovereign  thereof.  In  1858  the  system  was  some- 
what changed  in  England,  and  the  stamp  duty  on  passports  was  reduced  from 


156  THE    WORLD'S   PBOGBESS. 

6s.  to  6d.  Passports  were  abolished  in  Norway  in  1859;  in-Sweden  in  I860, 
and  (with  regard  to  British  subjects)  in  France,  Dec.  16,  1860  ;  in  Italy,  June 
26,  18ti2 ;  in  Portugal,  Jan.  23,  1863 ;  and  are  falling  into  disuse  in  other 
countries.  The  passport  system  was  temporarily  enforced  in  the  United  States 
dnring  part  of  the  war  of  1861-4. 

PA.SSAU,  TREATY  OF.  A  celebrated  treaty  whereby  religious  freedom  was  es- 
tablished, and  which  treaty  was  ratified  between  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  Aug.  12,  1552.  By  this  pacification  the 
Lutherans  were  made  at  ease  in  regard  to  their  religion.  Henault.  In  1662 
the  cathedral  and  greatest  part  of  the  town  were  consumed  by  fire. 

PAWNBROKERS,  (p.  520.)  Three  golden  balls  suspended  from  the  doors  of 
pawnbrokers  were  the  arms  of  the  Lombard  merchants,  who  were  the  first  to 
publicly  lend  money  on  chattel  securities,  and  who  gave  the  name  to  the  pres- 
ent street  of  bankers  in  London.  They  have  been  humorously  described  as 
meaning  that  there  were  two  chances  to  one  that  the  things  pledged  would 
never  be  redeemed. 

PEABODY  FUNDS.  On  March  12,  1862,  Mr.  George  Peabody,  the  American 
merchant,  gtive  £150,000  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  London  poor.  A 
large  pile  of  building^,  named  Peabody  dwellings,  were  erected  in  Spitalfields,  as 
homes  for  working  classes.  In  U.  S.  Mr.  Peabody,  during  a  visit  to  the  U.  S. 
donated  in  1866-7  the  sum  of  $2,000,000,  to  be  used  as  an  educational  fund 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Southern  States.  It  was  committed  to  a  Board  of  Trus- 
tees, who  have  absolute  discretion  as  to  the  manner  of  its  distribution.  Dr. 
Sears,  of  Brown  University,  appointed  General  Agent.  The  promotion  of 
Primary  and  Normal  School  education  is  to  be  the  leading  object.  Mr. 
Peabody  delivered  over  bonds,  covering  the  amount  of  his  gift,  March  4,  1867. 

PEACE  SOCIETY,  AMERICAN.  The  first  peace  society  in  the  world  was  found- 
ed at  New  York  in  Aug.,  1815.  A  similar  society  was  founded  at  Paris  in  1821. 
PEACE  SOCIETY  in  England  was  founded  in  1816  for  the  promotion  of  uni- 
versal peace.  It  held  its  43rd  anniversary  on  May  17,  1859.  A  congress  of 
the  friends  of  peace,  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  commenced  its  sittings  at 
Paris,  Aug.  22,  1849.  And  afterwards  in  England  in  successive  years,  Bright, 
Cobden,  Sturge,  and  others  taking  an  active  part. 

PELASGI.  The  primitive  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  Italy  appear  to  belong  to  the 
Indo-Germanic  race.  They  were  in  Greece  about  1900  B.  c.  and  in  Italy 
about  1600  B.  c.  They  have  been  termed  Tyrrheui,  Sicani,  or  Siculi,  Apuli, 
&c.  From  the  Pelasgi  come  the  Dorians,  .JEolians,  and  lonians ;  all  three 
being  Hellenes  or  Greeks. 

PEKIN,  the  northern  capital  of  China,  was  rebuilt  by  Kublai  in  1279;  and  by 
Yong-lo,  1471 ;  visited  by  Lord  Macartney  in  1793;  surrendered  to  the  allied 
English  and  French  armies,  Oct.  12,  I860;  and  evacuated  by  them  Oct.  26 
following,  after  peace  had  been  signed.  It  was  described  as  being  in  a  very 
desolate  state,  with  a  scattered,  indigent  population,  estimated  at  4,000,000. 

PENSIONERS,  U.  S.  The  whole  number  of  pensioners  of  all  classes  on  the  rolls 
in  1860,  was  11,585  ;  and  the  aggregate  amount  required  per  annum  for  their 
payment,  $1,183,141.  Of  revolutionary  soldiers,  165  were  on  the  rolls  in  1860, 
In  1866,  only  5  were  on  the  rolls.  Congress  granted  in  1866,  to  each  of  these, 
$300  annuity,  in  addition  to  the  $100  pension.  The  war  of  the  rebellion  pro- 
duced a  new  list  of  pensioners.  The  entire  number  on  the  rolls,  July  1,  1866, 
was  126,722.  The  amount  paid  to  them,  including  expenses  of  disbursement, 
$13,459,996.  The  Naval  Pension  Fund  amounts  to  $11,750,000  (1866). 


SUPPEMENT,    1851-67.  157 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Population  in  1860,  2,906,115.  Number  of  common  schools 
in  the  State  in  1865,  12,950.  The  State  furnished  362,284  soldiers  for  the  war. 
It  has  under  its  care  (1866),  about  1,200  soldiers' orphans,  appropriation  having 
been  made  by  the  legislature  to  support  such. 

PENS,  STEEL.  Gillott  of  Birmingham,  employs  nearly  1,000  hands  for  the  con 
version  of  2£  tons  of  steel  into  35,000  gross  of  pens  weekly.  In  1820-1,  the 
first  gross  of  three-slit  pens  was  sold  wholesale  for  £7  4s ;  now  the  commonest 
pens  can  be  sold  at  twopence  the  gross.  Steel  pens  of  a  superior  quality  are 
now  made  to  a  large  extent  in  the  U.  S. 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE,  U.  S.     See  Reviews  and  Magazines. 

PERSEPOLIS.  The  ancient  splendid  capital  of  Persia.  Alexander  has  been 
falsely  accused  of  setting  fire  to  it,  while  intoxicated,  331  B.  c.  The  fire  is  said 
to  have  been  accidental  and  not  extensive.  Remains  of  this  city  still  exist. 

PERU. 


Marshal  San  Ramon  president, 


Oct.  24, 1862 


General  J.  A.  Pezet  president, 


April  3,  1863 
The  Spanish  ndmiral  Pizon  took 
possession  of  the  Chincha  isles 
(valuable  for  guano),  belongin 
to  Peru,  stating  that  he  woul 
occupy  them  till  the  claim  of 
his  government  on  tliat  of  Peru 
•was  satisfied  ..........  April  24,  1864 


ging 
ould 


tiaries  from  Ohill  and  other  states 
meet  to  concert  measures  for  de- 
fence against  European  powers.. Nov.  1P64 

Negotiations  followed  by  peace  with 
Spain,  Jan.  28  ;  Chincha  islands  re- 
stored  Feb.  3, 1865 

Revolt  against  president  Pezet,  Feb. 
28;  several  provinces  soon  lost.. May  1865 

The  insurgents  take  Lima ;  IVzet 
flies,  and  Canseco  becomes  president 

Nov.  1865 


Congress  at  Lima :    plenipoten- 

PERUGIA.  A  city  of  the  Papal  States,  anciently  one  of  the  Etruscan  Confedera- 
tion. It  allied  itself  with  the  Samnites,  but  was  ruined  by  two  defeats  by  the 
Romans,  309  and  295  B.  c.  It  was  taken  by  Octavius  Caesar  from  the  adhe- 
rents of  Antony  ;  many  of  whom  were  immolated  on  altars  by  their  victor.  Leo 
X.  took  Perugia  from  the  rival  families  Oddi  and  Baglioni,  in  1520.  An  in- 
surrection here  against  the  pope  was  put  down  by  the  Swiss  with  great  cruelty, 
Jan.  20,  1859.  An  American  family  who  suffered  by  the  violence  of  the  Papal 
soldiers  was  afterwards  indemnified. 

PETITIONS.  The  right  of  petitioning  the  crown  and  parliament  for  redress  of 
grievances  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  British  constitution.  Petitions 
are  extant  of  the  date  of  Edward  I.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  petitions  be- 
gan to  be  addressed  to  the  house  of  commons  in  considerable  numbers.  In 
1837,  there  were  presented  to  parliament  10,831  petitions,  signed  by  2,905,905 
persons;  in  1859,  24,386,  signed  by  2,290,579  persons.  This  right  defended 
by  John  Quincy  Adams,  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  U.  S.,  who  presented 
a  petition  for  dissolution  of  the  Union. 

PETROLEUM,  rock  oil  or  mineral  oil,  similar  to  paraffin,  has  been  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  at  Rangoon.  In  1860-1,  a  number  of  oil-springs 
were  discovered  in  the  bituminous  coal  regions  of  N.  W.  Pennsylvania,  now 
termed  "  Petrolia,"  and  others  have  been  since  discovered  in  Ohio  and  other 
states,  and  also  in  Canada.  In  consequence,  numerous  artesian  wells  have 
been  sunk,  manufactories  erected,  and  an  almost  unlimited  supply  obtained. 
In  consequence  of  the  importation  of  Inrge  supplies  of  this  oil  into  this  country, 
and  many  accidents  having  taken  place  through  its  inflammability  at  Irjff 
temperature,  an  act  for  "  the  safe  keeping  of  petroleum"  was  passed  in  July, 
1862. 

PETROPAULOVSKL    A  fortified  Russian  town,  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamtschat 


158 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


ka,  attacked  by  English  and  French  fleets,  which  were  repulsed,  Aug.  30, 1884 
It  was  afterwards  deserted  and  the  fortifications  destroyed. 

PEWS  in  churches  were  not  in  use  in  England  till  long  after  the  Reformation: 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  earliest  reading  pew  with 
a  date,  is  one  at  Gcddington  St.  Mary,  Northamptonshire,  dated  1602.  Hook. 

PHARMACY.  The  knowledge  of  the  chemical  and  medicinal  properties  of  drugs 
and  all  other  things  employed  medicinally.  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Lon- 
don founded  in  1841.  It  publishes  a  monthly  journal.  College  Pharmacy  in 
New  York  founded  in  184-. 

PHILADELPHIA,  CITY  OF.  Population  in  1860,  585,529.  During  the  war  foi 
the  Union,  1861-5,  Philadelphia  was  distinguished  for  its  enthusiastic  patriot, 
ism  and  benevolence.  Northern  troops  going  to  the  field  were  most  hospitably 
entertained  by  her  citizens,  and  a  very  liberal  and  efficient  provision  was  made 
for  the  sick  and  wounded  in  hospitals,  &c.  See  Chibs. 


(       PHILOSOPHY,  (p.  525). 


MORAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHT. 

ANCIENT  SCHOOLS. — Pythago- 
rean, about  B.  c.  500  ;  Platonic, 
(the  Academy),  by  Plato,  374; 
Peripatetic  (the  Lyceum),  by 
Aristotle,  334 ;  Sceptic,  by 
Pyrrho,  334  ;  Cynic,  by  Diog- 
enes, 3HO:  Epicurean,  by  Kpi- 

curus,    306 ;     Stoic,    by    Zeno, 

290  :  Middle  Academy,  by  Ar- 
cesilaus,  278  ;  New  Academy, 
by  Oarneade*,  160. 

MODERN  SYSTEMS, — Rational.  Ba- 
con, ab't  A.  D.  1624  ;  Cartesian, 
Descartes,  about  1 650 ;  Reflec- 
tive or  Perceptive,  Locke,  1690 ; 
Idealistic,  Berkeley,  1710  ;  Elec- 
tive, Leibnitz,  1710;  Common 
Sense,  Reid,  1750-70;  Tran- 
scendental, Kant,  1770-1860 ; 
Scientific,  Fichte,  1800-14;  -46- 
so/ule  Identity,  Schi-lling,  1800- 
20  ;  Absolute  Idealism,  Hegel, 
1810-30:  Utilitarian,  Bentham, 
1790-1830 ;  Positive,  Oomtc. 
1830. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek  and  Latin. — Thaies,  about 
B.  o.  600;  Pythagoras,  590; 
Aristotle  and  Plato,  350  ;  Eu- 
clid, 300;  Archimedes,  287; 


Hipparchus,  150 ;  Lucretius,  about 
100;  Julius  Cwsar,  50;  Ptolemy, 
A.  D.  150. 

lliddlt  Ages. — Arabians  ;  Ben  Musa, 
800;  Alhnzen  ;  &c.,  1100.  Gerberl, 
Decimals,  959 ;  Roger  Bacon,  Opus 
Majus,  1266. 

INDUCTIVE   PHILOSOPHY. 

Copernicus's  system  published 1543 

Tyc-ho  Brahe 1546-1601 

Kepler's  Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's  If  ovum  Organum 1620 

Galileo's  Dialogues 1632 

Royal  Society  begin.-(w)Aic/t  see) 1G45 

Otto  Guericke—  Air-pump 1654 

Hujyhens  on  Pendulums 165S 

Newton — Fluxions.  1655  ;  Analysis  of 

Light,  1699;  Theory  of  Gravitation, 

1684  ;     Principia,    published    1687  ; 

Death 1727 

Bradley  discovers  aberration 1727 

Euler  on  Perturbation  of  the  Planets 1748 

Black  on  Ho:it 176'.! 

Laplace  on  Tick's 1775 

Las<range,  Meclianique  Analylique 1788 

Galvani's  and  Volte's  researches 1791 

Laplace,  Mechanique  Celeste 1799 

(See  Astronomy,  Optics,  Cliemistry, 

Electricity,  dJc. 


PHOENICIA,  on  the  sea  coast  of  Syria.  The  natives  were  the  most  eminent 
navigators  and  traders  of  antiquity ;  their  cities  being  Tyre,  Sidon,  Berytus, 
Tripoli,  Byblos,  and  Ptolemais  of  Acre.  From  the  nineteenth  to  the  thir- 
teenth centuries  before  Christ,  they  established  Colonies  on  the  shores  or  isles 
of  the  Mediterranean — Carthage,  Hippo,  Utica,  Gades,  Panormus;  and  are 
said  to  have  visited  the  British  isles.  Phoenicia  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  537 
B.  0. ;  by  Alexander,  334 ;  by  the  Romans,  47 ;  and  was  added  to  the  Otto- 
man empire,  A.  D.  1392. 

PHONOGRAPHY  (from  the  Greek,  phone,  sound).  The  English  Phonetic  So- 
ciety, whose  object  is  to  reform  our  mode  of  writing  and  printing  by  rendering 
it  more  consonant  to  sound,  was  established  March  1,  1843  ;  Isaac  1'itman. 
pecretary,  he  being  the  inventor  of  the  system  which  was  known  in  1837 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  159 

Among  other  works  published  by  the  promoters  of  this  system  was  the  '  Pho- 
netic News." 

PHOSPHORUS,  (p.  470.)  The  consumption  of  phosphorus  has  immensely  in- 
creased since  the  manufacture  of  lucifer  matches.  In  1805,  Schrotter  of 
Vienna,  made  the  important  discovery  of  what  is  termed  allotropic  or  amor- 
phous phosphorus,  which  is  not  so  unwholesome  to  work  as  ordinary  phyas- 
phorus. 

PHOTO  GALVANOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  producing  engravings  by  the  action 
of  light  and  electricity.  The  earliest  specimens  were  produced  by  Nicephore 
Niepce,  and  presented  by  him,  in  1827,  to  the  great  botanist,  Robert  Brown, 
in  Eng.  Great  advances  have  since  been  made  in  this  art  by  MM.  Niepce  de 
St.  Victor  (who  published  a  treatise  on  it  in  1856),  and  Vitry,  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove, 
H.  Fox  Talbot,  &c.  In  1854,  Paul  Pretsch  patented  in  England  a  process  which 
he  called  "  Plioto-galvanography,"  and  a  company  was  formed  to  apply  it  to  the 
benefit  of  the  public. 

PHOTOGLYPHIC  ENGRAVING  (a  process  by  which  the  light  actually  etches  a 
picture  on  a  plate  that  may  be  and  has  been  printed  from),  was  invented  by 
Mr.  Fox  Talbot,  in  Eng.  in  1859. 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  The  action  of  light  on  chloride  of  silver  was  known  as  early 
as  the  sixteenth  century.  The  phenomena  were  studied  by  Scheele  (1777), 
Senebier  (1790),  Ritter  and  Wollaston  (1801).  From  the  results  of  these  in- 
vestigations, experiments  were  made  by  Thos.  Wedgwood  and  Humphry 
Davy,  which  were  published,  1802.  Wedgwood  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
photographer.  His  paper  was  entitled  "An  Account  of  a  method  of  copying 
paintings  upon  glass,  and  of  making  profiles  by  the  agency  of  light  upon  nitrate 
of  silver."  Further  discoveries  were  made  by  Niepce  in  1814,  and  Sir  J. 
Herschel  in  1819.  Daguerre  commenced  his  experiments  in  1824;  and  in 
1826  joined  Niepce,  and  worked  with  him  till  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1833. 
The  production  of  the  Daguerreotype  plates  was  announced  in  Jan.,  1839; 
and  the  French  chamber  of  deputies  granted  a  pension  to  Daguerre  and  to 
Isidore  Niepce  (the  son).  In  1839,  also,  Henry  Fox  Talbot  first  published  his 
mode  of  multiplying  photographic  impressions,  by  producing  a  negative  pho- 
tograph (i.  e.  with  the  lights  and  shades  reversed),  from  which  any  number  of 
positive  copies  may  be  obtained.  His  patent  for  producing  the  Ta  botype  or 
Calotype  (on  paper),  is  dated  Feb.  1841.  From  this  time  improvements  have 
been  made  with  great  rapidity.  In  1851,  Collodion  was  applied  to  photography 
by  Mr.  F.  Arc-her.  Photographic  Society  ot  London,  established  Jan.  1853. 
It  publishes  a  journal.  Celestial  Photography  began  with  Professor  Bond,  the 
astronomer  of  Cambridge,  U.  S.,  who  exhibited  a  photograph  of  the  moon  in 
1851.  IN  THE  U.  S.  M.  Gourard,  of  Paris,  first  introduced  Photog- 
raphy in  the  U.  S.  in  1839,  exhibiting  some  daguerreotype  views  in  the 
course  of  a  lecture  at  the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  early  in  that  year.  Pro- 
fessors Morse,  Draper,  and  Wollcott,  simultaneously,  before  the  end  of  the 
year,  improved  Daguerre's  process,  and  during  1840  applied  it  to  portraiture. 
Ambrotypes  were  introduced  in  1853,  and  paper  photographs  in  1851, 
although  very  little  was  done  in  the  business  way  until  1854.  Early  in  1855, 
Mr.  C.  D.  Fredricks  made  the  first  successful  life-sized  photographs,  with  an 
apparatus  invented  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Snelling.  Professor  Bond,  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  first  exhibited  a  photograph  of  the  moon  in  1851.  Photographs  of 
rapidly-moving  objects  are  taken  in  a  fractional  part  of  a  second.  Ingenious 
counterfeits  of  bank  notes  have  been  effected  by  photography. 

PHOTO-SCULPTURE  has  been  introduced  in  New  York  in  1867,  by  Messrs 


160  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

McKaye  &  Co. ;  among  the  earliest  specimens  are  statuettes  of  Grant,  Farn» 
gut,  Greeley,  and  others. 

PIANO-FORTES.  Those  made  by  Stein  way  of  New  York,  and  Chickering  of 
Boston,  received  the  highest  award  (gold  medal),  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1867,  July  1.  This  manufacture  has  advanced  very  largely  in  the  last  15 
years,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  American  industry. 
There  are  in  New  York  city  alone  113  piano-makers  (1867). 

PIEDMONT  (Pedemontium,  Latin,  foot  of  the  mountains).  A  region  in  North 
Italy,  seat  of  government  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which  see. 

PINS.  (p.  528.)  Pins  were  first  manufactured  by  machinery  in  England,  in 
1824,  under  a  patent  of  Lemuel  Wellman  Wight,  of  the  U.  S. — Haydn. 

PISTOLS,  (p.  528.)  Of  late  years  they  have  been  made  with  a  revolving  cylin- 
drical breech,  in  which  are  formed  several  chambers  for  receiving  cartridges, 
and  bringing  them  in  succession  into  a  line  with  the  barrel  for  firing.  The 
earliest  model  for  this  kind  of  arm  is  to  be  found  in  the  United  Service 
Museum,  and  is  supposed  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The  manufac- 
ture of  pistols  by  machinery  was  first  introduced  into  England  from  the 
United  States,  in  1853,  by  Col.  Colt,  the  inventor  of  the  celebrated  Colt  pis- 
tol, at  which  time  nearly  the  whole  of  the  machinery  used  was  new  to  Eng- 
land. The  perfection  and  economy  of  this  system  of  manufacture  induced  the 
British  Government  to  establish  the  Enfield  Armory  in  the  year  1855. — Haydn. 
In  1835  Colt  patented  his  revolving  chambered  breech  ;  and  in  1852,  founded 
his  manufactory  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  the  Colt  Arms  Co.  make  revolving 
pistols  of  several  sizes,  costing  from  $10  to  $25  each,  at  the  rate  of  300  and 
sometimes  even  500  each  day.  This  revolver  has  14  parts,  besides  screws, 
and  these  pass  through  (in  all)  460  separate  processes  before  the  pistol  is 
completed.  Various  other  revolving  pistols  have  been  invented,  but  none  so 
successful.  The  Derringer  pistol  is  single-barrelled,  throwing  a  small  ball. 

PITTSBURG  LANDING  (near  Corinth,  Tennessee).  On  Sunday  April  6,  1862 
a  great  battle  was  fought  between  the  U.  S.  troops  under  Grant  and  Premiss, 
and  the  rebels  under  Albert  Sydney  Johnston  and  Beauregard.  The  latter 
began  the  attack  and  were  victorious,  but  lost  their  able  general  Johnston. 
Grant  was  reinforced  the  next  day  and  renewed  the  attack  ;  the  rebels  main- 
tained their  ground  ;  but  soon  after  retired  in  good  order  to  Corinth. 

PLANETS.     See  Astronomy.     Asteroids  have  been  discovered  as  follows  : 


ffygeio,  by  A.  de  Gasparis.  April  12, 1849 
Partltenope,  by  the  same. ...May  11, 1850 

Victoria,  by  J.  R.  Hind Sept.  13, 1850 

Egeria,  by  A.  de  Gasparis...Nov.  2,  1850 

Irene,  by  J.  R.  Hind May  19, 1H51 

Eunomia,  by  A.  de  Gasparis.July  29,  Ir51 

Psyche,  by  the  same March  17, 1852 

Thetis,  by  R.  Luther April  17,  1852 

Meipomene,  by  J.  R.  Hind. ..June  24, 1852 


Massilia,  by  A.  de  Gasparis 

Sept.  19,  1852 

Luletia,  by  H.  Goldsmith. Nov.  15,  1852 
Calliope,  by  J.  R.  Hind. ...Nov.  16,  do 

Thalia,  by  the  same Dec.  15,  do. 

4  in  1853  ;  6  in  1854 ,  4  in  1H55  ;  5  in 
1856  ;  9  in  1857  ;  5  in  1858;  1  in  1859; 
5  in  1860  ;  9  in  1861  ;  5  in  1862  ;  2  in 
1863  ;  3  in  1864  ;  and  3  in  1865. 


Fortuna,  by  the  same Aug.  22,  1852 

PNEUMATIC  DESPATCH  COMPANY  (England)  conveys  letters  and  parcels 
through  tubes  by  means  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  a  vacuum.  The  com- 
pany's act  was  passed  Aug.  13,  1859,  and  tubes  were  laid  down  in  Threadneedle 
street  on  Sept.  12,  1860  ;  and  on  Aug.  20,  1861,  successful  experiments  were 
performed  at  Battersea.  In  1862  tubes  were  laid  down  from  the  Euston  rail- 
way station  to  the  N.  W.  post-office  in  Camden-town,  and  on  Feb.  21,  1863, 
the  conveyance  of  the  mail  bags  began.  In  Oct.  1865,  tubes  had  been  laid 
down  between  Euston  railway  and  Holborn  ;  and  on  Nov.  7,  several  persona 
travelled  in  them.  Engineer,  Mr.  Rammell. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  161 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN.  A  body  of  Christians  calling  themselves  "  the 
Brethren,"  which  first  appeared  at  Plymouth,  England,  about  1830.  In  1851 
they  had  132  places  of  worship  in  England  and  Wales.  They  object  tc 
national  churches  as  too  lutitudinarian,  and  to  dissenters  as  too  sectarian. 
They  receive  into  communion  all  who  confess  Christ,  and  own  the  Holv  Ghost 
as  his  vicar.  Their  doctrines  agree  with  those  of  most  evangelical  Protestant 
churches,  but  they  recognize  no  order  of  ministers. 

POET-LAUREATE — ENGLAND.     Alfred  Tennyson,  appointed  1850. 

POLICE.  The  "  Metropolitan  Police"  law  for  the  city  of  New  York  and  sub' 
urbs,  passed  1857,  resisted  by  the  mayor  (Wood),  and  a  serious  collision  re- 
sults between  the  old  and  new  police  force,  June  16,  1857.  The  new  law 
pronounced  to  be  constitutional  by  the  Court  of  Appeals,  July  2,  and  the  old 
force  is  disbanded  next  day.  The  present  police  force  of  New  York  (1867), 
is  unquestionably  the  most  effective  and  the  most  perfect  that  has  ever  been 
organized  on  this  continent.  In  1866,  the  police  force  consisted  of  26  cap- 
tains, 105  sergeants,  42  roundsmen,  60  detailments,  1,250  patrolmen,  56  door- 
men. There  are  26  Police  districts.  Expense  to  the  city  for  supporting  this 
force  in  1866,  $1,836,120. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  (p.  534.)  In  the  U.  States,  the  most  elaborate  works  on 
this  subject,  are  those  of  Mr.  Henry  C.  Carey,  of  Phila.,  who  has  published  (a? 
a  protectionist),  several  volumes  which  are  highly  esteemed  also  in  Europe. 
Works  favoring  free  trade,  have  also  been  issued  here  by  Opdyke,  and  others. 

POLYNESIA.     A  name  recently  given  to  the  isles  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean. 

PONTIFFS  (Latin,  Pontifices).  The  highest  Roman  sacerdotal  order,  established 
by  Numa.  The  college  first  consisted  of  4  Patricians ;  to  these  4  plebeian* 
were  afterwards  added.  Sylla  increased  the  number  to  15  (8  majores,  7 
minores).  The  chief  was  called  the  Pontifex  Maximus.  T.  Coruncanius,  a 
plebeian,  obtained  this  office,  254  B.  c. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  GLOBE,  (p.  537.)  Professor  C.  F.  W.  Dietrich,  of  the 
University  of  Berlin,  has  furnished  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  that  city  with 
the  most  recent  and  reliable  tables  on  this  subject,  giving  the  following  results, 
with  his  grounds  for  them. 


Population  of  Europe 272,000,000 

'•  Asia... 755,000,000 

"  America 200,000,000 

"  "  Africa 69,000,000 


Population  of  Australia,  etc 2,000,000 

Total f 1,288,000,000 


or  more  than  twelve  hundred  millions.  Reckoning  the  avernge  death  ns 
about  one  in  every  forty  inhabitants,  32,000,000  die  in  a  year  ;  87,671  in  a 
day  ;  3,653  in  an  hour  ;  and  61  in  a  minute.  Thus  one  human  being  dies  on 
an  average  every  second,  and  more  than  one  is  born.  OF  THE  U.  S.  In  1850, 
23,191,OuO  ;  in  "i860,  31,429,000.  In  1860,  the  following  cities  had  over  100,- 
000 :— New  York,  805,651  ;  Philadelphia,  585,529  ;  Brooklyn,  266,<i61  ; 
Baltimore,  212,418  ;  Boston,  177,812  ;  New  Orleans,  168,675  ;  Cincinnati, 
161,044  ;  St.  Louis,  160,773  ;  Chicago,  109,260.  By  an  unofficial  but  reliable 
estimate  taken  by  an  officer  of  the  government  in  Dec.  1866,  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  U.  S.  was  found  to  be  34,505,882. 

PORTLAND,  MAINE.     Population  in  1860,  26,342.     See  Fires. 

PORT  ROYALISTS.  The  name  popularly  given  to  the  learned  members  of  the 
celebrated  convent  of  the  Port  Royal  des  Champs  (founded  about  1204  ;  ana 
refounded  in  1626),  who  occupied  their  time  therein  religious  exercises,  and  in 
instructing  youth,  from  about  1636  to  1656,  when  they  were  expelled  by 


162  THE  WOELD'S  PBOGBESS. 

Louis  XIV.,  as  Jansenists  and  heretics.     Among  the  distinguished  names  con* 
nected  with  the  Port  Royal  are  those  of  Lancelot,  Pascal,  Arnauld,  Nicole  d« 
Sacy,  and  Tillemont.      The  school  books  which  were  published  for  the  use  of 
that  institution  were  greatly  esteemed. 
PORTUGAL,  (p.  538.) 


An  American  squadron  arrives 
iu  the  Taiius  to  enforce  claims 
against  the  Portuguese  jjovern- 
mcnt Junu  22, 1850 

Death  of   the  queen   Mar, a  II. 

Nov.  15, 1853 

Kins-consort  recognized  as  re- 
gent  Dec.  19,  1853 

The  young  king  visiis  England 

June,  1854 

And  France May,  1855 

All  the  slaves  on  the  Royal  do- 
mniiis  declared  fret;.... Dec.  :iO,  1854 

Inauguration  of  the  king.Sept.  16,  1855 

Resignation  of  the  Saldanha 
ministry June  5,  1856 


First  Portuguese  railway  (from  Lis- 
bon to  Santurem)  opened Ocl.  26,  1858 

The  French  emigrant  ship  lor  negroes 
Charles-et-Georges,  seized Nov.  29,  1851 

Anger  of  the  French  ROverntnciit  ;  its 
ultimatum  sent,  Oct.  13  ;  and  slips 
of  war  to  the  Tat?us  ;  the  vessel  re- 
stored  .". Oct.  25,1858 

1853.  Peter  V.  (Do.i  Peo.ro).  born 
Sept.  16. 1837  ;  the  present  (l<-59)  king 
of  Portugal.  Married  to  the  princess 
Stephania,  of  Hohenzollern  Signiar- 


ingen,  May  18,  1858  ;  who  died 


July  17,  1859 


[Heir,  Prince  Louis-Philip,  the  king's 
brother,  born  Oct  31, 1838.] 


POST  OFFICE.  U.  S.  (p.  540.)  For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1859  :  number 
of  post-offices,  28.539  ;  increase  during  the  year,  662  ;  mail  routes,  8,273  ; 
aggregate  length,  260,052  miles  ;  annual  transportation,  82,308,402  miles,  of 
which  by  railroads,  26.010  miles,  total,  27,268,384  miles,  at  11.9  cents  per 
mile  :  by  steamboats,  19,209  miles,  total,  4,569,9o'2,  at  25.3  cents  per  mile  ; 
by  coaches,  63,041  miles,  total,  23,448,498  miles,  at  13.3  cents  per  mile  ;  by 
inferior  modes,  151,792  miles  ;  total,  27,021,658,  at  7.1  cents  per  mile.  Ex- 
penditures of  the  department  for  1859,  $14,964,493;  revenue,  $7,968,484  ; 
deficiency,  $6,996,009.  See  Tab'e  in  Appendix.  Nearly  2,00;>,0i)0  "  dead 
letters "  annually  fail  to  reach  the  persons  addressed.  The  Pose  Office  re- 
ceipts were  in 

1854 7  millions loss  H  millions. 

1855 7i  do  "  2?  do 

1856 7i  do  "  3  do 

1857 -i  do  «'  3J  do 

1858 8  do  "  4|  do 

1859 SJ  do  "  7i  do 

1860 8}  do  «  6}  do 

Number  of  post-offices  in  1863,  29,047  ;  mail  routes,  139,598  miles  ;  revenue, 
|11,163,000  ;  expenditures,  $11,314,000.  In  1865,  $12,099,787  worth  of 
postage  stamps  were  sold  ;  $724,135  worth  of  stamped  envelopes  ;  $23,315 
worth  of  stamped  wrappers.  467, 500, 000  letters  were  conveyed  in  the  mails, 
of  which  2,35'2,000  were  lost  or  destroyed  ;  number  of  dead  letters,  4.368,000. 
There  were  74,277  money  orders  issued,  of  the  value  of  $1,360, 12.'.  The 
revenues  of  the  year  1865,  exceeded  the  highest  annual  receipts  from  all  the 
states  previous  to  the  rebellion  by  $6,038,090.  The  most  money  that  can  be 
sent  (1867),  by  one  order  by  mail  is  $50.  Length  of  postal  routes  in  1867, 
180,900  miles.  The  revenue  of  the  department  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1865,  was  $14,556, 158,  and  its  expenditures  $13,694,728  ;  the  rate  of  increase 
being  17  per  cent.,  and  of  expenditure  8  per  cent.,  compared  with  the  pre- 
vious year.  Postage  stamps  to  the  value  of  $12,099,787  were  sold,  also 
$724,135  worth  of  stamped  envelopes,  and  $23,315  of  stamped  wrappers.  It 
is  estimated  that  467,591,600  letters  were  conveyed  in  the  mails  in  1865,  of 
which  2,352,424  were  lost  or  destroyed  ;  the  number  of  dead  letters  was 
4,368,087.  There  were  74,277  money  orders  issued,  of  the  value  of  $1,360,« 
122.  The  average  annual  increase  of  the  revenue  for  the  last  four  years  over 
the  preceding  four  years  was  $3,533,845.  The  Postmaster-General  thinks 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  163 

that  in  a  few  years,  letter  postage  may  be  reduced  to  the  rate  adopted  bj 
Great  Britain. 

POSTAL  MONEY  ORDERS.  On  Aug.  2,  1856,  300  new  money-order  offices 
were  added,  making  700  such  post  offices.  The  largest  amount  that  can  be 
sent  by  any  one  order  is  now  $50.  The  fees  also  have  been  changed — the 
charge  now  being  10  cents  on  any  order  from  $1  up  to  $20  ;  and  25  cents  on 
any  order  over  $20. 

POST  OFFICE,  BRITISH.  The  net  revenue  was  in  1853,  £1,104,000  ;  in  1857, 
£1,293,971.  Rowland  Hill's  penny  postage  was  broached  in  1837,  and 
adopted  in  1839.  The  numbers  of  letters  in  the  last  year  of  the  old  system 
was,  82,470,596.  The  number  in  1856  was  478  millions  ;  in  1858,  it  was  528 
millions.  In  1855,  books  and  pamphlets  were  first  allowed  to  be  sent  by  post, 
at  the  rate  of  Id.  for  4  oz.  The  number  of  letters  annually  passing  through 
the  Post  offices  of  Great  Britain,  with  the  uniform  one  penny  postage  system, 
ifl  four  times  as  great  as  in  the  United  States,  as  by  the  following  table : 

No.  of  Letters  per  Postal  Postal 

Countries.       Population.  letters.  1,000  persons.  expenses,  revenues. 

United  Slates 25,000,000  102,139,148  4,084  $12,722,470  $7,486,792 

Great  Britain 30,000,000  410,817,489  13,693  14,884,800  9,245,000 

France 40,000,000  150,000,000  3,750  6,023,915  9,321,900 

Sp:n: 14,000,000  30,775,686  2,209  1,095,398  1,281,761 

Belgium 4,600,000  11,521,955  2,603  327,128  355,648 

Holland 3,200.000  13,349,553  4,357  166,785  288,162 

Switzerland 2,300,000  19,773,671  8,299  34f,028  447,752 

PRAETORIAN  GUARDS  were  instituted  by  the  emperor  Augustus  (B.C.  13), 
and  their  numbers  enlarged  by  Tiberius,  Vitellius,  and  his  successors.  At  first 
supporters  of  the  imperial  tyrants,  they  eventually  became  their  masters, 
actually  putting  up  the  imperial  diadem  for  sale  (as  in  A.D  193  when  it  was 
bought  by  Didius  Julianus).  They  at  times  committed  many  atrocities,  and 
were  finally  disbanded  by  Constantine,  in  312. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  (p.  543.)  The  Presbyterian  church  in  the  United  States 
was  divided  into  the  "  Old  Scchool,"  and  the  New  School,  1837.  In  1850, 
the  aggregate  No.  of  churches  was  4,584,  accommodating  2,040,000  persons. 
The  Presbyterians  of  the  Southern  states  formed  an  independent  organization. 
Dec.  1861.  The  New  School  assembly  in  May,  1863,  at  Phila.,  passed  resolu- 
tions "that  to  support  the  President  and  the  Government  of  the  U.  S.  in  relig- 
iously the  duty  of  all  good  citizens  "  in  the  present  crisis.  Number  of  "  Old 
Si-hool "  Presbyterians  May,  1865  who  were  communicants,  232,450;  ministers, 
2,301  ;  churches,  2,629.  "New  School"  communicants,  143,645;  ministers, 
1,694;  churches,  1,479.  Aggregate  in  other  "  schools "  in  186-2,  200,000. 
Contributions  of  "  Old  School "  in  1865,  $2,400,000 ;  "  New  School,"  $2,200,000. 

PRESS,  FREEDOM  OF  THE,  U.  S.  Several  Papers  were  mobbed  in  the  North  in  1861 
for  expressing  Southern  sentiments.  The  N.  Y.  "  Journal  of  Commerce," 
"News,"  "Day  Book,"  "Freeman's  Journal,"  were  complained  of  by  a  Grand 
Jury  of  the  U.  S.  District  Court  at  New  York,  as  treasonable  in  their  declara- 
tions ;  the  Government  accordingly,  refused  them  the  privilege  of  the  mails, 
Aug,  1861.  Orders  from  the  War  Department  prohibiting  the  publication  of 
military  movements,  Feb,  1862.  In  June,  1863,  Gen.  Burnside  suppressed  the 
"  Chicago  Times."  In  1 864,  about  35  newspapers  were  mobbed  or  suppressed 
for  disloyalty  in  the  Northern  States.  In  1863  the  editors  of  the  N.  Y.  papers 
passed  resolutions  that  the  restrictions  on  them  were  dangerous  in  their  ten- 
dency. During  the  war  the  Press  was  free,  so  long  as  it  did  not  express  trea- 
son or  give  information  to  the  enemy. 

PRINTING,  (p.  545.)   In  the  United  States  this  important  art  has  made  great  a* 


164  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

vances  during  the  last  10  years  (1861).  The  best  presses  of  Boston,  and  Cam 
brige,  Mass.,  of  New  York,  and  of  Philadelphia,  have  produced  specimens, 
nearly  or  perhaps  fully  equal  to  the  best  in  England  or  France.  Excellence  has 
been  especially  aimed  at  of  late  in  this  country,  while  economy  and  cheapness 
have  been  more  studied  in  England. 

PRINTING  TYPES  first  eiectrofaced  with  copper,  about  1850. 

PRINTING  IN  COLORS  was  first  commenced  by  the  employment  of  several 
blocks,  to  imitate  the  initial  letters  in  MSS.  (for  instance,  the  Mentz  Psalter  of 
Faust,  A.D  1457,  which  has  a  letter  in  three  colors).  Imitations  of  chiaroscuro 
soon  followed  ("  Repose  in  Egypt,"  engraving  on  wood,  after  Louis  Cranach, 
1519.  in  Germany  ;  others,  by  Ugo  da  Carpi  in  Italy,  1618).  In  1819-22,  Mr. 
William  Savage  published  in  England  "  Ilints  on  Color  Printing,"  illustrated 
by  imitations  of  chiaroscuro,  and  of  colored  drawings,  which  are  still  greatly 
admired,  giving  details  of  the  processes  employed.  In  1836,  Mr.  George  Baxter 
produced  beautiful  specimens  of  Picture-Printing,  and  took  out  a  patent, 
which  expired  in  1855.  Since  then  great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  art.  It  has  been  applied  to  Lithography  (hence,  Chromolithograph)-).  In 
1849,  Mr.  G.  C.  Leighton  produced  imitations  of  water-color-drawings,  by 
means  of  modifications  and  improvements  of  Savage's  processes.  In  1S51,  he 
commenced  color-printing  by  machinery,  and  has  since  used  aqua-tinted  plates ; 
and  also  electrotyped  silver  and  copper  surfaces  to  obtain  purity  of  color  as 
well  as  durability. — Haydn.  This  art  is  also  practised  considerably  in  the  U. 
S.,  but  has  not  been  prominently  recognized.  Chromolithography,  i.  e.  print- 
ing from  stone  in  colors,  introduced  in  N.  Y.  and  Pbila.,  about  1848,  has  been 
carried  to  great  perfection. 

PRINTING  PRESSES,  (p.  544.)  The  largest  presses  more  recently  constructed  by 
Hoe  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  will  throw  off  25,000  impressions  per  hour.  These 
are  the  "ten-cylinder  type-revolving  printing  machine?."  Two  of  these  have 
been  supplied  to  print  the  London  Times,  and  a  similiar  one  is  used  by  four 
daily  newspapers  in  New  York.  The  cost  of  each  press  is  about  $3i\<.0i>.  Of 
the  eight  and  six-cylinder  machines  Hoe  &  Co.  have  supplied  20  in  Great 
Britain,  4  in  Paris,  and  2  in  Australia!  The  Adams  printing  presses  are  now 
manufactured  by  Hoe  &  Co. 

PRISONS.  U.  S.  Number  of  state  prisons  in  21  Northern  Stntes  in  1865,  26. 
No  two  are  alike  in  their  general  construction.  Average  number  of  prisoners 
in  them  in  1865,  6,650.  The  Auburn  silent  system,  inaugurated  in  1812,  is  in 
pratice  in  most  of  the  states.  The  Prison  Association  at  New  York  chiefly 
promoted  by  Isaac  T.  Hopper  about  1850. 

PRISONERS.  During  the  "Rebellion,"  F.  S.,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  174,223 
were  surrended  by  the  Confederates  to  the  Union  Armies.  The  Government 
also  had  in  prisons  in  the  North,  98,800.  In  1863,  there  was  a  general  ex- 
change of  prisoners,  the  U.  S.  giving  up  121,900  in  return  for  llo,8(,0  Union 
soldiers.  During  1863  the  Confederates  held  an  excess  of  prisoners.  P'rom 
1861  to  1864-,  225,000  Union  soldiers  passed  the  doors  of  Libby  Prison,  Ri.-h- 
mond.  35,000  were  at  one  time  at  Andersonville,  Ga.  Capt.  Wirz  (Confed- 
erate) tried  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  inhuman  treatment  to  U.  S.  prisoners  at 
the  latter  place,  and  executed  Nov.  10,  1865.  Union  officers  (prisoneis)  placed 
under  fire  of  Federal  guns  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  retaliation  for  bombarding 
the  city,  1864. 

PRIVATEER.  A  Tessel  belonging  to  one  or  more  private  individuals,  sailing 
with  a  license  from  Government  in  time  of  war,  to  seize  and  plunder  the  shipa 
of  the  enemy.  The  practice  first  became  general  during  the  war  betweei; 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


165 


Spain  and  the  Netherlands,  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was 
very  general  during  the  last  French  war.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  the 
great  sovereigns  of  Europe  by  treaty,  March  30,  1856;  but  the  U.  S.  govern- 
ment declined  to  join  in  this  treaty.  During  the  war  of  1812  there  were  250 
privateers  commissioned  by  the  U.  S.,  of  which  68  were  from  Baltimore,  55  from 
New  York,  40  from  Salem,  and  31  from  Boston.  During  that  war  2,000  British 
vessels  were  captured  by  the  Americans,  a  large  portion  being  by  privateers. 
About  500  American  vessels  were  captured  or  destroyed  by  the  British.  See 
CoggeshalPs  Hist,  of  Am.  Privateers.  The  thirty-seventh  Congress  (1863) 
passed  a  Letter  of  Marque  Bill  enabling  the  President  to  cover  every  sea  with 
Privateers.  None  were  commissioned,  the  regular  navy  bring  sufficiently 
effective.  The  Southern  Confederacy  fitted  out  about  30  vessels  as  Privateers. 
Seven  of  them  proved  formidable.  They  captured  275  vessels  of  American 
merchants,  100,000  tons  in  all,  and  valued  at  many  millions.  The  fleetest  of 
these  Privateers  were  of  French  and  British  build,  and  some  of  them  manned 
by  seamen  from  those  nations. 

PUIZE  MONEY,  U.  S.  From  May  1,  1861  to  the  close  of  the  war  in  1865,  1149 
Rebel  blockade-runners  and  privateers  were  captured.  Net  proceeds  for  dis- 
tribution among  seamen  $20,501,927.  The  crew  of  the  Kearsarge,  which  sunk 
the  Alabama  (Rebel)  in  the  English  Channel,  received  $300  a  piece. 

PROPERTY  IN  THE  U.  S.  In  1856,  the  real  and  personal  property  of  the  U.  S 
was  estimated  by  Mr.  Guthrie,  Sec.  of  the  Treasury,  at  $11,  317,611,  672  (more 
than  11,000  millions).  By  the  census  of  1860,  this  had  increased  to  $14,282,- 
726,088,  but  this  estimate  is  probably  too  low.  The  value  of  similiar  prop- 
erty of  Great  Britain  at  the  same  time  was  about  $31,000  millions. 

PRUSSIA,  (p.  549.) 


The  king  takes  the  oath  required 
by  the  new  constituiion.Feb.  6,  1850 

Treaty  of  peace  between  Prus- 
sia and  Denmark July  2,  1850 

Decree,  calling  out  the  whole 
Prussian  army,  223,000  infan- 
try, 38,000  c.ivalry,  and  29,000 
artillery, with  ],080tield-p'eces. 

Nov.  7, 1850 

The  Prussian  troops  commence 
their  retreat  from  Hesse-Oassel 

Dec.  5,  1850 

The  king  celebrates  by  a  grand 
banquet  the  150th  anniversary 
of  the.  Prussian  monarchy, 

Jan.  18, 1851 

The  king  revives  the  council  of 
state  as  it  existed  before  the 
revolution  of  1848 Jan  12, 1852 

A  Prussian  Industrial  exhibition 
opened  at  Berlin May  28,  1852 

Prussia  repudiates  a  customs 
union  with  Austria June  17,  1852 

But  agrees  to  a  commercial 
treaty Feb.  19,1853 

Continues  neutral  in  the  war.... 

Sept.  21,  Oct.  13,1854 

JJxcluiled  from  the  conferences 
at  Vienna Feb.  1855 

Alarming  illnessof  the  kin?,  the 
prince  of  Prussia  appointed 
regent  fur  three  months  Oct.  23, 185T 

Prince  Frederick  William  of 
Prussia,  married  to  the  prin- 
cess royal  of  England.. Jan.  25, 1868 


Prince  of  Prussia  made  permarent 
regent  .........................  Oct.  7,  1868 

Prussia  declares  its  neutrality,  but 
arms  to  protect  Germ'y.  M:iy  &  June,  1859 

Death  of  the  king  and  the  accession  of 
the  Prince.  of  Prussiii,  as  William  I. 

Jan.  2,  1861 

War  was  declared  by  Prussia  and  Italy 
against  Austria;  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
and  Hanover  sided  with  Austria; 
The  Prussian  army  occupied  Hano- 
verandS;ixony.  (foe  Battles,  Austrian 
and  Prussian)  ........  June  17,  and  18,  1868 

Negotiations  for  an  armistice  com- 
menced July  12,  1856.  Prussian  ad- 
vance in  sight  of  Vienna,  July  22. 
Treaty  of  Peace  signed  Aug.  30; 
Prussia  acquired  Hanover,  Schles- 
wig.Holstein,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau, 
Frankfort,  parts  of  Bavaria  and 
Hesse-Darmstadt  ;  by  these  annexa- 
tions her  population  became  23,583,- 
000  ;  the  strength  of  Austria  remain- 
ed united,  hnf  she  paid  Prussia  $28,- 
000,000  ;  Venetian  Province  ceded 
to  Italy  :  a  vote  on  the  question  of 
annexation  of  Venetia  to  Italy  was 
held  in  that  province,  resulting  in 
641,758  affirmative,  68  negative. 

Oct.  19,  !  868 

The  Kincr  of  Italy  entered  Venice, 
amid  great  demonstrations  of  joy 

Nov.  7,  18M 


166  TOi  WORLL'S  PROGRESS. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM.  Claudius  Ptolemy  of  Pelusium,  in  Egypt  (about  A.  D 
140),  supposed  that  the  earth  was  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  moved  around  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  This 
system  (still  the  official  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome),  was  universally 
taught  till  that  of  Pythagoras  (600  B.  c.)  was  revived  by  Copernicus  (A.  D. 
1530),  and  demonstrated  by  Kepler  (1619),  and  Newton  (1687). 

PUBLIC  LANDS,  U.  S.  From  1838  to  1860,  the  sales  of  public  lands  reached 
122,038,290  acres,  which  produced  $136,401,302  (1860).  In  Sept.  1863,  the 
amount  of  surveyed  public  lands  undisposed  of,  was  133,487,495  acres :  the 
quantity  disposed  of  in  1863,  was  2,966,690  acres,  of  which  91,354  were  sold 
for  cash,  the  remainder  granted  for  bounties,  railroads,  &c. 

PUBLIC  WORKS,  AMERICAN.  The  Croton  Aqueduct  carries  more  water  than 
any  other  in  the  world,  and  is  but  two  miles  shorter  than  the  Julian  Aqueduct 
at  Rome,  the  longest  in  the  world.  The  stone  arch  over  Cabin  John's  Creek, 
in  the  Washington  Aqueduct,  is  about  50  feet  longer  span  than  any  stone  arch 
in  the  world.  The  Suspension  Bridge  at  Lewiston,  and  the  railroad  suspension 
bridge,  both  over  the  Niagara  river,  have  each  the  largest  span  of  the  kind  in 

•  the  world.  The  United  States  Dry  Dock  at  Brooklyn,  is  not  equalled  in  di- 
mensions, nor  surpassed  in  workmanship,  by  any  of  the  kind  anywhere. 

PUNCTUATION.  The  ancients  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  system ;  and 
doubtless  employed  arbitrary  signs  to  distinguish  the  parts  of  a  discourse.  Of 
our  points  the  period  (.)  is  the  most  ancient.  The  colon  (:)  was  introduced 
about  1485;  the  comma  (,)  was  first  seen  about  1521,  and  the  semicolon  (;) 
about  1750.  In  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  "  Arcadia  "  (1587),  they  all  appear,  as  well 
as  the  note  of  interrogation  (?),  asterisk  (*),  and  parenthesis  (). 

Q 

QUADRANGLE,  OR  QUADRILATERAL.  Terms  applied  to  the  four  strong  Austrian 
fortresses  in  North  Italy : — (1)  Peschiera,  on  an  island  in  the  Mincio,  near  the 
lake  of  Garda.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1796;  by  the  Austrians  and 
Russians  in  1799;  by  the  French  again  in  1801;  but  restored  in  1814.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Sardinians  in  1848 ;  but  retaken  by  Radetzky  in  1849.  The 
Sardinians  were  about  to  invest  it  in  1859,  when  peace  was  made:  (2)  Mantua, 
on  the  Mincio  ;  (3)  Verona :  and  (4)  Legnano ;  both  on  the  Adige. 

QUAKERS,  (p.  553.)  lu  1682,  Wm.  Penn,  with  a  company  of  Friends,  colonized 
Philadelphia,  where  on  Jan.  1,  1788,  they  emancipated  their  negro  slaves.  In 
England,  on  Jan.  23,  18o3,  Edward  Pease,  a  Quaker,  was  admitted  to  Parlia- 
ment on  his  affirmation.  The  Quakers  had  in  England,  413  meeting-houses  in 
1800,  and  371  in  1851.  At  a  conference  held  on  Nov.  2.  1858,  it  was  agreed 
to  recommend  that  mixed  marriages  should  be  permitted,  and  that  many  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  sect  in  speech  and  costume  should  be  abandoned. 

QUARANTINE.  The  quarantine  system  has  long  been  enforced  at  the  principal 
ports  of  the  United  States.  The  buildings  used  as  quarantine  hospitals,  at 
Staten  Island  (near  New  York  city),  were  burned  by  an  "orderly  mco"  of 
citizens,  who  regarded  them  as  a  "nuisance,"  Sept.  1-2,  1858. 

QUININE  OR  QUINIA.  An  alkaloid  (much  used  in  medicine),  discovered  in  1820 
by  Pellctier  and  Caventou.  It  is  a  probable  constituent  of  all  genuine  c.T.chona 
barks,  especially  of  the  yellow  bark. 

R 

RACES,  (p.  557.)  The  most  eminent  races  in  England  are  those  at  Newmarke^ 
established  by  Charles  II.  in  1667  ;  at  Epsom,  begun  about  1711,  by  Mr.  Park 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  167 

hurst  (they  have  been  annual  since  1730) ;  at  Ascot,  begun  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  uncle  to  George  III. ;  at  Doncnster,  in  1776,  and  at  Goodwood, 
begun  by  the  Duke  of  Richmond  (who  died  in  1806).  The  English  Jockej 
Club  began  in  the  time  of  George  II.  The  New  York  Jockey  Club  smd  the 
race  course  at  Jerome  Park,  established  1865-6.  Flying  Childers,  bred  in 
1715  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  was  allowed  by  sportsmen  to  have  been  the 
fleetest  horse  that  ever  ran  at  Newmarket,  or  that  was  ever  bred  in  the  world ; 
he  ran  four  miles  in  six  minutes  and  forty-eight  seconds,  or  at  the  rate  of  35$ 
miles  an  hour,  carrying  nine  stone  two  pounds.  He  died  in  1741,  aged  26 
years.  Robt.  Bonner  of  New  York,  is  said  to  have  paid  $30,000  for  Dexter, 
a  fast  trotter,  Aug.  1867. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.  Free  schools  for  outcast,  destitute,  ragged  children  set  up 
in  large  towns.  They  existed  in  some  parts  of  London  previous  to  1844,  but 
did  not  receive  their  name  till  that  year,  when  the  "  Ragged  School  Union " 
was  formed.  In  1856,  there  were  150  Ragged-school  institutions,  16  refuges, 
where  500  inmates  are  fed,  lodged,  clothed,  and  educated.  Upwards  of  500 
boys  and  girls  have  emigrated  to  the  colonies.  In  New  York  and  other  large 
cities  of  the  U.  S.,  "  Ragged  Schools"  have  been  established  by  benevolent  in- 
dividuals, to  the  great  benefit  of  many  thousand  destitute  children,  who  would 
otherwise  have  received  no  instruction.  "  Mission  Schools  "  also  have  gathered 
in  thousands  from  the  cellars  and  gutters,  who  have  been  provided  not  only 
with  oral  teaching,  but  with  lodging,  food,  and  raiment.  The  ".Fourth  Ward" 
and  "Five  Points  "  Missions  are  of  this  character. 

RAILROADS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

/—Area  sq.  mile. — --,  / Population— — > 

Miles  of  To  mile  To  mile 

railroad.  of  RE.  •  of  KB. 

N.  America     39,414.1                 7,600,000  102.8  62,000,000  1,309.3 

West  Indies 410.3                    100,000  243.7  3,500,000  8. 51:9.8 

S.America 1,041.9                 7,100,000  6,fcl4.4  22,500,000  21,595.1 

Tot.  Amer.... 40,866.3  14,800,000  362.1  78,000,000  1,908.6 

Europe 50,117.5  3,600,000  718  285,000,000  5,680.6 

Asia 3,660.3  17,400,000  4,753.7  789,000,000  213,097.3 

Africa _375.4  11,700,000  81.166.7  200.000,000  632,765.1 

Australasia. 607.7  3,200,000  6,285.7  1,600,000  2,632.8 

Total    of 

world 95,727.2  50,700,000  530.2  1,344,600,000  13,908.8 

See  table  in  detail,  in  Com,  &  Financial  Chronicle,  N.  Y. 

RAILWAYS,  (p.  558.)  In  England,  the  capital  invested  in  railway  undertakings 
has  reached  a  most  astonishing  amount.  Up  to  1840  is  was  69  millions  ;  the 
railway  mania  and  panic  year  was  1846,  when  270  railway  acts  passed.  Up  to 
1858,  the  sum  of  £308,824,851  had  been  invested  in  railways.  In  the  U.  S. 
In  June,  1859,  the  length  of  railways  in  operation  in  the  United  States  was 
stated  to  be  27,857  miles;  cost  $961,047,364.  Increase  since  1847,  24,067 
miles.  In  1865,  the  length  of  completed  railroads  was  35,935  miles;  cost 
fl,432,649,000;  cost  per  mile,  $40,000.  Pennsylvania  had  3,967  miles;  Ohio, 
3,393;  Illinois,  3,206;  New  York,  2,956.  Railway  accidents  in  1866,  183,  in 
which  335  persoHS  were  killed.  IN  CITIES.  On  the  eleven  street  railroads  in 
the  city  of  New  York  there  were  carried,  during  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1864,  the  enormous  number  of  60,328,795  passengers,  exceeding  that  of  the 
previous  year  by  nearly  20,000,000.  The  earnings  of  the  roads  for  the  same 
period  were  $4,623,583,  and  the  expense  $2,821,625. 


168 


THE  WORLD'S  PEOGBESS. 


RAILWAY  TRAVELLERS.  The  statistics  on  this  subject  prove  that  this  mode 
of  travelling  is  much  safer  than  the  old  modes.  Thus  in  the  French  post  sys- 
tem there  were  nearly  seven  times  as  many  deaths  as  in  an  equal  number  of 
miles  by  railroad.  Yet  the  number  of  accidents  is  inexcusably  great,  especial 
ly  in  the  United  States.  The  summary  of  several  years  shows 


Passengers. 
In  Prussia,  killed  or  wounded  1  in  1,294,075 


In  Belgium, 
In  France, 


"  1,611.237 
375,092 


Passengers. 

In  England  killed  or  wounded  1  in  31 1 ,340 
In  United  States,  "  "       It8,459 


The  railroad  travelling  is  more  than  six  times  as  dangerous  here  as  in  Prussia, 
probably  because  the  responsibility  here  exacted  is  less  in  nearly  that  pro- 
portion. DISASTERS.  On  Great  Wesern  (Canada)  R.  R.,  42  killed,  Oct.  27, 
1854;  Chicago  and  Rock  Island  40  k.  and  w.,  Nov.  1,  1854;  Camdea 
and  Amboy,  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  23  k.,  60  w.,  Aug.  29,  1855;  Pacific  R.  R., 
near  St.  Louis,  25  k.,  50  w.,  Nov.  1,  1855  ;  Panama  R.  R.,  43  k.,  60  w.,  May  6, 
1856  ;  N.  Penn.  R.  R.,  60  k.,  78  w.,  July  17,  1856:  Grand  Trunk  R.  R.,  Can- 
ada,  70  k.,  March  12,  1857;  Central  R.  R.,  Utica,  8  k.,  30  w.,  May  11,  1858  ; 
Michigan  Southern,  near  South  Bend,  tf8  k.,  50  w.,  June  27,  1859 ;  79  acci- 
dents occurred  in  the  United  States  during  the  year  1859,  at  which  129  per- 
sons were  killed  and  411  injured.  Total  in  7  years,  903  accidents,  1,109  killed, 
3,611' injured. 

RAPE,  PUNISHMENT  OP,  U.  S.  In  New  York  state  the  extreme  penalty  is  ten 
years'  imprisonment.  Military  laws  impose  death  on  the  guilty  party.  Du- 
ring the  rebellion,  death  was  inflicted  in  several  instances,  on  soldiers  convicted 
of  rape. 

REAPING-MACHINES.  One  was  invented  in  England  early  in  the  present 
century,  but  it  failed  from  its  intricacies.  McCormick's  American  machine 
was  invented  about  1831,  and  perfected  in  1846,  and  received  a  gold  medal 
from  the  jurors  of  the  London  Exhibition  of  1851.  Hussey's  machine,  also 
American,  exhibited  at  the  same  time,  was  highly  commended.  McCormick's 

.     received  the  highest  prize  also  at  Paris  Exposition  of  1867. 

REBELLION'S  IN  U.  S.  Shays's  Rebellion  in  Western  Massachusetts,  1786. 
The  "  Whiskey  Rebellion"  in  Pennsylvania,  1794.  Dorr's  Rebellion  in  Rhode 
Island,  1842.  South  Carolina  troops  fire  on  the  steamer  Star  of  the  West, 
having  U.  S.  troops  on  board,  bound  for  Fort  Sumter,  Charleston  Harbor,  Jan. 
9th,  1861.  See  Secession,,  Treason.  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY.  The  most  im- 
portant were  : 


Of  the  Barons,  April,  1215.  Compro- 
mised by  the  grant  of  Mngna  Cliartu, 
•Tune  15  following.  See  JUayna 
Charta. 

Of  Wiilter  the  Tyler,  of  Deptford,  vul- 
garly called  Wat  Tyler,  occasioned 
by  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a  tax-col- 
lector to  his  daughter.  Having 
kilk-d  the  collector  in  his  rage,  he 
raised  aparty  to  oppose  the  tax  itself, 
which  was  a  grievous  poll-tax,  1381. 

Of  Jack  Cade  in  favor  of  the  duke  of 
York,  against  Henry  VI.,  1450. 

Under  Perkia  Wjirbeck,  1492,  which 
ended  in  the  execution  of  Wurbeok. 

Under  the  duke  of  Montnouth,  1685  ; 
it  ended  In  his  death. 

Of  the  Scots  In  favor  of  the  Old  Pre- 
tender 1716;  quelled  in  1716. 


Of  tli  e  Scots,  under  the  Young  Pre- 
tender, 1745  ;  suppressed  in  1740, 
when  lords  Lovat,  Balmcrino,  and 
Kilmaruock  were  liehaad"d. 

Of  the  Americans,  on  account  of  tnx- 
ation,  1774.  This  rebellion  led  to  a 
disastrous  war,  to  the  loss  of  the 
chief  North  American  colonies  and 
to  the  independence  of  tie  United 
States,  1782. 

Canadian  Insurrection,  L>i-cember, 
1837  to  Nov.  1838. 

Of  Chartists,  Nov.  3,  1839. 

Smith  O'Brien's  Irish  rebellion ;  termi- 
rated  in  his  defeat,  Tipperary,  July 
29,  1848. 

Fenian  outbreak  in  Canada,  18G6.  In 
Ireland  1867. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


169 


RECIPROCITY  TREATY  WITH  CANADA,  ratified  at  Washington,  June  5,  1854.  It 
allowed  certain  privileges  of  trade  to  both  parties,  and  either  could  withdraw 
from  it  upon  notice  of  one  year.  In  Dec.  1864,  the  President  was  authorized 
to  terminate  the  treaty.  It  expired  March,  17,  1866.  It  was  argued  against 
the  treaty,  that  under  its  operation,  the  balance  of  trade  proved  to  be  against 
the  U.  S.  One  great  advantage  of  it  was,  that  American  fishermen  could  have 
the  same  rights  as  the  English,  in  the  bays  and  inlets  of  Canada  and  the 
British  Provinces. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY,  U.  S.,  first  appeared  as  a  distinct  organization  in  1854. 
The  whig  party  dissolved  when  the  south  united  on  the  passage  of  the  Kansas 
Nebraska  bill,  and  the  repudiation  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  All  who  op 
posed  the  bill  were  called  "anti-Nebraska,"  and  afterwards  " Republicans.'1 
In  1854,  they  carried  most  of  the  free  state  elections.  (Greeley1*  Jfutort/.) 
Their  first  presidential  convention  was  held  at  Philadelphia,  1856.  Gen.  Fre 
mont  was  nominated  for  president  but  was  defeated.  In  1860,  Republican 
Convention  at  Chicago  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln  for  president,  who  was 
elected.  The  south  considered  this  a  cause  for  seceding  from  the  Union.  In 
1864,  the  vote  of  the  country  was  overwhelmingly  "Republican." 

REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES,  (p.  561.)  Harper's  Monthly  Magazine  commenced 
in  1850.  Putnam's  Monthly  (N.  Y.),  commenced  Jan.  1853  ;  sold  to  new  pub- 
lishers, 1855,  ceased  Sept.  1857,  new  series  1867.  Atlantic  Monthly  (Boston), 
commenced  1857  (Dec).  Russell's  Magazine  (Charleston),  commenced  1858, 
ceased  I860.  Hours  at  Home,  1866.  The  Galaxy  (N.  Y.),  1866.  New  Jersey 
Magazine  1867.  BRITISH,  (p.  561.) 


Tait's   Mag.,  founded  1838 

Dublin   University 1833 

North  British  Rev 1844 

New  Quarterly  Rev... 1852 
Household  Words  (Dic- 
kens)  1852 

Lon.  Quarterly 1853 

National  Rev 1855 

All    the   Year    Round 


(Dickens) 1858 

Oiice  a  Week 1859 

MacMillan's 1859 

Cornhill  Mag.  (Thacke- 

ray) 1860 

Temple  Bar  Mag.  (Sala)  1860 

St.  James  Mag I860 

Good  Words 1861 

Popular  Science  Rev.... .1861 


London  Society 1862 

Victoria 1863 

Union  Rev 1863 

Fortnightly  Kev 1865 

A  rgo.-y 1865 

"  B«lgr:ivi:i  "  Mag 1866 

Broadway 1867 

Tlnsley's 1867 


REVIVALS  OF  RELIGION.  Remarkable  interest  and  excitement  on  religious  sub- 
jects in  the  United  States  in  1858  and  1859,  extended  in  the  latter  year  to 
Scotland  and  Ireland. 

REVENUE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  THE,  up  to  1863,  was  derived  chiefly  from  cus- 
toms and  sales  of  public  lands.  The  aggregate  revenue  was,  in 


I860 $43,000,000 

1855 65,000.000 

1859 SS.OOOJOOO 


1860 $56,054,599 

1861 41,476,299 

1862 51,935,720 


Revenue  of  the  U.  S,  for  years  ending  July  1,  (exclusive  of  loans): 
Year.  Internal.  Customs.  Total.  Expenditures. 

1863 $37,640,787 *69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,790,630 

1884 Ui9,741,134 102.316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,C56 

1865 209,464,215 84,928,'260 333,714,605 -.1,897,674,224 

1866 , 309,226,813 179.046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,660 

INTERNAL,  U.  S.  The  aggregate  revenue  from  1789  to  1861,  waa 
$1,800,0(0,000.  Between  1817  and  1861,  no  internal  taxes  were  imposed  on 
the  people  of  the  U.  S.  by  the  general  government.  During  the  years  1861- 
2-3,  Congress  passed  laws  for  increased  revenue  to  maintain  the  war.  The 
Excise  law  of  July  1,  1862,  levied  a  heavy  tax  on  about  500  different  articles. 
The  revenue  from  this  source  in  1862  to  1866  is  stated  in  above  table. 

REVIEW  MILITARY,  U,  S.     Grand  review  of  a  part  of  the  national  army  at  the 


170  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

close  of  the  war,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  May,  1865.  The  army  af  the  wesl 
under  Sherman,  and  of  the  east  under  Mcnde,  reviewed  by  the  President,  Cab- 
inet, and  Gen.  Grant.  About  200,000  troops  marched  by  the  White  House, 
occupying  two  days.  Great  numbers  of  citizens  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
were  present  to  witness  the  sight. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT  (ENGLAND),  (p.  560.)  A  new  Reform  bill,  introduced 
by  Lord  J.  Russell,  1854,  but  withdrawn.  Another  by  Mr.  Disraeli,  rejected 
Marcli  31,  1859.  Another  by  the  same  passed  through  the  House  of  Lords 
July  15  1867. 

REGENT'S  PARK,  LONDON.  It  originally  formed  part  of  the  grounds  belonging 
to  the  palace  of  queen  Elizabeth.  In  1814  improvements  were  commenced 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Nash,  which  have  rendered  this  park  the  most 
beautiful  part  of  London.  It  is  nearly  circular,  and  consists  of  about  450  acres, 
laid  out  in  shrubberies,  adorned  with  a  fine  piece  of  water  and  intersected  by 
roads  which  are  much  frequented  as  promenades.  In  the  enclosure  are  sev- 
eral villas,  and  round  the  park  noble  ranges  of  buildings  in  various  styles  of 
architecture. 

RENTS  IN  ENGLAND,  were  first  made  payable  in  money,  instead  of  in  kind,  A.  D. 
1135.  Numerous  statutes  have  been  enacted  in  various  reigns  to  define  the 
relations  and  regulate  the  dealings  between  landlord  and  tenant.  In  England, 
the  duke  of  Sutherland  received  Lis  rents  in  the  value  of  corn,  and  in  Scotland 
in  the  value  of  wool  and  sheep.  The  rental  of  England,  including,  land, 
houses,  and  mines,  was  six  millions  about  the  year  160<»,  and  twelve  years' 
purchase  the  value  of  land.  About  1690,  the  rental  amounted  to  fourteen  mil- 
lions, and  the  land  was  worth  eighteen  years' purchase.  Davenant  on  the  Reve- 
nues. The  present  rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  estimated  lately  in 
parliament  at  127  millions.  See  Land,  &c. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  One  of  the  United  States.  Population  in  1860.  174,621 ;  in 
1865,  184,695,  of  whom  112,107  were  born  in  the  state.  It  sent  25,455  sol- 
diers to  the  war.  War  debt,  $4,000,100. 

RIOTS  IN  THE  U.  S.  The  largest  and  most  alarming  was  the  riot,  caused  by  the 
enforcement  of  the  draft  in  N.  Y.  city,  July  13,  1863.  It  lasted  three  dnyg. 
The  rioters  destroyed  and  burnt  property  to  the  amount  of  $2,500,0(;0. 
They  were  finally  put  down  by  the  police  and  military.  Loss  of  life  estimated 
at  1,000.  Similar  but  smaller  riots  occurred  in  Boston,  Portsmouth,  and  Holmes 
County,  Ohio.  Threatened  disturbances  in  many  other  places.  Brejid  riots 
in  Mobile,  Ala.,  Sept.,  1863,  by  women  ;  also  at  Salisbury,  N.  C.,  March  18, 
and  at  Richmond,  Va.  Riot  at  New  Orleans,  July  30,  1866  ;  a  State  Conven- 
tion broken  up  by  ex-rebels  and  policemen;  30  negroes  and  a  few  unites 
killed.  Attack  on  Judge  Kelley  at  a  public  meeting  in  Mobile,  May,  1867. 
Attack  on  negroes  at  Memphis,  1866. 

RICHMOND,  Va.  Founded  in  1742.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in 
1779.  Population  in  1800,  5,730;  in  1830,  16,060;  in  1850,  27,570;  in 
1860,  37,910,  of  whom  11,700  were  slaves.  It  was  distinguished  for  many 
years  for  the  eminent  men  it  furnished  to  the  councils  of  the  nation.  On  the 
secession  of  Virginia,  Richmond  was  made  the  capital  of  the  "Southern  C<  n- 
fedcracy, "  June,  1861.  During  the  war  it  was  the  main  object  aimed  at 
by  the  "  Union  army  of  the  Potomac."  The  place  was  fortified  with  great 
skill.  It  fell  April  :>,  1865.  A  severe  fire  broke  out  during  its  evacuation  by 
the  Confederates,  which  consumed  the  business  portion  of  the  city.  The 
notorious  "Libby  Prison"  was  situated  in  Richmond. 

EOADS  AND  PAVEMENTS.     The  first  general  repair  of  the  highways  of  Eug- 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


171 


land  was  directed  in  1288.  Macadam's  roads  were  introduced  about  1818. 
Wooden  pavements  were  tried  with  partial  success  in  the  streets  of  London  , 
at  Whitehall  in  1839,  and  in  other  streets  in  1840.  Asphalt  pavement  soon 
after.  In  New  York  and  some  other  American  cities  the  best  pavements 
have  been  those  of  square  blocks  of  granite  on  a  cement  foundation  ;  particu- 
larly that  known  as  the  Russ  pavement.  In  1855,  an  iron  pavement  was  in- 
troduced which  has  proved  satisfactory. 

ROBBERS.  First  punished  in  England  with  death  by  Edward  I.'s  Laws,  which 
directed  that  the  oldest  robber  should  be  hanged.  The  punishment  was 
pecuniary  till  that  time.  The  most  remarkable  robbers  were  Robin  Hood,  in 
England,  A.  D.  1189,  and  Claud  Du  Val,  "  executed  at  Tyburn,"  says  an  his- 
torian, quaintly,  "  to  the  great  grief  of  the  women,"  J;tn.  1670.  In  later 
times  the  accomplished  Barrington  was  transported,  Sept.  22,  1790. 

ROCHELLE  (W.  France).  A  sea-port  on  the  Atlantic.  It  belonged  to  the  Eng- 
lish for  some  time,  but  finally  surrendered  to  the  French  leader,  Du  Guesclin, 
in  1372.  It  became  a  stronghold  of  the  Calvinist  party  in  France ;  and  was 
vainly  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  in  1573.  It  was  taken  after  a  re- 
markable siege  of  thirteen  months  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  in  1628.  The  Duke 
of  Buckingham  was  sent  with  a  fleet  and  army  to  relieve  the  besieged  ;  but 
they,  from  distrust,  declined  to  admit  him. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS  IN  THK  UNITED  STATES,  in  1839,  1849,  and  1859  ;  from 
the  Metropolitan  Catholic  Almanac  for  1859: 

1839     1849    1859  1839      1849      1859 

Provinces   137 

Dioceses 16          30         48 

Bishops  18          26         45 

The  estimated  number  of  Roman  Catholics  in  the  U.  S.,  in  1863,  was  3,177,000. 

ROME.  (p.  567.) 


Priests 478      1000 

Churches 418       966 


2108 
2334 


The  pope  issues  tlie  bull  estab- 
lishing a  Roman  Catholic  hier- 
archy in  England  (see  Papal 
Aggression) Sept.  24, 1850 

Important  concordat  with  Aus- 
tria  Aui;.,  1855 

The  pope  visits  different  parts  of 
his  dominions .......June,  1857 


Insurrection  in  the  Romngna,  at  Bo- 
lOffna  and  Ferrara .Tune,  1850 

They  declare  for  adhesion  to  Pied- 
mont  Sept.  1859 

Accept  Buoncoinpagni  as  Gove"nor- 
Qeneral Nov.  1850 


RONCESVALLE  (in  the  Pyrenees),  where,  it  is  said,  Charlemagne  was  surprised 
and  defeated  by  the  Gascons,  and  his  renowned  paladin,  Roland  or  Orlando, 
elain,  A.  D.  778. 

ROSETTA  STONE,  discovered  in  1799,  and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 
In  1841,  Mr.  Letronne  published  the  text  and  a  translation  of  the  Greek  in- 
scription. It  is  a  piece  of  black  basalt,  about  three  feet  long,  and  2£  feet 
wide,  with  an  inscription  in  three  languages,  viz.  :  hieroglyphics,  modified 
hieroglyphics  (enchorial),  and  Greek,  setting  forth  the  praises  of  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes  (about  194  B.  c.)  It  has  been  subjected  to  the  investigation  of  Dr.  T. 
Young  and  Champollion. 

ROTHSCHILD  FAMILY.  Meyer  Amschel,  or  Anselm,  was  born  at  No.  148, 
Judengasse  (Jew-lane),  Farnkfort  in  1743.  In  1772  he  began  business  as  a 
money-lender  and  dealer  in  old  coins,  in  the  same  house,  over  which  he 
placed  the  sign  of  the  Red  Shield  (in  German,  Roth  Schild).  Having  had  deal- 
ings with  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  that  prince  entrusted  him  with  his  treasure 
(said  to  have  been  £250,000),  in  1806,  when  the  French  held  his  country. 
With  this  sum  as  capital,  Anselm  traded  and  made  a  large  fortune,  and  re- 
stored the  £250,000  to  the  landgrave  in  1815.  At  his  death  his  sous  con- 


tinued  the  business  as  partners.  His  son,  Nathan  began  at  Manchester  in 
1798,  removed  to  London  in  1803  ;  and  died  immensely  rich,  July  28,  1836. 

BOTTERDAM.  The  second  city  in  Holland.  Its  importance  dates  from  the  thir- 
teenth century.  The  commerce  of  Antwerp  was  transferred  to  it  iii  1509. 
It  suffered  much  from  the  French  revolutionary  wars,  and  from  inundations 
in  1775  and  1825.  Desiderius  Erasmus  was  born  here  in  1467. 

ROUEN,  an  ancient  city  of  N.  France,  became  the  capital  of  Normandy  in 
the  tenth  century.  It  was  held  by  the  English  king  till  1204  ;  and  was  re- 
taken by  Henry  V.  Jan.  19,  1419  ;  Joan  of  Arc,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  was 
burnt  here  May  30,  1431.  With  Normandy,  it  was  subdued  by  the  King  of 
France  in  1449. 

RUSSIA,  (p.  569.) 


Russia  demands  an  expulsion  of 
the  Hungarinn  and  Polish  refu- 
gees from  Turkey  (see  Turkey) 

Nov.  5,  1849 

They  are  senttoKoniah,  in  Asia 

Minor Jan.  1850 

Harbor  of  Subastopol  completed, 

Feb.  1860 

The  czar  concentrates  his  forces 
on  the  frontiers  of  Turkey 

Feb.  1853 

Orign  of  the  Russo-TurKish  war. 
(which  see) March,  1853 

The  czar  sssues  a  manifesto  to 
his  subjects  ;  he  will  only  com- 
bat for  the  faith  and  Christian- 
ity,  April  23,  1854 

Death  of  the  Czar  Nicholns  ;  no 
ehnnsff  of  policy March  2,  1855 

Most  exte.  sive  levy  ordered  by 
thecz:ir(at  Nicolaieff)..Nov.  3,  1855 

He  visits  his  army  at  Sebastopol, 

Nov.  10, 1855 

Amnesty  granted  to  the  Poles, 


May  27  ;  political  offenders,  <fcc. 

Sept.  7: 185<? 

Alexander  II.    crowned  at   Moscow, 

Sept.  2,  1866 

The  czar  meets  the  emperor  Napoleon 
at  Stutgardt,  Sept.  25  :  and  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  at  Weimar..  .O.-.t  1,  1857 

Emancipation  of  the  serfs   decreed, 

July  2, 1858 

A  Russian  naval  station  established  at 
Villa  Franca,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
creates  some  political  excitement 

Aug   1858 

New  Commercial  treaty  with  Great 
Britain Jan.  12, 1859 

Russia  reproves  the  warlike  move- 
ments of  the  German  confederation 
during  the  Italian  -war May  27,  1859 

Alexander  II.,  i-o.t  of  Nicholas,  born 
April  29,  1818  ;  succeeded  at  his 
father's  death,  March  2,  1855  ;  mar- 
ried April  28, 1841,  Mary,  Princess  of 
Hosse  ;  the  PRESENT  emperor  of 
Russia 1860 

Heir  :  his  son  Nicholas,  born  Sept.  20,  184H 


RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR  with  France  and  England.  The  Russian  and  French 
governments  having  each  taken  a  side  in  the  dispute  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  as  to  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  Holy  Places  in  Palestine, 
the  Porte  advised  the  formation  of  a  mixed  commission,  which  decided  in 
favor  of  the  Greeks,  and  a  firman  was  promulgated  accordingly,  March  9, 
1853  ;  to  this  decision  the  French  acceded,  although  dissatisfied.  The  Russians 
now  made  further  claims.  Menschikoff  s  ultimatum  was  rejected,  and  he  quitted 
Constantinople,  May  21.  On  June  6,  the  sultan  issued  a  hattischerifF  confirm- 
ing all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Greek  Christians,  and  appealed  to  his 
allies.  On  June  13,  the  English  and  French  fleets  anchored  in  Besika  bay. 
On  June  26,  the  czar  published  his  manifesto,  and  his  troops  crossed  the  Prnth 
and  entered  Moldavia,  July  2.  The  sultan,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  a 
grand  national  council,  after  demanding  the  evacuation  of  the  principalities, 
Oct.  3,  declared  war  against  Russia,  Oct.  5.  The  Russian  declaration  follow- 
ed, Nov.  1,  1853.  France  and  England  declared  war  against  Russia,  March  27 
and  28,  1854.  Hostilities  ceased,  Feb.  29,  1856,  and  peace  was  proclaimed  in 
April  following. 

Th<-  Sultan  declares  war  against 

Oct   5,  1853 


Turks  (in  Asia)  defeated  at  Bay- 
audur,   Atskur,  and  Achaltzik, 

Nov.  14,  18,  26,  1853 


Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Sinnpe, 

Nov.  30,  1853 

At  the  request  of  the  Porte  (Deo. 
6.)  the  allied  fleets  enter  the 
BlackSea  ...............  Jan.  4,  1854 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


173 


Baltic  fleet    sails,  under   Sir  C. 

Napier March  11,  1854 

Treaiy  between  England.  France, 

and  Turkey March  12,  1854 

France  :md  England  declare  war 

against  Russia.... March  27,  28,  1854 
Gen.  Canrobert  and  French  troops 

arrive  at  Gallipoli,  soon  after 

followed       by       the      Knglish 

March  31,  1854 
Russians  defeated  by  the  Turks 

at  Karakai May  30,  1854 

Bombardment  of  Ode^8a  by  allied 

fleet April  22,  1854 

Bombardment  and  surrender  of 

Bomarsund Aug.  1<J,  1854 

The  Russians  defeated  by  iScha- 

myl  in  Georgia. .abtmt  Aug.  28,  1854 
They  begin  to  evacuate  the  prin- 
cipalities  Aug.  and  Sept.  1854 

Battle  of  the  Aima Sept.  '.'0,  1854 

Russians  sink  part  of  their  fleet  at 

Sebaslopo Sept.  23,  1854 

Death  of  Marshal    St.    Arnaud, 

Sept.  29,  1854 
General  Canrobert  appointed  his 

successor Nov,  24,  1864 

Siege  of  Sebastopol  commenced— 

grand  attack  (without  success) 

Oct.  17,  1854 
Battle     of      Balaklava  —  gallant 

charge  of  the  light  cavalry  un- 
der Lord  Cardigan,  wilh  severe 

^s Oct.  25,  1854 

Battleuf  Ir.kerman  ;  defeat  of  the 

Russians Nov.  5,  1854 


|  Miss  Nightingale  and  nurses  arrive 
at  Scutari Nov.  6,  1854 

Sardinia  joins  England  and  France, 

Jan.  26,  1855 

Death  of  Emperor  Nicholas  anc  acces- 
sion of  Alexander  II.  (no  charge  of 
war  policy) MaVoh  2,  1855 

Sortie  from  the  Malakhott'  tower  (15,000 
men)  repulsed March  22,  185S 

Resignation  of  Gen.  Canrobert,  suc- 
ceeded by  Gen.  Pelissier May  16,  1856 

Death  of  Lord  Raglan  ;  succeeded  by 
Gen.  Simpson June  28,  1855 

Russians  invest  Kar*  in  Armenia,  de- 
fended by  Gen. Williams July  15,  1855 

The  French  take  the  Malakhoff  (which 
see)  by  assault ;  the  English  assault 
the  Redan  without  success  ;  the  Rus- 
sians retire  from  Sebaxtonol  to  the 
North  Forts,  and  the  allies  enter  the 
city  ;  the  Russians  destroy  or  sink  the 
remainder  of  their  fleet... Sept.  ?,  dec.  185S 

Explosion  of  100,0(10  Ibs  of  powder  in  the 
French  singe-train  at  Inkerman,  with 
great  loss  of  life Nov.  15,  1855 

Capitulation  of  Kars  to  Gen.  Monra- 
viell',  after  a  gallant  defence  bv  Gen. 
Williams Nov.  26,  1855 

Council  of  war  at  Par  s Tan.  11,  1856 

Destruction  of  Sebastopol  docks  corn- 
Dieted Feb.  1,  1856 

Peace  conferences  open  at  Par  s,  an 
armistice  till  March  31,  agreed  on 
Feb.  25, 

Proclamation  of  peace  in  the  Crimea 
April  2;  in  London ,  ..Apr  I  29, 

The  Crimea  evacuated July  9, 


1856 

1856 
1856 

RUSSIA,  AMERICAN  INTERCOURSE  WITH.  Commercial  relations:  In  1861, 
exports  from  Russia  to  U.  S.  were  $1,290,000  ;  imports,  $800,000.  8,220  tons 
of  shipping  from  Russia  entered  U.  S.  ports ;  9,800  tons  cleared  for  Russia. 
Diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  countries  have  been  most  cordial.  July, 
1861,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  communicated  to  the  American  Government  his 
sincere  hope  that  the  Union  would  not  be  dissolved.  Resolutions  passed 
Congress  May,  1867,  congratulating  the  Emperor  on  his  escape  from  assassi- 
nation. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY,  England,  (p.  568.)    Presidents. 


1768    Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

1792.  Benjamin  West. 

18-0.  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY,  (p.  568.)    Presidents. 
1660-3.    Sir  Robert  Moray. 
1603-77.  Lord  Brouncker  (the  first  under  the 

the  charter). 
1680-2.     Sir  C.Wren. 
1684-6.    Samuel  Pepys. 
1698-1703.  John  Lord  Somers. 
1703-27.  Sir  I.  Newton. 
1727-41.  Sir  Hans  Sloane. 
1778-1820.  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 


1830.  Sir  Mart'n  A.  8bee. 
1850.  Sir  Char'es  Eastlake. 
1866.  Sir  Francis  Grant 


1820.  Dr.W.  ll.Wollaston. 

1820.  Sir  H.Davy. 

1827.  Davies  Gilbert. 

1830.  Duke  of  SUHSOX. 

1838.  Marquis  of  Northampton. 

1848.  KariofBo*i>e. 

1854.  Lord  Wroltesley. 

1858  Sir  Benjamin  C.  Brodfe. 


SABBATH  SCHOOLS.  The  first  "Sabbath  school"  was  founded  by  Lad  wig 
Hacker  between  the  years  1740  and  1747  at  Ephrata,  Lancaster  county,  Pa., 
among  the  German  Seven-day  Baptists  there.  The  school  room  was  used  as 
au  hospital  after  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine,  fought  in  1777.  This  event  occa- 
sioned the  breaking  up  of  the  schools  about  five  years  before  the  first  Sundaj 


174  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

school  was  instituted  in  England,  at  Gloucester,  by  Robert  Raikes,  about 


SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  (p.  573.)  Kamehameba  IV.  (or  Tamehameha)  when 
20  years  old,  succeeded  his  uncle,  Dec.  15,  1854. 

SANITARY  COMMISSION,  U.  S.  Organized  under  appointment  of  the  Secre 
tnry  of  War,  dated  June  9,  1861,  H.  W.  Bellows,  D.  D.,  Prest.,  Fred.  Law 
Olmstead,  Secretary.  [The  Women's  Central  Relief  Association  had  been 
previously  organized,  April,  1861.]  Supplies  furnished  through  the  Com'n 
estimated  by  Sec.  at  $15,000,000.  Cash  receipts  at  central  treasury  to  May  1, 
1866,  $4,962,014.26,  of  which  New  York  contributed  $229,328,  and  California, 
|l,233,977.  The  Metropol.  Fair,  N.  Y.,  produced  $1,184.487;  that  at  Phila- 
delphia, $1,035,368;  12  others  $425,000.  See  History  Sanitary  Commission, 
8vo.  Philadelphia,  1866.  The  Freedmen's  Union  Commission  rec'd  and  dis- 
bursed Cor  teachers  at  the  South,  in  1865,  $318,670;  for  supplies,  $490,756. 
Total,  $809,425. 

SANITARY  REFORM,  U.  S.  The  ventilation  of  buildings  has  been  greatly 
improved  since  the  publication  of  Perry's  Essay  on  School  Houses,  1833, 
and  Barnard's  School  Architecture,  1838.  This  reform  was  specially 
needed  in  printing  offices,  bookbinderies,  and  manufactories  generally. 

SANITARY  LEGISLATION,  England.  To  Dr.  Southwood  Smith  is  mainly 
attributable  the  honor  of  commencing  the  agitation  on  the  subject  of  public 
health,  about  1832  ;  his  "  Philosophy  of  Health  "  having  excited  much  atten- 
tion. Since  1838  he  has  published  numerous  sanitary  reports,  having  been 
much  employed  by  the  government.  U.  S.  Resolution  authorizing  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  to  carry  out  regulations  of  quarantine  to  guard  against  cholera, 
passed  Congress  May  26,  1866.  States  and  cities  enact  local  sanitary  laws. 
Board  of  Health  of  N.  Y.  city,  organized,  1866.  See  Sanitary  Commission. 

SANSCRIT.  The  language  of  the  Brahmins  of  India,  spoken  at  the  time  of  Sol- 
omon, has  been  much  studied  of  late  years.  Sir  Wm.  Joues,  who  published  a 
translation  of  the  poem,  Sakuntala  in  1783,  discovered  that  a  complete  litera- 
ture had  been  preserved  in  India,  comprising  sacred  books  (the  Vedas),  history 
and  philosophy,  lyric  and  dramatic  poetry.  Texts  and  translations  of  many 
works  have  been  published  by  the  aid  of  the  East  India  Company,  the  Oriental 
Translation  Fund,  and  private  liberality.  The  professorship  of  Sanscrit  at  Ox- 
ford was  founded  by  Colonel  Boden.  The  first  professor,  H.  H.  Wilson,  ap- 
pointed in  1832,  translated  part  of  the  Rig-veda  Sanhita,  the  sacred  hymns  of 
the  Brahmins,  and  several  poems,  &c.  The  present  professor,  Monier  Williams 
(elected  1860),  published  an  English  and  Sanscrit  dictionary,  1851.  Professor 
Max  Miiller  published  his  history  of  Sanscrit  Literature  in  1859,  and  has  edited 
part  of  the  original  text  of  the  Vedas.  Philologists  have  discovered  an  inti- 
mate connection  between  the  Sanscrit,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  Teutonic,  Sla- 
vonian, Celtic,  and  Scandinavian  languages. 

SARDINIA,     (p.  574.)    See  Italy. 


Bill  for  suppression  of  convents 
passed March  2,  1855 

Convention  w  th  England  and 
France  s'gned,  a  contingent  of 
16,000  troops  to  be  supplied 
against  Russia April  10,  1855 

10,000  troop*  under  G  -neral  La 
Marmora  arrive  in  the  Crimea, 

May  8,  1855 

Who  dUtinfltaieh  themselves  in  the 
battle  of  the  Tchernftyn,Auir.  16,  1856 

The  kirg  visits  London,  dec.  Nov. 

80,  &c.  1865 


Important  note  on  Italy  from  Connt 
Cavour  to  England Apnl  16,  1856 

Count  Cavour  declares  in  favor  of  free- 
trade June,  1857 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  at  Villa 
Franca;  Count  Cavonr  resigns, 

July,  1869 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Zurich.   Nov.  1859 

Sardinian  troop*  besiege  the  King  of 
Naples  at  Oueta ........Sept.  1860 

Oaeta  capitulates  to  Victor  Enrmnuel, 

Feb.  13,  1861 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  175 

ST.  DOMINGO.  A  city  of  Hayti.  The  Republic  of  St.  Domingo  was  established 
in  1801.  It  has  been  frequently  assailed  by  the  rulers  of  Hayti,  particularly 
by  Faustin  I.,  dethroned  in  1858. 

ST.  GEORGE.  Tbi?  patron  saint  of  England  was  a  tribune  in  the  reign  of  Dio- 
cletian, and  being  a  man  of  great  courage,  was  a  favorite  with  the  emperor  ; 
but  complaining  to  the  emperor  of  his  severities  towards  the  Christians,  and 
arguing  in  their  defence,  be  was  put  in  prison,  and  beheaded,  April  23,  290. 

ST.  HELENA  (an  island  in  the  South  Alantic  Ocean),  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese,  under  Juan  de  Nova  Castilla,  on  the  festival  of  St.  Helena,  May  21, 
1502.  The  Dutch  were  afterwards  in  possession  of  it  until  1600,  when  they 
were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East  India  Company  settled  here 
in  1651  ;  and  the  island  was  alternately  possessed  by  the  English  and  Dutch, 
until  1673,  when  Charles  II.,  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it  to  the  company  once 
more.  St.  Helena  was  made  the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity,  Oct.  15,  1815; 
and  it  became  the  scene  of  his  death,  May  5,  1821. 

ST.  LUCIA  (West  Indies).  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1350.  Taken  by  the 
British  several  times  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Memorable  insurrection  of  the 
French  negroes,  April,  1795.  In  this  year  Guadaloupe,  St.  Vincent's,  Grenada, 
Dominica,  St.  Eustatia,  and  St.  Lucia,  were  taken  by  the  British.  St.  Lucia 
was  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1802  ;  but  was  again  seized  by  England 
the  next  year,  and  confirmed  to  her  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

ST.  MARK'S  CHURCH  at  Venice,  erected  829  ;  St.  Mark's  Place,  1592.  The 
old  Gothic  Cathedral  (built  about  1086). 

ST.  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL  (London).  The  first  stone  of  the  present  edifice  was 
laid  June  21,  1675.  The  whole  edifice  was  completed  in  1710.  The  total  cost 
(including  '200  tons  weight  of  iron  railing)  was  £1,511,202.  The  length  of  St. 
Paul's  from  the  grand  portico  to  the  east  end  is  510  feet;  the  breadth,  from 
the  north  to  the  south  portico,  282  feet ;  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  dome, 
145  feet ;  The  height  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  cross,  404  feet. 
Architect,  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

ST.  PETERSBURG.  The  new  capital  of  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  first  began 
this  city  in  May  27,  1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some 
wretched  wooden  hovels.  In  1710,  the  Count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house 
ot  brick;  and  the  next  year,  the  emperor,  with  his  own  hand,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  house  of  the  same  material.  From  these  small  beginnings  rose  the 
imperial  city  of  St.  Petersburg ;  and  in  less  than  nine  years  after  the  hovels 
had  been  erected,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  from  Moscow  to  this 
place.  The  winter  palace  was  burned  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29,  1837.  The  rail- 
way to  Moscow  was  finished  in  1851. 

ST.  PETER'S  CHURCH,  Rome.  Originally  erected  by  Constantine,  A.  D.  306. 
About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Pope  Nicholas  V.  commenced  a 
new  church.  The  present  magnificent  pile  was  designed  by  Bramante ;  the 
first  stone  was  laid  by  Pope  Julius  II.  in  1506.  In  1514,  Leo  X.  employed 
Raphael  and  two  others  to  superintend  the  building.  Paul  III.  committed 
the  work  to  Michael  Angelo,  who  devised  the  dome,  in  the  construction  of 
which  30,000  Ibs.  of  iron  was  used.  The  church  was  consecrated  Nov.  18, 
1626,  the  building  having  occupied  .»76  years.  The  front  is  400  feet  buoad, 
rising  to  a  height  of  180  feet,  and  the  majestic  dome  ascends  from  the  centre 
of  the  church  to  a  height  of  324  feet ;  the  length  of  the  interior  is  600  feet, 
forming  one  of  the  most  spacious  halls  ever  constructed.  The  length  of  the 
exterior  is  669  feet;  its  greatest  breadth  within  is  442  feet;  and  the  entire 


176  THE   WORLDS   PROGRESS. 

height  from  the  ground  432  feet.  St.  Peter's  is  the  most  sumptuous  Roman 
Catholic  church  in  the  world. 

SARATOGA,  BURGOYNE'S  SURRENDER  AT.  Here  General  Burgoync,  commandei 
of  the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  Americans,  in  the  war 
of  Independence  (Oct.  7),  being  surrounded,  surrendered  to  the  American 
General  Gates,  when  5,791  men  laid  down  their  arms,  Oct.  17,  1777. 

SATIRE,  U.  S.  Among  the  best  American  humorous  and  satirical  publications 
are  the  Biglow  Papers  and  Fable  for  Critics,  by  J.  R.  Lowell ;  the  New  Gospel 
of  Peace,  castigating  secessionists  and  peace  democrats  during  the  recent 
war  ;  the  broadly  humorous  essays  of  "  Artemus  Ward,  "  Petroleum  V.  Nasby, 
and  others  ;  and  the  very  clever  pictorial  satires  of  Thos.  Nast. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  U.  S.  The  number  of  savings  banks  in  the  New  England 
states,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  was  about  800  in  1862.  The  amount  of 
deposits,  $70,000,OnO.  Massachusetts  has  more  banks  than  any  other  state, 
the  number  being  93  ;  deposits,  $44,785,400.  There  are  comparatively  few 
savings  banks  in  the  states  not  mentioned  above.  On  Nov.  20,  1851,  the 
number  of  savings  banks  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  574,  besides  above 
twenty  thousand  friendly  societies  and  charitable  institutions.  The  depositors 
(in  the  banks)  were  1,092,581,  while  the  societies  embraced  a  vast  but  un- 
known number  of  persons  :  the  amount  of  deposits  was  £32,893,511. 

SAVOY,  (p.  575.)  Annexation  to  France  voted  for  by  130,533  against  235,  April 
22,  1860.  The  annexation  completed  1860. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA  (Central  Germany),  capitals  Gotha  and  Coburg.  Pop- 
ulation, Dec.  1861,  159,431.  The  reigning  family  is  descended  from  John, 
younger  son  of  Ernest,  who  became  elector  of  Saxony  in  1464.  1844.  Ernest 
II.  son,  Jan.  29  ;  born  June  21,  1818,  (married  Alexandrina,  duchess  of  Baden, 
May  3,  1842;  no  issue).  Heir  (presumptive);  Prince  Alfred  of  England,  born 
Aug.  6,  1844,  (in  whose  favor  the  Prince  of  Wales  resigned  his  rights,  April 
19,  1863). 

SAXE-WEIMAR.  Saxe-Weimar  became  a  grand  duchy  in  1815.  The  dukes 
have  greatly  favored  literature,  and  their  capital,  Weimar,  has  been  called  the 
Athens  of  Germany.  Population  of  the  duchy  in  1858,  267,112. 

SAXONY,  (p.  576)  1854.  John,  Aug.  9,  (born  Dec.  12,  1801),  the  PRESENT 
(1861)  king.  Heir  :  His  son,  Frederic  Augustus  Albert,  born  April  23,  1828. 

SCANDINAVIA.  The  ancient  name  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  great  part  of  Den- 
mark, whence  proceeded  the  Northmen  or  Normans,  who  conquered  Nor- 
mandy (about  A.  n.  91)0),  and  eventually  England  (1066).  They  were  also 
culled  Sea-Kings  or  Vikings.  They  settled  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and,  it  is 
thought,  the  northern  regions  of  America,  about  the  ninth  century. 

SCANDINAVIANS.  The  Scandinavian  population  of  the  United  States  is  esti- 
mated at  180,000:  namely,  150,000  Norwegians,  25,000  Swedes,  and  5,000 
Danes  (1860). 

SCHOOLS,  PUBLIC,  IN  ENGLAND.  In  1851,  there  were  2,310  schools  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Education  Committee  actually  inspected  in  England  and  Scotland. 
They  included:  1,713  Church  of  England  schools  in  England  and  Wales;  282 
Protestant  Dissenting  schools  in  England  and  Wales ;  98  Roman  Catholic 
schools  in  Great  Britain  ;  and  217  Presbyterian  schools  in  Scotland,  whereof 
91  were  of  the  Free  Church  ;  the  whole  affording  accommodation  for  299,425 
scholars.  In  the  same  year  (1851),  the  estimated  sums  voted  for  education 
were:  for  Great  Britain,  £150,000,  for  Ireland,  £134,560.  UNITED  STATES. 
Schools  both  English  and  classical  were  almost  instantly  established  by  the 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  177 

first  settlers  of  New  England  on  their  arrival  ;  were  soon  made  obligatory 
by  law,  and  have  since  grown  with  the  population,  being,  however,  fewer  and 
worse  in  the  southern  states.  The  present  era  of  public  schools  commenced 
about  1800.  Its  important  dates  are:  Connecticut  school  fund,  established 
1795  ;  first  state  school  sup't..  New  York,  1812  ;  first  state  school  system, 
Ky.,  1821  ;  Colburn's  arithmetic,  1821 ;  school  movement  of  1825-40,  com 
menced  by  publications  of  C:irier,  Gallaudet,  and  Johnson  ;  Cousin's  report  or 
Prussian  schools,  published  here  1835  ;  Horace  Mann,  sec'y  of  Board  of  Edu 
cation  in  Muss.,  1837;  Stowe's  report  on  European  schools,  1837  ;  first  nor- 
mal school,  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  1839.  From  1840  to  1860,  the  improved 
principles  and  methods  thus  introduced  have  been  increasingly  put  into  prac- 
tice. The  following  totals  for  the  United  States  are  approximate  for  1858  : 
children  of  school  age,  6,933,441 ;  public  schools,  97,621  ;  school  funds,  $49,- 
324,884;  expended  for  public  schools  in  the  year,  $20,169,268.  See  Education, 
Colleges,  &c. 

SCIENCE  IN  THE  U.  S.  Franklin's  discoveries  in  electricity,  1752.  American 
Philosophical  Society  established,  1769.  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences, 1780.  First  course  of  Chemical  Lectures  in  the  United  States,  by  Dr. 
S.  L.  Mitchill,  N.  Y.,  1802.  Botanic  garden  and  Professor  of  Natural  History 
established  at  Harvard  College,  1805.  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  formed,  1845.  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  by 
Congress,  1865.  Among  the  important  National  and  State  publications  are  the 
U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition  under  Com.  Wilkes,  with  its  Scientific  Reports,  to 
be  in  some  30  quarto  and  folio  volumes ;  the  Reports  on  the  Mexican  Bounda- 
ries, Pacific  Railway  &c ;  the  Natural  History  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in 
about  20  quartos,  the  great  work  of  Agassiz  on  Natural  History,  pub.  by  sub- 
scription, etc,  etc.  See  Astronomy,  Observatories  dr., 

SCREW-PROPELLER  consits  of  two  or  more  twisted  blades,  like  the  vaues  of  a 
wind-mill,  set  on  axis,  running  parallel  with  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  and  revolving 
beneath  the  water  at  the  stern.  It  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine.  The  princi- 
ple is  as  old  as  the  wind-mill.  It  was  shown  by  Hooke  in  1681,  and  since  by 
Du  Quet,  Bernoulli!,  and  others.  In  1836  patents  were  obtained  by  F.  P. 
Smith  and  Captain  John  Ericsson,  and  to  them  the  successful  application  of 
the  screw-propeller  must  be  attributed.  The  first  vessels  with  the  screw,  the 
Archirnedfs  and  the  Rattler,  were  constructed  in  the  U.  S.  The  latter  was 
tried  in  England  in  1845.  Since  then  the  screw-propeller  has  been  largely 
employed  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  War  vessels  are  now  almost  entirely 
propelled  by  the  screw. 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  SEVASTOPOL.  A  town  and  once  a  naval  arsenal,  at  S.  W.  point 
of  the  Crimea,  built  in  1784,  by  Catharine  II.,  memorable  for  its  eleven 
months'  SIEGE,  by  the  English  and  French  in  1854  and  1855.  Bombardment 
commenced  Oct.  17,  1854,  without  success.  After  many  sanguinary  encounters 
by  day  and  night,  and  repeated  bombardments,  a  grand  assault  was  made  on 
Sept.  8,  1855,  upon  the  Malakhoff  tower  and  the  Redans,  the  most  important 
fortifications  to  the  south  of  the  town.  The  French  succeeded  in  capturing 
and  retaining  the  Malakhoff.  The  attacks  of  the  English  on  the  great  Rrdan 
and  of  the  French  upon  the  little  Redan  were  successful,  but  the  assailants 
were  compelled  to  retire  alter  a  desperate  struggle,  with  great  loss  of  life. 

"  SECESSION,"  U.  STATES.  The  election  of  Lincoln,  the  "  Republican  "  candidate 

for  president,  Nov.  6,  1860  was  made  the  pretext  for  the  secession  of  several 

southern  states  for  another  Union ;  the  resignation  of  Federal  officers  in  those 

states,  and  of  members  of  the  cabinet  at  Washington,  and  of  several  officers  of 

8* 


178 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


the  army  and  navy ;  and  the  seizure  of  government  moneys,  forts,  an  J  arsenal^ 
The  chief  incidents  of  these  treasonable  or  revolutionary  proceedings  were  the 
following : 


Resignation  of  8.  C.  senators  of 
theU.  States Nov.  9-11,  1860 

CJ.  S.  H.  of  Rep.  appoints  a  com. 
of  33  on  the  state  of  the  Union, 

Deo.  6,  1860 

Resignation  of  Howell  Cobb,Sec. 
of  Trcas.,  U.  8 Dec,  10,  1860 

U.  S.  stocks  (5  per  cent)  sold  for 
89, Dec.  10,  1860 

Resignation  of  Mr.  Casi?,  Sec.  of 
State Dec.  14,  1860 

South  Carolina  Ordinance  of  Se- 
cession passed .Dec.  20,  1860 

Ma.;.  Anderson  transfers  the  U. 
States  garrison  at  Fort  Moultrie 
to  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston 
harbor Dec.  26,  1860 

S.  Carolina  authorities  seize  Fort 
Moultrie  and  olher  U.  States 
property Dec.  28,  1860 

J.  B.  Floyd,  U.  S.  Sec.  of  War  re- 
Big  ,s Dec.  29,  1860 

Forts  Pulaski  and  Jackson,  in 
harbor  of  Savannah,  seized  by 
Gov.  Brown  of  Geo Jan.  3,  1861 

B.  C.  commissioners''  demands 
refused  by  the  President 

Jan.  3,  1861 

Fast-day  observed  in  the  U.  S. 

Jan.  4,  1861 

Fort  Morgan,  Mobile,  seized  by 
the  state Jan.  4,  1861 

Steamer  Star  of  the  West  with  U. 
8.  troops  for  Fort  Sumter, 
tired  into  by  the  rebels.. Jan.  9,  1861 


Alabama  secession  passed Jan.  11,  1861 

Florida  secession  passed,  and  U.  S. 
forts  at  Pensacola  seized Jan.  Iv.',  1861 

Goorgi-i  secession  passed Jan.  19,  1861 

Mississippi,  Alabama,  and  Florida 
senators  of  the  TJ.  States  resigned 

Ja.i.  21,  1861 

Louisiana  secession  passed. ....Jan.  28,  1861 

Texas  t-eceesipn  pas.-ed Feb.  1,  1801 

"Peace  Conference"  at  Washington, 

Feb.  4,  1861 

Louisiana  delegation  excepting  Mr. 
Bouligny  withdraws  from  Congress 

Feb.  5,  1861 

Congress  of  seceding  states  at  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  Feb.  6;  elects  Jeft'er- 
son  Davis  of  Miss.  Pres.,  and  Alex- 
H.  Stephens  of  Ga.  Vice-pres..Feb.  9,  1861 

Tennessee  votes  against  secession, 

Feb.  9,  1861 

Resolution  guaranteeing  non-interfer- 
ence with  slavery  in  any  state  passed 
unanimously  in  H.  of  Reps.. Feb.  11,  1861 

Jefl'erson  Davis  inaugurated  Pres.  of 
Southern  Confederacy Feb.  18,  1861 

The  "  Peace  Con  erence  "  at  Washing- 
ton agrees  on  proposition  for  "  com- 
prunTse,"  and  adjourns March  1,  1861 

Gen.  Twiggs,  having  t-uriendered  the 
U.  States  forces  and  property  in  Texas 
is  dismissed  from  the  U.  8.  army  as  a 
traitor March  1,  1J61 

Missouri  votes  againtt  seces>ion,  in 
convention March  1,  1861 

Lincoln    inaugurated    Pres.  of  Un  ted 


States March  4,  1861 

See  JSattlex,   U.    &,   War,  & :    Also 
Tables,  p.  190,  &c. 


Mississippi  secession  passed, 
Jan.  9:  and  TJ.  8.  forts  and 
property  seized  there... Jan.  10,  1861 

SEPOYS  (a  corruption  of  Sipdhl,  Hindostance  for  a  soldier).  The  term  applied 
to  the  native  troops  in  India.  Under  able  generals  they  greatly  aided  iu 
establishing  British  rule  in  India.  For  their  mutinies,  see  India,  1857. 

SEPTENNIAL  PARLIAMENTS  in  England  commenced  1716.  Parliaments 
had  been  triennial  from  1688  to  that  date. 

SERVIA.  A  principality  nominally  subject  to  Turkey,  pouth  of  Hungary.  The 
Servians  are  of  Slavonic  origin.  They  embraced  Christianity  about  A.  D.  640, 
The  Emperor  Manuel  subjugated  them  in  1150;  but  they  recovered  their  in- 
dependence in  1180,  and  were  ruled  by  princes,  generally  named  Stephen, 
till  their  country  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Sultan  Mahomet  II.  in  1459. 
Population  in  1854,  985,000. 

SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA,  to  the  angels  (ministers)  of  which  the  Apostlo 
John  was  commanded  to  write  the  epistle  contained  iu  the  2d  and  3d  chapters 
of  his  Revelation,  viz.  :  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Laodicea,  A.  D.  96. 


1.  Ephesus.  Paul  founded  the  church 
here,  A.  D.  57,  and  in  A.  D.  59,  was 
in  great  danger  from  a  tumult  creat- 
ed by  Demetrius.  Kpbesus  was  in 
a  ruinous  state  even  iu  the  time  of 
Justinian  (A.  D.  627),  and  still  re- 
mains BO. 


9.  Smyrna.  Now  an  important  conr 
mercial  city  and  seaport  of  Ionia. 
Polycarp,  its  first  bishop,  suffered 
martyrdom,  A.  D.  175. 

3.  Pergamos.  Capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  same  name,  founded  by  Phil- 
etserus,  B.  o.  283,  and  part  of  Bithy 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


170' 


6.  Philadelphia.  Was  built  by  Attains  Phila- 
delphus,  king  of  Pergamos  (about  B.  o. 
159,  138)  ;  was  taken   t>y  Bajnzet   I.   A.  B. 
1390.    It  is  now  called  Allah  Shehr,  "  The 
city  of  God,  "  and  is  a  miserable  town  ol 
3COO  lioui-es. 

7.  Landicea.      In  Phrygia  near  Lydia.   hag 
suffered  much   from  earthquakes.      It  is 
now  a  deserted  place    called  Eskehissar. 
"  The  old  Castle." 


nla.  It  was  renowned  for  Its  libra- 
ry. Attalus  III.,  the  last  king,  be- 
queallied  his  kingdom  to  the  Human 
people,  B.  C.  133.  It  IB  still  an  im- 
portant place  called  Bergamo.  Parch- 
ment is  said  to  have  been  invented  here. 

4.  Thyatiro.  Now  a  mean  town  of  2000 
hoimos,  called  Akhissar,  "  White  Castle." 

6.  Sardis.  Formerly  the  capital  of  Lydia, 
the  kingdom  of  Cro3sus  (B.  c.  560),  is  now 
o  miserable  village,  named  Bart. 

SEWING-MACHINE.  The  practical  sewing-machine  was  the  invention  of  Elias 
Howe,  an  American  mechanic.  These  machines  are  all  of  American  origin. 
Haydn.  To  America  unquestionably  belongs  the  honor  of  giving  to  the 
world  the  first  practical  sewing-machine.  Here  also,  it  has  received  its  fullest 
development.  Mr.  Howe's  patent  was  granted  in  1846.  Very  little  advance 
was  made  for  the  next  six  years.  Since  that  period  the  sales  of  reliable  ma- 
chines have  been  as  follows  :  1858,  2,509  :  1854,  4,469  ;  1855,  3,515  ;  1856, 
7,225;  1857,12,715;  1858,  17,589;  1859,46,245.  The  machine  has  been 
improved,  and  adapted  to  all  branches  of  sewing.  Indeed  it  has  revolution- 
ized, and  developed  every  department  of  needlework  ;  introduced  new 
branches  of  industry  :  rendered  healihful,  pleasant,  and  profitable  an  employ- 
ment hitherto  proverbially  unhealthful,  and  proved  itself  the  most  beneficial 
invention  of  the  age.  In  the  domestic  world  it  ranks  as  do  railroads  and 
telegraphs  in  the  commercial.  The  importance  of  this  invention  to  the 
manufacturing  interests  of  the  U.  States  was  estimated  in  1860  at  $342,000,- 
000  annually.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  economy  of  the  sewing  ma- 
chine in  stitching  the  various  parts  of  the  following  garments. 


BT  MACHINE. 

Hours.  Minutes. 

Gentlemen's  shirts 1  16    .. 

Frock  coats 2  88    ., 

Satin  vests 1  14    ., 

S;lk  dress 1  13    ., 

Merino  dress 1  4    . 


BT  HAND. 

Hours.  Minute*. 

14       26 

16      35 

7       19 

8       27 

..  8       27 


SHAKESPEARE'S  NATIVE  PLACE,  Stratford-upon-Avon,  Warwick.  Shake- 
speare was  born  at  Stratford,  April  23,  1564,  and  died  on  his  natal  day,  1616. 
Shakespeare  festival  was  held  at  Stratford,  April  23,  18S6.  In  18*47,  a  number 
of  persons  of  distinction  interested  themselvos  for  the  preservation  of  the 
house  in  which  Shakespeare  was  born,  then  actually  set  up  for  sale.  In  the 
end  Shakespeare's  house  was  sold  at  the  auction  mart  in  the  city  of  London, 
where  it  was  "  knocked  down  "  to  the  United  Committee  of  London  and 
Stnitlbrd  for  the  large  sum  of  £3,000,  Sept.  16,  1847.  In  1856,  a  learned 
oriental  scholar,  John  Shakespeare,  no  relation  to  the  poet,  gave  £2,500  to 
purchase  the  adjoining  house,  that  it  might  be  pulled  down,  in  order  to  ensure 
the  poet's  bouse  from  the  risk  of  fire. 

SHEEP,  U.  S.  They  have  generally  been  reared  to  supply  mutton  rather  than 
wool.  Of  late,  however,  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  breeding  them  for 
their  value  in  producing  wool.  The  number  of  sheep  in  1850  in  the  U.  S.  was 
21,723,000;  in  1860,22,471,000.  Ohio,  New  York,  and  Indiana,  produced 
the  most.  California,  in  I860,  had  1,076,000 sheep  ;  in  1867,  3,000,000.  The 
rnvages  among  sheep  by  dogs  is  very  great.  In  1866  about  500,000,  wortb 
$2,000,000,  were  killed  by  dogs.  12  merino  ewes  from  Westminster,  Ver- 
mont, took  the  first  two  premiums  at  the  Agricultural  Exhibition  at  Hamburg, 
in  1863,  against  all  the  best  breeds  of  England,  France,  Saxony,  Prussia,  and 


180  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Silesia.  They  were  sold  for  f  5,000  to  a  Count  of  Silesia.  This  result,  mr 
prising  to  Americans,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  sheep-raising  in  the  U.  S. 

SHIBBOLETH.  The  word  by  which  the  followers  of  Jephthah  tested  theii 
Opponents,  the  Ephraimites,  on  passing  the  Jordan,  about  1143  B.  c.  Judges, 
ch.  xii.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  any  party  watchword  or  dogma. 

SHIPPING  OF  THE  U.  S.  (p.  524.)    Tonnage  at  different  periods. 

Yt'irs.  Tonnage.  I  Yearn.  Tonnage. 

1861 5,539,813  |  1865  (old) 3,516,787 

1862 5,112,165  |   "  (new) 1,579994 

1863 5,1-26081  I  1866  (old) 942,299 

1864 4,986,081  |      "  (new) 3,368,479 

The  above  table  shows  the  loss  of  American  shipping,  or  its  transfer  to  for- 
eign flags  during  the  rebellion.  The  total  tonnage  of  the  United  States, 
June  30,  1858,  was  5,049,808  tons  ;  of  which  registered  for  foreign  trade, 
2,499,741 ;  enrolled  and  licensed,  2,502,086  ;  steam  navigation,  72<»,390.  In- 
crease for  the  year,  108,965  tons.  In  1860,  the  tonnage  of  the  U.  S.  was 
5,353,868  tons.  In  the  same  year  there  were  built  212,892  tons.  Amount  of 
licensed  tonnage  in  1866,  2,256,947  tons.  Since  the  year  1860,  American 
ship-building  has  greatly  declined.  In  November  1866,  there  was  but  one 
vessel  in  the  course  of  construction  in  New  York  City,  and  but  twoin'Boston. 
This  is  due  to  the  great  cost  of  material  and  labor  in  seaboard  cities.  Ships 
which  cost  $100  per  ton  in  N.  Y.,  cost  only  $60  in  the  same  cuirency  in  the 
British  Provinces  (1867).  In  1860,  two-thirds  of  American  imports  were 
carried  in  American  ships  ;  in  1866  nearly  ihree-fourths  in  foreign  vessels. 
Number  of  ship-carpenters  in  the  U.  S.  in  1860,  13,392.  Before  the 
war  the  Stars  and  Stripes  led  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world.  Not 
only  was  there  a  larger  tonnage  afloat  under  our  flag  than  under 
any  other,  but  American  ships  had  the  preference  for  enterprise,  speed,  and 
care  of  cargo,  which  gave  them  the  lead  in  every  port  and  on  every  oce;in. 
The  entire  tonnage  of  Great  Britain  in  18P1  was  4,806,826  tons;  and  that  of 
the  United  States,  6,539,813  tons.  In  the  trade  of  this  country  we  kept  the 
lead  without  the  assistance  of  discriminating  legislation.  During  the  rive 
years  ending  with  1861,  the  carrying  trsicle  of  New  York  amounted  tc 
$1,644,000.000,  of  which  over  $1,000,000,000  was  done  under  the  America!, 
flag,  leaving  but  little  more  than  half  that  amount  for  the  flags  of  all  other 
nations  on  "the  globe.  With  the  advent  of  war  there  came  a  disastrous 
change.  The  few  privateers  fitted  out  in  English  ports,  chiefly  through  the 
assistance  of  British  capitalists,  turned  the  scale  against  us,  and  almost  the 
entire  fleet  of  American  vessels  was  forced  to  engage  in  the  government 
service,  lie  idle  at  the  dock,  or  transfer  thi-ir  ownership  to  a  foreign  flag. 
Thus  in  the  four  years  which  followed,  out  of  f.l, 700,00(>,000  of  foreign  trade 
for  the  city  of  New  York,  less  than  $400,000,000  were  done  under  the  Stars 
and  Stripes,  while  over  $1,300,000,000  were  curried  under  foreign  flags.  In 
1865  the  entire  foreign  commerce  of  New  York  was  $429,100,1:29,  of  which 
$346,750,622  was  in  foreign  ships,  and  only  $82,349,607  in  American  Miips. 
This  is  a  humiliating  and  exasperating  record;  yet  in  the  recent  Fenian 
movements  our  government  and  people  refused  to  retaliate. —  Chr.  Almanac. 

8IAM.  A  kingdom  in  India,  bordering  on  the  Burmese  empire.  Siam  was  re- 
discovered by  the  Portuguese  in  1611,  and  a  trade  established,  in  which  the 
Dutch  joined  about  1604.  A  British  ship  arrived  about  1613.  In  1683  a 
Cephalonian  Greek,  Constantine  Phaulcon,  became  foreigt  minister  of  Siam, 
and  opened  a  communication  with  France ;  Louis  XIV.  sent  an  embassy  in 
1865  with  a  view  of  converting  the  king,  without  effect.  Sir  John  Bowring 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  181 

succeeded  in  obtaining  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  between  England 
and  Siam,  which  was  signed  April  30,  1855,  and  one  with  France  in  August 
following.  Two  ambassadors  from  Siam  arrived  in  England  Oct.,  1857,  and 
had  aii  audience  with  the  queen  to  deliver  magnificent  presents  on  Nov;  Ifl 
A  treaty  with  the  United  States  negotiated  by  Townsend  Harris,  1859, 

SIAMESE  TWINS.  The  two  persons  known  under  this  name,  are  twins,  born 
about  1811,  enjoying  all  the  faculties  and  powers  usually  possessed  by  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  individuals,  although  united  together  by  a  short  cartilagi- 
nous band  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  They  are  named  Chang  and  Eng,  and 
were  first  discovered  on  the  banks  of  the  Siam  river  by  an  American,  Mr. 
Robert  Hunter,  by  whom  they  were  taken  to  New  York,  where  they  were 
exhibited.  No  connexion  exists  between  them  but  this  band,  and  their  prox- 
imity seems  in  no  way  to  inconvenience  either.  They  are  perfectly  straight 
and  well  made,  and  walk  with  a  gait  like  other  people,  being  perfect  in  all 
their  parts,  and  having  all  their  functions  distinct.  After  having  been  exhib- 
ited for  several  years  in  England  and  the  United  States,  the  Siamese  Twins 
went  to  Georgia,  where  they  settled  on  a  farm,  married  sisters,  and  now 
(1860)  have  several  children. 

SICILY^    See  Italy. 

SICYON.  An  ancient  Grecian  kingdom  in  the  Peloponnesus,  founded  it  is  said 
about  2080  B.  c.  In  252  it  became  a  republic  and  joined  the  Achaean  league 
formed  by  Aratus.  It  was  the  country  of  Polycletes  (436)  and  Lysipuus 
(238),  the  sculptors. 

SIDON  (Syria).  A  city  of  Phoenicia,  to  the  north  of  Tyre.  It  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus  about  537 ;  and  surrendered  to  Alexander,  332.  See  Phoenicia.  The 
town  was  taken  from  the  pacha  of  Egypt  by  the  troops  of  the  sultan  and  of 
his  allies,  assisted  by  some  ships  of  the  British  squadron,  under  Admiral  Stop- 
ford  and  Commodore  Charles  Napier,  Sept.  27,  1840. 

SIEGES,  (p.  583.)  of  Rome,  1849;  of  Sebastopol,  1854-6 ;  of  Kara,  1855;  Delhi, 
1857  ;  Gaeta,  Oct.  1860  to  Feb.  13,  1861. 

SIK HS.     See  Punjab  and  India. 

SILISTRIA.  A  strong  military  town  in  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Russians,  Sept.  26,  18:>9,  after  nine  months'  siege,  and  held  some  years 
by  them  as  a  pledge  for  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  by  the  Porte  ;  but  was 
eventually  returned.  In  1854,  it  was  again  besieged  by  the  Russians,  30,000 
strong,  under  Prince  Paskiewich,  and  many  assaults  were  made.  Russians 
commenced  their  retreat,  as  Omar  Pacha  was  drawing  near. 

SILVER  COIN,  U.  S.  The  silver  coinage  of  the  U.  S.  Mint,  for  one  year,  end- 
ing June  30,  1859,  was  $7,336,609.  From  1793  to  1859,  inclusive,  it  amount- 
ed to  $122,694,836.  In  England,  in  the  first  ten  years  of  Victoria,  the 
amount  of  silver  coined  was  $2,440,614.  It  is  supposed  that  the  silver  coin- 
age of  the  world  amounts  to  twelve  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  The  largest 
amount  coined  in  any  one  year  in  the  U.  S.  was  $9,077,571  in  1853.  In  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1863,  the  coinage  was  $1,564,297,  in  3,053,150  pieces. 
Of  this  $1,040,638  came  from  the  mint  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  the  rest 
from  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  The  coinage  in  1866,  including  two  and 
three-cent  pieces,  was  $1,183,330.  A  tax  of  8  cents  per  oz.  was  levied  on 
silver  ware  in  use,  by  act  of  Congress,  July  1,  1862.  Revenue  from  this 
source  to  the  government  in  1863,  $18,372;  in  1866,  $128,522.  This  tax  re- 
moved, 1866. 

SIMPLON.     A  mountain  road  leading  from  Switzerland  into  Italy,  constructed 


182  THE   WOBLD'S   PBOGBESS. 

by  Napoleon  in  1801-7.  It  winds  up  passes,  crosses  cataracts,  and  passes  bj 
galleries  through  solid  rock.  It  has  eight  principal  bridges.  The  number  of 
workmen  employed  at  one  time  varied  from  thirty  to  forty  thousand. 

SINKING  FUND,  IN  ENGLAND.  First  projected  by  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  whose 
act  was  passed  in  1716.  The  act  establishing  the  sinking  fund  of  Mr.  Pitt 
was  passed  in  March,  1786.  A  then  estimated  surplus  of  £900,000  in  the 
revenue  was  augmented  by  new  taxes  to  make  up  the  sum  of  one  million, 
which  was  to  be  invariably  applied  to  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt.  la 
July,  1828,  the  sinking  fund  was  limited  to  the  actual  surplus  of  revenue. 

SINOPE  (SINOUB).    See  Russo-Turkish  War. 

SKATING.  Invented  probably  by  the  Scandinavians  who  used  the  sharp-edged 
shank  hones  of  sheep  or  deer,  or  strips  of  fir  wood,  though  Olaus  Magnus 
(d.  1555)  mentions  the  use  of  iron.  At  first  the  skater  pushed  himself  about 
by  an  iron-shod  pole.  Wooden  skates  with  iron  blades  were  invented  in 
Holland.  From  1855  to  1861  various  means  were  contrived  to  improve 
skates,  by  attaching  a  shoe  to  the  wood,  making  it  wholly  of  steel,  jointing 
the  wood,  setting  it  on  springs,  &c.  A  skate  for  floors  has  been  invented, 
running  on  small  wheels  of  India  rubber. 

SLAVERY,  (p.  586.)  There  were  400,000  slaves  in  Attica,  317  B.  c.  In  Rome 
slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  a  great  man's  house,  to  give  admit- 
tance to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feast.  By  one  of  the  laws  of  the  XII. 
Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent  debtors,  and  keep  them  in  their 
houses,  till  by  their  services  or  labor  they  had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed. 
C.  Pollio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave  him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish 
ponds,  to  fatten  his  lampreys,  42  B.  c.  Caecilius  Isodorus  left  to  his  heir  4,1 16 
slaves,  12B.  c.  The  first  Janissaries  were  Christian  slaves,  1329. — Serfdom, 
a  modified  form  of  slavery,  was  abolished  by  Frederic  I.  of  Prussia,  in  1702; 
by  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  in  176n,  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  in  his 
hereditary  states  in  1781 ;  and  by  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia  on  the  imperial  do- 
mains, in  1842 :  whose  successor,  Alexander  II.,  effected  its  total  abolition 
throughout  his  empire,  amid  much  opposition  (1860-1).  IN  THE  UNITES? 
STATES  (p.  532)  before  the  war  of  independence  all  the  states  contained 
slaves.  In  1783  the  statement  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of  Rights,  "All 
men  are  born  free  and  equal,"  was  declared  in  the  supreme  court  at 
Boston  to  bar  slave  holding  in  that  state.  Before  1790  the  further  intro- 
duction of  slaves  had  been  prohibited  in  five  other  states.  On  July  13, 
1787,  Congress  passes  unanimously  the  celebrated  ordinance  "for  the  govern 
ment  of  the  territory  to  the  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio,"  which  contained  an  "  unalter- 
able "  article  forbidding  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  in  the  said  territory. 
After  1800,  several  of  the  states  prayed  without  effect  to  be  relieved  of  this 
prohibition.  In  1803  Louisiana  was  purchased,  which  act  was  considered  by 
many  as  fatal  to  the  constitution.  In  Feb.  1820,  the  celebrated  Missouri  Com- 
promise, drawn  up  by  Mr.  Clay,  was  carried,  by  which  slavery  was  permitted 
in  that  state,  but  was  prohibited  in  all  that  part  of  it  to  the  north  of  36°  30' 
N.  Lat.  In  1845  a  fresh  contest  arose  between  the  slave-holders  and  their 
opponents  at  the  annexation  of  Texas.  The  utmost  the  advocates  of  freedom 
could  obtain  was  a  similar  division  to  that  of  Missouri,  Dec.  29,  1845.  In  1850 
another  compromise  was  effected :  California  was  admitted  as  a  free  state ;  but 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  was  passed  (which  see).  In  1854  the  Missouri  compromise 
was  abrogated  with  the  admission  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas  as  slave-holding 
states ;  in  the  latter  of  which  civil  war  ensued.  See  Kansas  ;  United  State*. 
An  attempt  to  create  a  slave  rebellion  took  place  in  Virginia,  headed  by  Julie 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


183 


Brown,  and  failed,  in  Oct.  1859.  Number  of  slaves  in  1850,  3,204,313  ;  IE 
1860,  3,999,283.  Upon  the  secession  of  the  southern  states,  Mr.  A.  H.  Steph 
eiis,  of  Georgia,  declared  that  "  slavery  "  was  the  corner  stone  of  their  confeder- 
acy  (1861).  During  the  war,  slaves  were  held  to  be  "contraband  of  war"  by 
the  IT.  S.  Government.  By  act  of  Congress,  June  19,  1862,  slavery  was 
forever  excluded  from  the  territories.  Jan.  1863,  the  great  "  Emancipation 
Proclamation"  of  President  Lincoln  was  issued,  declaring  all  slaves  in  the 
rebellious  states  free,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  "  fit  and  necessary  war  meas- 
ure for  suppressing  such  rebejlion."  Slavery  was  finally  abolished  from  the 
United  States  by  act  of  Congress,  January,  1865.  See  Constitution. 

SLAVE  TRADE,  U.  S.  Since  1855  the  proposition  to  reopen  the  slave  trade 
has  been  discussed  in  several  conventions  and  public  assemblies  in  the 
southern  states.  This  infamous  traffic  is  denounced  in  the  "Republican  plat- 
form" (Chicago,  June,  1860),  and  is  repudiated  also  by  the  congress  of  the 
44  Southern  Confederacy"  (Feb.,  1861),  but  the  latter  abolished  the  death 
penalty  affixed  to  its  prohibition  by  the  laws  of  the  U.  S.  In  defiance  of  these 
laws  a  large  number  of  slavers  have  been  fitted  out,  chiefly  in  N.  Y.  and  other 
northern  ports,  during  the  years  1858,  '59,  '60  ;  several  have  been  seized  be- 
f-.re  sailing  and  many  others  captured  with  slaves.  Treaty  with  Great  Britain 
for  further  measures  against  trade  in  slaves,  186- 

SNUFF-TAKING.  (p.589.)  In  England,  in  1858,  2,573,925  Ibs.  of  snuff  and 
cigars  were  imported.  See  Tobacco. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  The  British  National  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  So- 
cial Science  originated  in  a  meeting  at  lord  Brougham's  in  May,  1857.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  promote  improvements  in  the  administration  of  law,  in  education,  in 
public  health,  and  in  social  economy.  It  holds  annual  meetings,  and  publishes 
its  proceedings.  The  first  meeting  was  at  Birmingham. 

30CIETIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS,  Literary  and  Scientific,  in  the  United  States.  See 
Academies  (p.  202). 


American  Ethnological  Society  at  N.  Y. 
American  Oriental  Society  at  New  Haven. 
American  Geographical  and  Statistical  So- 
ciety, N.  Y. 


|  American  Institute  (for  Agriculture  and 

Useful  Arts),  N.  Y. 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  1S65. 


In  nearly  every  State  of  the  Union  there  is  an  Historical  Society,  devoted  to 
the  collection  and  preservation  of  historical  records,  printed  end  in  MS. ;  several 
of  them  have  published  transactions  and  collections.  That  uf  the  Mass.  Hist. 
Soc.  comprises  about  30  vols.  The  N.  Y.  Hist.  Soc.  has  published  6  or  7  vols. 
GREAT  BRITAIN.  All  in  the  list  below  are  in  London,  except  othherwise  stated. 
An  act  was  passed  Aug.  11, 1854,  "to  afford  facilities  for  the  establishment 
of  Institutions  for  the  promotion  of  Literature  and  Science,"  by  grants  of  land, 
&c.,  and  for  their  regulation.  The  Royal  and  London  Institutions  are  exempt- 
fed  from  the  operation  of  the  act. 

SOCIETIES,  INSTITUTIONS,   *C. 


Royal  Society Charter  1662 

Society  of  Antiquaries 

(Charter  1751)  1717  : 

Society  of  Dilettnnti 1734 

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 

(Charter  1783)1739 

Society  of  Arts (Charter  1847)  1753 

Koyal  Irish  Academy  ....Charter  1783 
Linnean  Society. .  .(Charter  1802)  1788 
Horticultural  Society 

(Charter  1809)  1804 


Medico-Chirurgical  Society 

(Charter  1834)  1805 

London  Institution i 805 

Geolog  cal  Society. .(Charter  1826)  1807 
Royal  Society  of  Literature ....... 

(Charter  1826)  1820 

Royal  Asiatic  Society.... Charier  1823 
Mechanics'  Institution,  London. . .  1823 

Zoological  Society 1826 

British  Association i83l 

Entomological  Society 183J 


*84 


THE    WOKLtfS   PROGRESS. 


Statistical  Society 1834 

lioyal   Institute  of  British  Archi- 
tects  (Charter  1837)  1835 

Botanical  Society 1836 

.Numismatic  Society 1886 

Electrical  Society 1837 

Ornithological  Society 1837 

Royal  Agricultural  Society 1838 

Camder,  Society 1838 

Royal  Botanical  Society 1839 

Microscopical  Society 1839 

Ecclesiological  Society 1839 


Pharmaceutical  Society 1841 

Philological  Society 1841 

Dublin  Philosophical  (Society 1842 

Archaeological  Association 1843 

A rchaeological  Inst itute 1843 

Sydi-nham  Society 1843 

Ethnological  Society IMS 

Sy ro-Esryptian  Soc  ety 1 844 

KaySoc.ety 1844 

Cavendish  Society 1846 

Hakluyt  Society 1846 

Institute  of  Actuaries 1848 


Parker  Soc  ety 1840  j  A  run  del  Society. 1849 

Percy  Society 1840  ' 


.Percy  society. 

London  Libra  _ 

Shakespeare  Society 1840 


.1840 


Meteorological  Society 1851 

Photographic  Society 1853 

Uorological  Institute 1858 

Chemical  Society..." 1841 

SOLFERINO  (in  Lombardy),  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the  chief  struggle  on  the 
great  battle  of  June  24,  1859,  between  the  allied  French  and  Sardinian  army 
commanded  by  their  respective  sovereigns,  and  the  Austrians  under  General 
Hess;  the  emperor  being  present.  The  Austrian  s  after  their  defeat  at 
Magenta,  gradually  retreated  across  the  Mincio,  and  took  up  a  position  in  the 
celebrated  quadrilateral,  and  was  expected  there  to  await  the  attack.  But 
the  advance  of  Garibaldi  on  one  side,  and  of  prince  Napoleon  and  the  Tus- 
cans on  the  other,  induced  them  to  recross  the  Mincio  and  take  the  offensive, 
which  they  did  on  June  '23.  The  conflict  began  early  the  next  morming,  and 
lasted  fifteen  hours.  The  French  attribute  the  victory  to  the  skill  and  bravery 
of  their  emperor  and  the  generals  M'Mahon  and  Kiel;  the  Austrians  to  the 
destruction  of  their  reserve  by  the  rifled  cannon  of  their  adversaries.  The 
Sardinians  maintained  a  fearful  contest  of  fifteen  hours  at  San  Martino,  it  is 
said  against  double  their  number.  Loss  of  the  Austrians,  630  officers,  and 
19,311  soldiers  ;  of  the  allies,  8  generals,  936  officers,  and  17,305  soldiera 
killed  and  wounded.  This  battle  closed  the  war ;  preliminaries  of  peace  be- 
ing  signed  at  Villa  Franca,  July  12. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  (p.  591.)  Population  1850,  whites,  274,463 ;  free  colored, 
8,960;  slaves,  384,984 ;  1860,  whites,  303,186;  slaves,  407,185.  Ordinance 
delaring  "  Secession  "  from  the  United  States,  passed  Dec.  20,  I860.  The 
"  Star  of  the  West  "  with  U.  S.  troops  lor  Fort  Sumter,  tired  on  and  repulsed 
from  the  harbor,  Jan.  1861.  Gen  Sherman  marched  unopposed  through  the 
etiite  early  in  1865.  B.  Perry  appointed  Provisional  Governor  June  30,  1865. 
Ac't  of  Secession  repealed  Sept.  15,  1865,  by  the  State  Legislature.  Debt  of 
the  State  in  Sept.  1866,  exclusive  of  past  due  coupons  and  military  debt, 
$4,426,440.  South  Carolina  included  in  the  "  Second  Military  District,"  by 
act  of  Congress  1867,  and  Gen.  Sickles  appointed  Governor.  In  Sept.  1867, 
he  was  removed  by  the  President,  and  succeeded  by  Gen.  Canby. 

SPAIN,  (p.  591.) 


KTarvaez  exiled  to  Vienna... Jan.  1863 
General   O'Donnell,  Concha,  and 

others,  banished Jan.  IS,  1854 

P«<ace  restored  ;  the  degraded 
generals  reinstated,  &c.  ;  Espar- 
tero  forms  an  administration, 

-July  31,  1864 
The   queen    mother   impeached ; 

she  quits  Spain Aug.  28,  1854 

Don  Carlos  dies Man  h  10,  1865 

Resignation  of  Espartero  ;  new 
(•iil'inet  formed  headed  by  Mar- 
shal O'Donnell  ;  insurrection 
in  Madrid,  July  14;  O'Dounell 


and  the  srovernmpr.t  troops  Kuhdue 
the  insurgents;  the  national  guaid 
suppressed July  15,  16,  1856 

O'Donnell  compelled  io  resign  ;  Nar- 
vaez  becomes  minister Oct.  12,  1861 

Joint  French  and  Spanish  expedition 
against  Cochin  China  announced 

Dec.  1,  1868 

War  with  Morocco...... Nov.  and  Deo.  1859 

O'Donnell  commands  the  army  in  Afri- 
ca ;  indecisive  conflicts  reported; 
battle  at  Castillijos  :  a  Spanish  "  Us- 
laklava"  charge;  Jan.  1 ;  the  Spa- 
niards near  Tetuan Jan.  1860 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  185 

•TEAKERS,  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES.  See  Administrations.  OF  THB 
HOUSE  OF  COMMONS,  BRITISH.  Peter  de  Montfort,  afterwards  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Evesham,  was  the  first  Speaker,  45  Hen.  III.  1260. 


Rt.  Hon.  Henry  Addingtor.  (after- 
ward Visct.  Sidmouth..Jan.  22,  1801 

Sir  John  Mitford  (afterwards  Ba- 
ron Redesdale) Feb.  11,  1801 

Et.  Hon.  Charles  Abbot  (iifter- 
wards  Lord  Colchester. Feb.  10,  1802 

Rt.  Hon.  Charles  Manners  Sutton 


Rt.    Hon.    James    Abercromby  (after  • 
wards  Baron  Dunfennl  ne). . .  Feb.  19,  1835 

Rt.     Hon.     Charles     Shaw    I.efevre 
(afterwards        Viscount      Eversley) 

M;irch27, 1838 

Rt.     Hon.     John     Everlyn     Denison 
(PRESENT  Speaker,  1867) April  80,  1857 


(afterwards    Viscount   Canter- 
bury)  June  2, 1817  i 

SPECTATOR.  The  first  number  of  this  periodical  appeared  on  March  1,  1711 ; 
the  last  Aug.  2,  1715.  The  papers  by  Addison  have  one  of  the  letters  CLIO 
at  the  end.  The  most  of  the  other  papers  are  by  Sir  Richard  Steele ;  a  few 
by  Hughes,  Budgell,  Eusden,  Miss  Shephard,  aud  others. 

STAGE-COACH.  Stage-coaches  were  quite  general  in  England  about  1660,  suc- 
ceeding a  kind  of  wagon,  which  had  been  introduced  about  1564.  They 
often  travelled  only  30  miles  a  day. 

STAMP-DUTIES,  England,  (p.  596.)  In  June,  1865,  the  stamp-duty  on  news- 
papers as  such  was  totally  abolished ;  the  stamp  on  them  being  thenceforth 
used  for  postal  purposes  only.  In  July  and  Aug.  1854,  19,116,000  news- 
paper stamps  were  issued ;  in  the  same  months,  1855,  only  6,870,000. 

STARS,  (p.  597.)  Maps  of  the  Stars  were  published  in  London  by  the  Soc.  for 
the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  in  1839 ;  and  those  by  the  Royal  Prussian 
Academy  were  completed  in  1859. 

STEAM-BOAT  EXPLOSIONS.  See  Wrecks.  Steamer  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Mississippi,  boilers  burst,  10  lives  lost,  June  3,  1858.  Steamer  Princess  for 
New  Orleans,  boilers  burst,  25  k.  35  w.,  Feb.  27,  1859.  By  21  inland  steam- 
boat accidents  during  1860,  242  lives  were  lost,  and  146  persons  injured.  To- 
tal in  7  years,  213  accidents,  2,304  killed,  956  injured.  It  thus  appears  that 
while  the  accidents  and  injuries  by  railroads  are  about  four  times  as  numerous 
sis  those  by  steam-bout,  the  deaths  are  but  half  as  many. 

STEAM-BOAT  BUILDING.  The  annual  report  on  commerce  and  navigation, 
gives  the  following  aggregate  of  the  number  of  steam-boats  built  in  the 
United  States  since  1824 — thirty  years — in  periods  of  five  years  each  : 


From  1824  to  1829 194 

"      1829  to  1834 S04 

"       1834  to  1839 504 

"      1839tol644 522 


From  1844  to  1849 960 

"      1849  to  1854 1203 


Total 3687 

Since  1860,  steamship  building  has  fallen  off  very  materially  (except  for 
inland  navigation).  In  1860,  the  whole  registered  "steam  tonnage"  built  in 
the  U.  S.,  was  the  small  amount  of  97,296  tons ;  in  1865  it  decreased  to  69,500 
tons.  See  Shipping. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION,  (p.  598.)  The  Collins  line  of  steamers  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool,  commenced  running  April,  1850.  The  Pacific  of  this  line 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  9  days,  19  hours,  May,  1851.  The  Adriatic,  the  larg- 
est of  the  line,  first  left  N.  Y.  Nov.  23, 1857.  The  City  of  Glasgow,  first  of 
a  line  between  Philadelphia  and  Liverpool,  arrived  Jan.  1,  1851.  In  1865, 
there  were  12  steamship  companies  employed  in  the  transit  between  Europfl 
and  the  U.  S.,  none  of  which  were  American!  The  difficulty  is  that  steam- 
ships cannot  be  constructed  in  America  to  the  same  advantage  as  in  England. 
See  Shipping. 

STEEL  PENS  came  into  use  in  England  about  1820,  when   the  first  gross  of 


ISO  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

three-split  pens  was  sold  wholesale  for  £7  4s.  In  1830  the  price  was  8s.,  anc 
in  1863,  6s.  A  better  pen  is  now  sold  for  6d.  a  gross  ;  the  cheapest  sort  at 
2d.  ;  Birmingham  produces  about  1,000  million  pens  per  annum.  Women  an^ 
children  are  principally  employed  in  the  manufacture.  In  the  U.  S.  tht 
manufacture  of  this  article  has  been  successfully  introduced  since  1850,  and 
brought  to  considerable  degree  of  perfection.  Gold  pens  are  also  made  here 
extensively,  and  fully  equal  to  any  imported. 

STEREOCHROMY.  A  mode  of  painting  in  which  water-glass  (an  alkaline  solu- 
tion of  flint,  silex)  serves  as  the  connecting  medium  between  the  color  and 
the  substratum.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Von  Fuchs,  who  died  at  Munich 
on  March  5,  1856.  Fine  specimens  of  this  art  by  Kaulbach  and  Echter  exist  in 
the  Museum  at  Berlin,  and  also  at  Munich. 

STEREOSCOPE  (from  stereos,  solid,  and  skopein,  to  see).  An  optical  instrument, 
for  representing  in  apparent  relief  natural  objects,  &c.,  by  uniting  into  one 
image  two  plane  representations  of  these  objects  as  seen  by  each  eye  sepa- 
rately. The  first  was  constructed  and  exhibited  by  Prof.  Charles  Wlieatstone 
in  1838.  Since  1854,  stereoscopes  have  been  greatly  improved,  and  are  now 
exceedingly  cheap.  In  the  U.  S.  the  production  both  of  stereoscopic  picture? 
and  instruments  has  increased  enormously  (1859-67),  and  these  articles  form 
an  important  and  popular  article  of  trade. 

STETHOSCOPE.  In  1S16  Laennee,  of  Paris,  by  rolling  a  quire  of  paper  into  a 
kind  of  cylinder,  and  applying  one  end  to  the  patient's  chest  and  the  other  tc 
his  own  ear,  perceived  the  action  of  the  heart  in  a  much  more  distinct  manner 
than  by  the  immediate  application  of  the  ear.  This  led  to  his  inventing  the 
stethoscope,  or  "  breast-explorer ;"  the  principle  of  which,  now  termed 
"  auscultation,"  was  known  by  Hippocrates. 

STORMS.  In  Gulf  of  Mexico,  173  persons  lost  on  Last  Island  (a  summer  re- 
sort), Aug.  10,  1856. 

STREET  RAILWAYS,  in  England,  previously  established  by  G.  F.  Train  in  New 
York,  were  opened  by  him  at  Birkenhead,  Cheshire,  Aug.  30,  I860,  and  at 
Bayswater,  London,  March  23,  1861.  A  street  railway  bill  was  rejected  by  the 
House  of  Commons  in  April,  1861.  Several  of  these  railways  existed  for  a 
time  in  various  parts  of  the  metropolis  in  1861,  but,  were  all  taken  up  in  186'2. 

STRIKES.  The  tailors  of  London  struck  for  increase  of  wages  in  April,  1834. 
The  strike  of  the  amalgamated  engineers  took  place  in  1853.  A  general 
strike  among  the  shoe-makers  of  New  England,  continued  for  several  months, 
1859-80. 

STRYCHNIA.  A  poisonous  vegetable  alkaloid,  discovered  in  1818  by  Pelletier 
and  Caventou  in  the  seeds  of  the  strychnus  ignatia  and  mix  vomit-si,  and  also 
in  the  upas  poison.  It  is  so  virulently  poisonous  that  half  a  grain  blown  into 
the  throat  of  a  rabbit  occasions  death  in  four  minutes  ;  its  operation  .s  accom- 
panied by  lock-jaw.  Much  attention  was  given  to  strychnia  in  1856,  during 
the  trial  of  Palmer  for  the  murder  of  Cook. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  A  plan  for  a  canal  between  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Bay  of  Pdusium  was  brought  forward  by  M.  De  Lesseps  in  1857.  The 
Egyptian,  Turkish,  Russian,  French,  and  Austrian  governments  are  in  favor 
of  the  scheme,  which  is  at  present  opposed  by  the  British.  The  cost  is  esti- 
mated at  £8,000,000. 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH.      Originated  with  Prof.  Morse,  who  first  tested  it 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  187 

In  New  York  harbor,  1842.  The  first  suggestion  of  Atlantic  telegraph  is 
said  to  have  been  made  by  him  in  1843.  Professor  Charles  Wheatstone  in 
1840  drew  plans  of  a  projected  submarine  telegraph  between  Dover  and 
Calais.  In  1847  Mr.  J.  W.  Brett  submitted  a  similar  plan  to  Louis  Philippe 
without  success;  but  in  1850 he  obtained  permission  from  Louis  Napoleon  to 
make  a  trial.  This  took  place  on  Aug.  28,  1850,  but  failed.  New  arrange- 
ments were  soon  made,  and  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  ;  and  the  tele- 
graph was  opened,  Nov.  13,  1851.  On  that  day,  the  opening  and  closing 
prices  of  the  funds  in  Paris  were  known  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange  with- 
in business  hours.  Guns  were  fired  at  Dover  by  means  of  electric  sparks 
communicated  from  Calais.  In  1860  there  were  in  operation  1,954  miles  of 
submarine  telegraph,  exclusive  of  the  Atlantic.  ATLANTIC.  A  plan  to  unite 
Europe  and  America  by  the  electric  telegraph  was  attempted  to  be  carried 
out  oy  a  company  in  1857  and  1858,  chiefly  promoted  by  Cyrus  W.  Field,  of 
Few  York  ;  with  the  concurrence  of  the  British  and  American  governments. 
2,500  miles  of  wire  were  manufactured  and  tested  in  March,  1857.  The  lay- 
ing it  down  commenced  at  Valentia,  in  Ireland,  on  Aug.  5.  The  vessels  em- 
ployed were  the  Niagara  and  Susquehanna  (American  vessels),  and  the  Leop- 
ard and  Agamemnon  (British  vessels).  After  sailing  a  few  miles  the  cable 
snapped.  This  was  soon  repaired  ;  but  on  Aug.  11,  after  300  miles  of  wire 
had  been  paid  out  it  snapped  again,  and  the  vessels  returned  to  Plymouth.  In 
1858  a  second  attempt  to  lay  the  cable  failed,  through  a  violent  storm  on 
June  20-21  ;  but  the  third  voyage  was  successful.  On  Aug.  5,  the  junction 
between  the  two  continents  was  completed  by  the  laying  down  of  2,050  miles 
of  wire  from  Valentia  in  Ireland  to  Newfoundland.  The  first  two  messages, 
on  Aug.  5,  were  from  the  Queen  of  England  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  his  reply.  The  event  caused  great  rejoicing  in  both  countries  ; 
but  unfortunately  the  insulation  of  the  wire  became  gradually  more  faulty, 
and  on  Sept.  4  the  power  of  transmitting  intelligence  utterly  ceased.  The 
grand  celebration  in  New  York  of  the  (supposed)  completion  of  this  enter- 
prise, Sept.  1,  1858.  In  1865,  another  attempt  to  lay  a  cable  was  made.  A 
new  one  was  manufactured  2,300  nautical  miles  long,  and  2-£  times  stronger 
than  the  old  one.  Diameter,  a  little  more  than  an  inch.  It  was  coiled  in  the 
mammoth  ship  Great  Eastern.  The  expedition  started  July  23,  1865  from 
Valentia  Bay.  1,200  miles  were  successfully  laid  when  suddenly  the  cable 
parted,  in  water  2£  miles  deep.  4  attempts  to  grapple  it  were  made,  but  the 
cable  could  not  be  raised  to  the  surface  without  much  stronger  wire  ropes. 
The  ships  returned  to  England,  but  the  enterprise  was  not  given  up.  A  new 
company  was  formed  at  once,  called  the  "  Anglo-American  Telegraph  Com- 
pany":  capital,  £600,000.  A  more  perfect  cable  was  constructed,  and  the 
Gre;it  Eastern  started  again  with  it,  July  13,  1866,  On  the  27th  she  reached 
Heart's  Content,  Newfoundland,  with  the  cable  in  perfect  order.  The  news 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  in  both  countries,  and  ovations  tendered 
to  Cyrus  W.  Field,  the  American,  to  whose  energy  the  success  was  in  great 
part  due.  The  Great  Eastern  returned  to  the  spot  where  the  cable  of  1865 
parted,  and  after  many  attempts  it  was  discovered  Sept.  2,  1866.  and  con- 
tinued to  the  American  side  :  making  two  cables  across  the  Atlantic;  one  of 
the  cables  was  injured  near  the  Newfoundland  shore  in  May,  1867,  but  was 
soon  repaired,  and  both  cables  have  now  been  in  constant  use  for  13  months. 
(Aug.  1867.)  The  cable  from  Key  West  to  Cuba  successfully  laid 
August,  1867,  by  a  New  York  Company.  More  than  sixty  submarine 
cables  have  been  completed  to  this  date.  The  most  important  are  these : 


188 


THB  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 


Time 

.of 
Laying. 

1651... 

1S53... 

1S64... 

1855'.'.'. 
1856... 
1857... 


Geographical  Position. 

.Dover  to  Calais 

.Dover  to  O<-tend 

.Sweden  to  Denmark 

.Italy  to  Corsica 

.Italy  to  Sicily 

.Newfoundland  to  rape  Breton 

.Across  Norway  Fjords 

to  Hii  dostan 


.Ce\lon  u 
186S.... England  to  Holland. 

"    ....England  to  Hanov<r 

"    ....South  Australia  to  King's  Island 

"   ....Ceylon  to  Hindostan 

1859. ...England  to  De  .mark 

"    ....Foik>tone  to  Boulogne 

"   ....Malta  to  Sicily 

"    ,...L  verpool  to  Holyhead 

"    ....Across  Bnss's  Strait 

.Dacca  to  Prau 

.Barcelona  to  Port  Million 

.Cape  San  Antonio  to  Iviza ,.. 

.Toulon  to  Corsica 

"   ....Holyhead  to  Howih  (near  Dublin) 

"    ....Malta  to  Alexandria 

"    . ...Xew  Haven  (England)  to  Dieppe......  .. 

1862.... Fortress  Monroe  t<i  Cape  CharUs 

"   ....England  to  Holland. 

1863.... Sardinia  to  Sicily 

"   ....Persan  Gulf  to  Kurrachee  (H.ndostan). 

1865.... Sweden  to  Prussia 

1866 Corsica  to  I^eghorn 

"   ....Across  Puget  Sound 

"   ....Va:c>ntia  to  Newfoundland 

"    .  ...Valentia    to  Newfoundland   (completed 

from  1SC5,  about) 

"    ... .Newfoundland  to  Cape  Breton 

1867 Key  West  to  Havana 


Length 

th.tf 

in 

Ci-n- 

Jfitft. 

ductort. 

27 

4 

80* 

6 

12 

3 

110 

6 

5 

3 

85 

1 

49 

1 

80 

1 

140 

4 

280 

2 

140 

1 

30 

1 

368 

3 

24 

0 

60 

1 

26 

2 

240 

1 

116f 

1 

180 

1 

76 

2 

195 

1 

64 

1 

1,535 

1 

80 

4 

23 

1 

ISO 

4 

211 

1 

1,450 

1 

55 

8 

66 

1 

32 

1 

l,8t'4 

1 

1,864 

1 

85 

1 

191 

T 

Time  in  Operi 
titm,  tn  July, 
.867  about. 
Iti  years. 
14      » 
14      " 
13      " 
12      " 
11      « 
19      " 
10      « 

9      " 

9      " 

9      " 

9      «• 

6      " 

8 

8 

8 

3 

7 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 

« 

5 

6 

4 


18  month*. 
14      «« 
11      " 

10      " 
10      '• 


SUGAR.     The  following  is  the  official  statement  of  the  amount  of  sugar  im 
ported  into  this  country  from  1851  to  1860: 


Value  of  Sugar.  Duty  paid. 

1851 $13,478,700  $4.043,600 

1852 13,977,300  4,183,200 

185:'. 14,168,300  4,250,500 

1854 11,6-04.600  3,481,300 

1855 13,284,600  3.989.400 

1856 21,255,100  6,388,500 


Value  of  Sugar.  Duty  paid- 

1857 $41,596,200  $12,478,800 

1858 18.96,600  4,557,200 

1859 28.345800  6,802,800 

1860 28,931,100  6,943,400 


Total  Ten  years . .  $206, 557,800  $57, 1 1  S.70C 
The  sugar  crop  of  Louisiana  last  year  was  valued  at  $24,988, 0(.0.  The 
average  for  five  years  has  been  $17,000,000  (1861).  In  New  York  state  in 
1865,  9,635,200  pounds  of  maple-sugar  were  produced.  Pennsylvania  pro- 
duces 2,6(10,000  pounds  a  year.  The  sorghum-sugar  plant  has  lately  been  in- 
troduced from  China,  and  sugar  produced  from  it  in  considerable  quantities. 
Sugar  from  beet-root  is  also  pronounced  a  success.  10,000  pounds  were 
manufactured  in  Livingston  county,  Illinois,  in  1867. 

SUNDAY  LAWS.  (p.  003.)  In  the  state  of  New  York,  the  laws  against  selling 
liquors,  mid  npainst  certain  theatrical  performances  on  Sundays,  have  caused 
much  discussion,  and  some  resistance,  chiefly  on  the  part  of  the  German  and 
Irish  population,  but  are  still  enforced  (1867). 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS.     See  Education  and  Sabbath  School*. 
SURNAMES.     See  Sirnames.     (p.  566.) 
SUSPENSION  BRIDGES,    (p.  604.)    See  Bridge* 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67. 


159 


SWEDEN,    (p.  604.) 

Death  of  Bernadotte,  whose  son 

Oscar,     ascends    the    throne, 

March  8,    1844 

Treaty  of  alliance  with  Knghind 

and  France Nov.  21,    1855 

Banishment      decreed     agai  .si 

Catholic  converts  from  Luther. 

anisra Oct.    1857 

SWITZERLAND. 

Declaration  of  neutrality  In  the 
coming  Italian  \var.  March  14,  1860 

Mutiny  and  punishment  of  the 
Swiss  mercenary  troops  at 


Demonstration  tn  favor  of 
Italian  Independence.. Dec.  17  »sM 

Charles  XV.  (born  May  3,  1826), 
the  PRESENT  (1861)  king  of 
Sweden  and  Norway.. .July  8,  18M 

Heiress  :  Princess  Louisa,  bcrn 

Oct.  31  1861 


Naples  ;  the  confederation  for- 
bid foreign  enlistment. 

July  and  Aug.    1861 


TARIFF.  A  schedule  of  duties  charged  by  government  on  goods  imported.  The 
British  tariff  in  1840  comprised  1,042  articles;  the  number  was  reduced  (by 
sir  Robert  Peel)  in  1845  and  1847.  It  comprised  439  articles  in  1857 ;  the 
number  was  greatly  reduced  in  1860.  See  Customs  Duties. 

TAXATION.  U.  S.  Before  the  rebellion  the  revenue  of  the  U.  S.  general  Govern- 
ment  was  raised  wholly  from  customs  and  sale  of  lands.  Subsequently,  to 
support  the  war,  direct  taxation  was  imposed.  The  direct  taxes  in  1865, 
amounted  to  $211,129,529.  See  Revenue,  Debt,  &c. 

TEA,  in  ENGLAND,  (p.  610.) 

Imported  tn  1850 50,11 2,384  Ibs.  I  Imported  in  1857 69,116,000  Ibs. 

"          "1856 86,200,414   "    |         "         "1858 74,222,000" 

The  duty  derived  from  the  import  of  tea  in  1850,  amounted  to  £5,471,641, 
and  the  amount  in  1852  was  £6,902,433.  The  duty  upon  tea  had  been  grad- 
ually reduced  from  2*.  2%d.  to  one  shilling  only  per  pound,  in  1858.  In 
UNITED  STATES.  Value  imported  in  the  years  ending  June  SO, 

1855.  1866.  1857.  1858.  1859. 

$6,930,986  $6,893891  $5,757,860  $6,777,295  $7,306,910 

Amount  consumed  in  U.  S., 

1861.        1862.        1863.        1864.        1865.        1S66. 
26,520,000  Ibs.  27,468,600  Ibs.  26,906,365  Ibs.  23,137,546  Ibs.  29,953,433  Ibs.  29, 643, 1ST  Ibs. 

TELEGRAPH.     See  Electric  Tel.  and  Submarine  Tel. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES,  (p.  611.)  Legislation  against  intemperance  in  the 
U.  S.  has  been  attempted  in  several  States.  The  "  Maine  Law  "  passed  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Neal  Dow,  1851,  was  adopted  essentially  by  Connec- 
ticut (1856),  New  York  (1856)  and  Massachusetts  (1856).  It  was  strongly 
enforced  in  the  latter  State,  although  vigorously  opposed  by  many,  L8t>6-7. 
It  was  repealed  in  Maine,  1856. 

TENNESSEE,  (p.  612.)  Population  in  1850,  763,154,  and  239,460  slaves;  in 
1860,  859,528,  and  287,112  slaves.  Ordinance  of  "  Separation  "  passed  May 
6,  1861.  The  eastern  part  of  the  State  was  noted  for  its  loyalty  to  the  Union 
during  the  war.  State  debt  in  1865,  $1,213,700.  At  the  State  "election  ,  Aug. 
1,  1867,  Governor  Brownlow,  of  the  "  Union  "  or  Radical  ticket,  was  re-elected 
by  a  majority  of  nearly  50,000,  chiefly  made  up  by  the  negroes,  who  voted  in 
this  State  for  the  first  time. 

TEXAS,  (p.  613.)  Population  in  1860,  416,000,  and  184,956  slaves.  Ordinance 
of  Secession  from  the  United  States  passed  Jan.  1861.  Debt  in  18B5,  $s,192- 
000.  After  the  war,  Gen.  A.  J.  Hamilton  was  appointed  Provisional 


190  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Governor,  by  Pres.  Lincoln :  but  at  the  first  election  after  the  restoration, 
(1866)  a  Secessionist,  (Throckmorton),  was  elected.  Texas  included  in  6th 
Military  District  under  Sheridan,  March,  1867. 

THEOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  Theos,  God).  The  science  which  treats  of  the 
nature  and  attributes  of  God,  of  his  relations  to  man,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  may  be  discovered.  It  is  generally  divided  into  two  heads.  1. 
Inspired  (including  the  Holy  Scriptures,  their  interpretation,  &c.);  2.  Natural ; 
which  latter  Lord  Bacon  calls  the  first  part  of  philosophy.  Butler's  Analogy 
of  Religion  (1736),  and  Paley's  Natural  Theology  (1802),  are  eminent  books 
on  the  latter  subject.  The  "Summa  Totius  Theologiae"  by  Thomas  Aquinaa 
(born  about  1224),  a  standard  Roman  Catholic  work,  was  printed  with  com- 
mentaries, &c.,  in  1596. 

THESSALONICA.  A  city  in  Macedonia  (now  Salonica).  Here  Paul  preached  A. 
R.  63  ;  and  to  the  church  here  he  addressed  two  epistles  in  54.  In  consequence 
of  seditions,  a  frightful  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  took  place  iu  390,  by  order 
of  the  emperor  Theodosius  Thessalonica  partook  of  the  changes  of  the 
Eastern  empire.  It  was  sold  to  the  Venetians  by  the  emperor  Andronicus  in 
1425;  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1430;  burnt  July  11,  1856. 

TIARA.  The  triple  crown  of  the  pope,  indicative  of  his  civil  rank,  as  the  keys 
are  of  his  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ;  and  on  the  death  of  a  pope,  his  arms  are 
presented  with  the  tiara  alone,  without  the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was  a 
high  round  cap.  Pope  Damascus  II.  first  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  with 
a  tiara,  A.  D.  1053.  John  XIX.  was  the  first  who  encompassed  the  tiara  with 
a  crown,  1276.  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second,  1295;  and  Benedict  XII. 
formed  the  tiara  about  1334. 

TIMBER-BENDING.  Apparatus  was  invented  for  this  purpose  by  M.  T.  Blan- 
chard,  of  Boston  (U.  S.),  for  which  a  medal  was  awarded  at  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition of  1855.  A  company  was  formed  for  its  application  in  England  in 
1856. 

TIMES  NEWSPAPER,  LONDON.  On  Jan.  13,  1786,  Mr.  John  Walter  published 
the  first  number  of  the  Daily  Universal  Register,  price  2|rf.  In  1788,  the 
name  of  the  paper  was  changed  to  the  Times.  Dr.  Stodart  editor  in  1812.  Dr. 
Barnes  was  the  next  editor.  On  Nov.  28,  1814,  the  Times  was  first  printed 
by  steam  power.  The  powerful  articles  contributed  by  Edward  Sterling  gained 
the  paper  the  name  of  the  Thunderer.  In  1841  the  Times  was  instrumental 
in  detecting  and  exposing  a  scheme  organized  by  a  company,  to  defraud  by 
forgery  all  the  influential  bankers  of  Europe.  This  brought  on  the  proprietors 
an  action  for  libel.  The  jury  found  the  charge  to  be  true,  giving  a  verdict  of 
one  farthing  damages,  but  the  judge  refused  costs.  Subscriptions  were  set  on 
foot  in  all  parts  of  Europe  to  reimburse  the  proprietors  for  their  immense  out- 
lay in  defending  the  action.  This  they  firmly  declined ;  and  the  money  was 
expended  in  establishing  Times  Scholarships  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  at 
flbrist's  Hospital,  and  other  schools;  marble  tablets  also,  commemorating  the 
event,  were  set  up  in  the  Royal  Exchange  and  in  other  places.  These  were  the 
greatest  honors  ever  conceded  to  a  newspaper.  Iu  Oct.,  1845,  the  Times  ex- 
press was  for  the  first  time  conveyed  to  India  overland,  by  the  agency  of  Lieut 
Waghorn.  Of  the  number  of  the  Times  for  Nov.  19,  1852,  containing  the  life 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  69,000  were  sold — the  ordinary  number  being  then 
86,000  ;  the  present  circulation  is  stated  to  vary  from  47,000  to  56,000.  In 
1854,  the  proprietors  gent  Mr.  W.  H.  Russell  as  their  special  correspondent  to 
the  seat  of  war  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  1857  to  India,  and  in  1861  to  the  United 
States. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-6*7.  191 

TITHES  (p.  616).  Abolished  in  England,  1860. 

TOBACCO.  In  a  recent  lecture  in  England,  the  Dean  of  Carlisle  stated  that  in 
1865,  33,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco  were  consumed  in  that  country,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  $40,000,000,  over  $26,000,000  of  which  went  in  duties  to  the  govern- 
ment  In  1821  the  average  annual  consumption  was  llf  ounces  to  each 
person  ;  in  1853  it  had  risen  to  19  ounces.  In  France  much  more  is  consumed 
in  proportion  to  the  population,  the  emperor  clearing  $20,000.,OCO  annually  by 
the  government  monopoly.  In  Denmark  the  annual  consumption  averages  70 
ounces  to  each  person,  in  Belgium,  73  ounces,  and  in  America,  the  average  is 
vastly  higher.  It  is  calculated  that  2,000,000  tons,  or  4,480,000,000  pounds 
of  tobacco  are  annually  used  in  the  world,  at  a  cost  sufficient  to  pay  for  all  the 
bread  corn  used  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  boasted  that  100,000,000  of  the  human 
race  are  smokers.  In  New  York  city  it  was  stated  that  there  were  in  1860, 
about  200,000  smokers,  each  using  two  cigars  daily,  making,  at  an  average  of 
four  cents  each,  the  sum  of  $16,000  daily,  or  $6,840,000  a  year,  wasted  in 
smoking  in  this  city  alone.  The  cost  in  1867  would  be  at  least  double.  There 
were,  in  1860,  about  900,000,000  cigars  manufactured  in  N.  Y.,  amounting,  at 
the  s;ime  price,  to  $36,000,000.  The  total  exports  of  tobacco  from  the  United 
States  in  39  years  (1821-59),  amounted  to  $339,274,520.  The  production  of 
tobacco  in  the  northern  states  has  increased  wonderfully  since  1850.  In  1850, 
N.  Y.  State  produced  83,000  Ibs. ;  in  1860,  5,765,000  Ibs. ;  Conn,  produced 
in  1850,  1,267,000  Ibs. ;  in  1860,  6,000,000  Ibs.  The  exports  of  tobacco  from 
the  U.  S.  in  1862,  amounted  to  $12,325,356,  being  almost  entirely  from  the 
north.  See  Treasury  Statistics  in  appendix. 

TRACTARIANISM.  This  term  is  applied  to  certain  opinions  on  church  matters 
propounded  in  the  "  Tracts  for  the  Times,"  of  which  ninety  numbers  were  pub- 
lished, in  England,  1833-41.  The  principal  writers  were  the  Revs.  Dr.  E. 
Pusey,  J.  H.  Newman,  J.  Keble,  J.  Froude,  and  I.  Williams. 

TRANSYLVANIA.  An  Austrian  province ;  was  part  of  the  ancient  Dacia.  In 
1526,  John  Zapoly  rendered  himself  independent  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 
by  the  aid  of  the  Turks.  His  successors  ruled  with  much  difficulty  till  1699, 
when  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.  finally  incorporated  Transylvania  into  the  Aus- 
trian dominions. 

TRAVELLING  IN  ENGLAND.  In  1707,  it  took  in  summer  one  day,  in  winter 
nearly  two  days,  to  travel  from  London  to  Oxford  (46  miles).  In  1817,  the 
journey  was  accomplished  in  six  or  seven  hours.  By  the  Great  Western  Rail- 
way express  (63  miles)  it  is  done  in  1-J  hour. 

TREATIES,  (p.   621.) 


Constantinople,  treaty  of May  8,  1854 

Washington,  Reciprocity  treaty  be- 
tween Great  Britain  nnd  the  U.  8., 
respecting  Newfoundland  fishery, 
commerce,  &c July  2,  1854 

OF  TIIK  U.  S.  (p.  622.) 

Treaty  with  China  signed  at  Tien 
Tsin June  13,1858 

1854 


Paris,  treaty  of  (and  Russian  war) 

April,  1856 
Paris  (settlement  of  Neufchatel 

affair) M«y  26, 1857 

Zurich  (Austria,  Frai.ce,  nnd  Siircii- 

nia) Nov.  10, 1859 

Treaty  with  Mexico,  negotiated  by  Mr. 

McLane,  but  rejected  by  the  tT.   8. 

Senate 1860 

Treaty  with   Kuesia  for    purchase    of 

Sitka,  ratified June  1867 


Treaty  with   Japan,    negotiated    by 

Com.  Perry,  signed March  31, 

Another  treaty  with  Japan,  by  Town- 

seud  Harris,  signed June  17, 1857 

TRIALS,  U.  S.     Noted  trial  of  Aaron  Burr,  on  the  charge  of  treason  against 
the  U.  S.  in  preparing  an  expedition  against  Mexico,  held  at  Richmond,  May, 


192 


THE   WOULD  S   PEOGEESS. 


1807.  Burr  acquitted.  Trial  of  John  Brown  for  treason  against  Virginia. 
(See  Harper's  Ferry).  The  assassins  of  Lincoln  tried  at  Washington,  1866. 
Trial  of  Capt.  Wirz,  for  cruelty  to  Union  Prisoners  at  Andersonville,  1865: 
he  was  convicted  and  executed  shortly  after.  Jeff  Davis,  President  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  admitted  to  bail  in  the  sum  of  $100,000,  by  U.  S.  Dis 
trict  Judge  Underwood,  Richmond  Va.,  May,  1867,  to  appear  before  him  on 
the  charge  of  treason  at  the  succeeding  term  of  the  Court.  Trial  of  John 
II.  Surrutt,  for  complicity  in  the  murder  of  Pres.  Lincoln,  lasting  about  thirty 
days,  ended  Aug.,  1867,  by  the  disagreement  of  the  jury. 

TRIESTE.  An  Austrian  port  on  the  Adriatic,  declared  a  free  port  in  1750.  It 
was  held  by  the  French  in  1717,  1797,  and  1805.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  overland  mail  to  India,  it  has  risen  to  great  commercial  importance 

TROWSERS.  Distinguished  by  looseness  from  "  pantaloons,"  which  were  orig- 
inally cut  to  sit  tight  to  the  leg  from  thigh  to  ankle.  Pantaloons  began  to 
supersede  small  clothes  during  the  French  revolution  ;  the  loose  trowser  began 
to  be  worn  after  1815;  and  have  become  as  decidedly  a  normal  form  of  gar- 
ment, as  were  the  "  breeches  "  of  the  last  century. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD  (Treuga  Dei\  A  term  given  to  a  cessation  of  the  private  feuds 
and  conflicts  so  general,  during  the  middle  ages,  all  over  Europe.  The  clergy 
strenuously  exerted  their  influence  for  the  purpose.  A  synod  at  Roussilon,  A. 
D.  1027,  decreed  that  none  should  attack  his  enemy  between  Saturday  even- 
ing (at  none?)  and  Monday  morning  (at  the  hour  of  prime).  Similar  regula- 
tions were  adopted  in  England,  1042  (sometimes  Friday  and  Wednesday  being 
chosen  for  the  time).  The  truce  of  God  was  confirmed  by  many  councils  of 
the  Church,  especially  the  Lateran  Council,  in  1179. 

TUBULAR  BRIDGES.  The  Britannia  Tubular  Suspension  Bridge,  then  the 
most  wonderful  enterprise  in  engineering  in  the  world,  was  constructed  about 
a  mile  southward  of  the  Menai  Strait  Suspension  Bridge  in  Wales.  The  Con- 
way  Tubular  Bridge  (1846-8)  is  a  miniature  copy  of  the  Britannia,  and  there- 
fore requires  no  description.  The  principal  engineers  were  Mr.  Robert  Ste- 
phenson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn.  The  most  stupendous  tubular  bridge  in  the  world 
is  that  over  the  St  Lawrence,  Canada  (see  Bridges). 

TUNIS.  In  July  1856,  the  Bey  agreed  to  make  certain  constitutional  reforms. 
The  Bey  died  Sept.  22,  1859 ;  and  no  disturbance  ensued  on  the  accession  of 
his  successor. 


TURKEY,    (p.  626.) 

Christians  admitted  to  office  in  Tur- 
key   June,  1849 

The  Turkish  government  refuses  to 
fmrrender  the  Hungarian  and  Po- 
lish r.  fugei  s  on  the  joint  demand 
of  Kussia  and  Austria Sept.  16,  1849 

Russia  .-u-peniis  Intercourse  with 
the  Porte Nov.  12,  1849 

Treity  with  France  respecting  the 
Holy  Places  (which.  «««)....  Feb.  13,  1852 

Russian  manifesto  against  Turkey 

June  26, 1863 

War  declared  ngalnst  Bussia  (-co 

War) Oct.  6, 1863 


Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  many 
years  English  ambassador  at  Con- 
stantinop'e,  returned  lo  Ei  eland, 
Jan.:  he  in  succeeded  liy  Sir.  H. 
LytitmBiilwer  ;  accredited  July  12,  1858 

Massacre  of  Christians  at  Jedda 

July  25,  1858 

Turkigh  financial  reforms  be<run,  Au<.  1858 

The  first  Turkish  railway  opened 
(from  Aden  to  Smyrna)...  Sept.  19,  1858 

Base  coinage  called  in  ;  a  nVtit  cms 
Turkish  coinage  begun  at  Birming- 
ham, and  is  suppressed Oct.  1868 

Great  agitation  for  financial  reform 

Oct  IBM 


SUPPLEMENT,   1851-67.  193 

TUSCANY,    (p.  628.) 


The  Tuscan  army  demand  alliance 
with  the  Sardinians  :  the  grand- 
duke  refuses,  and  departs  to  Bo- 
logna ;  the  King  of  Sardinia  is  pro- 
claimed dictator,  and  a  provi- 
sional government  formed,  .April 
27  ;  the  king  assumes  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  but  declines 
the  dictatorship April  30,  1859 

Prince  Nupoleon  arrives  at  Leghorn, 
addresses  the  Tuscans,  and  erects 
his  stand  ard May  23, 1859 


The  Tuscan  constituent  assembly 
meets Aug.  11,  1869 

It  declares  against  recalling  the 
house  of  Lorraine,  and  votes  for 
annexation  to  Sardinia Sept.  1859 

Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy-Carignan, 
elected  governor-general  of  Cen- 
tral Italy  ;  he  declines,  but  recom- 
mends Buoncompagni,  Nov.,  who 
is  accepted  by  the  Tuscans,  Dec.  8,  1869 

The  Grand-Duke  Leopold  II.  abdi 


cates  in  favor  of  his  son  Ferdinand 

July  21,  1869 

TYROL.  The  eastern  part  of  ancient  Rhetia,  nowa  province,  of  the  Austrian 
empire  (to  the  north  of  Bavaria).  It  was  ceded  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg  in 
1359,  by  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  the  last  Count  Tyrol.  The  province  became 
an  appanage  of  the  younger  (or  Tyrol)  branch  of  the  imperial  house,  which 
branch  came  to  the  throne  in  the  person  of  Maximilian  II.  in  1618.  The 
French  conquered  the  Tyrol  in  1808  and  united  it  to  Bavaria ;  but  in  1809  an 
insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by  the  courageous  Andrew  Hofer,  an  inn-keeper. 
He  drove  the  Bavarians  out  of  the  Tyrol,  but  laid  down  his  arms  at  the  treaty 
of  Vienna.  He  was  subsequently  accused  of  treason  and  shot  by  the  French 
at  Mantua,  Jan.  28,  1810.  His  family  was  ennobled  by  Austria,  and  a  statue 
to  him  was  erected  at  lunspruck  in  1834. 

U 

UNITARIANS,  U.  S.  Number  of  churches  in  the  U.  S.  in  1863,  339 ;  minis- 
ters, 263 ;  members  estimated  at  30,000, 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  (p.  631.)  See  America  ;  and  the  separate 
states,  Maine,  &c.  See  also  Chronological  Tables,  p.  156,  &c. 

POPULATION. 


1776 2,616,300 

1800.. 5,300,000 


1810 7,239,903  11851 23,347,88^ 

1831 12,856,171  [i860 31,649,868 


UNIVERSAL  SUFFRAGE.  One  of  the  six  points  of  the  charter  in  England 
(see  Chartists'),  was  adopted  by  the  French  in  the  election  of  their  president 
in  1851,  and  of  their  emperor  in  1852. 

UNIVERSITIES  IN  THE  U.  S.  See  Colleges.  Those  of  Harvard,  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.  ;  Yale,  at  New  Haven ;  Erown,  at  Providence,  and  Michigan,  at  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich.,  and  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  are  the  chief  institutions  called 
Universities,'  but  they  differ  little  from  the  other  colleges. 

URUGUAY.  A  republic  in  South  America,  declared  its  independence,  Aug.  25, 
1825,  recognized,  Oct.  4,  1828.  The  President,  G.  A.  Pereyra,  elected  in 
1 856,  was  succeeded  in  1860  by  B.  P.  Berro.  A  civil  war  broke  out  in  conse- 
quence of  the  invasion  of  the  ex-President,  General  Flores,  June  26,  1868. 
In  Feb.  1865,  Flores  became  provisional  president.  Population  in  1865,  about 
S50.000. 


VANCOUVER'S  ISLAND,  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  near  the  coast  of  Ore- 
gon. Settlements  were  made  here  by  the  English  in  1781  ;  which  were  seized 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1789  ;  but  restored.  By  a  treaty  between  the  British 
government  and  that  of  the  United  States  in  1846  this  island  was  secured  to 
the  former.  Victoria,  the  capital,  was  founded  in  1857. 

VEHMIC  TRIBUNAL  (Vchmgerichte).  Secret  tribunals  established  in  West- 
9 


194  THE  WOELD'S  PBOGEESS. 

Dhalia  to  maintain  religion  and  the  public  peace.  Their  proceedings  were 
enveloped  in  a  profound  mystery.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  ;  and  rose  to  importance  about  1182,  when  Westphalia  became 
subject  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  These  courts  became  very  troublesome, 
persons  of  the  most  exalted  rank  being  subjected  to  their  decisions.  The 
emperors  endeavored  to  suppress  them,  but  did  not  succeed  till  the  16th 
century.  SirW.  Scott  has  described  them  in  "Anne  of  Geierstein." 

VENEREAL  DISEASE.  Lues  Venerea,  Morbus  Gallicus.  This  disease  is  said 
to  have  broken  out  in  the  French  army,  at  the  siege  of  Naples,  in  1494, 
whence  the  French  term  it  mal  de  Naples.  In  the  Netherlands  and  in  Eng- 
land it  obtained  the  appellation  of  mal  de  France  ;  though  in  the  latter  coun- 
try it  wa.8  known  so  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  About  the  same  period,  too, 
at  Florence,  one  of  the  Medici  family  died  of  it.  Most  writers  suppose,  that 
the  followers  of  Columbus  brought  the  disorder  with  them  from  the  new  to 
the  old  world,  1493  ;  others  maintain  that  it  prevailed  among  the  Jews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  their  descendants,  long  before  the  discovery  of 
America. 

VERMONT,  (p.  635.)  Population  in  1860,  315,827.  War  expenses,  $8,811,600. 
The  state  sent  84,650  soldiers  to  the  army  in  1861-6. 

VESUVIUS,  MT.  (p.  636.)  Eruptions  in  May  1855,  May  and  June  1858,  and 
June  1859,  caused  great  destruction. 

VICKSBURG,  Miss.,  U.  S.  A  town  on  the  Mississippi  river,  made  famous 
during  the  war.  It  completely  blockaded  the  navigation  of  the  river  and  its 
batteries  were  impregnable  from  the  water  side.  After  various  attempts,  Gen. 
Grant  moved  to  the  south  of  it,  crossed  the  river  from  the  west  side  and 
marched  towards  the  rear  of  the  town,  May  1,  1863.  He  defeats  the  enemy 
at  "Port  Gibson,  "  "  Champion  Hills,"  and  "  Big  Black  River  Bridge,"  and 
on  the  18th  reaches  the  fortifications.  Heat  once  invested  the  place.  After 
many  assaults  and  constant  bombardment,  the  garrison  surrendered  July  4, 
1863.  Number  of  prisoners,  30,000  ;  guns,  220  ;  small  arms,  70,000.  Union 
loss  during  the  siege,  545  killed.  3,682  wounded,  and  303  missing. 

VICTORIA,  formerly  POET  PHILIPP  (Australia),  situated  between  New  South 
Wales  and  South  Australia,  the  most  successful  British  colony  in  that  region. 
First  colony  1804.  In  1839,  the  colony  was  named  Victoria,  and  its  prosperity 
brought  great  numbers  *o  it,  and  induced  much  speculation  and  consequent 
embarrassment  and  insolvency  in  1841-2.  In  1851,  the  province  was  declared 
independent  of  New  South  Wales.  In  the  same  year  a  reward  of  £200  was 
offered  for  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Victoria,  which  was  soon  after  found  near 
Melbourne. 

VICTORIA  RAILWAY  BRIDGE,  on  the  tubular  principle,  over  the  St.  Law- 
rence, Montreal,  erected  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson, 
and  Mr.  A.  M.  Ross,  engineers,  was  completed  and  opened  Nov.  24,  1859. 
It  is  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  and  forms  part  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway,  which  connects  Canada  and  the  seaboard  states  of  North 
America.  The  length  is  about  sixty  yards  less  than  two  English  miles,  and 
about  7-J  times  longer  than  Waterloo  bridge ;  the  height  sixty  feet  between 
the  summer  level  of  the  river,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  central  tube.  The 
cost  £1,400,000.  On  Jan.  6,  1855,  the  bridge  was  carried  away  by  floating 
ice,  but  the  stonework  remained  firm. 

VILLA  FRANCA  (in  Lombardy).  Here  the  emperors  of  France  and  Austria  met 
on  July  11,  1859  (after  the  great  battle  of  Solferino);  on  the  next  day  they 
signed  the  preliminaries  of  peace,  the  basis  of  the  treaty  of  Zurich  (which  see). 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  195 

VINE  DISEASE.  It  is  a  whitish  mildew,  and  totally  destroys  the  fruit.  The 
spores  of  this  o'idium  were  found  in  the  vineries  at  Versailles  in  1847.  The 
disease  soon  reached  the  trellised  vines,  and  in  1850,  many  lost  all  their 
produce.  In  1852,  it  spread  over  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Syria,  and  in  Zante 
and  Cephalonia  attacked  the  currants,  reducing  the  crop  to  one-twelfth  of  the 
usual  amount.  Through  its  ravages  the  wine  manufacture  in  Madeira  ceased 
for  several  years.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrest  the  progress  of 
the  disease,  but  without  much  effect.  It  has  much  abated  in  France,  but  not 
in  Portugal 

VIOLIN,  (p.  639.)  The  violin  is  the  most  expressive  instrument,  though  sur- 
passed by  many  in  sweetness,  richness,  and  volume.  The  best  were  made  at 
i/remona  about  A.  D.  1600,  by  Amiti  and  Straduarius ;  those  of  the  former 
excel  in  sweetness,  of  the  latter  in  power.  They  now  command  enormous 
prices. 

VIRGINIA.  According  to  the  census  returns,  the  real  estate,  &c.,  of  Virginia, 
1850,  was  $530^000,000,  viz: — Real  estate,  $278,000,000;  value  of  slaves, 
$147,000,000 ;  other  personal  estate,  $105,000,000.  The  returns  further  show 
that  nearly  83,000  white  persons  over  the  age  of  21,  can  neither  read  nor 
write !  The  new  constitution  of  this  state,  adopted  in  1851,  in  the  lllth  arti- 
cle has  the  following  clause  :  "  And  no  person  shall  have  a  right  to  vote  who 
is  of  unsound  mind,  or  a  pauper,  or  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  service  of 
thf  United  States."  Population  of  1850,  1,421,081,  including  473,026  slaves. 
In  1860,  1,593,199,  including  495,826  slaves.  State  "  seceded,"  May,  1861. 
Soon  after  the  western  counties  formed  a  new  and  loyal  State.  See  West  Vir- 
ginia. Virginia  was  the  theatre  of  the  most  active  military  operations  of  the 
war  of  secession,  and  the  state  suffered  the  most  from  that  fearful  struggle. 
Franchise  extended  to  the  colored  people  1867,  and  the  state  included  in  the 
1st  military  district  under  Gen.  Schofield.  Debt  of  the  old  state  in  1865,  $41,- 
061,300. 

VISGOTHS.  Separated  from  the  Ostrogoths  about  A.  D.  330.  The  Emperor 
Valens,  about  369,  admitted  them  into  the  Roman  territories  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  their  serving  when  wanted  in  the  Roman  armies ;  and  Theodosius  the 
Great  permitted  them  to  form  distinct  corps  commanded  by  their  own  officers ; 
In  400,  under  Alaric,  they  invaded  Italy,  and  in  410  took  Rome.  They  began 
their  kingdom  of  Toulouse,  414;  and  conquered  the  Alains,  and  extended 
their  rule  into  Spain,  414,  and  expelled  the  Romans  in  468 ;  and  finally  were 
themselves  conquered  by  the  Saracens  under  Muca,  in  1711,  when  their  last 
king,  Roderic,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  an  obstinate  engagement.  Their  vule 
in  France  ended  with  their  defeat  by  Clovis  at  Vougl6,  in  507. 

VIVARIUM.     See  Aquarium. 

VOLTAIC  PILE,  OR  BATTERY.  An  apparatus  which  was  constructed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  discoveries  of  Galvani  (see  Galvanism).  The  principle  was 
discovered  by  Alessandro  Volta,  of  Como  (born  1745),  for  thirty  years  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy,  at  Pavia,  and  announced  by  him  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  in  1793.  The  battery  was  first  set  up  in  1800.  Volta 
was  made  an  Italian  count  and  senator  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  was 
otherwise  greatly  honored  While  young  he  invented  the  electrophorus,  elec- 
tric pistol,  and  hydrogen  lamp.  He  died  in  1826,  aged  81.  The  form  of  the 
Voltaic  battery  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  researches  of  modern 
philosophers.  The  nitric  acid  battery  of  Mr.  W.  R.  Grove  was  devised  in 
1839  ;  the  carbon  battery  of  Mr.  Robert  Bunsen  in  1842.  The  former  is  very 


196  THE  WORLD'S  PKOGBESS. 

much  used  in  England ;  that  of  Bunsen  in  other  parts  of  Europe.    See 
tricity. 

VOLUNTEERS,  MILITARY,  IN  ENGLAND.  This  species  of  force  was  formed  in 
England,  in  consequence  of  the  threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France, 
1794.  The  English  volunteers  were,  according  to  official  accounts,  341,600 
on  Jan.  1,  1804.  In  May  1859,  in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  the  fear 
of  a  French  invasion,  the  formation  of  Volunteer  Corps  of  riflemen  commenced 
under  the  auspices  of  the  government,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  many  thou- 
sands were  enrolled  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  VOLUNTEERS,  U.  S.  See  Army. 

VULGATE  (from  Vulgatus,  published).  A  term  applied  to  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  is  authorized  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  which  is  attri- 
buted to  St.  Jerome,  about  A.  D.  1834.  The  older  version,  called  the  Italic,  is 
said  to  have  been  made  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  century.  Critical 
editions  of  the  Vulgate  were  printed  by  order  of  Pope  Sixtus  V.  in  1590,  and 
of  Pope  Clement  V.  in  1592  and  1593.  (The  former  was  suppressed  as  imper- 
fect). The  Latin  Bible  called  the  Mentz  Bible  was  printed  in  1460. 

W. 

WAGER  OF  BATTEL.  The  trial  by  combat  anciently  allowed  by  law,  whereof 
the  defendant  in  an  appeal  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  and  make  proof 
thereby  whether  he  was  guilty  or  innocent  of  the  crime  charged  against  him 
Repealed  by  statute  59  George  III.,  1819. 

WAGES  IN  ENGLAND  (p.  640).  Harvest  men,  1857,  5s.  In  UNITED  STATES.  In 
1866,  laws  were  enacted  in  some  of  the  states  making  eight  hours  a  legal  day'g 
labor,  unless  otherwise  agreed  upon  by  the  parties.  Under  this  law,  what  a 
laborer  would  have  received  for  ten  hour's  work,  he  can  claim  for  eight  hour'* 
labor. 

WALHALLA  (the  Hall  of  Glory).  A  temple  near  Ratisbon,  erected  in  1842,  bj 
Louis,  King  of  Bavaria,  to  receive  the  statues  and  memorials  of  the  great  met 
of  Germany.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fabled  meeting-place  of  Scandi- 
navian heroes  after  death. 

WALKING,  &c.,  FEATS  IN.  In  England,  Capt.  Barclay  for  a  wager  (on  which 
many  thousands  of  pounds  depended),  walked  1,000  miles  in  1,000  succes- 
sive hours;  in  forty-two, days  and  nights  (less  eight  hours).  His  task  was 
accomplished  on  July  10,  1809.  In  May,  1758,  a  young  lady  at  Newmarket 
won  a  wager,  having  undertaken  to  ride  1.000  miles  in  1,000  hours,  which 
feat  she  performed  in  little  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  time.  Richard  Manks, 
a  native  of  Warwickshire,  undertook  (in  imitation  of  Capt.  Barclay)  to  walk 
1,000  miles  in  1,000  hours;  the  place  chosen  was  the  Barrack  tavern  cricket- 
ground  in  Sheffield;  he  commenced  on  Monday,  June  17,  1850,  and  com- 
pleted the  1,000  miles'  July  29,  following,  winning  a  considerable  sum. 

WALTZ.  The  popular  German  national  dance  was  introduced  into  England  by 
Biiion  Neuman  and  others  in  1813.  Raikes. 

WAR — COST  OF  THAT  IN  THE  CRIMEA.  The  cost  to  England,  for  two  years, 
was  $200,000,000.  The  whole  cost  is  estimated  at  1,000  millions  of  dollars. 
WARS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  (p.  588).  War  with  Russia,  March  27,  1854.  Peace 
of  Paris,  March  31,  1856.  For  the  wars  with  India,  China,  and  Persia,  see 
those  countries  respectively.  WAR  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  war  of  the 
rebellion  commenced  April  12,  1861,  by  the  firing  of  South  Carolina  forces  on 
Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  harbor.  The  battle  of  Bull  Run,  Va.,  July  21, 
adverse  to  the  Union  army,  was  decisive  of  a  prolonged  conflict.  Until  the 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  197 

summer  of  1863  the  Confederates  maintained  their  ground  successfully.  But 
after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg,  and  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  the  National  army 
was  almost  uniformly  victorious  until  the  final  surrender  of  the  rebels.  See 
Army,  Battles,  Volunteers,  &c. 

WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS.  The  original  MS.  was  sold  at  auc- 
tion in  Philadelphia,  to  a  citizen  of  New  York  for  $2,300,  Feb.  12,  1850. 

WATER  COLOR  PAINTING  in  England  has  been  raised  from  the  hard  dry 
style  of  the  last  century  to  its  present  brilliancy  by  the  efforts  of  Nicholson, 
Copley,  Fielding,  Varley,  and  the  great  Turner;  by  Pyne,  Caftermole,  Prout, 
&c.,  within  the  present  century.  The  exhibition  was  founded  in  1805. 

WATERWORKS.  The  Roman  aqueducts  were  only  artificial  streams  led  at  a 
regular  slope  from  an  elevated  source,  and  were  enormously  expensive.  Louis 
XIV.  erected  enormous  machines  merely  to  supply  ornamental  fountains  at 
Versailles.  London  is  said  to  have  had  water-pipes  laid  in  it  as  early  as  A.  D. 
1236,  and  is  now  supplied  with  about  60,000,000  gallons  of  water  a  day,  by 
seven  companies,  one  bringing  water  from  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  Phila- 
delphia was  first  supplied  by  works  commenced  in  1799,  and  succeeded  by 
those  at  Fairmount  in  1819 ;  New  York  by  the  Croton  Aqueduct,  finished  in 
1844;  Boston,  first  from  Jamaica  Pond  by  a  company  organized  in  1795,  and 
afterwards  from  Cochituate  Pond  by  works  begun  in  1846,  and  opened  for 
use  in  1848.  See  Public  Works,  Aqueduct. 

WAVERLEY  NOVELS.  The  publication  of  the  series  began  with  "  Waverley ; 
or,  'Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  in  1814,  and  closed  with  ''Tales  of  my  Land- 
lord," four  vols.,  in  1831.  The  authorship  was  acknowledged  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  at  a  dinner,  Feb.  25,  1827. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.  On  Oct.  24,  1861,  the  western  counties  of  Virginia  voted 
to  separate  themselves  from  the  old  state  and  form  a  new  state  called  West 
Virginia ;  admitted  to  the  Union,  June  20,  1863 ;  capital,  Wheeling ;  area, 
23,000  square  miles.  Population  by  census  of  1860,  393,200.  The  new  state 
sent  31,880  men  to  the  Union  army. 

WHALE  FISHERY.  In  recent  years,  by  the  introduction  of  petroleum  and 
other  burning  fluids,  and  of  gas,  the  whaling  business  has  become  reduced  to 
much  smaller  dimensions.  Vessels  employed  in  1858,  500  ships  and  barks, 
19  brigs,  45  schooners,  total  195,115  tons;  8,033  tons  less  than  last  year, 
owing  to  the  increasing  scarcity  of  whales,  Imports,  81,941  barrels  sperm 
oil,  182,223  barrels  whale  oil,  1*540,600  Ibs.  bone.  Exports,  33,336  barrels 
sperm,  19,503  barrels  whale,  1,049,466  Ibs.  bone. 

WHIGS.  See  Tory.  In  England  numerous  authors  trace  the  origin  of  these 
designations  to  various  occasions  and  various  epochs.  Referring  to  what  is 
stated  under  the  head  Tory,  it  may  be  here  added,  that  we  are  told  the  name 
Whig  was  a  name  of  reproach  given  by  the  court  party  to  their  antagonists 
for  resembling  the  principles  of  the  whigs,  or  fanatical  conventiclers  in  Scot- 
land ;  and  the  other  was  given  by  the  country  party  to  that  of  the  court, 
comparing  them  to  the  Tories,  or  Popish  robbers  in  Ireland.  Baker.  This 
distinction  of  parties  arose  out  of  the  discovery  of  the  Meal-Tub  plot  in  1678. 
Upon  bringing  up  the  Meal-Tub  plot  before  parliament,  two  parties  were 
formed:  the  one  being  those  who  called  the  truth  of  the  whole  plot  in  ques- 
tion, and  this  party  styled  those  who  believed  in  the  plot  Whigs.  The  other 
party,  crediting  the  truth  of  the  plot,  styled  their  adversaries,  Tories. 

WINE,  U.  S,  In  1866,  California  produced  1,252,700  gallons  of  wine;  Ken 
tucky,  180,000;  Indiana,  88,000;  New  York,  61,000;  N.  Carolina,  54,000: 
Illinois.  47,000  ;  Connecticut,  46,000  ;  Virginia,  40,000;  Pennsylvania,  88,000 


198  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1866,  9,476,814  gallons  were  imported  into 
the  U.  S. 

WISCONSIN,  (p.  653.)  Population  in  1850,  305,391  ;  increase  in  10  years  90C 
per  cent.  1860,  768,485,  increase  in  10  years,  152  per  cent. 

WITCHCRAFT.  Credulity  in  witchcraft  still  abounds  in  the  country  districts 
of  England.  On  Sept.  4,  1863,  a  poor  old  paralyzed  Frenchman  died  in  con- 
sequence of  having  been  ducked  as  a  wizard  at  Castle  Hedingham,  Essex. 

WIVES.  See  Marriage.  In  England,  by  the  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes 
Act,  passed  in  1857,  the  condition  of  married  women  has  been  much  bene- 
fited. When  ill-used  they  can  obtain  a  divorce  or  judicial  separation ;  and 
even  while  in  the  latter  state  any  property  they  may  acquire  is  secured  to 
them  personally,  as  if  unmarried.  By  another  act,  passed  in  the  same  year, 
they  are  enabled  to  dispose  of  reversionary  interests  in  personal  property  or 
estates. 

WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD,  THE  SEVEN.  1.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt.  2.  The 
mausoleut.1  or  tomb  built  for  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  by  Artemisia,  his  queen. 
8.  The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  4.  The  walls  and  hanging-gardens  of 
the  city  of  Babylon.  5.  The  vast  brazen  image  of  the  sun  at  Rhodes,  called 
the  Colossus.  6.  The  rich  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus.  7.  The  pharos  or 
watch  tower,  built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt. 

WOOLSACK.  The  seat  of  the  lord  high  chancellor  of  England  in  the  house  of 
lords  is  so  called  from  its  being  a  large  square  bag  of  wool,  without  back  or 
arms,  covered  with  red  cloth.  Wool  was  the  staple  commodity  of  England 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  when  the  woolsack  first  came  into  use. 

WORKINGMEN'S  COLLEGES,  IN  ENGLAND.  The  first  was  established  in 
Sheffield,  by  workingmen.  The  second  in  London,  by  the  Rev.  Professor 
Frederic  D.  Maurice,  as  principal,  in  Oct.  1854;  a  third  in  Cambridge,  and  in 
1855,  a  fourth  in  Oxford;  all  wholly  for  the  working  classes,  and  undertaking 
to  impart  such  knowledge  as  each  man  feels  he  is  in  want  of.  The  colleges 
engage  to  find  a  teacher,  wherever  10  or  12  members  agree  to  form  a  class; 
and  also  to  have  lectures  given.  They  are  highly  successful. 

WRECKS,  (p.  658.)  Arctic,  U.  S.  mail  steamer,  by  collision  in  a  fog  with  the 
Vexta,  French  steamer,  off  Newfoundland  ;  above  300  lives  lost,  Sept.  27, 
1854.  City  of  Philadelphia,  Liverpool  to  Philadelphia,  Sept.  17,  1854.  U.  S. 
sloop  of  war  Albany,  from  Aspinwall,  Sept.  28,  1854,  never  heard  from. 
City  of  Glasgow,  steamer,  with  480  persons  on  board,  disappeared  in  1854 
Pacific,  Collins  steamer,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  Jan.  23,  1856,  di? 
appeared  and  never  heard  of.  John  Rutledge,  from  Liverpool  to  New  York, 
ran  on  an  iceberg  and  was  wrecked;  many  lives  lost,  Feb.  20,  1856.  Lyon- 
nais,  French  steamer,  New  York  to  Havre,  collision  with  bark  Adriatic, 
134  lives  lost,  Nov.  2,  1856.  Austria,  steamship,  Hamburg  to  New  York, 
burnt  in  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic;  of  538  persons  on  board,  only  sixty-seven 
were  saved,  Sept.  13,  186-.  Royal  Charter,  screw  steamer,  on  the  Anglesea 
coast ;  459  lives  lost ;  the  vessel  contained  gold  amounting  in  value  to  £700,- 
000,  Oct.  26,  1859.  Steamer  Niagara,  burned  on  lake  Michigan ;  60  lives 
lost,  Sept.  24,  1866.  Central  America,  steamer,  Lieut.  Herndon,  Aspinwall 
to  New  York,  founders,  427  lives  lost,  and  $2,000,000  in  gold,  Sept.  8,  1857 
Russian  line  of  battle  ship  in  the  Baltic,  founders,  all  on  board,  (825)  lost, 
Sept.  1857.  The  total  number  of  American  sea-going  vessels  reported  during 
1859,  as  lost  or  missing  was  402,  valued  at  $6,599,000,  being  an  increase  ovei 
the  previous  year  of  114  vessels,  and  $1,128,000  in  value.  Of  the  whole  num 
ber,  8  were  steamers,  84  ships,  48  barks,  64  brigs,  and  198  schooners. 


SUPPLEMENT,    1851-67.  199 

Y. 

TACHT.  The  ancient  thalamegus  or  navis  lusorice  was  a  vessel  for  pleasure, 
like  the  modern  yacht.  The  English  are  very  found  of  yachting.  Their 
yachts  are  commonly  cutter-rigged,  and  with  one  mast.  Yachting  has  come 
into  vogue  in  the  United  States  only  since  about  1830.  The  American  yachta 
are  sloops  or  schooners.  The  yacht  America  modelled  and  built  by  the  re« 
markable  genius  George  Steers,  of  New  York  (d.  1856,  aged  35),  beat  all  the 
English  yachts  in  a  regatta  at  Cowes,  Aug.  22,  1851.  She  was  a  schooner, 
with  her  greatest  breadth  abaft  the  beam,  and  with  "  hollow  lines  "  forward. 
A  yacht  race  from  New  York  to  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  Dec.,  1865,  between 
three  New  York  yachts,  Henrietta,  Vesta,  and  Fleetwing ;  Henrietta  winner  by 
seven  (?)  hours. 

YANKEE.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  generally  accredited  to  the  Indian 
pronunciation  of  the  word  English,  which  they  render  Yengeese.  In  New  York 
it  is  applied  to  the  New  Englanders  ;  in  the  South  to  all  Northerners  ;  and  in 
Europe  to  all  Anglo-Americans.  In  a  curious  book  on  the  Round  Towers  of 
Ireland,  published  some  years  ago,  the  origin  of  the  term  Yankee  Doodle,  was 
said  to  have  been  traced  to  the  Persian  phrase  TanJd  douniah,  or  "  Inhabi- 
tants of  the  New  World."  Layard  in  his  "  Nineveh,"  also  mentions  Yankhi- 
dunia  as  the  Persian  name  of  America. 

YORKTOWN.  This  place  was  fortified  by  the  rebels,  and  withstood  the  siege  of 
Gen.  McClellan,  from  April  4  to  May  5, 1862,  when  it  was  evacuated ;  71  spiked 
guns  were  found  in  the  works. 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATIONS.  U.  S.  First  one  under  this 
name  founded  in  Boston,  Jan.  10,  1852  ;  in  N.  Y.  city,  June  30,  1852.  They 
are  now  (1867)  established  in  many  of  the  principal  cities.  At  a  general  con- 
vention of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  at  Montreal,  in  June,  1867, 
215  associations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  were  represented. 

Z. 

ZOLLVEREIN.  (Customs'  Union.)  The  name  given  to  the  German  commercial 
union,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  head.  It  began  in  1818,  and  was  gradually 
joined  by  nearly  all  the  German  states,  except  Austria.  On  Feb.  19,  1853,  an 
important  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  between  Austria  and  Prussia  to 
last  from  Jan.  1854  till  Dec.  1865,  was  signed,  to  which  the  other  states  of  the 
Zollverein  gave  in  their  adhesion  on  April  6,  1853. 

ZOUAVES  AND  FOOT  CHASSEURS.  When  the  French  established  a  regency  at 
Algiers,  they  hoped  to  find  the  employment  of  native  troops  advantageous,  and 
selected  Zooaouas,  a  congregation  of  Arab  tribes,  famous  for  daring  and  skilful 
courage.  In  time  numbers  of  red  republicans,  and  other  enthusiastic  French- 
men, joined  the  regiments,  adopting  the  costume,  <fec.,  and  eventually  the 
Africans  disappeared  from  the  ranks,  and  no  more  were  added,  they  having 
been  frequently  guilty  of  treachery.  The  French  Zouaves  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  army  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-5. 

ZURICH,  (p.  664.)  Conference  of  the  representatives  of  Austria,  France  and 
Sardinia,  held  at  Zurich  (after  the  truce  of  Villa  Franca),  August  8,  1859,  and 
continued  several  months. 

ZUTPHEN,  IN  HOLLAND.  At  a  battle  here  in  1568,  between  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Dutch,  the  amiable  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  author  of  the  "  Arcadia."  was  kil.ed. 
He  was  serving  with  the  English  auxiliaries,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Lei- 
cester. 


DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


CHIEFLY  FROM  THAT  OF  JOSEPH  HAYDN  J    WITH  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITION* 


ABBEYS  AND  MONASTERIES,  were  first  founded  in  the  third  century,  near 
the  close  of  which  the  sister  of  St.  Anthony  is  said  to  have  retired  to  one. 
An  abbey  was  founded  by  St.  Anthony  at  Phaim.  in  Upper  Egypt,  A.  D.  305. 
The  first  founded  in  France  was  at  Poitiers,  in  360.  The  first  in  Ireland  was 
in  the  fifth  century :  see  Clogker,  Elphin,  Down.  The  first  in  Scotland  was 
in  the  sixth  century :  see  Isles.  And  the  first  in  Britain  was  in  560 :  see 
Bangor.  The  abbey  of  Mount  Cassino,  near  Naples,  founded  by  St.  Benet 
in  529,  was  esteemed  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  furnished  many  thousands 
of  saints  to  the  church.  110  monasteries  and  priories  were  suppressed  in 
England  by  order  in  council.  2  Henry  V.  1414. — Salmon.  The  revenues  of 
193  abbeys  which  were  dissolved  at  the  Reformation  amounted  to  JE2,653  000 
These  foundations  were  totally  suppressed  throughout  the  realm,  31  Henry 
VIII.  1539.  See  Monasteries. 

ABDICATION  OF  KINGS.  They  are  numerous  in  ancient  history.  Those  in 
later  times  of  most  remarkable  character  and  greatest  political  importance, 
and  to  which  reference  may  more  frequently  be  made,  are  the  following : — 

He  again  abdicates  in  favor  of  the  Bo- 
naparte family.  See  Spain.    May  1,  1808 
Of  Joseph  Bonaparte    of    Naples,  to 
take  the  crown  of  Spam,    .    June  1,  1S08 


1080 


Of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 

Of  Stephen  II.  of  Hungary,  surnamed 

Thunder, 1114 

Of  Albert  of  Saxony,  .        .        .  1142 

OfLestusV.  of  Poland, .  .  .  1200 
Of  Uladislaus  III.  of  Poland,  .  1206 

Of  Baliol  of  Scotland,  .  .  .  1306 
Of  Otho  of  Hungary,  .  .  .  1309 

Of  Eric  IX.  of  Denmark  .         1439 

Of  Eric  XIII.  of  Sweden,    .        .  1441 

Of  Charles  V.  Emperor,  .  .  1556 
Of  Christina  of  Sweden,  .  .  1654 

Of  John  Casimir  of  Poland,  .  .  1669 
Of  James  II.  of  England,  .  .  1688 

Of  Frederick  Ausustu-?  II.  of  Poland,  1704 
Of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  .  .  .  1724 
Of  Victor  of  Sardinia, .  .  .  1730 

Of  Charles  of  Napl-js,  .  .  .  1759 
Of  Stanislaus  of  Poland,  .  .  1795 

Of  Victor  of  Sardinia,  .  .  June  4,  1802 
Of  Francis  II.  of  Germany,  who  becomes 

emperor  of  Austria  only,    .   Aug.  11,  1804 
Of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  in  favor  of  his 

March  19,  1808 


Of  the  same  (by  flying  before  the  British 
"rirf), 


from  Mad 

Of  Louis  of  Holland,     . 
Of  Jerome  of  Westphalia, 


July  29,  1808 
July  1,  1810 
Oct.  20,  1813 
.   April  5,  1814 
March  13,  1821 
.  May  2,  1326 
Aug.  2,  1830 
April  7,  1831 


Of  Napoleon  of  France, 

Of  Emanuel  of  Sardinia, 

Of  Pedro  of  Portugal, 

Of  Charles  X.  of  France, 

Of  Pedro  of  Brazil, 

Of  Don  Miguel  of  Portugal  (by  le'aving 

the  kingdom),  .  .  .  May  26,  ISM 
Of  William  I.  of  Holland,  .  Oct.  8,  18IC 
Of  Christina  of  Spain,  queen  dowager 

and  queen  regent,  .  .  Oct.  12,  1840 
Of  Louis  Phillippe  of  France,  Feb.  24,  1848 
Of  Louis,  king  of  Bavaria, .  March  22,  1848 
Of  Ferdinand  I.  emperor  of  Austria, 

Dec.  2,  1848 
Of  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 

Aug.  1849 


son 

A.BELARD  AND  HELOISE.  Their  amour,  so  celebrated  for  its  passion  and 
misfortunes,  commenced  at  Paris,  A.  D.  1118.  when  Helotse  (a  canon's  daugh- 
ter) was  under  17  years  of  age.  Abelard,  after  suffering  an  ignominious  in- 
jury, became  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  at  St.  Marcel,  of 
grief  which  never  left  his  heart,  in  1142.  Helolse  begged  his  body,  and  had 
9* 


202  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ACJI 

it  buried  in  the  Paraclete,  of  which  she  was  abbess,  with  the  view  of  reposin* 
in  death  by  his -side.  She  was  famous  for  her  Latin  letters,  as  well  as  love, 
and  died  in  1163.  The  ashes  of  both  were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French 
Monuments  in  1800 ;  and  the  museum  having  been  subsequently  broken  up. 
they  were  finally  removed  to  the  burying-ground  of  Pere  La  Chaise,  in  1817. 

ABORIGINES,  the  original  inhabitants  of  Italy ;  or.  as  others  have  it,  the  nation 
conducted  by  Saturn  into  Latium.  founded  by  Janus,  1450  B.  c. —  Univ.  Ifis^ 
lory.  Their  posterity  was  called  Latini,  from  Latinus.  one  of  their  kings; 
and  Rome  was  built  in  their  country.  They  were  called  Aborigines,  being; 
iMsqiie  vrigine,  the  primitive  planters  here  after  the  flood. — St.  Jerome.  Tb* 
word  signifies  without  origin,  or  whose  origin  is  not  known,  and  is  generally 
applied  to  any  original  inhabitants. 

ABOUKIR,  the  ancient  Canopus,  the  point  of  debarkation  of  the  British  expe- 
dition to  Egypt  under  general  Abercromby.  Aboukir  surrendered  to  the 
British,  after  au  obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French,  March  18, 
1801.  The  bay  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  by  Nelson,  Au- 
gust 1,  1798.  See  Nile. 

ABRAHAM,  ERA  OF.  Used  by  Eusebius;  it  began  October  1,  2016  B.  c.  To 
reduce  this  era  to  the  Christian,  subtract  2015  years  and  three  months. 

ABSTINENCE.  St.  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105,  on  twelve  ounces  of  bread, 
and  water.  James  the  Hermit  lived  in  the  same  manner  to  the  age  of  104. 
St.  Epiphanius  lived  thus  to  115.  Simeon,  the  Stylite,  to  112  ;  and  Kenti- 
gera.  commonly  called  St.  Mungo.  lived  by  similar  means  to  185  years  of 
age. — SpoLtiswood.  A  man  may  live  seven,  or  even  eleven,  days  without 
meat  or  drink. — Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ii.  Democritus  subsisted  for  forty  days 
by  smelling  honey  and  hot  bread,  323  B.  c. — Diog.  Laert.  A  woman  of  Nor- 
mandy lived  for  18  years  without  food. — Petrus  de  Albano.  Gilbert  Jackson, 
of  Carse-grange,  Scotland,  lived  three  years  without  sustenance  of  any  kind, 
1719.  A  religious  fanatic,  who  determined  upon  fasting  forty  days,  died  on 
the  sixteenth.  1789. — Phillips.  A  country  girl,  of  Osnabruck,  abstained  four 
years  from  all  food  and  drink,  1799. — Hufeland's  Practical  Journal.  Anc 
Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staffordshire,  supposed  to  have  been 
an  impostor,  was  said  to  have  lived  twenty  months  without  food,  Nov.  1808 
At  Newry,  in  Ireland,  a  man  named  Cavanagh  was  reported  to  have  lived 
two  years  without  meat  or  drink;  Aug.  1840;  his  imposture  was  afterwards 
discovered  in  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  cheat,  Nov.  1841.  See 
instances  in  Hatter's  Elements  Physiologies ;  Cornaro;  Pricher's  Surgical 
Library,  &c. ;  and  in  this  volume,  see  fasting. 

ABSTINENTS.  The  abstinents  were  a  sect  that  wholly  abstained  from  wine 
flesh,  and  marriage ;  and  were  a  community  of  harmless  and  mild  ascetics. 
They  appeared  in  France  and  Spain  in  the  third  century ;  and  some  autho- 
rities mention  such  a  sect  as  having  been  numerous  elsewhere  in  A.  D.  170. — 
Bossuet. 

RYSSINIAN  ERA.  This  era  is  reckoned  from  the  period  of  the  Creation, 
which  they  place  in  the  5493d  year  before  our  era,  on  the  29th  August,  old 
style ;  and  their  dates  consequently  exceed  ours  by  6491  years  and  125  days. 
To  reduce  Abyssinian  time  to  the  Julian  year,  subtract  5492  years  and 
125  days. 

CAPEMIES.  or  societies  of  learned  men  to  promote  literature,  sciences,  and 
the  aits,  are  of  early  date.  Academia  was  a  shady  grove  without  the  walls 
of  Athens  (bequeathed  to  Hecademus  for  gymnastic  exercises),  where  Plato 
first  taught  philosophy,  and  his  followers  took  the  title  of  Academics  378 
B.  c. — Stanley.  Ptolemy  Soter  is  said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alex- 
andria about  314  B.  c.  Theodosius  the  Younger  and  Jharlemagne  are  also 


4CH  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


203 


named  as  founders,  Italy  has  been  celebrated  for  its  academies ;  and  Jarckiua 
mentions  550.  of  which  25  were  in  the  city  of  Milan.  The  first  philosophical 
academy  in  France  was  established  by  Pfere  Mersenne,  in  1135.  Academies 
were  introduced  into  England  by  Boyle  and  Hobbes ;  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  was  formed  in  1660.  The  following  are  among  the  principal 
academies : — 


American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
1780. 

American  Philosophical  Society,  1769. 

Ancona,  of  the  Caglinosi,  1624. 

Berlin,  Uoyal  Society,  1700;  of  Princes, 
1703;  Architecture,  1799. 

Bolo2tia,  Ecclesiastical,  1637 ;  Mathematics, 
1«SO;  Sciences  and  Arts,  1712. 

Brescia,  of  the  Erranti,  1626. 

Brest  and  Toulon.  Military,  1682. 

Brussels,  Belles-  Lettres,  1773. 

Caen,  Belles  Lettres,  1750. 

Copenhagen,  Polite  Arts,  1742. 

Cortqna,  Antiquities,  1726. 

Dublin,  Arts,  1749;  Science  and  Literature, 
1780;  Painting.  Sculpture,  &c.,  1823. 

Erfurt,  Saxony,  Sciences,  1754. 

Faenza,  the  Phi/opuni,  1612. 

Florence,  Belies- Lettres,  1272;  Delia  Crus- 
ca,  1582 :  Antiquities,  1807. 

Geneva,  Medical,  1715. 

Genoa,  Painting,  &c.,  1751  ;  Sciences,  1783. 

Germany,  Medical,  1617  ;  Natural  History, 
1652;.  Military,  1752. 

Haerlem,  the  Sciences,  1760. 

Lisbon,  History,  1720;  Sciences,  1779. 

London  :  its  various  Academies  arc  de- 
scribed through  the  volume. 

Lyons,  Sciences,  1700;  had  Physic  and  Ma- 
thematics added,  1758. 

Madrid,  ihe  Uoyal  Spanish,  1713 ;  History, 
1730;  Painting  and  the  Arts,  1753. 

Manheim,  Sculpture,  1775. 


Marseilles,  Belles- Lettres,  1726. 

Milan,  Architecture,  1380;  Sciences,  1719. 

Munich,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1759. 

Naples,  liossana,  1540 ;  Mathematics,  1560; 

Sciences,  1695;  Ilercuimmutn,  1755. 
New  York,  Literature  and  Philosophy,1814, ' 
Nismes,  Royal  Academy,  1682. 
Padua,  for  Poetry,  1610';  Sciences,  1792. 
Palermo.  Medical,  1645. 
Paris,  Sorlmnne,  12C6 ;  Painting,  1391 ;  Mu- 
sic, 1543;    French,   1635;   Medals,   1663; 
Architecture,  1671 ;  Surgery,  1731  ;  Mili- 
tary, 1751 ;  Natural  Philosophy,  1796. 
Parma,  the  Innominati,  1550. 
Perousa,  Insensati,  1561 ;  Filirgiti.  1574. 
Petersburg!),  Sciences,  1725;  Military,  1732; 

the  School  of  Arts,  1764. 
Portsmouth,  Naval,  1722 ;  enlarged,  1806. 
Uome,   Umoristi,  1611;  fantascici,  1625; 
Infccondi,  1653;  Painting,  1665;  Arcadi, 
1690;  English.  1752. 
Spain,  Royal,  1713;  Military,  1751. 
Stockholm,  of  Science,  1741 ;  Belles-Lettret 

1753;  Agriculture,  1781. 
Toulon,  Military,  1682. 
Turin,  Sciences,  1759;  Fine  Arts,  1778. 
Turkey,  Military  School,  1775. 
Upsal,  Royal  Society,  Sciences,  1720. 
Venice,  Medical,  &c.,  1701. 
Verona,  Music,  1543;  Sciences,  1780. 
Vienna.  Sculpture  and  the  Arts,  1705 ;  Sur- 
gery, 1783 ;  Oriental.  1810. 
Warsaw,  Languages  and  History,  1753. 
Woolwich,  Military,  1741. 


Mantua,  the  Vigilanti,  Sciences,  1704. 

ACCENTS.  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  are  written  without  accents,  and 
without  any  separation  of  words ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  ninth  century 
that  the  copyists  began  to  leave  spaces  between  the  words.  Michaelis.  after 
Wetstein,  ascribes  the  insertion  of  accents  to  Euthalius,  bishop  of  Sulca,  in 
Egypt,  A.  D.  458;  but  his  invention  was  followed  up  and  improved  upon  by 
other  grammarians  in  the  various  languages. 

ACHAIA.  This  country  was  governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  but  even  their  names 
are  all  forgotten.  The  capital,  Achaia,  was  founded  by  Achreus.  the  son  of 
Xuthus,  1080  B.  c.  The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon  or  subject  to  the 
^Etolians  until  about  284  B.  c.  The  Achsei  were  descendants  of  Achajus, 
and  originally  inhabited  the  neighborhood  of  Argos ;  but  when  the  Hera- 
clidse  drove  them  thence,  they  retired  among  the  lonians.  expelled  the  na- 
tives and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.  Peleni,  JEgira,  ^geum,  Bura,  Tri- 
taea,  Leontiunr  Rhypse,  Ceraunia.  Olenos,  Helice,  Patrae,  Dymas,  and  Pharse. 


The  Achaean  league,  .  .B.C.  281 

Fortress  of  Athenaeum  built,  .  .  228 

Defeat  of  the  Achseans  by  the  Spartans, 

and  Lysiades  killed.  .  .  226 

Battle  of  Sallacia,  '.  .  .  222 

The  Social  war  begun,  .  .  220 

The  Peloponnesus  ravaged  by  the  jEto- 

lians,  ....  219 

Aratus  poisoned  at  ^gium.  .  .  215 

Battle  of  Mantinea ;  Philopoemen  defeats 

the  Spartan  tyrant  Mechanidas,        .    208 


Alliance  with  the  Romans,    .  B.  c.  2( : 

Philopoemen  defeated  by  Nabis,  in  a  na- 
val battle,         ....    194 
Sparta  joined  to  the  league,  .  161 

The   Achseans  overrun  Messenia  with 

fire  and  sword,  .  .  ,      182 

The  Romans  enter  Achaia,  166 

Metellus  enters  Greece,  .  .     147 

The  Achaean  league  dissolved,       .  146 

Greece  subjected  to  Rome,  and  nama  1 
the  pro\ince  of  Achaia,         .  .      146 


*  Now  extinct. 


204  THE  -WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [AD* 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America  bears  some  analogy  to  thai 
of  the  Achaean  league ;  and  the  Swiss  cantons  also  had  a  great  resemblance 
to  it  in  their  confederacy. 

ACOUSTICS.  The  doctrine  of  the  different  sounds  of  vibrating  strings,  and 
the  communication  of  sounds  to  the  ear  by  the  vibration  of  the  atmosphere, 
was  probably  first  explained  by  Pythagoras,  about  500  B.  c.  Mentioned  by 
Aristotle,  330  B.  c.  The  speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  335  B.  c.  The  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made  about 
A.  D.  1600.  The  velocity  of  sound  was  investigated  by  Newton  before  1700. 
Galileo's  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  was  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Brook 
Taylor,  in  1714 ;  and  further  perfected  by  D'Alembert.  Euler,  Bernoulli,  and 
La  Grange,  at  various  periods  of  the  eighteenth  century.  See  Sound. 

ACRE,  ST.  JEAN  D'.  Taken  by  Richard  I.  and  other  crusaders  in  1192.  after  a 
siege  of  two  years,  with  the  loss  of  6  archbishops,  12  bishops,  40  earls.  500 
barons,  and  300  000  soldiers.  Retaken  by  the  Saracens,  when  60,000  Chris- 
tians perished.  1291.  This  capture  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  n.urder 
of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled  their  faces  to  repress  the  lust  of  the  Infidels. 
Acre  was  attacked  by  Bonaparte  in  July  1798;  and  was  relieved  by  Sir  Syd- 
ney Smith,  who  gallantly  resisted  twelve  attempts  during  the  memorable 
siege  by  the  French,  between  March  6  and  May  27,  1799,  when,  baffled  by 
the  British  squadron  on  the  water  and  the  Turks  on  shore  Bonaparte  relin- 
quished his  object  and  retreated.  St.  Jean  d'Acre  is  a  pachalic  subject  to 
the  Porte  ;  seized  upon  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  had  revolted,  July  2,  1832. 
It  became  a  point  of  the  Syrian  war  in  1840.  Stormed  by  the  British  fleet 
under  Sir  Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after  a  bombardment  of  a  few  hours, 
the  Egyptians  losing  upwards  of  2,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  3,000 
prisoners,  while  the  British  had  but  12  killed  and  42  wounded,  Nov.  3, 1840. 
See  Syria  and  Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS.  The  citadel  of  Athens  was  built  on  a  rock,  and 
accessible  only  on  one  side :  Minerva  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom. — Pans,  in 
Attic.  The  roof  of  this  vast  pile,  which  had  stood  2  000  years,  was  destroyed 
in  the  Venetian  siege,  A.  D.  1687. — Aspin.  The  Acropolis  of  Mycenae  was 
marked  by  terraces  and  defended  by  ponderous  walls,  on  which  were  high 
towers,  each  au  the  distance  of  fifty  feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM.  BATTLK  OF.  between  the  fleets  of  Octavianus  Caesar  on  the  one  side, 
and  of  Marc  Antony  and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  and  which  decided  the  fate 
•  of  Antony.  300  of  his  galleys  going  over  to  Caesar ;  fought  Sept.  2.  31  B.  c. 
This  battle  made  Augustus  (the  title  afterwards  conferred  by  the  senate 
upon  Caesar)  master  of  the  world,  and  the  commencement  of  the  Roman 
empire  is  commonly  dated  from  this  year.  In  honor  of  his  victory,  the  con- 
queror built  the  city  of  Nicopolis,  and  instituted  the  Actian  games. — Blair. 

&  CTRESSES.  Women  in  the  drama  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients ;  men  or  eunuchs  performing  the  female  parts.  Charles  II.  is  said  to 
have  first  encouraged  the  public  appearance  of  women  on  the  stage  in  Eng- 
land, in  1662 ;  but  the  queen  of  James  I.  had  previously  performed  in  a  the- 
atre at  court. —  Theat.  Biog. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.  The  first  promulgated,  16  John.  1215.  See  Pa, - 
liamenL  For  a  great  period  of  years  the  number  of  acts  passed  has  been 
Annually  large,  although  varying  considerably  in  every  session.  Between 
the  4th  and  10th  of  George  IV.  1126  acts  were  wholly  repealed,  and  443 
repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising  out  of  the  consolidation  of  the  laws  by  Mr. 
Peel  (afterwards  Sir  Robert) :  of  these  acts,  1344  related  to  the  kingdom  at 
large  and  225  to  Ireland  solely. 

ADA1 IITES,  a  sect  that  imitated  Adam's  nakedness  before  the  fall,  arose  A.  D. 


ADM  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


130.  Thej  assembled  quite  naked  in  their  places  of  worship,  asserting  that 
if  Adam  had  not  sinned,  there  would  have  been  no  marriages.  Their  chief 
was  named  Prodicus ;  they  deified  the  elements,  rejected  prayer,  and  said  it 
was  not  necessary  to  confess  Christ. — Eusebius.  This  sect,  with  an  addition 
of  many  blasphemies,  and  teaching  from  the  text  "  increase  and  multiply," 
was  renewed  at  Antwerp  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  a  chief  named 
Tandeme.  who,  being  followed  by  3  000  soldiers,  violated  females  of  every 
age,  calling  their  crimes  by  spiritual  names.  A  Flandrian,  named  Picard, 
again  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  whence  they 
spread  into  Poland  and  existed  some  time. — Bayle ;  Pardon. 
ADMINISTRATIONS.  Successive  administrations  of  the  United  States,  sirx* 
the  formation  of  the  government : — 

FIRST  ADMINISTRATION  ; — 1789  to  1797 ; — 8  years. 


Gforge  Washington, 
John  Adams, 

Thomas  Jefferson. 
Edmund  Randolph, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
Alexander  Hamilton, 
Oliver  Wolcott, 
Henry  Knox, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
James  M'Henry, 
Samuel  Osgood, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
Joseph  Habersham, 
Edmund  Randolph, 
William  Bradford, 
Charles  Lee, 


Virginia, 
Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

do. 

Pennsylvania, 
New  York, 
Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Georgia, 
Virginia, 
Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, 


April  30,  1789    President. 

do.            1789    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 

Sept.   26,1789) 

Jan.      2,  1794  >  Secretaries  of  S'.ata 

Dec.    10,  1795  > 

Sept     11,  1789 

Secretaries  of  the 

Feb       3,  1795 

Treasury. 

Sept.    12,1789 

Jan.       2,  1795 

Secretaries  of  War. 

Jan.     27,  1796 

Sept.   26,1759 

Nov.     7,  1791 

Post  Masters  Gen. 

Feb.    25,1705 

Sept.   26,1789 
Jan.     27,  1794 

Attorneys  General 

Dec.     10,  1795 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Frederick  A.  Muhlenberg,  Pennsylvania,  1st  Congress,  1789. 

Jonathan  Trumbull,  Connecticut,  2d       do.  1791. 

Frederick  A.  Muhlenberg,  Pennsylvania,  3d        do.  1793. 

,'onathan  Dayton,  New  Jersey,  4th      do.  1795. 

SECOND  ADMINISTRATION; — 1797  to  1801 ; — 4  years. 


John  Adam?, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 

Timothy  Pickering, 
John  Marshall, 
Oliver  Wolcott, 
Samuel  Dexter, 
James  M'Henry, 
Samuel  Dexter. 
Roger  Griswold, 
George  Cabot.* 
Benjamin  Stoddart, 
Joseph  Habersham, 
Charles  Lee, 


Massachusetts,  March  4,  1797    President. 

Virginia,  1797    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 

Pennsylvania,  (continued  in  office.)          Secretaries  of  Statt 
Virginia,  May    13,  1800    Sei 

Connecticut,  (continued  in  office.)  Secretaries  of  the 

Massachusetts,  Dec.     31,  1800  Treasury. 

Maryland,  (continued  in  office.)  ) 

May     13,  1800  V  Secretaries  of  War 


Massachusetts, 

Connecticut,  Feb. 

Massachusetts,  May 

Maryland,  May    21,  1798  $          Navy. 

Georgia,  (continued  in  office.)  Post  Master  Gen. 

Virginia,  (continued  in  office.)  Attorney  General. 


3,  1801 

3,  1798  /  Secre'nriw  of  the 


Jonathan  Dayton, 
Theodore  Sedgwick, 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

New  Jersey,  5th  Congress, 

Massachusetts,  6th      do. 

THIRD  ADMINISTRATION;— 1801  to  1809;— 8  years. 


:797. 
1793. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  March  4, 1801    President. 

Aaron  Burr,  New  York,  do.         1801  >  v. 

George  Clinton,  New  York,  do.         180^  Vice 

Appointed. 

James  Madison,  Virginia,  March  5,  1801    Secretary  of  SttU, 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass,  (continued  in  office.)  }  Secretaries  of  thf 

Albert  Gallatin,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.     26,  1802  \        Treasury. 


•  Afr.  Cabot  declined  the  appointment.    The  Navy  Department  was  established  it  17981 


206 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


Henry  Dearborn, 
Benjamin  Stoddart, 
Robert  Smith,* 
Joseph  Habersham, 
Gideon  Granger, 
Levi  Lincoln, 
lohn  Breckenridge. 
Ctesar  A.  Rodney,' 


Nathaniel  Macon, 
Joseph  B  Varnum, 
Nathaniel  Macon, 
Joseph  B.  Varnum, 


James  Madison, 
George  Clinton, 
F,  [bridge  Gerry, 


Robert  Smith, 
James  Monroe, 
James  Monroe,t 
Albert  Gallatin, 
George  W.  Campbell, 
Alexander  J.  Dallas, 
William  Eustis, 
John  Armstrong, 
James  Monroe, 
William  H.  Crawford, 
Paul  Hamilton, 
William  Jones, 
Benj.  W.  Crowninshield, 
Gideon  Granger, 
Return  J.  Meigs, 
Caesar  A.  Rodney, 
William  Pinkney, 
Richa-i  Rush, 


Massachusetts,  March  5,1801    Secretary  of  \V>r. 

Md.  (continued  \n  office.)  I  Secretaries  of  the 

Maryland,  Jan.     26,  1832  j  Navy. 

Georgia,  (continued  in  office.)  i  Post  Masters  Ge- 

ConnecticiK  Jan.     26,  1892  {  neral. 

Massachusetts,  March   5,  1801  j 

Kentucky,  Dec.     23,  1805  V  Attorneys  Central 

Delaware,  Jan.      20,  iai7  > 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

North  Carolina,  7th  Congress,  1801. 

Massachusetts,  8th      do.  1803. 

North  Carolina,  9th      do.  1805. 

Massachusetts,  Kith      do  ISO/. 

FOURTH  ADMINISTRATION; — 1809  to  1817; — 8  ye..w. 

Virginia,  March  4,  1809    President 

New  York,  1809,  (died  April 20,  1812)  )  v-      p,...,,,,... 
Mass.  1813,  (died  Nov.  23,  1814)  $  vl' 

Appointed. 

Maryland,  March  6,  1809 

Virginia,  Nov.    25,1811    Secretaries  of  Slat* 

Virginia,  Feb.     25,  1815 

Pennsylvania,  (continued  in  office.) 


Secretaries  of  the 
Treasury. 


Secretaries  of  War 


Tennessee.  Feb.       9,  1814 

Pennsylvania,  Oct.       6,  1814 

Massachusetts,  March  7,  1809 

New  York,  Jan.     13,  1813 

Virginia,  Sept.    27,  1814 

Georgia,  March  2,  1815 

South  Carolina,  March 

Pennsylvania,  Jan. 

Massachusetts,  Dec.     19^  1814  ^  "avy- 

Connecticut,  (continued  in  office.)          (  Post  Master?  Ge- 

Ohio,  March  17, 1814  \  neral. 

Delaware,  (continued  in  office.)  ) 

Maryland,  Dec.     11, 1811  >  Attorneys  General 

Pennsylvania,  Feb.     10,  1814  S 


Joseph  B.  Varnum, 
"Henry  Clay, 
Henry  Clay, 
Languon  Cheves, 
Henry  Clay, 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Massachusetts,  llth  Congress,    1809. 


Kentucky, 
Kentucky,  , 

South  Carolina,  < 
Kentucky, 


12ih 
13th 
14th 


do. 
do. 
do. 


1811. 
U812. 
/  1814. 

1815. 


James  Monroe, 


, 
Danic   D.  Tompkins, 


FIFTH  ADMINISTRATION  ;  —  1817  to  1825  ;  —8  years. 

Virginia,  March  4,  1817    President. 


New  York, 


John  Q.  Adam?, 
William  H.  Crawford, 
Isaac  Shelby  ,t 
John  C.  Calhoun, 


Massachusetts, 
Georgia, 
Kentucky, 
South  Carolina, 


do.        '  1817  Vice  President. 

Appointed. 

March  5,1817  Secretary  of  Sta'c. 

March   5,  1817  Secretary  of  Trea« 

Benj.  W.  Crowninshield,        Massachusetts,  (continued  in  office.)     )  c,^      .    •„    /• ,. 

Smith  Thompson,  New  York,  Nov.   30,  1818  \  Secretaries  of  the 

Samuel  L.  Southard,  New  Jersey,  Dec.      9,  1823  ) 

Return  J.  Meigs,  Ohio,  (continued  in  office.)  I  Post  Masters  O*- 

John  McLean,  do.  Dec.      9,  1823  i  neral. 

Richard  Rush,  Pennsylvania,  (continued  in  office.)       I  . .... 

William  Win,  Virginia,  Dec.     16, 1817  S  Altonle 


'  Robert  Smith  was  appointed  Attorney  General,  and  Jacob  Crotcninshield,  of  Massachusetts. 
Secrstary  of  the  Navy,  on  the  2d  of  March,  1805,  but  they  both  declined  these  apt  nntments ;  and 
Mr.  Smith  continued  in  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  till  the  end  ol  Mr.  Jtflerson's  aihnv 
oistration. 

*  James  Monroe  was  recommissioned,  having  for  some  time  acted  as  Secretary  of  Ww. 

'  Isaar  Shelby  declined  the  appointment. 


4DM 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


207 


ADMINISTRATIONS  (UNITED  STATES)  continued. 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Henry  Clay,                                 Kentucky,  15th  Congress,    1817. 

Henry  Clay,                                 Kentucky,    >  I6th  ,  $  1819. 

John  W.  Taylor,                          New  York,  \  I6th  da  ?  1820. 

Philip  P.  Harbour,                       Virginia,  17th  do.  1821. 

Henry  Clay,                                 Kentucky,  18th  do.  1823. 

SIXTH  ADMINISTRATION;— 1825  to  1829; — 4  years. 

John  Q..  Adams,  Massachusetts,  March   4,  1825    President. 

John  C  Calhoun,  South  Carolina,  do.  1825    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 

Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,  March  8,1825    Secrstiry  of  Sta'i 

Richard  Rush,  Pennsylvania,  March  7.1825    Sec'y  cf  the  Ti  ea»  • 

James  Barbour,  Virginia,  do.         '1825  >  c..™,,.:-.,  „<•  Ws 

Peter  B.  Porter,  New  York,  May     26,  1828  $ t>ei 

Samuel  I,  Southard,  New  Jersey,  (continued  in  office.)  Sec'y  of  the  Navj . 

John  McLean,  Ohio,  (continued  in  office.)  Post  Master  Gen 

William  Wirt,  Virginia,  (continued  in  office.)  Attorney  General 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

John  W.  Taylor,  New  York,  19th  Congress,    1827. 

Andrew  Stephenson,  Virginia,  20th      do.  1828. 

SEVENTH  ADMINISTRATION; — 1829  to  1837; — 8  years. 
Andrew  Jackson, 
John  C.  Calhoun, 
Martin  Van  Buren, 

Martin  Van  Buren, 
Edward  Livingston, 
Louis  McLane, 
John  Foreyth, 
Samuel  D.  Ingham, 
Louis  McLane, 
William  J.  Duane, 
Roser  B.  Taney, 
Levi  Woodbury, 
John  H.  Eaton, 
Lewis  Cass, 
John  Branch, 
Levi  Woodbury, 
Mahlon  Dickerson, 
William  T.  Barry, 
Amos  Kendall, 
John  Mr.P.  Berrien, 
Roger  B.  Taney, 
Benjamin  F.  Butler, 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Andrew  Stevenson,  Virginia,  21st  Congress,  1829. 

Andrew  Stevenson,  Virginia,  22d        do.  1831. 

John  Bell,  Pennsylvania,  1835 

EIGHTH  ADMINISTRATION  ; — 1837  to  1841  — 4  years 


Tennessee, 

March  4,  1829    President. 

South  Carolina, 
New  York, 

do-          |!U  <  Vice  Presidents. 

New  York, 

Appointed. 
March  6,1829 

Louisiana, 
Delaware. 

1831 
1833 

Secretaries  of  State 

Georgia, 

1835 

Pennsylvania, 

March  6,1829 

Delaware, 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, 

1831 
1833 
1833 

Secretaries  of  the 
Treasury. 

New  Hampshire, 

1834 

Tennessee, 
Ohio, 

March  9,  1829 
1831 

Secretaries  of  War 

North  Carolina, 
New  Hampshire, 

MarCh  9'  ill  (Secretaries  of  the 

New  Jersey, 

1834  $           Navy> 

Kentucky, 

March   9,  1829  f  Post  Masters  Ge- 

Kentucky, 

1835  \           neral. 

Georgia, 

March   9,  1829  ) 

Maryland, 
New  York, 

1831  >  Attorneys  General 
1834  ) 

M.irtin  Van  Buren, 
Richard  M.  Johnson, 

John  Forsyth, 
Levi  Wooilbury, 
Joel  R.  1  oinsett, 
Mahlon  Dickerson, 
James  K.  Paulding, 
Amos  Kendall, 
John  M.  Niles, 
Benjamin  F  Butler, 
Felix  GrunJy, 
Henry  D.  Giipin, 


Junes  K.  Polk, 
Robert  M.  T.  Hunter. 


New  York,  1837    President. 

Kentucky,  1837    Vice  President 

Appointed. 

Georgia,  (.continued  in  office.)  Secretary  of  State. 

New  Hampshire,  (continued  in  office.)     Sec'y  of  Treasuiy 
South  Carolina,  18371 

New  Jersey,  (continued  in  office.)          >  Secretaries  of  Wil 
New  York,  1838  S 

Kentucky,  (continued  in  office.)  )  Post  Masters  Ge- 

Connecticut,  1840  (  neral. 

New  York,  (continued  in  office.)  i 

Pennsylvania,  >  Attorneys  General. 

Pennsylvania,  1839 ) 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representative*. 

Tennessee,  1837. 

Virginia,  1830. 


208 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 


[ADI, 


JLDMINISTRATIONS  (UNITED  STATES)  continued. 

NINTH  ADMINISTRATION  ;— 1841  to  1845.  -4  year*. 


William  II.  Harrison,  Ohio, 

Died  one  month  alto .'  inauguration,  and 


1&41    Preside -.t. 


John  Tyler, 

Samuel  L.  Southard, 
Willie  P.  Mangum, 


Virginia, 

New  Jersey, 
North  Carolina, 


1841 


Vice  Presi  font, 
became  ac  ing  Prea, 
Acting  V.  Pres.  and 
Pres.  Senate. 


Daniel  Webster, 
Abel  P.  Upshur, 
Thomas  Ewing, 
Walter  Forward, 
John  C.  Spencer, 
John  Bell, 
John  C.  Spencer, 
George  E.  Badger, 
Abel  P.  Upshur, 
David  Henshaw, 
Francis  Grander, 
Charles  A.  Wickliffe, 
John  J.  Crittenden, 
Hugh  S.  Legare, 
John  Nelson, 


Massachusetts, 
Virginia, 
Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
New  York, 
Tennessee, 
New  York, 
North  Carolina, 
Virginia, 
Massachusetts, 
New  York, 
Kentucky, 
Kentucky, 
South  Carolina 
Maryland, 
Speakers  of  the  House  of  Reepresentatives. 

Kentucky, 

Virginia, 


1841  ; 
1841  \ 
Appointed. 

1841  (  Secretaries  of  Stafa. 

1841  \Secretaries  of  tb« 
1841  [        Fieasuiy. 

1841  (  Secretaries  of  War. 


Secretaries  of  the 

m        Nayy- 

1841  >  Post  Masters  Gea 

1841  \  eral. 

184H 

1841  >  Attorneys  Genera.'. 

1841  J 


John  White, 
John  W.  Jones, 

TENTH  ADMINISTRATION  ;— 1845  to  1849; — 4  years. 


1841 
1843 


James  K.  Polk, 

Tennessee, 

1845    President. 

George  M.  Dallas, 

Pennsylvania, 

1845    Vice  President. 

Appoint 

;d. 

James  Buchanan, 

Pennsylvania, 

1845    Secretary  of  State. 

Robert  J.  Walker, 

Mississippi, 

1845    Secretary  of  Treas. 

William  L.  Marcy, 
George  Bancroft, 

New  York, 
Massachusetts, 

1845    Secretary  of  War. 
1845  >  Secretaries  of  the 

John  Y.  Mason, 

Virginia, 

1847  \           Navy. 

Cave  Johnson, 

Tennessee, 

1845    Post  Master  Gen. 

John  Y.  Mason, 
Isaac  Touc.ey, 

Virginia, 
Connecticut, 

1847  S  Attorneys  General. 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 

John  W.  Davis, 

Indiana, 

1845. 

Robert  C.  Winthrop,                     Massachusetts, 

1847. 

ELEVENTH  ADMINISTRATION; — 1849  to  1853; — 4  years. 


Zachary  Taylor, 
Millard  Fillmore, 

John  M.  Clayton, 
William  E   Meredith, 
William  B   Preston, 
George  W.  Crawford, 
Thomas  Ewing, 
Jacob  Collamer, 
Reverdy  Johnson, 

Howell  Cobb, 


Louisiana,  1849  President. 

New  York,  1849  Vice  President 

Appointed. 

Delaware,  1849  Secretary  of  Slate. 

Pennsylvania,  1849  Sec'y  of  Treasury. 

Virginia,  1849  Sec'y  of  the  Navy. 

Georgia,  1849  Secretary  of  War. 

Ohio,  1849  Sec'y  of  Interior.* 

Vermont.  1849  Post  Master  Oen. 

Maryland,  1849  Attorney  General. 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Georgia,  1849. 


ADMINISTRATIONS  OP  ENGLAND,  AND  OP  GREAT  BRITAIN,  from  tl  e 
accession  of  Henry  VIII.  The  following  were  the  prime  ministers,  or  favor- 
ites, or  chiefs  of  administrations,  in  the  respective  reigns,  viz. : — 

KINO  HENRY  viii.  Sir  Thomas  More  and  Cranmer         .  ?529 

Bishoo  Fisher  and  Earl  of  Surrey        .  I!i09 
Card_ial  Thomas  Wolsey        .  .  1513 


Lord  Audley,  chancellor ;  archbishop 
Cranmer         .  .          .  .  :  535 


*  A  new  department,  created  by  act  of  Congress,  1849. 

Mote.  The  dates  of  the  appointments  of  the  principal  executive  officers,  in  the  several  admir.is- 
Uations,  above  exhibited,  are  the  times  when  the  several  nominations,  made  by  the  Presidents, 
were  co-ifirmed  by  the  Senate,  a?  stated  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Executive  Proceedings  of  the  Senate 
•f  th«  Vnit«d  States."  Am.  Almanac,  *c. 


*-.«! 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


209 


Aw?  nrd  Cron.wel!  (earl  of  Essex)     .  1534 
Du<e  of  Norfolk,  carl  of  Surrey,  and 

bishop  Gardiner         .  .  .  1540 

Lord  Wriothesley,  earl  of  Hertford     .  1644 

KING   EDWARD   VI. 

The  earl  of  Hertford,  continued 
John,  duke  of  Northumberland 


QtJEEN   MARY. 

Bishop  Gardiner 


1553 


QUEEN   ELIZABETH. 

Sir  Nicholas  Bacon       .  .  .  1558 

Sir  William  Cecil,  aftemcards  lord 
Burleizh ;  chief  minister  during  al- 
most the  whole  of  this  long  reign 
Earl  of  Leicester,  a  favorite     .  .1564 

Earl  of  Essex 1538 

Lord  Burkhurst  .          .          .  1601 

KING  JAMES.    I. 

Lord  Burkhurst  (earl  of  Dorset) 

Earls  of  Salisbury,  Suffolk,  and  North- 
ampton. ....  1608 

Sir  R.  C'arr,  created  viscount  Roches- 
ter, af'erwards  earl  of  Somerset  .  1612 

Sir  George  Villiers,  created  earl,  mar- 
ouess,  and  duke  of  Buckingham  .  1615 

KING    CHARLES    I. 

Duke  of  Buckingham  continued 

Earl  of  Portland,  archbishop  Laud  .  1628 

Archbishop  Laud,  earl  of  Strafford, 

lord  Cottington           .           .  .  1640 

Earl  of  Essex      .           .           .  .  1640 

Lord  \  is.  Falkland,  lord  Digby  .  1641 

[The  civil  war  commenced,  and  all 

weni  into  confusion.] 

KING   CHARLES    II. 

Edward,  earl  of  Clarendon       .  .  1660 

Dukes  of  Buckingham  and  Lauderdale  1667 
Lord  Ashley,  Lord  Arlington,  Sir  T. 

Clifford,  afterwards  lord  Clifford     .  1667 
Lord  Arlington,  lord  Ashley,  created 
earl  Shaltesbury,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Oborne  ....  1673 

Sir  Thomas  Osborne     .  .  .  1674 

Earl  of  Essex,  duke  of  Ormond,  earl 
afterwards  marquess  of  Halifax,  sir 
William  Temple  .  .  .  1677 

Duke  of  York,  and  his  friends  .  1682 

KING  JAMES   II. 

Earls  of  Sunderland  and  Tyrconnel, 
sir  George  aftencards  lord  Jeffries  1685 

Lord  Jeffries,  earl  of  Tyrconnel,  lord 
Bellas!*,  lord  Arundef,  carl  of  Mid- 
dleton,  visct.  Preston  .  .  1C87 

UNO  WILLIAM   III.    AND   QUEEN    MARY   II. 

Sir  John,  afterwards  lord  Somers,  lord 
Godolphin,  earl  of  Danby,  after- 
wards  duke  of  Leeds,  &c.  .  .  1688 

The  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c.     .  .1695 

Charles  Mintagu,  afterwards  earl  of 
Halifax,  3arl  of  Pembroke,  viscount 
loosdale,  earl  of  Oxford,  &c.  .  1697 

QUEEN   ANNE. 

lord  Godolphhi,  R.  Harley,  esq.,  lord 
Pembroke,  duke  of  Buckingham 


Duke  of  Marlborough,  Ac.       .  ,  17(t 

Lord  Godolphin,  lord  Cowper,  dukes 

of  Marlborough  and  Newcastle        .  170? 
R.  Harley,  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford  171" 
Earl  of  Rochester,    ord  Dartmouth, 
and  Henry  St.  John,  esq.  afteruards 
visct.  Bolmgbroke ;  lord  Harcourt  .  1711 
Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  &c.      .  17 1< 

KING   GEORGE   I. 

Lord  Cowper,  duke  of  Shrewsbury, 
marquess  of  Wharton.  earl  of  Or- 
ford,  duke  of  Maduorough.  visct. 
Townshend,  <kc.  .  .  .  .714 

Robert  Walpole,  esq.     .  .  .  171s 

James,  afterwards  earl  Stanhope       .  1715 
Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  <fcc.        .  _7U 
Robert  Walpole,  esq.  afterwards  sir 
Robert  and  earl  of  Orford     .  .  17?1 

KING   GEORGE    II. 

Lord  Carteret,  lord  Wilmingti.i,  lord 
Bath,  Mr.  Sandys.  <fec.  .  .  1745: 

Hon.  Henry  Pelham,  lord  Carteret.  earl 
of  Harrington,  duke  of  Newcastle  .  1743 

Mr.  Pelham.  earl  of  Chesterfield,  duke 
of  Bedford,  <fcc.  174li 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  Sir  Thomas  Rob- 
inson, Henry  Fox,  <kc..  lord  Anson  1754 

Duke  of  Devonshire,  Mr.  William  Pitt, 
earl  Temple,  Hon.  H.  B.  Legge  .  1756 

[Dismissed  in  April,  1757.  Restored  in 
June,  same  vear.  ] 

William  Pitt,  Mr.  Legge,  earl  Temple, 
duke  of  Newcastle,  &c  .  .  1757 

KING   GEORGE   III.       . 

Earl  of  Bute,  earl  of  Egremont,  dufce 
of  Bedford  .  .  .  .  17C. 

Earl  of  Bute,  hon.  George  Grenville, 
sir  Francis  Dashwood,  &c.  .  .  176? 

Right  hon.  George  Grenville,  earl  of 
Halifax,  earl  of  Sandwich,  duke  of 
Bedford,  &c 1763 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  duke  of 
Grafton,  earl  of  Shelburne,&c.  July  1765 

Duke  of  Grafton,  hon.  Chas.  Towns- 

'  hend,  earl  of  <  'hatham,  &c.       Aug.  1766 

Duke  of  Grafton,  right  hon.  Frederick, 
lord  North,  &c.  .  .  Dec.  1767 

Lord  North,  lord  Halifax,  <kc. .  .  17rO 

Lord  North,  lord  Dartmouth,  lord  Stor 
inont,  lord  Hillsborough,  lord  St 
Germain,  &c. ....  ITt'i 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,right  hon'ble 
Charles  James  Fox.  &c.  Mar.  30,  1782 

Earl  of  Shelbume,  William  Pitt,  lord 
Grantham,  &c.  .  July  10,  1782 

Duke  of  Portland,  lord  North,  Mr.  Fox, 
&c.  (The  Coalition  Ministry.  See 
"Coalition.'")  .  April  5,  1733 

Rt.  hon.  William  Pitt,  lord  Cower, 
lords  Sidney,  Carmarthen,  and  Thur- 
low,  right  hon.  W.  W.  Grenville, 
Henry  Dundas,  lord  Mulgrave,  duke 
of  Richmond,  &c.  .  Dec.  27,  17K' 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Camden,  marq.  of  Staf- 
ford, lord  Hawkesbury,  &c.  .  .  178< 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Grenville,  duke  of  Leeds, 
lord  Camden.  &c.  .  .  .  l"9t' 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Grenville,  earl  of  Chat- 
ham, lord  Loughborough.  &c.  .  17iS? 


210 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Mr.  Pitt,  duke  of  Portland,  lord  Gren- 
ville,  Mr.  Dundas,  <fcc.  .  .  1795 

Mr.  Pitt,  earl  of  Westmorland,  earl 
of  Chatham,  lord  Grenville,  &c.  .  1798 

Right  hon.  Henry  Addington,  duke  of 
Portland,  lord  Hawkesbury,  lord  Ho- 
bart,  lord  Eldon,  &c.  .  Mar.  17,  1801 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Melvilb,  rt.  hon.  George 
Canning,  lord  Harrowby,  lord  West- 
morland, duke  of  PDrtland,  Mr.  Dun- 
das,  <fcc.  .  .  May  12.  1804 

Lord  Grenville,  lord  Henry  Petty,  earl 
Spencer,  rt.  hon.  William  Wind- 
ham,  Mr.  Fox,  lord  Erskine,  rt.  lion. 
Charles  Grey,  lord  Sidmouth,  <fec. 
(See  " All  the  Talents.")  Feb.  5,  1806 

Duke  of  Portland,  Mr.  Canning,  lord 
Hawkesbury,  earl  Camden,  right 
hon.  Spencer  Perceval,  &c.  Mar.  25,  1807 

Duke  of  Portland,  earl  Bathurst,  lord 
vicount  Castlereagh,  lord  Granville 
Gower,  &c.  .  .  .  .  1808 

Mr.  Perceval,  earl  of  Liverpool,  mar- 
quess Wellesley,  viscount  Palmers- 
ton,  Mr.  Ryder,'  <fec.  .  .  Oct.  1809 

HEGENCY  OP  OEOROE,  PRTNCE  OF  WALES. 

Mr.  Perceval,  the  earl  of  Liverpool, 

&c.  continued. 
Earl  of  Liverpool,  Earl  Bathurst,  visct. 

Sidmouth,  viscount  Castlereagh,  Mr. 

Ryder,  earl  of  Harrowby,  right  hon. 

Nich.  Vansittart,  &c.  June  8,  1812 

KING   GEORGE  IV. 

Earl  of  Liverpool,  viscount  Sidmouth, 
Mr.  Vansittart,  &c.  continued. 

Rt.  hon.  George  Canning,  lord  viscount 
Goderich,  lord  Lyndhurst,  Mr.  Stur- 
ges  Bourne,  &o.  .  April  10,  1827 

Viscount  Goderich,  duke  of  Portland, 
right  hon.  William  Huskisson,  Mr. 
Herries,  .fee.  .  .  August  11,  1827 

Duke  of  Wellington,  right  hon.  Robert 
Peel,  earl  of  Dudley,  viscount  Mel- 
ville, earl  of  Aberdeen,  Mr.  Goul- 
burn,  Mr.  Herries,  Mr.  Grant,  &c. 

January  25,  1828 

Duke  of  Wellington,  earl  of  Aberdeen, 
sir  George  Murray,  lord  Lowther,  sir 


Henry  Hardinge,  <fcc.,  (Mr.  Huskis- 
son,vise  Palmerston,  Mr.  Grant,  earl 
of  Dudley,  &c.  retiring)  May  30,  1828 

KINO   WILLIAM   IV. 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  his  cabinet, 
continued. 

Earl  Grey,  viscounts  Althorpft,  Mel- 
bourne, Goderich,  and  Palmerstoo, 
marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  Hol- 
land, lord  Auckland,  sir  James  Gra- 
ham, &c.  .  .  Nov.  22,  1SW 

[Earl  Grey  resigns  May  9,  but  resumes 
office  May  18,  1832.] 

Viscount  Melbourne,  viscount  Althorp, 
lord  John  Russel,  viscts.  Palmerston 
and  Duncannon,  sir  J.  C.  Hobhouse, 
lord  Howick.  Mr.  S.  Rice,  Mr.  Pou- 
leu  Thomson,  &c.  .  July  14,  1834 

Viscount  Melbourne's  administration 
d'-^iToJ:  tae  duke  of  Wellington 
idltes  the  helm  of  state  provisionally, 
waiting  the  return  of  sir  Robert  Peel 
from  Italy  .  .  Nov.  14,  1834 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  Wellington, 
lord  Lyndhurst,  earl  of  Aberdeen, 
lord  Ellenborough,  lord  Rosslyn, 
lord  Wharncliffe,  sir  George  M  urray, 
Mr.  A.  Baring,  Mr.  Herries,  Mr. 
Goulburn,  &c.  .  Dec.  15,  1834 

Viscount  Melbourne  and  his  colleagues 
return  to  office  .  April  18,  1835 

ftUEEN  VICTORIA. 

Visct.  Melbourne  and  the  same  cabi- 
net, continued. 

Viscount  Melbourne  resigns      May  7,  1839 

Sir  Robert  Peel  receives  the  queen's 
commands  to  form  a  new  adminis- 
tration, May  8. 

This  command  is  withdrawn,  and  lord 
Melbourne  and  his  friends  are  rein- 
stated .  .  .  May  10,  183* 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  Wellington, 
earl  of  Aberdeen,  earl  of  Haddmg- 
ton,  earl  of  Ripon,  lord  Stanley,  Mr. 
Goulburn,  <fcc.  .  Aug.  7,  1841 

Lord  John  Russell's  administration 

July  6,  1816 


ADMIRAL.  The  first  so  called  in  England  was  Richard  de  Lucy,  appointed 
by  Henry  III.  1223.  Alfred,  Athelstan,  Edg-ar,  Harold,  and  other  kings,  had 
been  previously  the  commanders  of  their  own  fleets.  The  first  was  appointed 
in  France,  in  1284.  The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  was  one  of 
great  distinction,  and  was  first  given  to  William  de  Leybourne  by  Edward  I. 
in  1297. — Spelman ;  Rymer. 

ADMIRAL  LORD  HIGH,  OP  ENGLAND.  The  first  offi.cer  of  this  rank  wan 
created  by  Richard  II.  in  December  1385  ;  there  had  been  previously  high 
admirals  of  districts — the  north,  west,  and  south.  See  Navy. 

ADMIRALTY,  COURT  OP,  erected  by  Edward  III.  in  1357.  This  is  a  civil  court 
for  the  trial  of  causes  relating  to  maritime  affairs. 

ADR1ANOPLE,  BATTLE  OP,  which  got  Constantino  the  empire,  was  fought  July 
3,  A.D.  323.  Adrii  nople  was  taken'by  the  Ottomans  from  the  Greeks  in  1360; 
and  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  empire  till  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  in  1453.  Mahomet  II.,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  tho 
•ultans.  and  the  one  who  took  Constantinople,  was  born  here  in  14-30.— 


lOVj  ^DiniONARY    OF    DATES.  211 

Priestky.    Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Russians,  Aug.  20,  1829 ;  but  wa« 
restored  to  the  sultan  at  the  close  of  the  war.  Sept.  14,  same  year.   See  Turkey. 

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  Sea 
was  instituted  in  A.D.  1173.  Annually,  upon  Ascension-day,  the  doge  married 
the  Adriaticum  Mare,  by  dropping  a  ring  into  it  from  his  bucentaur,  or  state 
barge,  and  was  attended  on  these  occasions  by  all  the  nobility  of  the  state, 
and  foreign  ambassadors,  in  gondolas.  This  ceremony  was  intermitted,  for 
the  first  time  for  centuries,  in  1797. 

ADULTERY",  ANCIENT  LAWS  AGAINST  IT.  Punished  by  the  law  of  Moses  with 
the  death  of  both  the  guilty  man  and  woman. — Leviticus  xx  10.  This  law 
was  repealed,  first,  because  the  crime  had  become  common ;  and  secondly, 
because  GOD'S  name  should  not  be  liable  to  be  too  often  erased  by  the  ordeal 
of  the  waters  of  bitterness.  Leo,  of  Modena,  says  that  the  husband  was  obliged 
to  dismiss  his  wife  for  ever,  whether  he  willed  it  or  not. — Calmet.  Lycurgus 
punished  the  offender  as  he  did  a  parricide,  and  the  Locrians  and  Spartans 
tore  out  the  offenders'  eyes.  The  Romans  had  no  formal  law  against  adultery ; 
the  emperor  Augustus  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  positive  law  to  punish  it, 
and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  see  it  executed  in  the  persons  of  his  own  chil- 
dren.— Lenglet.  Socrates  relates  that  women  who  were  guilty  of  adultery 
were  punished  by  the  horrible  sentence  of  public  constupration.  In  England 
the  legal  redress  against  the  male  offender  has  been  refined  into  a  civil 
action  for  a  money  compensation. — Lord  Mansfield. 

ADULTERY,  ENGLISH  LAWS  AGAINST  IT.  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the  adulteress, 
and  erected  a  gibbet  over  her  ashes,  whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer. — 
Pardon.  King  Edmund  punished  the  crime  as  homicide.  It  was  punished 
by  cutting  off  the  hair,  stripping  the  female  offender  naked,  and  whipping 
her  through  the  streets,  if  the  husband  so  demanded  it  to  be  done,  without 
distinction  of  rank,  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  A.D.  457  to  828. — Stnisc. 
The  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off  under  Canute,  1031.  Ordained  to  be  punished 
capitally,  together  with  incest,  under  Cromwell.  May  14,  1650 ;  but  there  is 
no  record  of  this  law  taking  effect.  In  New  England  a  law  was  ordained 
whereby  adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  even  though  the  man 
were  unmarried,  and  several  suffered  under  it,  1662. — Hardie.  At  present 
this  offence  is  more  favorably  viewed ;  to  divorce  and  strip  the  adulteress 
of  her  dower,  is  all  her  punishment  among  us ;  but  in  Romish  countries  they 
usually  shut  up  the  adulteress  in  a  nunnery. — Ashe. 

ADVENT.  In  the  calendar  it  signifies,  properly,  the  approach  of  the  feast  of 
the  Nativity;  it  includes  four  Sundays,  the  first  of  which  is  always  the  nearest. 
Sunday  to  Saint  Andrew  (the  30th  November),  before  or  after.  Advent  was 
instituted  by  the  council  of  Tours,  in  the  sixth  century. 

ADVENTURERS,  MERCHANT,  a  celebrated  and  enterprising  company  of 
merchants,  was  originally  formed  for  the  discovery  of  territories,  extension 
of  commerce  and  promotion  of  trade,  by  John  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1296. 
This  ancient  company  was  afterwards  translated  into  England,  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  HI.,  and  queen  Elizabeth  formed  it  into  an  English  corporation 
in  1564. — Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  IN  NEWSPAPERS.  In  England,  as  now  published,  they 
were  not  general  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  penalty 
of  50Z.  was  inflicted  on  persons  advertising  a  reward  with  "No  questions  to 
be  asked"  for  the  return  of  things  stolen,  and  on  the  printer.  25  Geo.  II.  1754. 
— Statutes.  The  advertisement  duty  was  formerly  charged  according  to  the 
number  of  lines  ;  it  was  afterwards  fixed,  in  England  at  3s.  Qd.,  and  in  Ireland 
at  2*.  6^.  each  adiertisement.  The  duty  was  further  reduced,  in  England 
to  Is.  6d.,  and  in  Ireland  to  Is.  each,  by  statute  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  1833 


212  THE  WORLD'S  PRIORESS. 


.  magistrates  of  Rome,  first  created  492  B.C.  There  were  three  degree* 
of  these  officers,  and  the  functions  of  the  principal  were  similar  to  our  justices 
of  the  peace.  The  plebeian  aediles  presided  over  the  more  minute  affairs  of 
the  state,  good  order,  and  the  reparation  of  the  streets.  They  procured  all 
the  provisions  of  the  city,  and  executed  the  decrees  of  the  people.  —  Varro. 

^ENIGMA.  The  origin  of  the  aenigma  is  doubtful  :  Gale  thinks  that  the  Jews 
borrowed  thoir  aenigmatical  forms  of  speech  from  the  Egyptians.  The 
philosophy  of  the  Druids  was  altogether  ^enigmatical.  In  Nero's  time  the 
Romans  were  often  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  this  method  of  concealing 
truth  under  obscure  language.  The  following  epitaph  on  Fair  Rosamond  it 
an  elegant  specimen  of  the  aenigma  :  — 

Hie  jacet  in  tomba,  Rosa  muruli,  non  Rosa  munda; 
Non  rcdolet,  sed  olet,  quae  redolere  solet. 

AEOLIAN  HARP.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  Kircher.  It563  ; 
but  Richardson  proves  it  to  have  been  known  at  an  earlier  period  than  his 
time.  —  Dissertation  on  the  Customs  of  the  East.  There  is  a  Rabbinical  story 
of  the  aerial  harmony  of  the  harp  of  David,  which,  when  hung  up  at  night, 
was  played  upon  by  the  north  wind.  —  Baruch. 

AERONAUTICS.  To  lord  Bacon,  the  prophet  of  art,  as  Walpole  calls  him,  has 
been  attributed  the  first  suggestion  of  the  true  theory  of  balloons.  The 
ancient  speculations  about  artificial  wings,  whereby  a  man  might  fly  as  well 
as  a  bird,  refuted  by  Borelli,  1670.  Mr.  Henry  Cavendish  ascertained  that 
hydrygen  air  is  at  least  twelve  times  lighter  than  common  air,  1777.  The 
true  doctrine  of  aeronautics  announced  in  France  by  the  two  brothers  Mont- 
golfier,  1782.—  See  Balloon. 

/ESOP'S  FABLES.  Written  by  the  celebrated  fabulist,  the  supposed  inventor 
of  this  species  of  entertainment  and  instruction,  about  565  B.C.  ^Esop's 
Fables  are,  no  doubt,  a  compilation  of  all  the  fables  and  apologues  of  wits 
both  before  and  after  his  own  time,  conjointly  with  his  own.  —  Plutarch. 

3STOLIA.  This  country  was  named  after  ./Etolus  of  Elis,  who,  having  acci 
dentally  killed  a  son  of  Phoroneus.  king  of  Argos.  left  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  settled  here.  The  inhabitants  were  very  Httle  known  to  the  rest  of 
Greece,  till  after  the  ruin  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  when  they  assumed  a  con- 
Sequence  in  the  country  as  the  opposers  and  rivals  of  the  Achaeans,  to  whom 
.  they  made  themselves  formidable  as  the  allies  of  Rome,  and  as  its  enemies. 
They  were  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Fulvius. 


The  ./Etolians  begin  to  ravage  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus .  .  .  B.C.  282 

They  dispute  the  passage  of  the  Mace- 
donians at  Thermopylae  .  .  223 

Acarnania  ceded  to  Philip  as  the  price 
of  peace  ....  218 

Battle  of  Lamia;  the  JEtolians,  com- 
manded by  Pyrrhus,  are  defeated  by 
Philip  of  Macedon  .  .  .214 

With  the  assistance  of  allies,  they  seize 
Oreum,  Opus,  Tribon,  and  Dryne  .  212 


Therma,  Xenia,  Cyphara,  and  other 
cities,  and  destroy  with  fire  all  the 
country  they  invade  .  B.C.  '^01 

They  next  invite  the  kings  of  Macedon, 
Syria  and  Sparta,  to  coalesce  with 
them  agninst  the  Romans  .  .  195 

They  seize  Calchis,  Sparta,  and  Dem;- 

mas  in  Thessaly          .  .  .194 

Their  defeat  near  Thermopylae.  .  193 

They  lose  Lamia  and  Ampnissa  .  192 

Made  a  province  of  Rome          .  .  146 


They  put  to  the  sword  the  people  of 

•  FFFNITY,  DEGREES  OF.  Marriage  within  certain  degrees  of  kindred  was 
prohibited  by  the  laws  of  almost  all  nations,  and  in  almost  every  age. 
Several  degrees  were  prohibited  in  scriptural  law.  as  may  be  seen  in  Leviti- 
cus, chap,  xviii.  In  England,  a  table  restricting1  marriage  within  certain 
near  degrees  was  set  forth  by  authority  A. p.  1563.  Prohibited  marriages 
were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful  by  the  ninety-ninth  Canon,  in 
1603.  All  marriages  celebrated  within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  are 
declared  to  be  absolutely  void  by  statute  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  1835. 


l»*J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  213 

AFFIRMATION  OF  THE  QUAKERS.  This  was  first  legally  accepted  as  an  oath 
in  England  A.D.  1696.  The  affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  and  again  altered 
and  modified  December  1721. 

AFGHANISTAN.  Insurrection  of  the  Afghans  against  the  British  power  in 
India,  January  5,  1842. — See  India. 

A  FRICA,  called  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  the  greatest  peninsula  of  the  universe,  first  peopled  by  Ham.  It 
was  conquered  by  Belisarius  in  A.D.  553  et  seq.  In  the  seventh  century,  about 
637,  the  Mahometan  Arabs  subdued  the  north  of  Africa  ;  and  their  descend- 
ants, under  the  name  of  Moors,  constitute  a  great  part  of  the  present  popu- 
lation. See  the  several  countries  of  Africa  through  the  volume.  Among 
the  late  distinguished  travellers  in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  may  be  men- 
tioned Bruce,  who  commenced  his  travels  in  17G8 ;  Mungo  Park,  who  made 
his  first  voyage  to  Africa,  May  22. 1795 ;  and  his  second  voyage.  January  JO, 
1804,  but  from  which  he  never  returned.  See  Park.  Richard  Lander  died 
of  shot-wounds  (which  he  had  received  when  ascending  the  river  Nunn)  at 
Fernando  Po,  Jan.  31,  1834.  The  African  expedition,  for  which  parliament 
voted  61.0002.,  consisting  of  the  Albert,  Wilberforce,  and  Soudan  steam-ships, 
sailed  in  the  summer  of  1841.  The  vessels  commenced  the  ascent  of  the 
Niger,  Aug.  20;  but  when  they  reached  Iddah,  fever  broke  out  among  the 
crews,  and  they  were  successively  obliged  to  return,  the  Albert  having 
ascended  the  river  to  Egga.  320  miles  from  the  sea,  Sept.  28.  The  expedi- 
tion was,  in  the  end,  wholly  relinquished  owing  to  disease,  heat,  and  hard- 
ships, Oct.  17. 

AFRICAN  COMPANY,  a  society  of  merchants  trading  to  Africa.  An  associ- 
ation in  Exeter,  which  was  formed  in  1588,  gave  rise  to  this  company.  A 
charter  was  granted  to  a  joint  stock  company  in  1618 :  a  third  company  wag 
created  in  1631 ;  a  fourth  corporation  in  1662 ;  and  another  formed  by  let- 
ters patent  in  1672.  and  remodelled  in  1695.  The  rights  vested  in  the  pre- 
sent company,  23  Geo.  II.  1749.  See  Slave  Trade. 

AGE :  GOLDEN  AGE,  MIDDLE  AGE,  &c.  Among  the  ancient  poets,  an  age  was 
the  space  of  thirty  years,  in  which  sense  age  amounts  to  much  the  same  as 
generation.  The  interval  since  the  first  formation  of  man  has  been  divided 
into  four  ages,  distinguished  as  the  golden,  silver,  brazen,  and  iron  ages  ;  but 
a  late  author,  reflecting  on  the  barbarism  of  the  first  ages,  will  have  the 
order  assigned  by  the  poets  inverted — the  first,  being  a  time  of  ignorance, 
would  be  more  properly  denominated  an  iron,  rather  than  a  golden  age. 
Various  divisions  of  the  duration  of  the  world  have  been  made  by  historians : 
by  some  the  space  of  time  commencing  from  Constantine,  and  ending  with 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  called 
the  middle  age ;  the  middle  is  also  styled  the  barbarous  age.  The  ages  of 
the  world  may  be  reduced  to  three  grand  epochs,  viz.,  the  age  of  the  law  of 
nature,  from  Adam  to  Moses ;  the  age  of  the  Jewish  law,  from  Moses  to 
Christ ;  and  the  age  of  grace,  from  Christ  to  the  present  year. 

A.GINCOURT,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  English  armies,  gained  by 
Henry  V.  Of  the  French,  there  were  10,000  killed,  and  14,000  were  taken 
prisoners,  the  English  losing  only  100  men.  Among  the  prisoners  were  the 
dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights,  and  gentlemen, 
and  men  more  numerous  than  the  British  themselves.  Among  the  slain 
were  the  dukes  of  Alen$on,  Brabant,  and  Bar,  the  archbishop  of  Sens,  one 
marshal,  thirteen  earls,  ninety-two  barons,  and  1500  knights,  Oct.  25,  1415. 
—  Goldsmith. 

AGRA,  FORTRESS  OF,  termed  the  key  of  Hindostan,  surrendered,  in  the  wa» 
with  the  Mahrattas,  to  the  British  forces,  Oct.  17,  1803.  This  was  once  ths 


214  THK  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  J  AL» 

most  sp  endid  of  all  the  Indian  cities,  and  now  exhibits  the  most  magnificent 
ruins.  In  the  17th  century  the  great  mogul  frequently  resided  here  ;  his 
palaces,  and  those  of  the  Omrahs,  were  very  numerous ;  Agra  then  con- 
tained above  60  caravansaries,  800  baths,  and  700  mosques.  See  Mau- 
soleums. 

AGRARIAN  LAW,  Agraria  Lex.  This  was  an  equal  division  among  the  Ro-, 
man  people  of  all  the  lands  which  they  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the 
acres  which  each  person  should  enjoy,  first  proposed  by  Sp.  Cassius,  to  gain 
the  favor  of  the  citizens,  486  B.C.  It  was  enacted  under  the  tribune  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus,  132  B.C.  ;  but  this  law  at  last  proved  fatal  to  the  freedom  oi 
Rome  under  Julius  Ctesar. — Livy ;  Vossius. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  science  of  agriculture  may  be  traced  to  the  period  im- 
mediately succeeding  the  Deluge.  In  China  and  the  eastern  countries  it  was, 
perhaps,  coeval  with  their  early  plantation  and  government.  Of  the  agri- 
culture of  the  ancients  little  is  known.  The  Athenians  pretended  that  it 
was  among  them  the  art  of  sowing  corn  began ;  and  the  Cretans,  Sicilians, 
and  Egyptians  lay  claim,  the  last  with  most  probability,  to  the  honor. 
Brought  into  England  by  the  Romans,  as  a  science,  about  A.D.  27. 

AGYNNIANS.  This  sect  arose  about  A.D.  694,  and  alleged  that  GOD  forbade 
the  eating  of  flesh,  assuming  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  to  be  the  authority 
upon  which  the  doctrine  was  founded.  A  revival  of  this  ancient  sect  now 
flourishes  at  Manchester  and  other  towns  in  England,  and  has  been  public 
there  since  1814. 

AIR.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent  deity,  and  the 
first  cause  of  every  thing  created,  530  B.C.  The  pressure  of  air  was  discov- 
ered by  Torricelli.  A.D.  1645.  It  was  found  to  vary  with  the  height  by  Pas- 
cal, in  1647.  Halley,  Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time,  have 
illustrated  the  agency  and  influences  of  this  great  power  by  various  experi- 
ments, and  numerous  inventions  have  followed  from  them ;  among  others, 
the  air-gun  by  Guter  of  Nuremburg  in  1656 ;  the  air-pump,  invented  by 
Otho  Guericke  at  Magdeburg  in  1650,  and  improved  by  the  illustrious  Boyle 
in  1657 ;.  and  the  air-pipe,  invented  by  Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of  London, 
about  1756.  See  Balloon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  PEACE  OF.  The  first  treaty  of  peace  signed  here  wa» 
between  France  and  Spain,  when  France  yielded  Franche-Comte",  but 
'retained  her  conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  May  2,  1668.  The  second,  or 
celebrated  treaty,  was  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland  Hungary, 
Spain,  and  GSnoa.  By  this  memorable  peace  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in 
1648,  of  Nimeguen  in  1678  and  1679,  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713. 
of  Baden  in  1714,  of  the  Triple  Alliance  1717,  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  in 
1718,  and  of  Vienna  in  1738,  were  renewed  and  confirmed.  Signed  on  the 
part  of  England  by  John  Earl  of  Sandwich,  and  Sir  Thomas  Robinson,  Oct. 
7,  1748.  A  congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia, 
assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and  France,  was  held  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
nelle,  and  a  convention  signed,  October  9.  1818.  The  sum  then  due  from 
France  to  the  allies  was  settled  at  265,000,000  francs. 

ALABAMA.  One  of  the  United  States ;  most  of  its  territory  was  included  in 
the  original  patent  of  Georgia.  It  was  made  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  ter. 
ritory  in  1817  ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1820.  Population  in 
1810  was  less  than  10  000;  in  1816  29683;  in  1820.  127,901;  in  1S30, 
808.997 ;  in  1840,  590  756,  including  253,532  slaves.  Exports  of  the  State  in 
1840  amounted  to  $12  854  694 ;  imports,  to  $574  651 

ALBA.  Founded  by  Ascanius,  1152  B.C.,  and  called  Longa,  because  the  city 
intended  along  tb  >  hill  Albanus.  This  kingdom  lasted  487  years,  and  wai, 


AI  B  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  215 

governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  the  descendants  ofj-Eneas.  When  Amulius 
dethroned  his  brother,  he  condemned  Ilia,  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  to  a 
life  oT  celibacy,  'jy  obliging  her  to  take  the  vows  and  office  of  a  vestal, 
therely  to  assure  his  safety  in  the  usurpation.  His  object  was,  however, 
frustrated;  violence  was  offered  to  Ilia,  and  she  became  the  mother  of 
twins,  for  which  Amulius  ordered  her  to  be  buried  alive,  and  her  offspring  to 
be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  770  B.C.  But  the  little  bark  in  which  the  infants 
were  sent  adrift  stopped  near  Mount  Aventine,  and  was  brought  ashore  by 
Faustulus,  the  king's  chief  shepherd,  who  reared  the  children  as  his  own,  and 
called  them  Romulus  and  Remus.  His  wife,  Acca-Laurentia,  was  surnamud 
LMpa ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Romulus  and  his  brother  were  suckled 
by  a  she-wolf.  At  sixteen  years  of  age,  Romulus  avenged  the  wrongs  of 
Ilia  and  Numitor,  754  B.C.,  and  the  next  year  founded  Rome. —  Varro. 

ALBAN'S,  ST.  The  name  of  this  town  was  anciently  Verulam ;  it  was  once 
the  capital  of  Britain,  and  previously  to  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  was 
the  residence  of  British  princes.  It  takes  its  present  name  from  St.  Alban, 
who  was  born  here,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  for  Christianity  in  Britain.  He  is  hence  commonly  styled 
the  proto-martyr  of  this  country,  and  was  decapitated  during  the  perse- 
cution raised  by  Diocletian,  June  23,  A.D.  286.  A  stately  monastery  was 
erected  here  to  his  memory  by  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  793.  St.  Alban's 
was  incorporated  by  Edward  VI.  1552. 

ALBAN'S.  ST..  BATTLES  or.  The  first,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster, in  which  Richard  duke  of  York  obtained  a  victory  over  Henry  VI., 
of  whose  army  5000  were  slain,  while  that  of  the  duke  of  York  suffered 
no  material  loss,  fought  May  22,  1455.  The  second,  between  the  Yorkists 
under  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  the  Lancastrians,  commanded  by  queen 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  who  conquered :  in  this  battle  2500  of  the  defeated  army 
perished;  fought  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  February  2. 1461. 

ALBANY,  city,  capital  of  the  State  of  .New- York,  founded  by  the  Dutch  in 
1623,  and  by  them  named  Beaverwyck ;  capitulated  to  the  English  in  1664, 
and  then  received  its  present  name  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York  and 
Albany,  its  proprietor.  Incorporated  in  1686.  Population  in  1810,  9,356  : 
in  1830,  24;238;  in  1840,  33,721. 

ALBIGENSES.  This  sect  had  its  origin  about  A.D.  1160,  at  Albigeois,  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  and  at  Toulouse ;  they  opposed  the  disciples  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  professed  a  hatred  of  all  the  corruptions  of  that  religion.  Simon 
de  Montfort  commanded  against  them,  and  at  Beziferes  he  and  the  pope's 
legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the  sword.  At  Minerba,  he  burnt  150  of  the 
Albigenses  alive ;  and  at  La  Vaur,  he  hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded 
the  chief  people,  drowning  the  governor's  wife,  and  murdering  other 
women.  They  next  defeated  the  count  of  Toulouse,  with  the  loss  of  17,000 
men.  Simon  de  Montfort  afterwards  came  to  England.  See  Waldenses. 

ALBION.  The  island  of  Great  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  first  so  called  b> 
Julius  Caesar,  on  account  of  the  chalky  cliffs  upon  its  coast,  on  his  invasion 
of  the  country,  54  B.C.  The  Romans  conquered  it.  and  held  possession  about 
400  years.  On  their  quitting  it,  it  was  successively  invaded  by  the  Scots, 
Picts,  and  Saxons,  who  drove  the  original  inhabitants  from  the  plain  coun- 
try, to  seek  refuge  in  the  steeps  and  wilds  of  Cornwall  and  Wales ;  the 
Danes  and  Normans  also  settled  at  various  times  in  England :  and  from  a 
mixture  of  these  nations  the  present  race  of  Englishmen  is  derived.  See 
Uritain. — New  Albion,  district  of  California,  was  taken  possession  of  by  sir 
Francis  Drake,  and  so  named  by  him,  in  1578 ;  explored  by  Vancouver  in 
1792. 

A.LBUERA,  BATTLE  OF,  b  tween  the  French,  commanded  by  marshal  Soult, 


216  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ALH 

and  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  commanded  by  marshal,  now  lord 
Beresford,  May  16,  1811.  After  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  engagement, 
the  allies  obtained  the  victory,  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
achievements  of  the  Peninsular  war.  The  French  loss  exceeded  9000  men 
previously  to  their  retreat. 

ALCHEMY.  This  was  a  pretended  branch  of  chemistry,  which  effected  the 
transmutation  of  metals  into  gold,  an  alkahest,  or  universal  menstruum,  a 
universal  ferment,  and  other  things  equally  ridiculous.  If  regard  may  b« 
had  to  legend  and  tradition,  alchemy  must  be  as  old  as  the  Flood:  yet 
few  philosophers,  poets,  or  physicians,  from  Homer  till  400  years  afici 
Christ,  mention  any  such  thing.  Pliny  says  the  emperor  Caligula  was  the 
first  who  prepared  natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold  of  it,  but  left  it 
off  because  the  charge  exceeded  the  profit.  Others  say  the  Egyptians  had 
this  mystery ;  which  if  true,  how  could  it  have  been  lost  1  The  Arabians 
are  said  to  have  invented  this  mysterous  art.  wherein  they  were  followed  by 
Ramond  Lullius,  Paracelsus,  and  others,  who  never  found  any  thing  else 
but  ashes  in  their  furnaces.  Another  author  on  the  subject  is  Zosimus, 
about  A.  D.  410. — Fab.  Bib.  Grces.  A  license  for  practising  alchemy  with  all 
kinds  of  metals  and  minerals  granted  to  one  Richard  Carter,  1476. — Ri/mer's 
Feed.  Doctor  Price,  of  Guildford,  published  an  account  of  his  experiments 
in  this  way,  and  pretended  to  success :  he  brought  his  specimens  of  gold  to 
the  king,  affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a  red  and  white  pow- 
der ;  but  being  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he  was  required,  upon  pain 
of  expulsion,  to  repeat  his  experiments  before  Messrs.  Kirwan  and  Woulfe ; 
but  after  some  equivocation,  he  took  poison  and  died,  August  1783. 

ALCORAN.  The  book  which  contains  the  revelation  and  credenda  of  Mahomet : 
it  is  confessedly  the  standard  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  as  the  Mahometans 
believe,  inimitable  by  any  human  pen ;  hence  they  assume  its  divine  origin. 
It  is  the  common  opinion  of  writers,  that  Mahomet  was  assisted  by  Batiras, 
a  Jacobin,  Sergius,  a  Nestorian  monk,  and  by  a  learned  Jew,  in  composing 
this  book,  most  of  whose  principles  are  the  same  with  those  of  Arius,  Nes- 
torius.  Sabellius,  and  other  heresiarchs.  The  Mahometans  say,  that  God 
sent  it  to  their  prophet  by  the  Angel  Gabriel :  it  was  written  about  A.  D.  610. 
— See  Koran,  Mahometism,  Mecca,  &c. 

ALDERMEN.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Ealdorman,  a  senior,  and 
among  the  Saxons  the  rank  was  conferred  upon  elderly  and  sage,  as  well  as 
distinguished  persons  on  account  of  the  experience  their  age  had  given 
them.  At  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy,  aldermen  were  the  governors  of  pro- 
vinces or  districts,  and  are  so  mentioned  up  to  A.  D.  882.  After  the  Danes 
.vere  settled  in  England,  the  title  was  changed  to  that  of  earl,  and  the  Nor- 
mans introduced  that  of  count,  which  though  different  in  its  original  signifi- 
cation, yet  meant  the  same  thing.  Henry  III.  may  be  said  to  have  given 
its  basis  to  this  city  distinction.  In  modern  British  polity,  and  also  in  tho 
United  States,  an  alderman  is  a  magistrate  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor. 

Al.E  AND  WINE.  They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bacchus  ;  the  for- 
mer where  the  soil,  owing  to  its  quality,  would  not  grow  grapes. — Twke'i 
Pantheon.  Ale  was  known  as  a  beverage  at  least  404  B.  c.  Herodotus  as- 
cribes the  first  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing  barley-wine  to  Isis  the  wife 
of  Asyris.  The  Romans  and  Germans  very  early  learned  the  process  of  pre- 
paring a  liquor  from  corn  by  means  of  fermentation  from  the  Egyptians. — 
Tacitus.  Alehouses  are  made  mention  of  in  the  laws  of  Ina.  king  of  Wes- 
sex.  Booths  were  set  up  in  England  A.D.  728.  when  laws  w<  re  passed  for 
their  regulation.  Alehouses  were  licensed  1621 ;  and  excise  duty  on  ale 
and  beer  was  imposed  on  a  system  nearly  similar  to  the  present,  13  Charlej 
U.,  1660.  See  Beer.  Wine.. 


4LG  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  217 

ALEMANNI,  OR  ALL  MEN,  (i.  e.  men  of  all  nations, .  a  body  of  Suevi,  defeated 
by  Caracalla,  A.  D.  214.  On  one  occasion  300  000  of  this  warlike  people  art 
said  to  have  been  vanquished,  in  a  battle  near  Milan,  by  Gallienus,  at  tha 
head  of  10  000  Romans.  Their  battles  were  numerous  with  the  Romans  and 
Gauls.  They  ultimately  submitted  to  the  Franks. — Gibbon. 

ALEXANDER,  ERA  OP,  dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Novem- 
ber 12,  823  B.  c.  In  the  computation  of  this  era,  the  period  of  the  creation 
was  considered  to  be  5502  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and.  in  conse- 
quence, the  year  1  A.  D.  was  equal  to  5503.  Thia  computation  continued  to 
the  year  284  A.  D.,  which  was  called  5786.  In  the  next  year  (285  A.D.), 
which  should  have  been  5787,  ten  years  were  discarded,  and  the  date  be- 
came 5777.  This  is  still  used  in  the  Abyssinian  eta,  uihich,  see.  The  date  is 
reduced  to  the  Christian  era  by  subtracting  5502  until  the  year  5786,  and 
after  that  time  by  subtracting  54y2. 

ALEXANDRIA,  in  Egypt,  the  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  built  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  332  B.  c. ;  taken  by  Caesar,  47  B.  c.,  and  the  library  of 
the  Ptolemies,  containing  400;000  valuable  works  in  MS.,  burnt.  Conquered 
by  the  Saracens,  whtn  the  second  library,  consisting  of  700  000  volumes  was 
totally  destroyed  by  die  victors,  who  heated  the  water  for  their  baths  for 
six  months  by  burning  books  instead  of  wood,  by  command  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  A.  D.  642.  This  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  trade,  all  the  treasures 
of  the  East  being  deposited  here  before  the  discovery  of  the  route  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  when  a  mas- 
sacre ensued,  July  5,  1798 ;  and  from  them  by  the  British  in  the  memorable 
battle  mentioned  in  next  article,  in  1801.  Alexandria  was  ags in  taken  by 
the  British,  under  General  Frazer.  March  21,  1807  ;  but  was  evacuated  by 
thenv  Sept.  23,  same  year.  For  late  events,  see  Syria  and  Turkey. 

ALEXANDR1  A.  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French,  under  Menou,  who  made  the  at- 
tack and  the  British  army,  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie.  amounting  to  about 
15  000  men,  which  had  but  recently  debarked  fought  March  21,  1801.  The 
British  were  victorious,  but  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  was  mortally  wounded. 

ALEXANDRINE  VERSE.  Verse  of  twelve  feet,  or  syllables,  first  written  by 
Alexander  of  Paris:  and  since  called  after  him.  Alexandrines,  about  A.  D. 
1164. — Nuuv.  Diet.  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on  Criticism,  has  the  following  well- 
known  couplet,  in  which  an  Alexandrine  is  happily  exemplified: — 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
Tha'  like  a  wound-etl  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  a-long." 

ALGEBRA.  Where  algebra  was  first  used,  and  by  whom,  is  not  precisely 
known.  Diophantus  first  wrote  upon  it  probably  about  A.  D.  170 ;  he  is  said 
to  be  the  inventor.  Brought  into  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  about  900 ;  and 
into  Italy  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  in  1202.  The  first  writer  who  used  algebra- 
ical signs  was  Stifelius  of  Nuremberg,  in  1544.  The  introduction  of  sym- 
bols for  quantities  was  by  Francis  Vieta,  in  1590.  when  algebra  came  into 
feneral  use. — Moreri.  The  binomial  theorem  of  Newton,  the  basis  of  the 
octrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668. 

ALGIERS.  The  ancient  kingdom  of  Numidia,  reduced  to  a  Roman  province, 
44  B.  c.  It  afterwards  became  independent,  till,  dreading  the  power  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  nation  invited  Barbarossa,  the  pirate,  to  assist  it,  and  h« 
seized  the  government,  A.  D.  1516;  but  it  afterwards  fell  to  the  lot  of  Tur- 
key.— Priestley.  The  Algerines  for  ages  braved  the  resentment  of  the  most 
powerful  states  in  Christendom,  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  lost  a  fine  fleet 
and  army  in  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  them,  in  1541.  Algiers  was 
reduced  by  Admiral  Blake,  in  1653.  and  terrified  into  pacific  measure* 
with  England ;  but  it  repulsed  the  vigorous  attacks  of  other  European  pow- 
ers, particularly  those  of  France,  in  1688,  and  1761 ;  and  of  Spain,  in  1775 
10 


218  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


ALM 


1783,  and  1784.  It  was  bombarded  by  the  British  fleet,  inder  lord  Exmouth, 
Aug.  27,  1816,  when  a  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery  was  abol- 
ished. Algiers  surrendered  to  a  French  armament,  under  Bouriaont  and 
Duperr^,  after  some  severe  conflicts,  July  5, 1830,  when  the  dey  was  deposed, 
and  the  barbarian  government  wholly  overthrown.  The  French  ministry 
announced  their  intention  to  retain  Algiers,  permanently,  May  20,  1834. 
Marshal  Clausel  defeated  the  Arabs  in  two  engagements  (in  one  of  which 
the  duke  of  Orleans  was  wounded),  and  entered  Mascara,  Dec.  8,  1836. 
General  Damremont  attacked  Constantina  (which,  see},  Oct.  13,  1837 ;"  since 
when  various  other  engagements  between  the  French  and  the  natives,  have 
taken  place.  Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  to  General  Lamoriciere,  Dec .  22. 
1847.  See  Morocco. 

ALI,  SECT  OF.  Founded  by  a  famv  us  Mahometan  chief,  the  son-in-law  of  Ma- 
homet, (having  married  hit  daughter  Fatima.)  about  A.  D.  632.  Ali  was 
called  by  the  Prophet,  "  the  Lion  of  God.  always  victorious  ;"  and  the  Persians 
follow  the  interpretation  of  the  Koran  according  to  Ali,  while  other  Maho- 
metans adhere  to  that  of  Abubeker  and  Omar.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  lirst  four  successors  of  Mahomet — Abubeker,  Omar.  Othman,  and 
Ali,  whom  he  had  employed  as  his  chief  agents  in  establishing  his  religion, 
and  extirpating  unbelievers,  and  whom  on  that  account  he  styled  the  '-cut- 
ting sword«  of  God."  all  died  violent  deaths ;  and  that  this  bloody  impos- 
tor's famLy  was  wholly  extirpated  within  thirty  years  after  his  own  decease. 
Ali  was  assassinated  in  660. 

ALIENS.  In  England  aliens  were  grievously  coerced  up  to -A.  D.  1377.  When 
they  were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries  were  to  bo  half  foreigners,  if 
they  so  desired,  1430.  They  were  restrained  from  exercising  any  trade  or 
handicraft  by  retail.  1483. 

ALL  SAINTS.  The  festival  instituted,  A.  D.  625.  All  Saints,  or  All  Hallows, 
in  the  Protestant  church,  is  a  day  of  general  commemoration  of  all  those  saints 
and  martyrs  in  honor  of  whom,  individually,  no  particular"  day  is  assigned. 
The  Church  of  Rome  and  the  Greek  church  have  saints  for  every  day  in  the 
year.  The-  reformers  of  the  English  church  provided  offices  only  for  very 
remarkable  commemorations,  and  struck  out  of  their  calendar  altogether  a 
groat  number  of  anniversaries,  leaving  only  those  which  at  their  time  were 
connected  with  popular  feeling  or  tradition. 

ALLEGORY.  Of  very  ancient  composition.  The  Bible  abounds  in  the  finest 
instances,  of  which  Blair  gives  Psalm  Ixxx.  ver.  8, 16,  as  a  specimen.  Spen- 
ser's Faerie  Queene  is  an  allegory  throughout ;  Addison,  in  his  Spectator, 
abounds  in  allegories;  and  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  of  Bunyan,  1663.  is  per- 
fect in  its  way.  Milton,  among  other  English  poets,  is  rich  'n  allegory. 

ALLIANCES.  TREATIES  OF,  between  the  high  European  Powers  .  See  Coalition, 
Treaties.  &c. 


Alliance  of  Leipsic    .  .     April  9,  1631 

Alliance  of  Vienna  .          May  27,  1657 

Alliance,  the  Triple  .  .     Jan.  28,  1668 

Alliance  of  Warsaw  .       March  31,  1683 

Alliance,  the  Grand  .  .     May  12,  1689 

Allianci;,  the  Hague  Jan  4,  1717 

Allance,  the  Quadruple  .      Aug.  2,  1718 

Alliance  of  Vienna  March  16, 1731 


Alliance  of  Versailles  .       May  1,  1756 

Germanic  Alliance  .           July  23,  1735 

Alliance  of  Paris       .  .     May  16.  1795 

Alliance  of  Petersburg  April  8.  'SOS 

Austrian  Alliance     .  .  March  14,  !8!2 

Alliance  of  Sweden  .        March  24  iS12 

Alliance  of  Toplitz    .  .      Sept.  9,  1813 

Alliance,  the  Holy  .          Sept.  26,  18)5 


ALMANACS,  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  instruments.  Log  calen- 
dars were  anciently  in  use.  Al-mon-aght,  is  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  Bri- 
tish Museum  and  universities  are  curious  specimens  of  early  almanacs. 
Michael  Nostrodamus.  the  celebrated  astrologer,  wrote  an  almanac  in  the 
style  of  Merliii,  1566. — Dufresnoy.  The  most  noted  early  almanacs  were. 


4MJJ  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  219 


ALMANACS,  continued. 

Jobn  Somer's  Calendar,  written  in  Ox 

ford       .... 
On«  in  Lambeth  palace,  written  in 
Finit  printed  one,  published  at  Buda 
First  printed  in  England,  by  Richarc 

Pynson 

Tybault's  Prognostications . 
Lilly's  Ephenieris     . 


1380 
1460 
1472 

1497 
1533 
'644 


Poor  Robin's  Almam.c  .  1655! 

Lady's  Diary  .  .  .  1705 

Moore's  Almanac  .  .  1713 

Season  on  the  Seasons          .  .  1735 

Gentleman's  Diary         .  .  1741 

Nautical  Almanac     .  .  .  1767 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  (Franklin'B. 

Philadelphia)     ....  1733 


Of  Moore's,  at  one  period,  upwards  of  500.000  copies  were  annually  sold. 
The  Stationers'  company  claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing,  until 
1790,  in  virtue  of  letters  patent  from  James  I.,  granting  the  privilege  to  this 
company,  and  the  two  universities.  The  stamp  duty  on  almanacs  was 
abolished  in  England,  1834. 

ALMEIDA,  BATTLE  or,  between  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  com- 
manded by  lord  Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  Massena,  who  was 
defeated  with  considerable  loss  August  5,  1811.  Wellington  compelled  Mas- 
sena to  evacuate  Portugal,  and  to  retreat  rapidly  before  him ;  but  the  route 
of  the  French  was  tracked  by  the  most  horrid  desolation. 

ALPHABET.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  was  the  author  of  hieroglyphics,  and 
wrote  thus  the  history  of  the  Egyptians,  2122  B.  c. — Blair.  But  Josephus 
affirms  that  he  had  seen  inscriptions  by  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam ;  though 
this  is  doubted,  and  deemed  a  mistake,  or  fabulous.  The  first  lettei  of  the 
Phoenician  and  Hebrew  alphabet  was  akpfi,  called  by  the  Greeks  a^pha,  and 
abbreviated  by  the  moderns  to  A.  The  Hebrew  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  Phoenician.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  B.  c.,  brought 
the  Phoenician  letters  (fifteen  in  number)  into  Greece ;  they  were  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

A,  B,  T,  A,  I,  K,  A.  M,  N,  O,  II,  P,  2,  T,  T. 

Those  letters  were  originally  either  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Assyrian  char- 
acters, and  changed  gradually  in  form  till  they  became  the  ground  of  the 
Roman  letters,  now  used  all  over  Europe.  Palamedes  of  Argos  invented 
the  double  characters,  0,  X,  *,  H,  about  1224  B.  c. ;  and  Simonides  added  Z, 
"V,  H,  ft,  about  489  B.  c. — Arundeliaii  Marbles.  When  the  E  was  introduced 
is  not  precisely  known.  The  Greek  alphabet  consisted  of  sixteen  letters 
till  399  B.  c.,  when  the  Ionic,  of  24  characters,  was  introduced.  The  small 
letters  are  of  late  invention,  for  the  convenience  of  writing.  The  alphabets 
of  the  different  nations  contain  the  following  number  of  letters : — 


English     .  .26    German    .  .  26 


French  .      .  23 

Italian       .  .  20 

Spanish         .      .  27 


Sclavonic  .  .  27 
Russian  .  .  41 
Latin  .  .  .  22 


Greek  .           .  24 

Hebrew  .      .  22 

Arabic  .           .  28 

Persian  .      .  32 


Turkish  .  .    33 

Sanscrit  .      .    50 

and 

Chinese  .      .  214 


ALPHONSINE  TABLES  •  Celebrated  astronomical  tables,  composed  by  com- 
mand, and  under  the  direction  of,  Alphonsus  X.  of  Castile,  surnamed  the 
Wise.  This  learned  prince  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000 
crowns  in  completing  the  work,  whose  value  was  enhanced  by  a  preface, 
written  by  his  own  hand :  he  commenced  his  reign  in  1252. 

ALTA.RS,  were  first  raised  to  Jupiter,  in  Greece,  by  Cecrops,  who  also  insti- 
tuted and  regulated  marriages,  1556  B.  c.  He  introduced  among  the  Greeks 
the  worship  of  those  deities  which  were  held  in  adoration  in  Egypt. — Hero- 
dotus. Christian  altars  in  churches  were  instituted  by  pope  Sixtus  I.  in  136 ; 
and  they  were  first  consecrated  by  pope  Sylvester.  The  first  Christian  altar 
in  Britain  was  in  634. — Stowe.  The  Church  of  England,  and  all  the  reformed 
churches,  discontinue  the  name,  and  have  abolished  the  doctrine  that  sup- 
ported their  use. 

ALUM,  is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  at  Rocha,  in  Syria,  about  A.  D.  1300; 
it  was  found  in  Tuscany,  in  1460;  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England,  in 


220  THE    WORL1  8    PROGRESS.  [  AMI 

1608 :  was  discovered  in  Ireland,  in  1767 ;  and  in  Anglesey,  in  1790.  Alum 
is  a  salt  used  as  a  mordant  in  tanning ;  it  is  used  also  to  harden  tallow,  and 
to  whiten  bread.  It  may  be  made  of  pure  clay  exposed  to  vapors  of  sulj  thu- 
ric  acid,  and  sulphate  of  potash  added  to  the  ley ;  but  it  is  usually  obtained 
by  means  of  ore  called  alum  slate. 

AMAZONIA,  discovered  by  Francisco  Orellana,  in  1580.    Coming  from  Peru. 

Orellana  sailed  down  the  river  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  coin- 

nies  of  women  in  arms  on  its  banks,  he  called  the  country  Amazonia,  and 

ave  the  name  of  Amazon  to  the  river,  which  had  .previously  been  called 

daranon. 

dAZONS.  Their  origin  is  fabulous.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia,  where  their  husbands  having 
made  incursions,  were  all  slain,  being  surprised  in  ambuscades  by  their 
enemies.  Their  widows,  reflecting  on  the  alarms  or  sorrows  they  under- 
went on  account  of  the  fate  of  their  husbands,  resolved  to  form  a  female 
state,  and  having  firmly  established  themselves,  they  decreed  that  matri- 
mony was  a  shameful  servitude ;  but,  to  perpetuate  their  race,  .hey,  at  stated 
times,  admitted  the  embraces  of  their  male  neighbors. — Qumtus  Curtiui. 
They  were  conquered  by  Theseus,  about  1231  B.  c.  The  Amazons  were  con- 
stantly employed  in  wars ;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin  with  more 
force,  their  right  breasts  were  burned  off;  whence  their  name  from  the 
Greek,  non  and  mamma.  Their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the 
Great  while  he  was  pursuing  his  conquests  in  Asia,  and  cohabited  with 
him,  in  the  hope  of  having  issue  by  so  illustrious  a  warrior;  three  hundred 
females  were  in  her  train. — Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS,  accredited  agents  and  representatives  from  one  court  to 
another,  are  referred  to  early  ages,  and  to  almost  all  nations.  In  most  coun- 
tries they  have  great  and  peculiar  privileges ;  and  in  England  among  others, 
they  and  their  servants  are  secured  against  arrest.  The  Portuguese  ambas- 
sador in  England  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  in  1653 ;  and  the  Russian,  by  a 
lace-merchant,  in  1709.  when  a  law,  the  statute  of  8  Anne,  passed  for  their 
protection.  Two  men  were  convicted  of  arresting  the  servant  of  an  ambas- 
sador. They  were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to  the  house  of  the  ambassa- 
dor, with  a  label  on  their  breasts,  to  ask  his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them 
to  be  imprisoned  three  months  and  the  other  fined,  May  12,  1780. — Phillips. 

AMIJER,  Of  great  repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time;  esteemed  as  a 
medicine  before  the  Christian  era :  Theophrastus  wrote  upon  it,  300  B.  c. 
Upwards  of  150  tons  of  amber  have  been  found  in  one  year  on  the  sands  of 
the  shore  near  Pillau. — Phillips.  Much  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails 
among  naturalists  and  chemists  respecting  the  origin  of  amber,  some  refer- 
ring it  to  the  vegetable,  others  to  the  mineral,  and  some  to  the  animal  king 
dom;  its  natural  history  and  its  chemical  analysis  affording  something  in 
favor  of  each  opinion. 

AMEN.  This  word  is  as  old  as  the  Hebrew  itself.  In  that  language  it  means 
true,  faithful,  certain.  Employed  in  devotions,  at  the  end  of  a  prayer,  it  im- 
plies, so  be  it ;  at  the  termination  of  a  creed,  so  it  is.  It  has  been  genejallj 
used,  both  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches,  at  the  conclusion  of  prnyei 

A.MENDE  HONORABLE,  originated  in  France  in  the  ninth  century.  It  was  first 
an  infamous  punishment  inflicted  on  traitors  and  sacrilegious  persons  :  the 
offender  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hangman ;  his  shirt  was  stripped 
off.  a  rope  put  about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand ;  he  was  then  led  into 
court  and  was  obliged  to  pray  pardon  of  God.  the  king,  and  the  country.  Death 
or  banishment  sometimes  followed.  Amende  honorable  is  now  a  term  used  foi 
making  recantation  in  open  court,  or  in  the  presence  of  the  injured  party; 


A  MM  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


221 


AMERICA:  See  United  States.  Discovered  by  Christopher  Colombo,  a  Geno- 
ese, better  known  as  Christopher  Columbus,  A.D.  1492,  on  the  llth  of  Octo- 
ber, on  which  day  he  came  in  sight  of  St.  Salvador.  See  Bahama  Islands. 
This  grea*  navigator  found  the  continent  of  America  in  1497,  and  the  east- 
ern coasts  were  found  by  Amerigo  Vespucci  ( Americus  Vespucius)  in  1498 ; 
and  from  this  latter  discoverer  the  whole  of  America  is  named. 


Newfoundland,  the  first  British  colony 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  discover- 
ed by  Cabot,  and  by  him  called 
Prima  Vista.  ....  1497 

Virginia,  the  first  English  settlement 
.on  the  main  land  .  .  .  1607 


New  England,  the  second,  by  the  Ply- 
mouth company          .  .  .  1621 
New  York,  settled  by  the  Dutch    .     .  161' 
[For  other   occurrences,  see  Tabular 
Views — United  States.     See   also 
separate   states,  Maine,  <tc. 


A  MEHIC  A,  SOUTH.  The  Spaniards,  as  being  the  first  discoverers  of  this  vast 
portion  of  the  Western  World,  had  the  largest  and  richest  share  of  it.  When 
they  landed  in  Peru,  A.  D.  1530.  they  found  it  governed  by  sovereigns  called 
Incas.  who  were  revered  by  their  subjects  as  divinities,  but  the;-  were  soon 
subdued  by  their  invaders  under  the  command  of  Francis  Pizarro.  The 
cruelties  practised  by  the  new  adventurers  wherever  they  appeared,  will  be 
a  reproach  to  Spain  for  ever.*  Spanish  America  has  successfully  asserted 
its  freedom  within  the  present  century.  It  first  declared  its  independence 
in  1810;  and  the  provinces  assembled,  and  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  .in  July,  1814 ;  since  when,  although  the  wars  of  rival  and  contending 
chiefs  have  been  afflicting  the  country,  it  has  released  itself  from  the  yoke 
of  Spain  for  ever.  Its  independence  was  recognized  first  by  the  United 
States,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  H.  Clay  ;  by  England,  in  1823,  etseq.; 
and  by  France,  Sept.  30,  1830.  See  Brazil,  Colombia,  Lima,  Peru,  &c. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  The  American  Almanac  for  1840  gives  a  list  of 
776  names  of  American  authors  who  had  died  previous  to  that  year.  This 
did  not  include  authors  of  mere  pamphlets,  which  would  have  swelled  the 
number  three-fold;  but  the  "authorship  "  of  many  in  the  list  was  of  very 
moderate  amount  or  value.  Of  the  776  names,  there  were  writers  on  Theo- 
logy. Sermons,  &c..  259;  Poetry,  57;  History  and  Biography.  80;  Politics 
and  Law.  77.  [In  these  numbers,  writers  on  two  or  more  of  the  subjects  are 
repeated.] 

A  M  ETHYSTS.  When  this  stone  was  first  prized  is  not  known ;  it  was  the  ninth 
in  place  upon  the  Breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priests,  and  the  name 
Issachar  was  engraved  upon  it.  It  is  of  a  rich  violet  color,  and  according 
to  Plutarch,  takes  its  name  from  its  color,  resembling  wine  mixed  with  water. 
One  worth  200  rix  dollars  having  been  rendered  colorless,  equalled  a  dia- 
mond in  lustre  valued  at  18  000  gold  crowns. — De  Boot  Hist.  Gemmarum. 
Amethysts  were  discovered  at  Kerry,  in  Ireland,  in  1755. — Burnt. 

(\  MIENS,  PEACE  OF.  between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France  and  Spain ;  the 
preliminary  articles,  fifteen  in  number,  were  signed  by  lord  Hawkesbury  and 
M.  Otto,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France.  Oct.  1,  1801 ;  and  the  definitive 
treaty  was  subscribed  on  March  27,  1802,  by  the  marquis  Cornwallis  for 
England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France,  Azara  for  Spain,  and  Schimmelpen- 
ninck  for  Holland. 

AMMONITES.  Descended  from  Ammon,  the  son  of  Lot ;  they  invaded  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  they  were  defeated 


'  Las  Casas,  in  describing  the  barbarity  of  the  Spania  rds  while  pursuing  their  conquests,  records 
nxuiy  instances  of  it  that  fill  the  mind  with  horror.  In  Jamaica,  he  says,  they  hanged  the  unre- 
sisting natives  by  thirteen  at  a  time,  in  honor  of  the  thirteen  apostle.s !  and  he  has  beheld  them 
throw  the  Indian  infants  to  their  dogs  for  food!  "I  have  heard  them,"  says  Las  Casas,  " borrow 
the  limb  of  a  human  bein2  to  f-ed  their  dogs,  and  have  seen  them  the  next  day  return  a  quarter  ol 
another  victim  t  >  the  lender !" 


222  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ANA 

by  Jephthah,  1188  B.C.  They  again  invaded  Canaan  in  the  reign  of  Saul, 
with  an  intention  to  put  out  the  right  eye  of  all  those  they  subdued,  but 
Saul  overthrew  them,  1093  B.  c.  They  were  afterwards  many  times  van- 
quished ;  and  Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rabboath  their  capital,  and  destroyed 
all  the  walls,  198  B.  c. — Josephus. 

AMNESTY.  The  word  as  well  as  the  practice  was  introduced  into  Greece  by 
Thrasybulus.  the  Athenian  general  and  patriot,  who  commenced  the  expul- 
sion of  the  thirty  tyrants  with  the  assistance  of  only  thirty  of  his  friends : 
having  succeeded,  the  only  reward  he  would  accept  was  a  crown  made  with 
two  branches  of  olive.  409  B.  c. — Hume's  Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL :  Established  at  Thermopylae  by  Amphictyon,  f«»r 
the  management  of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece.  This  celebrated  co-jacil, 
which  was  composed  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  men  of  some  c'ties 
of  Greece,  consisted  of  twelve  delegates,  1498  B.  c.  Other  cities  in  process 
of  time  sent  also  some  of  their  citizens  to  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons. 
and  in  the  age  of  Antoninus  Pius,  they  were  increased  to  the  number  of  thirty. 
— Suidas. 

AMPHITHEATRES.  They  may  be  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Julius  Caesar 
and  Curio:  the  latter  was  the  celebrated  orator,  who  called  the  former  in 
full  senate  "  Omnium  mulierum  virum,  et  omnium  virorum  mulierem."  In  the 
Roman  amphitheatres,  which  were  vast  round  and  oval  buildings,  the  people 
assembled  to  see  the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  exhi- 
bitions ;  they  were  generally  built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one 
of  stone,  under  Augustus  Caesar.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  was  built 
A.  D.  79 ;  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  regular  fortress  in  1312.  The  amphi- 
theatre of  Verona  was  next  in  size,  and  then  that  of  Nismes. 

AMSTERDAM.  This  noble  city  was  the  castle  of  Amstel  in  A.  D.  1100 ;  and  its 
building,  as  a  city,  was  commenced  about  1203.  Its  famous  exchange  was 
built  in  1634 ;  and  the  stadthouse,  one  of  the  noblest  palaces  in  the  world 
in  1648 ;  this  latter  cost  three  millions  of  guilders,  a  prodigious  sum  at  that 
time.  It  is  built  upon  13,659  piles,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  structure  is, 
for  its  size,  both  in  external  and  internal  grandeur,  perhaps  without  a  parallel 
in  Europe.  Amsterdam  surrendered  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  when  that  prince 
invaded  Holland  in  favor  of  the  stadtholder,  in  1787.  The  French  were 
admitted  without  resistance,  Jan.  18,  1795.  The  ancient  government  was 
restored  in  November,  1813.  See  Holland. 

AMULETS,  OR  CHARMS.  All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets.  The 
Egyptians  had  a  great  variety;  so. had  the  Jews,  Chaldeans,  and  Persians. 
Among  the  Greeks,  they  were  much  used  in  exciting  or  conquering  the 
passion  of  love.  They  were  also  in  estimation  among  the  Romans. — Pliny. 
Ovid.  Among  the  Christians  of  early  ages,  amulets  were  made  of  the  wood 
of  the  true  cross,  about  A.  D.  328.  They  have  been  sanctioned  by  religion 
and  astrology,  and  even  in  modern  times  by  medical  and  other  sciences — 
witness  the  anodyne  necklace,  &c.  The  pope  and  Catholic  clergy  make  and 
sell  amulets  and  charms  even  to  this  day. — Ashe. 

ANABAPTISTS.  This  sect  arose  about  A.  D.  1525,  and  was  known  in  England 
before  1549.  Jphn  of  Leyden,  Muncer,  Storck,  and  other  German  enthusi- 
asts, about  the  time  of  the  reformation,  spread  its  doctrines.  The  anabap- 
tists of  Munster  (who  are.  of  course,  properly  distinguished  from  the  existing 
mild  sect  of  this  name  in  England)  taught  that  infant  baptism  was  a  contriv- 
ance of  the  devil,  that  there  is  no  original  sin,  that  men  have  a  free  will  in 
spiritual  things,  and  other  doctrines  still  more  wild  and  absurd.  Munster 
they  called  Mount  Zion,  and  one  Mathias,  a  baker,  was  declared  to  be  the 
king  of  Zion.  Their  enthusiasm  led  them  to  the  maddest  practices,  and 


ING  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  223 

they,  at  length,  rose  in  arms  under  pretence  of  gospel  liberty.  Minister  was 
taken  about  fifteen  months  afterwards,  and  they  were  all  put  to  death.  The 
anabaptists  of  England  differ  from  other  Protestants  in  little  more  than  th« 
not  baptizing  children,  as  appears  by  a  confession  of  faith,  published  by  the 
representatives  of  above  one  hundred  of  their  congregations,  in  1689. 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE.  Commonly  of  the  jovial  or  Bacchanalian  strain, 
named  after  Anacreon,  of  Teos,  the  Greek  lyric  poet,  about  510  B.  c.  The 
odes  of  Anacreon  are  much  prized;  their  author  lived  in  a  constant  round 
of  di  unkenness  and  debauchery,  and  was  choked  by  a  grape  stone  in  his 
eighty- fifth  year. — Stanley's  Lives  of  ike  Poets. 

ANAGRAM,  a  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name  or  sentence  ;  as  from  Mary, 
the  name  of  the  Virgin,  is  made  army.  On  the  question  put  by  Pilate  to  our 
Saviour.  "  Quid  est  verilas?"  we  have  this  admirable  anagram,  " Est  vir  qui 
adest,"  The  French  are  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  as  now  practised,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  the  year  1560. — Henault. 

ANATHEMAS.  The  word  had  four  significations  among  the  Jews:  the  ana- 
thema, or  curse,  was  the  devoting  some  person  or  thing  to  destruction.  We 
have  a  remarkable  instance  of  it  in  the  city  of  Jericho  (sec  Joshua  Vi.  17), 
Anathemas  were  used  by  the  primitive  churches,  A.  D.  387.  tiuch  ecclesias- 
tical denunciations  caused  great  terror  in  England  up  to  the  close  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign. — Rapin.  The  church  anathema,  or  curse,  with  excommunica- 
tion, and  other  severities  of  the  Romish  religion,  are  still  practised  in  Catholic, 
countries  to  this  day. — Ashc. 

ANATOMY.  The  structure  of  the  human  body  was  made  part  of  the  philoso- 
phical investigations  of  Plato  and  Xenophon ;  and  it  became  a  branch  of 
medical  art  under  Hippocrates,  about  420  B.  c.  But  Erasistratus  and  Hero- 
philus  may  be  regarded  as  being  the  fathers  of  anatomy:  they  were  the  first 
to  dissect  the  human  form,  as  anatomical  research  had  been  confined  to 
brutes  only :  it  is  mentioned  that  they  practised  upon  the  bodies  of  living; 
criminals,  about  300  and  293  B.  c.  In  England,  the  schools  were  supplied 
•with  subjects  unlawfully  exhumed  from  graves ;  and,  until  lately,  the  bodiss 
of  executed  criminals  were  ordered  for  dissection.  The  first  anatomical 
plates  were  designed  by  Vesalius,  about  A.  D.  1538.  The  discoveries  of 
Harvey  were  made  in  1616.  The  anatomy  of  plants  was  discovered  in  1680. 
—  Freind's  History  of  Physic. 

ANCHORITES.  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Hilarion  were  the  first  anchorites.  Many 
of  the  early  anchorites  lived  in  caves  and  deserts,  and  practised  great  aus- 
terities. Some  were  analogous  to  the  fakeers,  who  impose  voluntary  pun-  - 
ishments  upon  themselves  as  atonement  for  their  sins,  and  as  being  accept- 
able to  GOD  ;  and  their  modes  of  torture  were  often  extravagant  and  crimi- 
nal. The  order  first  arose  in  the  fourth  century. 

ANCHORS  FOR  SHIPS,  are  of  ancient  use,  and  the  invention  belongs  to  the 
Tuscans — Pliny.  The  second  tooth,  or  fluke,  was  added  by  Anacharsis,  the 
Scythian. — Slrabo.  Anchors  were  first  forged  in  England  A.  D.  578.  The 
anchors  of  a  first-rate  ship  of  war  (of  which  such  a  ship  has  four)  will 
weigh  90  cwt.  each,  and  each  of  them  will  cost  £450. — Phillips. 

A  NEMOMETER,  to  measure  the  strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  was  in- 
vented by  Wolfius.'in  1709.  The  extreme  velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Lind 
to  be  93  miles  per  hour.  See  article  Winds. 

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  GEORGE.  Instituted  in  Greece,  A.D.  456.  The 
Angdici  were  instituted  by  Angelus  Comnenus.  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
1191  The  Angelica1,  an  order  of  nuns,  was  founded  at  Milan  by  Louis* 
Ton-lli.  A.  D  1534. 


224  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ANT 

ANGELS.  Authors  are  divided  as  to  the  time  of  the  creation  of  angels.  Somo 
will  have  it  to  have  been  at  the  same  time  with  our  world  ;  others,  before 
all  ages,  that  is,  from  eternity.  This  latter  is  Origen's  opinion. — Cave', 
Hist.  Literal.  The  Jews  had  ten  orders  of  angels ;  and  the  popes  have  re- 
cognized nine  choirs  and  three  hierarchies. 

ANGELS,  IN  COMMERCE.  An  angel  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  weighing 
four  pennyweights,  and  was  valued  at  65.  8d.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
at  10s.  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1562.  The  angelot  was  an  ancient  gold 
coin,  value  half  an  angel,  struck  at  Paris  when  that  capital  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  1431. —  Wood. 

ANGLING.  The  origin  of  this  art  is  involved  in  obscurity  ;  allusion  is  made 
to  it  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Bible, 
as  Amos.  It  came  into  general  repute  in  England  about  the  period  of  the 
Reformation.  Wynkin  de  Worde's  Trealyse  of  Fysshinge.  the  first  book 
printed  on  angling,  appeared  in  1496.  Isaac  Walton's  book  was  printed  in 
1653. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  This  deception  was  introduced  oy  father  Hehl,  at 
Vienna,  about  1774  ;  and  had  wonderful  success  in  France,  in  1788.  It  had 
its  dupes  in  England  also,  in  1789 ;  but  it  exploded  a  few  years  afterwards. 
It  was  a  pretended  mode  of  curing  all  manner  of  diseases  by  means  of  sympa- 
thetic affection  between  the  sick  person  and  the  operator.  The  effect  on  the 
patient  was  supposed  to  depend  on  certain  motions  of  the  fingers  and  features 
of  the  operator,  he  placing  himself  immediately  before  the  patient,  whose 
eyes  were  to  be  fixed  on  his.  After  playing  in  this  manner  on  the  imagina- 
tion and  enfeebled  mind  of  the  sick,  and  performing  a  number  of  distor- 
tions and  grimaces,  the  cure  was  said  to  be  completed. — Haydn. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  OR  ANGLES.  The  name  of  England  is  derived  from  a  vil- 
lage near  Sleswick.  called  Anglen,  whose  population  joined  the  first  Saxon 
freebooters.  Egbert  called  his  kingdom  Anglesland.  Anglia  East  was  a 
kingdom  of  the  heptarchy,  founded  by  the  Angles,  one  of  whose  chiefs, 
Uffa.  assumed  the  title  of  king,  A.  D.  575:  the  kingdom  ceased  in  792. — See 
Britain. 

ANNIHILATION.  The  doctrine  of  annihilation  was  unknown  to  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Latins :  the  ancient  philosophers  denied  annihilation  ;  the  first 
notions  of  which  are  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  Christian  theology. — Dr. 
'  Burnet. 

ANNO  DOMINI ;  in  the  year  of  our  Lord ;  used  by  the  Christian  world,  and 
abbreviated  A.D.  This  is  the  computation  of  time  from  the  incarnation  of 
our  Saviour  and  is  called  the  vulgar  era ;  first  adopted  in  the  year  525.  See 
Era.  Charles  III.  of  Germany  was  the  first  sovereign  who  added  "  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  "  to  his  reign,  in  879. 

ANTARCTIC.  The  south  pole  is  so  called,  because  it  is  opposite  to  the  north 
or  arctic  pole.  A  continent  of  1700  miles  of  coast  from  east  to  west  and 
64  to  66  degrees  south,  was  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  by  French 
and  American  Exploring  Expeditions,  under  D  Urville  and  Wilkes,  respec- 
tively on  the  same  day,  Jan.  19.  1840 ;  a  coincidence  the  more  singular,  aa 
the  discoverers  were  at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  720  miles.  It  was 
coasted  by  captain  Wilkes  for  1700  miles.  Mr.  Bris£ow,  of  the  British  Navy, 
fell  in  with  land,  Avhich  he  coasted  for  300  miles  in  lat.  67,  long.  50,  in  the 
year  1830. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of 
people  in  the  ancient  world,  or  world  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood, 
reached  to  the  enormous  amount  of  549.755  millions,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
1482.  Burnet  has  supposed  that  the  first  human  pair  might  have  left,  at  the 


ANT]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  225 

end  of  the  first  century,  ten  married  couples ;  and  from  these,  allowing 
them  to  multiply  in  the  same  decuple  proportion  as  the  first  pair  did,  would 
rise,  in  1500  years,  a  greater  number  of  persons  than  the  earth  was  capable 
of  holding.  He  therefore  suggests  a  quadruple  multiplication  only  j  and 
then  exhibits  the  following  table  of  increase  during  the  first  sixteen  centu- 
ries that  preceded  the  Flood : — 


I.  .       .       10 

n.  .  40 

III.  .        .      160 

IV.  .         640 


V.  .        .       2,560 

VI.  .  ,        .  10,240 

VII.  .  40,960 
Vin.  .        163,840 


IX.  .        .    655,360 

X.  .     2,621,440 

XI.  .        10,485,760 

XII.  .     41,943,040 


XIII.  .  .    167,142,160 

XIV.  .  671,085,640 

XV.  .  2,684,354,41W 

XVI.  .  10,737,4J8,2« 


This  calculation,  although  the  most  moderate  made,  exceeds,  it  will  be  seen, 
by  at  least  ten  times,  the  present  number  of  mankind,  which,  at  the  highest 
estimate,  amounts  to  only  a  thousand  millions. 

•\JVTHEMS,  OR  HYMNS.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  St.  Ambrose,  were 
the  first  who  composed  them,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. — 
Le-nglet.  They  were  introduced  into  the  church  service  in  ,386. — Baker. 
Ignatius  is  said  to  have  introduced  them  into  the  Greek,  and  St.  Ambrose 
into  the  Western  church.  They  were  introduced  into  the  reformed  churches 
in  queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI.  Eaters  of  human  flesh  have  existed  in  all  ages  of  the 
world.  The  Cyclops  and  Lestrygones  are  represented  as  man-eaters,  by 
Homer;  and  the  Essedonian  Scythians  were  so,  according  to  Herodotus, 
Diogenes  asserted  that  we  might  as  well  eat  the  flesh  of  men,  as  that  of 
other  animals ;  and  the  practice  still  exists  in  Africa,  and  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  &c. 

ANTIMONY.  This  mineral  was  very  early  known,  and  applied  by  the  ancients 
to  various  purposes.  It  was  used  as  paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  wo- 
men's eyes,  as  appears  from  2  Kings  ix.  30.  and  Jeremiah  iv.  30,  and  in 
eastern  countries  is  thus  used  to  this  day.  When  mixed  with  lead,  it  makes 
types  for  printing ;  and  in  physic  its  uses  are  so  various  that,  according  to 
its  preparation,  alone,  or  in  company  with  one  or  two  associates,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  answer  all  a  physician  desires  in  an  apothecary's  shop. — Bmjle. 
We  are  indebted  to  Basil  Valentine  for  the  earliest  account  of  various  pro- 
cesses, about  1410. — Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS,  the  name  first  applied  by  Luther  to  John  Agricola,  in  1538. 
The  Antinomians  trust  in  the  gospel,  and  not  in  their  deeds;  and  hold 
that  crimes  are  not  crimes  when  committed  by  them,  that  their  own  good 
works  are  of  no  effect ;  that  no  man  should  be  troubled  in  conscience  for 
sin,  and  other  equally  absurd  doctrines. 

ANTIOCH,  built  by  Seleucus,  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301  B.C.  In  one 
day,  100,000  of  its  people  were  slain  by  the  Jews,  145  B.  c.  In  this  city,  once 
the  capital  of  Syria,  the  disciples  of  the  Redeemer  were  first  called  Chris- 
tians. The  Era  of  Antioch  is  much  used  by  the  early  Christian  writers 
attached  to  the  churches  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria:  it  placed  the  creation 
5492  years  B.  c. 

A  \TIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  thought  it  possible  that  anti- 
podes existed,  about  368  B.  c.  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  legate  oJ 
pope  Zachary,  is  said  to  have  denounced  a  bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintain- 
ing1 this  doctrine,  A.  D.  741.  The  antipodes  of  England  lie  to  the  south-east 
of  New  Zealand;  and  near  the  spot  is  a  small  island,  called  Antipodes 
Island. — Brookes. 

ANTIQUARIES,  AND  ANTIQUE.  The  term  antique  is  applied  to  the  produc- 
tions of  the  arts  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to  the  time  of  the  irruption 
of  the  Goths  into  Italy,  in  A.  D.  400.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is  said  to  have 
existed  in  Ireland  700  years  B.  c. ;  but  this  has  very  little  pretensions  to 
10* 


226  THE  WORLD'S  PROGK  ESS.  [  AWJ 

credit.  A  soc'ety  was  founded  by  archbishop  Parker,  Camden,  Stowe,  and 
others,  in  1572. — Spelman.  Application  was  made  in  1589  to  Elizabeth  for 
a  charter,  but  her  death  ensued,  and  her  successor,  James  I.,  was  far  from 
favoring  the  design.  In  1717  this  society  was  revived,  and  in  1751  it  re- 
ceived its  charter  of  incorporation  from  George  II.  It  began  to  publish  its 
discoveries,  &c.,  under  the  title  of  Archceologia,  in  1770.  The  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Edinburgh  was  founded  in  1780. 

ANTI-RENTISM.  In  Rensselaer  and  Delaware  counties,  State  of  New- York, 
an  armed  resistance  of  the  tenants  (chiefly  those  on  the  Van  Rensselaer 
estates)  to  the  demand  for  the  payment  of  rents,  commenced  in  1846. 
See  Riots.  Gov.  Young  pardons  eighteen  anti-rent  rioters,  and  releases  them 
from  prison.  Jan.  27,  1847. 

ANTI- TRINITARIANS.  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  advocated  the  simple  humanity  of  Jesus,  at  the  close  of  the 
second  century.  This  doctrine  spread  widely  after  the  reformation,  when  it 
was  adopted  by  Laelius  and  Faustus  Socinus.  Bayle. — See  Arians,  Socini- 
ans.  and  Unitarians. 

ANTWERP.  First  mentioned  in  history  in  A.  D.  517.  Its  fine  exchange  built 
in  1531.  Taken  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma, 
in  1585.  It  was  then  the  chief  mart  of  Flemish  commerce,  but  the  civil  wars 
caused  by  the  tyranny  of  Philip  II.  drove  the  trade  to  Amsterdam.  The 
remarkable  crucifix  of  bronze,  thirty-three  feet  high,  in  the  principal  street, 
was  formed  from  the  demolished  statue  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  which 
he  had  himself  set  up  in  the  citadel.  Antwerp  was  the  seat  of  the  civil  war 
between  the  Belgians  and  the  house  of  Orange,  1830-31.  In  the  late  revolu- 
tion, the  Belgian  troops  having  entered  Antwerp,  were  opposed  by  the 
Dutch  garrison,  who.  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being  driven  into  the  citadel, 
cannonaded  the  town  with  red-hot  balls  and  shells,  doing  immense  mischief, 
Oct.  27, 1830.  General  Chasse"  surrendered  the  citadel  to  the  French  after 
a  destructive  bombardment,  Nov.  24,  1832.  See  Belgium. 

APOCALYPSE,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  written  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  about 
A.  D.  95. — Irenezus.  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Cerinthus,  the  heretic, 
and  others  to  John,  the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In  the  first  centuries  many 
churches  disowned  it,  and  in  the  fourth  century  it  was  excluded  from  the 
.  sacred  canon  by  the  council  of  Laodicea,  but  was  again  received  by  other 
councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  held  1545.  et  seq.  Rejected  by 
Luther,  Michaelis,  and  others,  and  its  authority  questioned  in  all  ages  from 
the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,  who  wrote  his  first  Apology  for  the  Christians  in 
A.  D.  139. 

APOCRYPHA.  In  the  preface  to  the  Apocrypha  it  is  said,  "These  books  are 
neyther  found  in  the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chalde." — Bible,  1539.  The  history 
of  the  Apocrypha  ends  135  B.  c.  The  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon, 
but  they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Catholic  church,  and  so  adjudged 
by  the  coxmcil  of  Trent,  held  in  1545,  et  seq. — Ashe. 

APOLLINARIANS,  the  followers  of  Apollinarius,  bishop  of  Laodicea.  who 
taught  that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a  soul  to  him ;  thai  his 
flesh  was  pre-existent  to  his  appearance  upon  earth,  and  that  it  was  sent 
down  from  heaven,  and  conveyed  through  the  Virgin  as  through  a  channel; 
that  there  were  two  sons,  one  born  of  God.  the  other  of  the  Virgin,  &c, 
Apollinarius  was  deposed  for  his  opinions  in  A.  D.  378. 

APOLLO.  TKMPI.KS  OF.  Apollo,  the  god  of  all  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  music, 
poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  temples  and  statues  erected  to  him  in  almost 
every  country,  particularly  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  most  splendid 
temple  was  at  Delphi,  built  1203  B.  c. — See  Delphi.  His  temple  at  Daphnac, 


ARA]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  227 

built  434  B.  c.,  during  a  period  in  which  pestilence  raged,  was  burn*  iu  A.  D. 
362.  and  the  Christians  accused  of  the  crime. — Lenglet. 

APOSTLE'S  CREED.  The  summary  of  belief  of  the  Christian  faith,  called  the 
Apostle's  Creed,  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  composed  a  great  while 
after  their  time. — Pardon.  The  repeating  of  this  creed  in  public  worship 
was  ordained  in  the  Greek  church  at  Antioch,  and  was  instituted  in  the 
Roman  church  in  the  eleventh  century ;  whence  it  passed  to  the  church  of 
England  at  the  period  of  the  reformation,  in  1534. 

A  POSTOLICI.  The  first  sect  of  Apostolici  arose  in  the  third  century ;  the 
second  sect  was  founded  by  Sagarelli,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Parma,  A.  D. 
300.  They  wandered  about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beards,  dishevelled 
hair,  and  bare  heads,  accompanied  by  women  whom  they  called  their  spirit- 
ual sisters,  preaching  against  the  growing  corruption  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  predicting  its  downfall. 

APOTHEOSIS.  A  ceremony  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  world,  oy  which  they 
raised  their  kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  The  nations  of  the 
East  were  the  first  who  paid  divine  honors  to  their  great  men,  and  the 
Romans  followed  their  example,  and  not  only  deified  the  most  prudent  and 
humane  of  their  emperors,  but  also  the  most  cruel  and  profligate. — Herodian. 
This  honor  of  deifying  the  deceased  emperor  was  begun  at  Rome  by  Augus- 
tus, in  favor  of  Julius  Caesar,  B.  c.  13. —  TiUemont. 

APPEAL  OP  MURDER.  By  the  late  law  of  England,  a  man  in  an  appeal  of 
murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make  proof  of  his  guilt 
or  innocence.  In  1817  a  young  maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have 
been  violated  and  murdered  by  Abraham  Thornton,  who,  in  appeal,  claimed 
his  right  to  his  wager  of  battle,  which  the  court  allowed ;  but  the  appellant 
(the  brother  of  the  maid)  refused  the  challenge,  and  the  criminal  escaped, 
April  16,  1818.  This  law  was  immediately  afterwards  struck  from  off  the 
statute  book,  59  George  III.,  1819. 

APPRAISERS.  The  rating  and  valuation  of  goods  for  another  was  an  early 
business  in  England;  and  so  early  as  11  Edward  I.  it  was  a  law,  that  if  they 
valued  the  goods  of  the  parties  too  high,  the  appraiser  should  take  them  at 
the  price  appraised.  1282. 

APRIL.  The  fourth  month  of  the  year  according  to  the  vulgar  computation, 
but  the  second  according  to  the  ancient  Romans,  Numa  Pompilius  having 
introduced  Januarius  and  Februarius  before  it  713  B.  c. — Peacham. 

AQUARIANS.  A  sect  in  the  primitive  church,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Tatian  in  the  second  century,  and  who  forbore  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the 
sacrament,  and  used  nothing  but  water. 

AQUEDUCTS.  Appius  Claudius  advised  and  constructed  the  first  aqueduct, 
which  was  therefore  called  the  Appian-way,  about  453  B.  c.  Aqueducts  of 
every  kind  were  among  the  wonders  of  Rome. — JLa.vy.  There  are  now  some 
remarkable  aqueducts  in  Europe:  that  at  Lisbon  is  of  great  extent  and 
beauty ;  that  at  Segovia  has  129  arches ;  and  that  at  Versailles  is  three  miles 
long,  and  of  immense  height,  with  242  arches  in  three  stories.  The  stupen- 
dous aqueduct  on  the  Ellesmere  canal,  in  England,  is  1007  feet  in  length,  and 
126  feet  high ;  it  was  opened  Dec.  26,  1805. 

AQUiTAINE,  formerly  belonged  (together  with  Normandy)  to  the  kings  of 
England,  as  descendants  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  erected  into  a 
principality  in  1362,  and  was  annexed  to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of  duke 
of  Aquitaine  was  taken  by  the  crown  of  England  on  the  conquest  of  this 
duchy  by  Henry  V.  in  1418 ;  but  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

ARABIA.  This  country  is  said  never  to  have  been  conquered ;  the  Arabians 
made  no  figure  in  history  till  A.  D.  622.  when,  under  the  new  name  of  Sara- 


228  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [JUL« 

cens.  they  followed  Mahomet  (a  native  of  Arabia)  as  their  general  and  pro- 
phet,  and  made  considerable  conquests. — Priestley. 

ARBELA,  BATTLE  OF.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Darius  Codomanus.  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  331  B.  c. 
The  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1.000.000  of  foot  and  40,000  horse;  the 
Macedonian  army  amounted  to  only  40.000  foot  and  7,000  horse. — Arrian. 
The  gold  and  silver  found  in  the  cities  of  Susa,  Persepolis,  and  Babylon, 
which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this  victory,  amounted  to  thirty  millions  ster- 
ling; and  the  jewels  and  other  precious  spoil,  belonging  to  Darius,  sufficed 
(o  load  20,000  mules  and  5,000  camels. — Plutarch. 

ARCADIA.  The  people  of  this  country  were  very  ancient,  and  reckoned  them- 
selves of  longer  standing  than  the  moon ;  they  were  more  rude  in  their 
manners  than  any  of  the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  were  shut  up  in  a  valley, 
surrounded  with  mountains.  Pelasgus  taught  them  to  feed  on  acorns,  as 
being  more  nutricious  than  herbs,  their  former  food  ;  and  for  this  discovery 
they  honored  him  as  a  god.  1521  B.  c.  Arcadia  had  twenty-five  kings,  whose 
history  is  altogether  fabulous.  The  Arcadians  were  fond  of  miliUry  glory, 
although  shepherds ;  and  frequently  hired  themselves  to  fight  the  battles  of 
other  states. — Eustathius.  A  colony  of  Arcadians  was  conducted  by  (Eno- 
trus  into  Italy,  1710  B.C.,  and  the  country  in  which  it  settled  was  afterwards 
called  Magna  Gratia.  A  colony  under  Evander  emigrated  1244  B.  c. — Idem.. 
ARCHBISHOP.  This  dignity  was  known  in  the  East  about  A.  D.  320.  Atha- 
nasius  conferred  it  on  his  successor.  In  these  realms  the  dignity  is  nearly 
coeval  with  the  establishment  of  Christianity.  Before  the  Saxons  came  into 
England  there  were  three  sees,  London,  York,  and  Caerleon-upon-Usk ;  but 
soon  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Austin,  he  settled  the  metropolitan  see  at  Can- 
terbury, A.  D.  596. 

ARCHDEACONS.  There  are  sixty  church  officers  of  this  rank  in  England, 
and  thirty-four  in  Ireland.  The  name  was  given  to  the  first  or  eldest  dea- 
con, who  attended  on  the  bishop,  without  any  power ;  but  since  the  council 
of  Nice,  his  function  is  become  a  dignity,  and  set  above  that  of  priest, 
though  anciently  it  was  quite  otherwise.  The  appointment  is  referred  to 
A.  D.  1075.  The  archdeacon's  court  is  the  lowest  in  ecclesiastical  polity:  an 
appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  consistorial  court,  stat.  24  Henry  VIII.  1532. 
ARCHERY.  It  originated,  according  to  the  fanciful  opinion  of  the  poet  Clau- 
•  dian,  from  the  porcupine  being  observed  to  cast  its  quills  whenever  it  was 
offended.  Plato  ascribes  the  invention  to  Apollo,  by  whom  it  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  Cretans.  The  eastern  nations  were  expert  in  archery  in  the 
earliest  ages,  and  the  precision  of  the  ancient  archer  is  scarcely  exceeded 
by  our  skill  in  modern  arms.  Aster  of  Amphipolis,  upon  being  slighted  by 
Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  aimed  an  arrow  at  him.  The  arrow,  on  whicb 
was  written  "Aimed  at  Philip's  right  eye,"  struck  it,  and  put  it  out;  and 
Philip  threw  back  the  arrow  with  these  words :  "  If  Philip  take  the  town, 
Aster  shall  be  hanged."  The  conqueror  kept  his  word. 
A.P.CHERY  IN  ENGLAND.  It  was  introduced  previously  to  A.  D.  440,  and  Ha 
rold  and  his  two  brothers  were  killed  by  arrows  shot  from  the  cross-bow? 
of  the  Norman  soldiers  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in  1066 ;  that  which  killed 
the  king  pierced  him  in  the  brain.  Richard  I.  revived  archery  in  England 
in  1190,  and  was  himself  killed  by  an  arrow  in  1199.  The  victories  of  Crecy, 
Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  were  won  chiefly  by  archers.  The  usual  range  ol 
the  lon»-bow  was  from  300  to  400  yards.  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John,  it. 
is  said,  shot  twice  that  distance.  Four  thousand  archers  surrounded  the 
houses  of  Parliament,  ready  to  shoot  the  king  and  the  members.  21  Rich- 
ard II.  1397. — Slmce.  The  citizens  of  London  were  formed  into  companiet 
of  archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. :  they  were  formed  into  a  corporal* 


UMJ]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  229 

body  by  the  style  of  "  The  Fraternity  of  St.  George,"  29  Henry  VOL  1538. 
— Northouk's  History  of  London. 

ARCHES,  TRIUMPHAL,  are  traced  to  the  era  of  the  Macedonian  conquest  by  the 
best  writers.  The  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  form  a  leading  feature 
in  their  architecture.  Those  of  Trajan  (erected  A.  D.  114)  and  Constantino 
were  magnificent. 

ARCHITECTURE  was  cultivated  by  the  Tyrians,  about  1100  B.C.  Their 
King,  Hiram,  supplied  Solomon  with  cedar,  gold,  silver,  and  other  materials 

,  for  the  Temple,  in  the  building  of  which  he  assisted,  1015  B.  c.  The  art 
passed  to  Greece,  and  from  Greece  to  Rome.  The  style  called  Gothic  came 
into  vogue  in  the  ninth  century.  The  Saracens  of  Spain,  being  engaged 
during  peace  to  build  mosques,  introduced  grotesque  carvings,  &c.,  and  the 
ponderous  sublimity  of  bad  taste ;  which  species  is  known  by  elliptic  arches 
and  buttresses.  The  circular  arch  distinguishes  the  Norman-Gothic  from 
the  Saracenic,  and  came  in  with  Henry  I.  The  true  Grecian  style  did  not 
fully  revive  till  about  the  reign  of  James  I.  1603. 

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at  Athens,  the  executive  govern- 
ment was  vested  in  elective  magistrates  called  archons,  whose  office  con- 
tinues for  life.  Medon,  eldest  son  of  Codrus,  is  the  first  who  obtained  this 
dignity,  1070  B.  c. 

ARCOLA,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  French  under  general  Buonaparte,  and  the 
Austrians  under  field-marshal  Alvinzy,  fought  Nov.  19,  1796.  The  result  of 
this  bloody  conflict,  which  was  fought  for  eight  successive  days,  was  the 
loss  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians  of  12,000  men,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  four  flags,  and  eighteen  guns. 

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS.  Several  have  been  undertaken  by  England,  and 
some  by  Russia  and  other  countries.  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  was  the  first 
Englishman  who  attempted  to  find  a  north-west  passage  to  China,  A.  D.  1570. 
Davis's  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions  was  undertaken  in  1585.  After  a 
number  of  similar  adventurous  voyages,  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  attempted 
to  find  a  north-west  passage,  in  1616.  See  Baffin's  Bay.  For  the  subsequent 
and  late  expeditions  of  this  kind,  including  among  the  latter  those  of  Buchan, 
Franklin,  Ross,  Parry,  Liddon,  Lyon.  Back,  &c.,  see  North-  West  Passage. 

AREOPAGIT^E.  A  famous  council  said  to  have  heard  causes  in  the  dark,  be- 
cause the  judges  were  blind  to  all  but  facts,  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  B.  c. 
—  Arund.  Marbles.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Areas  pagos,  the 
Hill  of  Mars,  because  Mars  was  the  first  who  was  tried  there  for  the  mur- 
der of  Hallirhotius,  who  had  violated  his  daughter  Alcippa.  Whatever 
causes  were  pleaded  before  them,  were  to  be  divested  of  all  oratory  and  fine 
speaking,  lest  eloquence  should  charm  their  ears,  and  corrupt  their  judg- 
ment. Hence  arose  the  most  just  and  impartial  decisions. 

ARGENT  ARIA,  BATTLE  OP.  One  of  the  most  renowned  in  its  times,  fought  in 
Alsace,  between  the  Allemanni  and  the  Romans,  the  former  being  defeated 
by  the  latter  with  the  loss  of  more  than  35,000  out  of  40.000  men,  A.  D.  378, 
— Dufresnoy. 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION,  undertaken  by  Jason  to  avenge  the  death  of 
Phryxus,  and  recover  his  treasures  seized  by  the  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship 
in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been  adorned  with  the 
figure  of  a  ram.  it  induced  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason 
was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece.  This  is  the  first  naval  expedition 
on  record ;  it  made  a  great  noise  in  Greece,  and  many  kings  and  the  first 
heroes  of  the  age  accompanied  Jason,  whose  ship  was  called  Argo,  from  its 
builder,  1263  B.  c. — Dnfresnoy. 

.    This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Inachus,  1856  B.  c.,  or  1080  years  b» 


230  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ARI 

fore  the  first  Olympiad. — Blair.  The  nine  kings  from  the  founder  wer« 
called  Inachidce,  of  whom  the  fourth  was  Argus,  and  he  gave  his  name  to 
the  country.  When  the  Heraclidae  took  possession  of  Peloponnesus,  B.  c. 
1102,  Temenus  seized  Argos  and  its  dependencies.  Argos  was  afterwards  a 
republic,  and  distinguished  itself  in  all  the  wars  of  Greece. — Euripides. 


Inachus  founds  the  kingdom       .    B.  c.  1856 

Phoroneus  reigns  sixty  years          .  180" 

Apis  reigns  thirty-five  years       .        .  1747 
The  city  of  Argos  built  by  Argus,  son 

qfNiobe 1711 

Criasus,  son  of  Argus,  succeeds  his 

father,  and  reigns     ....  1641 
Keign  of  Triqpas;   Polycaon  seizes 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  calls  it  af- 
ter his  wife,  Messenia         .       .  1552 
Reign  of  Crotopus      ....  1506 
Sthenehts  reigns      ....  1485 
Gelanor  is  deposed  by  Danaus  .        .  1474 


Hypermnestra,  who  saved  her  hus- 
band, while  her  forty-nine  sisters  sa- 
crificed theirs.  (See  Flzmbeaux)*.Q.  1425 
Lynceus,  son  of  Egyptus,  whose  hfe 
had  been  preserved  by  his  wife,  de- 
throne? Uanaus       ....     !425 
Reign  of  Abas          .        .        .  1384 

Reign  of  Proetus,  twin-brother  of  Acri- 

sius ''    .    1361 

Bellerophon  comes  to  Argos ;  the  pas- 
sion for  him  of  Sthenobcea  .        .        136i 
Rebellion  of  Acrisius  ....    1344 
Perseus  leaves  Argos,  and  founds  My- 


cenae (which  see.)     ....    1313 


eppse 
Feast  of  the  Flambeaux,  in  honor  of 

Argos,  in  modern  history,  was  taken  from  the  Venetians.  A.  D.  1686.  It  waa 
lost  to  the  Turks  in  1716,  since  when  it  continued  in  their  hands  until  1826. 
Argos  became  united  in  the  sovereignty  of  Greece  under  Otho,  the  present 
and  first  king.  January  25,  1833.  See  Greece. 

ARIANS.  The  followers  of  Arius,  a  numerous  sect  of  Christians,  who  deny  tLe 
divinity  of  CHRIST:  they  arose  about  A.  D.  815.  The  Arians  were  condemned 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325 ;  but  their  doctrine  became  for  a  time  the 
reigning  religion  in  the  East.  It  was  favored  by  Constantine,  319.  Carried 
into  Africa  under  the  Vandals,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  into  Asia  under  the 
Goths.  Servetus  published  his  treatise  against  the  Trinity,  1531,  and  hence 
arose  the  modern  system  of  Arianism  in  Geneva.  Arius  died  in  336.  Serve- 
tus was  burnt,  1553. —  Varillas,  Hist  de  I'Heresie. 

ARITHMETIC.  Where  first  invented  is  not  known,  at  least  with  certainty. 
It  was  brought  from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales.  about  600  B.  c.  The 
oldest  treatise  upon  arithmetic  is  by  Euclid  (7th.  8th,  and  9th  books  of  his 
Elements),  about  300  B.  c.  The  sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was  used 
A.  i>.  130.  Diophantus  of  Alexandria  was  the  author  of  thirteen  books  o( 
Arithmetical  questions  (of  which  six  are  extant)  in  156.  Notation  by  nine 
digits  and  zero,  known  at  least  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  in  Hindostan — 
introduced  from  thence  into  Arabia,  about  900 — into  Spain,  1050 — into  Eng- 
land. 1253.  The  date  in  Caxton's  Mirrour  of  t/ie  World,  Arabic  characters, 
is  1480.  Arithmetic  of  decimals  invented,  1482.  First  work  printed  in 
England  on  arithmetic  (de  Arte  Supputandi)  was  by  Tonstall,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, 1622.  The  theory  of  decimal  fractions  was  perfected  by  lord  Napier 
in  his  Rabdolagia,  in  1617. 

ARK.  Mount  Ararat  is  venerated  by  the  Armenians,  from  a  belief  of  its  being 
the  place  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested  after  the  universal  Deluge,  2347  B.  c. 
But  Apamea,  in  Phrygia,  claims  to  be  the  spot ;  and  medals  have  been  struck 
there  with  a  chest  on  the  waters,  and  the  letters  NOE.  and  two  doves:  this 
place  is  300  miles  west  of  Ararat.  The  ark  was  300  cubits  in  length,  fifty  in 
breadth,  and  thirty  high ;  but  most  interpreters  suppose  this  cubit  to  be  about 
a  foot  and  a  half,  and  not  the  geometrical  one  of  six.  There  were,  we  are  told 
three  floors — the  first  for  beasts,  the  second  for  provisions,  and  the  third  for 
birds,  and  Noah's  family.  It  was  not  made  like  a  ship,  but  came  near  the 
figure  of  a  square,  growing  gradually  narrower  to  the  top.  There  was  a 
door  in  the  first  floor,  and  a  great  window  in  the  third. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
It  was  made  a  separate  territory  in  1819,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
in  1836.  Population  in  1830, 30,388 ;  in  1840,  97,574,  including  19,935  slavta 


(UtM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  231 

A.RMADA,  THE  INVINCIBLE.  The  famous  Spanish  armament  so  called  con- 
sisted of  150  ships,  2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  8000  sailors,  and  200C 
volunteers,  under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia.  It  arrived  in  the  Channel, 
July  19,  1588,  and  was  defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and  Howard.  Ten 
fire-ships  having  been  sent  into  the  enemies'  fleet,  they  cut  their  cables,  put 
to  sea.  and  endeavored  to  return  to  their  rendezvous  between  Calais  and 
Gravelines :  the  English  fell  upon  them,  took  many  ships,  and  admiral 
Howard  maintained  a  running  fight  from  the  21st  July  to  the  27th,  obliging 
the  shattered  fleet  to  bear  away  J'or  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a  storm  dis- 
persed them,  and  the  remainder  of  the  armament  returned  by  the  North 
Sea  to  Spain.  The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships  in  the  engagement, 
and  5.000  men;  seventeen  ships  were  lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland, 
and  upwards  of  5000  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken  prisoners.  The 
English  lost  but  one  ship. — Rapin,  Carte,  Hume. 

ARMAGH.  SEE  OF,  the  first  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  was  founded  by 
St.  Patrick,  its  first  bishop,  in  444. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY".  The  confederacy,  so  called,  of  the  northern  powers, 
against  England,  was  commenced  by  the  empress  of  Russia  in  1780 ;  but 
its  objects  were  defeated  in  1781.  The  pretension  was  renewed,  and  a  treaty 
ratified  in  order  to  cause  their  flags  to  be  respected  by  the  belligerent  pow- 
ers, December  16,  1800.  The  principle  that  neutral  flags  protect  neutral 
bottoms  being  contrary  to  the  maritime  system  of  England,  the  British 
cabinet  remonstrated,  and  Nelson  and  Parker  destroyed  the  fleet  of  Den- 
mark before  Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  That  power,  in  consequence,  was 
obliged  to  secede  from  the  alliance,  and  acknowledge  the  claim  of  England  to 
the  empire  of  the  sea;  and  the  Armed  Neutrality  was  soon  after  dissolved. 

ARMENIA.  Here  Noah  and  his  people  resided  when  they  left  the  ark,  2347 
B.  c.  After  being  subject  successively  to  the  three  great  monarchies,  Ar- 
menia fell  to  the  kings  of  Syria.  The  Armenians  were  the  original  wor 
shippers  of  fire:  they  also  paid  great  veneration  to  Venus  Anaitis,  to  whose 
priests  even  the  highest  classes  of  the  people  prostituted  their  daughters, 
prior  to  marriage. — Martin's  Memoires  sur  L'Armenie. 


City  of  Artaxarta  built     .  .    B.C.  186 

Tigranes  the  Great  reigns     .  .          93 

He  is  called  to  the  throne  of  Syria,  as- 
sumes the  fastidious  title  of  "King  of 
Kings,"  and  is  served  by  tributary 


Artaxias  is  deposed          .  .     B.  c.    30 

He  is  restored  to  his  throne,  and  dies. — 

Blair 

Reign  of  Venones       .  .         A.  D. 

Zenon  reigns         .... 
Tigranes  IV.  reims 


princes   .  .  .  .  .    83 

Tigranes  defeated  by  Lucullus         .          69      He  is  cited  to  Rome,  and  deposed 
Again  defeated,  ana  lays  his  crown  at  Tiridates  dethroned,  and  Roman  power 


the  feet  of  Pompey  .  .  66 

His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns        .  .    54 

Artavasdes  assists  Pompey  against  Ju- 
lius Caesar         .  .  .  .48 
Artavasdes  assists  the  Parthians  against 

Marc  Antony          ...         36 
Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded 
with  silver  chains  to  Egypt,  to  grace 
his  triumph       .  .  .  .34 


paramount  in  Armenia  .  62 

Armenia  reduced  to  a  Persian  province 

under  Sapor  .  .  .  365 

Subdued  by  the  Saracens  .  .  687 

Irruption  of  the  Turks  .  .  755 

Again  made  a  Persian  province,  under 

Uffan  Cassanes  .  .  .  1472 

Subdued  by  Selim  II.  .  1022 

Overrun  by  the  Russians 


The  Armenian  soldiers  crown  his  son,  Surrender  of  Erzeroum       .  July  1828 

Artaxias        ....         33  (See  Syria.) 

A  RMENIAN  ERA  commenced  on  the  9th  of  July,  A,  D.  552 :  the  Ecclesiastical 
year  on  the  llth  August.  To  reduce  this  last  to  our  time,  add  651  years 
and  221  days ;  and  in  leap  years  subtract  one  day  from  March  1  to  August 
10.  The  Armenians  use  the  old  Julian  style  and  months  in  their  corre- 
spondence with  Europeans. 

ARMILLARY  SPHERE.  Commonly  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  are  seen  in  theii 


232  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  AKH 

natural  position  And  motion,  the  whole  being  comprised  in  a  frame  It  it 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Eratosthenes,  about  255  B.  c. 
ARMINIANS  (the)  chiefly  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  universal  redemption, 
and  generally  espouse  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England :  especially 
asserting  the  subordination  of  the  Christian  church  to  the  civil  poweis. 
They  also  contend  for  the  efficacy  of  good  works,  as  well  as  their  -necessity,  in 
securing  man's  salvation.  James  I.  and  Charles  I,  favored  the  ioctrines  ol 
the  Arminians ;  and  the  principles  of  the  sect  prevail  generally  in  Holland 
and  elsewhere,  though  condemned  at  the  synod  of  Dort  (see  Durt)  in  1618 
Arminius,  who  was  a  divinity  professor  at  Leyden,  died  in  1609. — Brandt. 
ARMORIAL  BEARINGS  became  hereditary  in  families  at  the  close  of  tlui 
twelfth  century.  They  took  their  rise  from  the  knights  painting  their  ban- 
ners with  different  figures,  and  were  introduced  by  the  Crusaders,  in  order 
at  first  to  distinguish  noblemen  in  battle  A.  D.  1100.  The  lines  to  denote 
colors  in  arms,  by  their  direction  or  intersection,  were  invented  by  Colum- 
biere  in  1639.  Armorial  bearings  were  taxed  in  1798 — and  again  in  1808. 
ARMOR.  The  warlike  Europeans  at  first  despised  any  other  lefence  'han 
the  shield.  Skins  and  padded  hides  were  first  used ;  and  brass  and  iron 
armor,  in  plates  or  scales,  followed.  The  first  body-armor  of  the  Britons 
was  skins  of  wild  beasts,  exchanged,  after  the  Roman  conquest,  for  the 
well-tanned  leathern  cuirass. —  Tacitus.  This  latter  continued  till  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  era.  Hengist  is  said  to  have  had  scale  armor,  A.  D.  449.  The  heavy 
cavalry  were  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail.  Henry  III.  1216.  Some  horsemen 
had  visors,  and  skull  caps,  same  reign.  Armor  became  exceedingly  splendid 
about  1350.  The  armor  of  plate  commenced,  1407.  Black  armor,  used, 
not  only  for  battle,  but  for  mourning,  Henry  V.  1413.  The  armor  of  Henry 
VII.  consisted  of  a  cuirass  of  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about  1500. 
Armor  ceased  to  reach  below  the  knees,  Charles  I.  1625.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  officers  wore  no  other  armor  than  a  large  gorget,  which  is  commem- 
orated in  the  diminutive  ornament  known  at  the  present  day. — Mcyrick. 
ARMS.  The  club  was  the  first  offensive  weapon ;  then  followed  the  mace, 
battle-axe,  pike,  spear,  javelin,  sword,  and  dagger.  Among  ancient  missiles 
were  bows  and  arrows.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the 
PliO3nicians.  See  the  various  weapons  through  the  'volume. 

ARMY.  Ninus  and  Semiramis  had  armies  amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of 
fighting  men,  2017,  B.  c.  The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a  standing 
army  were  formed  by  Saul,  1093  B.  c. — Eusebius.  One  of  the  first  standing 
armies  of  which  we  have  any  account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
first  standing  army,  existing  as  such,  in  modern  times,  was  maintained  in 
France  by  Charles  VII.  in  1445.  Standing  armies  were  introduced  by 
Charles  I.  in  1638;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England,  31  Charles  II. 
1679.  The  chief  European  nations  have  had  in  their  service  the  following 
armies :  Spain  150.000  men ;  Great  Britain.  310  000 ;  Prussia,  350  000 ;  Tur- 
key, 450.000 ;  Austria,  600.000 ;  Russia.  560  000 ;  and  France.  680.000. 
ARMY.  BRITISH.  Statement  of  the  effective  military  strength  of  the  United  King- 
dom at  the  decennial  periods  respectively  mentioned,  and  of  the  sums  voted 
for  military  expenditure,  drawn  from  parliamentary  returns  and  other  official 
records : 

sum  voted  jE7,847,(Xfl 
ditto  I7,973.(X>J 
ditto  26.743.000 
ditto  39.1;V).000 
ditto  18,AV3,UOO 
ditto  6,991,000 

In  1845.  the  army,  of  all  ranks,  numbered  100;011  men:  and  the  sum  v)ted 
was  .C4,487:753.    See  Militia,  and  Volunteers. 


17CO,  Time  of  war ;  troops  of  the  line    .  amount  110,000  men 

1800,  War  .                     ...  ditto     168,000  men 

i810,  War ;  army,  including  foreign  troops  ditto     300,000  men 

1815,  Last  year  of  the  war            .           .  ditto     300,000  men 

1830,  Time  of  peace;  war  incumbrancea  ditto       89,100  men 

1830,  Peace            ....  ditto       89,300  men 


AK8   |  DICTIONARY    CF    DATES.  232 

ARTILLERY.  The  first  piece  was  a  small  one.  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  Ger- 
man cordelier,  soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  1330.  Artillery 
was  used,  it  is  said,  by  the  Moors  at  Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  the  siege  ol 
1341 ;  it  was  used,  according  to  our  historians,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in 
1346,  when  Edward  III.  had  four  pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the 
battle.  We  had  artillery  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  The  Venitians  first 
employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea,  1377. —  Voltaire.  Cast  in 
England,  together  with  mortars  for  bomb-shells,  by  Flemish  artists  in  Sussex, 
1543. — Rymi's  F&dera.  Made  of  brass,  1635;  improvements  by  Browne, 
1728.  See  Irm. 

AJITS.  See  Literature.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was 
composed  of  these  seven  liberal  arts,  namely — grammar,  rhetoric,  logic, 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy. — Harris.  The  Royal  Society 
of  England  (which  see)  obtained  its  charter  April  2,  1663.  The  Society  of 
Arts  to  promote  the  polite  arts,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  mechanics, 
was  instituted  in  1754  ;  it  originated  in  the  patriotic  zeal  of  Mr.  Shipley,  and 
of  its  first  president,  lord  Folkstone.  The  first  public  exhibition  by  the 
artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took  place  in  1760.  at  the  rooms  of  this 
society,  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years,  till,  in  process  uf  time,  the 
Royal  Academy  was  founded.  See  Royal  Academy.  The  Society  of  British  Art- 
ists was  instituted  May  21,  1823 ;  and  their  first  exhibition  was  opened  April 
19,1824. — See  British  Museum;  British  Institution;  National  Gallery,  (f-c. 
ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES;  containing  the  chronology  of  ancient  history  from 
1582  to  355  B.  c.,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured  264  B.  c.  They  consist  of 
37  statues.  128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  wore  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Paros  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  about  1610.  They  were  purchased  by  lord 
Arundel,  and  given  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  1627.  The  characters  are 
Greek,  of  which  there  are  two  translations:  by  Self/en,  1(528;  by  Prideaux, 
1676.— See  Kidd's  Tracts;  and  Parson's  Treatise,  1789. 

ASCALON.  BATTLE  OF  ;  in  which  Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Chris- 
tian forces,  defeated  the  sultan  Saladin's  army  of  300.000  Saracens  and  other 
infidels.  No  less  than  40  000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of 
battle ;  and  the  victorious  Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  1192. — Rymer. 
ASH- WEDNESDAY.  The  primitive  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent 
until  the  Sunday,  now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Pope  Felix  III.,  in  A.  D.  487. 
first  added  the  four  days  preceding  the  old  Lent  Sunday,  to  complete  the 
number  of  fasting  days  to  forty ;  Gregory  the  Great  introduced  the  sprink- 
ling of  ashes  on  the  first  of  the  four  additional  days,  and  hence  the  name  of 
Dies  Cinerum,  or  Ash- Wednesday :  at  the  Reformation  this  practice  was 
abolished,  "as  being  a  mere  shadow,  or  vain  show." 

ASIA ;  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  nymph  Asia,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus 
and  Tethys.  and  wife  of  Japhet.  Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the  world 
peopled ;  here  the  law  of  GOD  was  first  promulgated ;  here  many  of  the 
greatest  monarchies  of  the  earth  had  their  rise ;  and  from  hence  most  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  have  been  derived. — Pardon. 

ASPERNE  BATTLE  OF.  between  the  Austrian  army  under  the  archduke  Charles, 
and  the  French,  fought  on  the  21st  May.  1809  and  two  following  days.  In 
this  most  sanguinary  fight,  the  loss  of  the  former  army  exceeded  20.000 
men,  and  the  loss  of  the  French  was  more  than  30  000 :  it  ended  in  the  defeat 
of  Bonaparte,  who  commanded  in  person,  and  was  the  severest  check  that  lie 
had  yet  received.  The  bridge  of  the  Danube  was  destroyed,  and  his  retreat 
endangered ;  but  the  success  of  the  Austrians  had  no  beneficial  effect  on 
the  subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT.  A  conspiracy  so  called,  formed  by  the  earl  of  Ayles- 
bury  and  others  to  assassinate  king  William  III.,  near  Richmond,  Surrey,  ai 


234  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  j  AM 

he  came  from  hunting.  The  object  of  the  conspiracy  was  lo  have  been  con- 
summated February  15,  1695-6,  but  for  its  timely  discovery  by  Prendergast. 
— Hist.  England. 

ASSASSINS.  A  tribe  in  Syria.,  a  famous  heretical  sect  among  the  Mahometans, 
settled  in  Persia,  in  A.  D.  1090.  In  Syria,  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of  land 
among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat  in  1192 ;  they  assassinated  Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213 ;  the  khan  of 
Tartary  was  murdered  in  1254.  They  were  conquered  by  the  Tartars  in 
1257 :  and  were  extirpated  in  1272.  The  chief  of  the  corps  assumed  the 
title  of  "Ancient  of  the  Mountains." 

ASSIENTO.  A  contract  between  the  king  of  Spain  and  other  powers,  for  fur- 
nishing the  Spanish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves. — Burke.  It 
began  in  1689,  and  was  vested  in  the  South  Sea  Company  in  1713.  By  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was  transferred  to  the  English,  who  were  to  furu  sh 
4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish  America.  This  contract  was  given  up  to 
Spain  at  the  peace  in  1748.  See  Guinea. 

ASSIGN  ATS.  Paper  currency,  to  support  the  credit  of  the  republic  during  the 
revolution,  ordered  by  the  National  Assembly  of  France,  April,  1790.  At 
one  period  the  enormous  amount  of  eight  milliards,  or  nearly  350  millions 
of  pounds  sterling  of  this  paper  were  in  circulation  in  France  and  its  depen- 
dencies.— Alison. 

ASSUMPTION.  A  festival  observed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  who,  as  the  Catholics  believe,  was  taken  up  to  heaven  in  her 
corporeal  form,  body  and  spirit,  on  August  15,  A.  D.  45.  Mary  is  reported  to 
have  been  in  her  75th  year.  The  festival  is  said  to  have  been  instituted 
in  813. 

ASSURANCE.  See  Insurance.  The  practice  is  of  great  antiquity.  Suetonius 
ascribes  the  contrivance  to  Claudius  Cresar,  A.  D.  43.  It  is  certain  that  assu- 
rance of  ships  was  practised  in  the  year  45.  The  first  regulations  concern- 
ing it  are  in  the  Lex  Oleron,  by  which  it  appears  to  have  been  known  in 
Europe  very  generally  in  1194.  The  custom  of  Lombard-street  was  made  a 
precedent  for  all  policies  at  Antwerp,  and  in  the  Low  Countries ;  but  the 
first  statute  to  prevent  frauds  from  private  assurers  was  made  43  Elizabeth, 
1601. — Molineaux's  Lex  Mercatoria. 

ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE.  This  is  the  earliest  recorded  empire— that  of  Bacchus 
.wanting  records.  It  commenced  under  Ninus,  who  was  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  the  Hercules  of  the  Chaldeans,  2069  B.  c.  It  arose  out  of  the 
union  of  two  powerful  kingdoms,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  or  Nineveh,  the  latter 
founded  by  Ashur,  and  ending  with  Sardanapalus,  820  B.  c.  When  this  last- 
named  prince  was  conquered  by  Arbaces,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace, 
with  his  concubines  and  eunuchs,  and  causing  it  to  be  set  on  fire,  they  all 
perished  in  the  flames.  On  the  ruins  of  the  empire  were  formed  the  Assy- 
rians of  Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  the  Median  kingdom. — I^englet. 

The  lower  of  Babel  built. —  Genesis  x.  ,      Babylon  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  her 

6 ;  xi.  1.— Blair       •  •        B.C.  2247         dominion.— Lenglet  •        B.  c.  2U17 

The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins      •      2345     Semiramis  invades  Libya,    Ethiopia, 


Astronomical  observations  begun  by 
the  Chaldeans  -  -  -  2234 

Belus  rtigns  55  years.— f7sAer       •       2124 

Ninus.  son  of  Bclus,  reigns  in  Assyria, 
and  names  his  capital  after  himself  •  2069 

Babylon  taken  by  Ninus,  who,  having 
subdued  the  Armenians,  Persians, 
Bactrians,  and  all  Asia  Minor,  estab- 
lishes what  is  properly  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  of  whirh  Nineveh  was  the 
•eat  of  empire. — Hlair  •  •  2059 

Semiramis  enlarges  and    embellishes 


and  India. — Lenglet  •  •  •  1976 

The  Arabs  seize  Nineveh  •  •  •  1937 
Belochus,  the  last  king  of  the  race  of 

Ninus.—  Hlair  ....  H4fi 
He  makes  his  daughter,  Artossa,  sur- 

named  Semiramis  II.,  his  associate 

on  the  throne  -  -  -  1431 

Belatores  reigns  -  ...  1421 

The   prophet    Jonak   appears    in   the 

si  rcets  of  Nineveh — Blair  •     •   840 

Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaces          -  •  820 


AST] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


235 


ASSYRIA.  PROPER.  After  the  destruction  of  the  first  Assyrian  monarchy,  Phul, 
the  last  king's  son,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ninevites,  777  B.C.,  and 
the  kingdom  continued  until  621  B.  c.,  when  Sarac,  or  Saruanapalus  II.,  being 
besieged  by  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  put  his  wife  and  children  to  death, 
and  burnt  himself  in  his  palace,  a  fate  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Sarda- 
napalus  I.  See  preceding  article.  Nineveh  was  then  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  the  conquerors  divided  Assyria.— Blair.  It  was  finally  conquered  by 
the  Turks  in  1687  A.  D. — Priestley. 


Pl.ul  raised  to  the  throne,  about  the 
year.— Blair  •  •  B.C.  777 

He  invades  Israel,  but  departs  without 
drawing  a  sword. — Blair;  2  Kings 
xv.  19,  -M  •  •  •  770 

Tielath-Pileser  invades  Syria,  takes 
Damascus,  and  makes  great  con- 
quests ....  740 

Shalmanezer  takes  Samaria,  transports 
the  people,  whom  he  replaces  by  a 
colony  of  Cutheans  and  others,  and 
thus  finishes  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
-Blair 721 

He  retires  from  before  Tyre,  after  a 
siege  of  five  years. — Blair  •  •  713 


Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  ard  his  ge- 
neral, Rabshakeh,  besieges  Jerusa- 
lem, when  the  angel  of  the  Lord  in  one 
night  destroys  180,000  of  hia  army. — 
Isaiah  xxxvii.  -  B.  c.  711 

[Commentators  suppose  that  this  mes- 
senger of  death   was  the  fatal  blast 
known  in  eastern  countries  by  the 
name  of  Sarnie/.] 
Esar-haddon  invades  Judea,  ant1  takes 

Babylon.— Blair          -  .  -  690 

He  invades  Judea  — Blair   -  •      •  677 

Holofernes  is  slain  by  Judith     -  -  677 

Saosduchinus  reigns. —  Usher        •       •  667 
Nineveh  taken,  and  razed  to  the  ground  621 


ASTROLOGY.  Judicial  astrology  was  invented  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  hence 
was  transmitted  to  the  Egyptians.  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  was  much  in 
vogue  in  France  in  the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  1533. — Hunault.  The 
early  history  of  astrology  in  England  is  very  little  known :  Bede  was  addicted 
to  it.  700 ;  and  so  was  Roger  Bacon.  1260.  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh,  calculated 
the  nativity  of  Elizabeth ;  and  she.  and  all  the  European  princes,  were  the 
humble  servants  of  Dee,  the  astrologer  and  conjurer.  But  the  period  of  the 
Stuarts  was  the  acme  of  astrology  in  England. — Sir  Walter  Scott  has  made 
ample  use  of  sir  William  Lilly,  the  noted  astrologer,  in  his  tales  of  this 
period ;  and  it  is  certain  that  Lilly  was  consulted  by  Charles  I.  respecting 
his  projected  escape  from  Carisbrook  castle  in  1647. — Ferguson. 

ASTRONOMY.  The  earliest  accounts  we  have  of  this  science  are  those  of 
Babylon,  about  2234  B.  c. — Blair.  The  study  of  astronomy  was  much  ad- 
vanced in  Chaldaea  under  Nabonassur;  it  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about 
1100  B.  c. ;  some  say  many  centuries  before.  Lunar  eclipses  were  observed 
at  Babylon  with  exceeding  accuracy,  720  B.  c.  Spherical  form  of  the  earth, 
and  the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Tholes,  640  B.  c.  Further 
discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  celestial  motions,  and 
believed  in  the  plurality  of  habitable  worlds,  500  B.  c.  Hipparckus  began 
his  observations  at  Rhodes.  167  B.  c. — began  his  new  cycle  of  the  moon  in 
143.  and  made  great  advances  in  the  science,  140  B.  c.  The  precession  of 
the  equinoxes  confirmed,  and  the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets  discov- 
ered, by  Ptolemy,  A.D.  130.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  seven  centuries,  during 
which  time  astronomy  was  neglected,  it  was  resumed  by  the  Arabs  about  800 ; 
»nd  was  afterwards  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain, 
but  not  sooner  than  1201,  when  they  also  introduced  geography. 


The  Alphonsine  tables  (which  see)  were 
composed  -  -  A.D.  12Si 

Clocks  first  used  in  astronomy,  about  •  1500 

True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  pla- 
netary bodies  revived  by  Copernicus  1530 

The  science  greatly  advanced  by  Tycho 
Brahe,  about  -  ...  1582 

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions,  by 
Kepler  -----  1619 

Telescopes  and  other  instruments  us'ed 
in  astronomy,  about  -  -  -  1627 

The  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made 
«Jwut 1631 


The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk 

first  observed  by  Horrpx,  Nov.  24  A.D.  1633 
Cassini  draws  his  meridian  line,  after 

Dante. — See  Bologna  •  -  -  165i 

The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed 

stars  discovered  by  Horrebow  •  1C5C 

Discoveries  of  Picart  -  -  -  166C 

Map  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Here- 

hus  -  ...  167C 

Motion  of  the  aun  round  its  own  axis 

proved  by  Halley  -  .  -1670 

Discoveries  of  Huygens  -  -  -  1681 

Newton's  Principia  published,  and  tb« 


236  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Herschel.  March  13.— See  Georgium 

Sidus  ....  1781 

Mecanique  Celeste,  published  by  La 

Place  ....  1796 

Ceres  discovered  by  Piazzi,  Jan  1  1801 
Pallas,  by  Ur.  Olbers,  March  28  1802 

Juno,  by  Harding,  Sept.  1  •  •  1804 

Vesta,  by  Olbers  -  -  1307 

Neptune,  by  Le  Verrier  -  -  1S46 

United  States  astronomical  expedition 

to  the  South  Hemisphere,  under  Lieut 


ASTRONOMY  continued. 

system  as  now  taught  incontrovertibly 
established       -  -  -    A.  D.  1687 

Catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Flam- 
stead       .....  1688 

Satellites  of  Saturn,  &c.  discovered  by 
Cassini .....  1701 

Aberration  of  the  stars  clearly  explained 
by  Dr.  Bradley       .  -          -    - 1737 

Celestial    inequalities    found    by    La 
Grange 1780 

Uranus  and   satellites   discovered  by 

Gillies,  left  Baltimore  July  18       -    -1849 

Toe  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  supposed  to  be  400,000  times  greater  from 
us  than  we  are  from  the  sun,  that  is  to  say,  38  millions  of  millions  of  miles; 
so  that  a  cannon-ball  would  take  near  nine  millions  of  years  to  reach  one  of 
them,  supposing  there  were  nothing  to  hinder  it  from  pursuing  its  course 
thither.  As  light  takes  about  eight  minutes  and  a  quarter  to  reach  us  from 
the  sun.  it  would  be  about  six  years  in  coming  from  one  of  those  stars  ;  but 
the  calculations  of  later  astronomers  prove  some  stars  to  be  so  distant,  that 
their  light  must  take  centuries  before  it  can  reach  us ;  and  that  every  par- 
ticle of  light  which  enters  our  eyes  left  the  star  it  comes  from  three  or  four 
hundred  years  ago. —  Objects  of  Science. 

ASYLUMS,  OR  PRIVILEGED  PLACES.  At  first  they  were  places  of  refuge  for 
those  who,  by  accident  or  necessity  had  done  things  that  rendered  them 
obnoxious  to  the  law.  God  commanded  the  Jews  to  build  certain  cities  for 
this  purpose.  The  posterity  of  Hercules  is  said  so  have  built  one  at  Athens, 
to  protect  themselves  against  such  as  their  father  had  irritated.  Cadmus 
built  one  at  Thebes,  aud  Romulus  one  on  Mount  Palatine.  A  while  after  the 
coming  of  Christianity  into  England,  superstitious  veneration  ran  so  high, 
that  churches,  monasteries,  church-yards,  and  bishops'  houses  became  asy- 
lums to  all  that  fled  to  them,  let  the  crime  be  what  it  would ;  of  which  very 
ill  use  was  made,  both  by  the  clergy  and  laity.  In  London  persons  were 
secure  from  arrest  in  particular  localities :  these  were  the  Minories.  Salis- 
bury-court, Whitefriars,  Fulwood's-rents,  Mitre-court,  Baldwins-gardens, 
the  Savoy,  Clink,  Deadman's-place,  Montague-close,  and  the  Mint.  This 
security  was  abolished  A.  D.  1696 ;  but  the  last  was  not  wholly  suppressed 
until  the  reign  of  George  I. — See  Privileged  Places  and  Sanctuaries. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED  AND  CONTROVERSY.  The  great  controversy  regard- 
ing the  divinity  of  Christ,  arose  and  extended  between  A.  D.  333  and  361. 
Athanasius,  who  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  encountered  great  persecution 
at  the  hands  of  the  Arians  for  his  religious  doctrines,  and  was  exiled  for 
them  again  and  again.  The  creed  which  goes  by  his  name  is  supposed  by 
most  authorities  to  have  been  written  about  the  year  340 ;  but  it  is  affirmed 
by  other  writers  to  be  the  compilation  of  an  African  bishop  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.— Du  Pin. 

ATHEISM.  This  absurd  doctrine  has  had  its  votaries  and  its  martyrs.  Spi- 
nosa.  a  foreigner,  was  its  noted  defender  in  the  17th  century.  Lucilio  Vanini 
publicly  taught  atheism  in  France,  and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  at  Tou- 
louse in  1619.  Mathias  Knutzen,  of  Holstein,  openly  professed  atheism,  and 
had  upwards  of  a  thousand  disciples  in  Germany  about  1674 ;  he  travelled 
to  make  proselytes,  and  his  followers  were  called  Conscicnciares,  because 
they  held  that  there  is  no  other  deity  than  conscience.  Many  eminent  men 
of  various  countries  have  been  professors  of  Atheism,  and  even  in  England 
we  have  had  writers  tinctured  with  it. — Richardson.  Ashe.  "Though  a  small 
draught  of  philosophy  may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,  a  deep  draught  will 
certainly  bring  him  back  again  to  the  belief  of  a  God." — l*ord  Bacon.  "  81 


*TT  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  237 

Diev,  n'emstait  pas  il  faudrait  Vinventer :"  If  a  God  did  not  exist,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  invent  one. —  Voltaire. 

ATHEN^EA.  These  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honor  of 
Minerva.  One  of  them  was  called  Panathensea,  and  the  other  Chalcea ; 
they  were  first  instituted  by  Erectheus  or  Orpheus,  1397  B.  c. ;  and  Theseus 
afterwards  renewed  them,  and  caused  them  to  be  observed  by  all  the  people 
of  Athens,  the  first  every  fifth  year,  1234  B.  c. — Plutarch. 

ATHENAEUM  A  place  at  Athens,  sacred  to  Minerva,  where  the  poets  and 
philosophers  declaimed  and  recited  their  compositions.  The  most  celebrated 
Athenaea  were  at  Athens,  Rome,  and  Lyons :  that  of  Rome  was  of  great 
beauty  in  its  building,  and  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  A.  D.  125.— 
Tillfmont's  Life  of  Adrian. 

ATHENS.  The  once  celebrated  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  whose  magnificent 
ruins  yet  attest  its  former  grandeur — the  seat  of  science  and  theatre  of  valor. 
The  first  sovereign  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge  is  Ogyges,  who  reigned 
in  Bceotia,  and  was  master  of  Attica,  then  called  Ionia.  In  his  reign  a  deluge 
took  place  (by  some  supposed  to  be  no  other  than  the  universal  deluge,  or 
Noah's  flood^  that  laid  waste  the  country,  in  which  state  it  remained  two 
hundred  years,  until  the  arrival  of  the  Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by 
whom  the  land  was  repeopled.  and  twelve  cities  founded.  1556  B.  c.  The  first 
state  of  Athens  was  under  seventeen  kings,  comprising  a  period  of  487  yearSj 
but  the  history  of  its  first  twelve  monarchs  is  mostly  fabulous ;  in  its  second 
state  it  was  governed  by  thirteen  perpetual  archons,  a  period  of  316  years ;  in 
its  thiri  state  by  seven  decennial  archons,  whose  rule  extended  over  70  years, 
and,  lastly,  in  its  fourth  state  by  annual  archons,  who  ruled  for  760  years. 
Under  this  democracy  Athens  became  unrivalled,  and  her  people  signalized 
themselves  by  their  valor,  munificence,  and  culture  of  the  fine  arts ;  and 
perhaps  not  one  other  single  city  in  the  world  can  boast,  in  such  a  short 
space  of  time,  of  so  great  a  number  of  illustrious  citizens.  The  ancients,  to 
distinguish  Athens  in  a  more  peculiar  manner,  called  it  Astu,  one  of  the  eyes 
of  Greece. — Plutarch.  The  Venetians  got  possession  of  Athens  in  A.  D.  1204, 
and  the  Turks  in  1687. — Priestley.  It  became  the  capital  of  Livadia,  a  pro- 
vince of  European  Turkey ;  and  is  now  that  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece, 
and  the  seat  of  its  legislature,  established  und^r  King  Otho  I..  January  25th, 
1833. — See  Greece.  For  events  in  the  history  of  Athens,  see  Tables  from 
B.  c.  1556  to  B.  c.  21. 

ATMOSPHERE.  Posidonius  first  calculated  the  height  of  the  atmosphere, 
stating  it  to  be  800  stadia,  nearly  agreeing  with  our  modern  ideas,  about  79 
B.C.  Its  weight  was  determined  by  Galileo  and  Terricellius.  about  1630; 
its  density  and  elasticity  by  Boyle ;  and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by 
Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  The  composition  of  the  atmosphere  was 
ascertained  by  Hales,  Black,  Priestley.  Scheele,  Lavoisier,  and  Cavendish , 
and  its  laws  of  refraction  were  investigated  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1737. 

ATTAINDER,  ACTS  OF,  have  been  passed  in  numerous  reigns :  two  witnesses 
5.3  cases  of  high  treason  are  necessary  where  corruption  of  blood  is  incurred, 
unless  the  party  accused  shall  confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  and  8  William  III. 
1694-5. — Blarkstone.  The  attainder  of  Lord  Russell,  who  was  beheaded  in 
Lincoln 's-inn-Fields,  July,  21,  1683.  was  reversed  under  William,  in  1C89. 
The  rolls  and  records  of  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  in  the  reign  of  king 
James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt,  Oct.  2,  1695.  Several  acts  were 
reversed  in  subsequent  reigns.  Among  the  last  acts  so  reversed,  not  the  least 
interesting  was  the  attaint  of  the  children  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (wi  i 
was  implicated  in  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),  July  1,  1819. 

ATTILA,  surnamed  the  "  .Scourge  of  God,"  and  thus  distinguished  for  his  con- 
quests and  his  crimes,  ravaged  all  Europe,  A.  D.  447.  He  invaded  the  Ro 


238  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  AU< 

man  empire  with  an  army  of  500  000  Huns,  and  laid  waste  all  the  province!. 
He  died  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials  with  a  beautiful  virgin  named  Ildico 
about  A.  D.  4o3.—Gold.smit/i. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  A  great  officer  of  the  crown,  appointed  by  letters 
patent.  It  is  among  his  duties  to  exhibit  informations  aud  prosecute  for 
the  king  in  matters  criminal ;  and  to  file  bills  in  Exchequer,  for  any  claims 
concerning  the  crown,  in  inheritance  or  profit ;  and  others  may  bring  bilh 
agaiast  the  king's  attorney.  The  first  Attorney-General  was  William  da 
Gisilham,  7  Edward  I.  1278,—Bcatson. 

ATTORNEYS.  The  number  practising  in  Edward  III.'s  reign  was  under  400 
for  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the  32d  of  Henry  VI.  1454,  a  law  reduced  the 
practitioners  in  Norfolk,  Norwich,  and  Suffolk,  from  eighty  to  fourteen,  and 
restricted  their  increase.  The  number  of  attorneys  now  practising  in  Eng- 
land, or  registered,  or  retired,  is  about  13,000.  The  number  sworn,  and 
practising  or  retired  in  Ireland,  is  stated  at  2000.  A  list  of  19,527  -'practis- 
ing lawyers"  in  the  United  States  is  given  in  the  Lawyer's  Directory,  1850. 

ATTRACTION.  Copernicus  described  attraction  as  an  appetence  or  appetite 
which  the  Creator  impressed  upon  all  parts  of  matter,  about  1620.  It  was 
described  by  Kepler  to  be  a  corporeal  affection  tending  to  union,  1605.  In 
the  Newtonian  philosophy,  it  is  an  original  power  which  restores  lost  motion ; 
a  principle  whereby  all  bodies  mutually  tend  to  each  other. — See  Astronomy. 

AUCTION,  a  kind  of  sale  known  to  the  Romans.  The  first  in  Britain  was 
about  1700,  by  Elisha  Yale,  a  governor  of  Fort  George,  in  the  East  Indies,  of 
the  goods  he  had  brought  home  with  him.  Auction  and  sales'  tax  began,  1779. 

AUERSTADT,  BATTLE  OF.  In  this  most  sanguinary  conflict  between  the  French 
and  Prussian  armies,  they  were  commanded  by  their  respective  sovereigns, 
and  Napoleon  obtained  a  decisive  victory.  The  Prussians  were  routed  on 
every  side,  and  lost  200  pieces  of  cannon,  thirty  standards,  and  28,000  pri- 
soners, leaving  30,000  slain  upon  the  field,  Oct.  14,  1806.  The  French 
emperor  immediately  afterwards  entered  Berlin,  from  whence  he  issued  his 
memorable  Berlin  decree. — See  Berlin  Decree. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH.  The  confession  of  articles  of  faith 
drawn  up  at  Augsburg  by  Melancthon,  and  by  him  and  Luther  presented  to 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1530.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first 
consisting  of  twenty-one  articles,  and  the  second  of  seven,  directly  opposed 
to  the  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, his  son.  and  several  other  princes  of  Germany,  signed  this  confession, 
which  was  delivered  to  the  emperor  in  the  palace  of  the  bishop  of  Augs- 
burg, and  hence  it  is  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG,  LEAGUE  OF.  A  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  Holland 
and  other  European  powers,  which  had  for  its  object  the  causing  the  trea- 
ties of  Munster  and  Nimeguen  to  be  respected,  1686. — See  Munstcr  and  Ni- 
meguen. 

AUGURY.  Husbandry  was  in  part  regulated  by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds, 
long  before  the  time  of  Hesiod.  Augurs  instituted  at  Rome,  with  vestals 
and  several  orders  of  the  priesthood,  by  Numa,  710  B.  c.  There  was  a  com- 
munity of  them,  appointed  to  foretell  events  by  the  flight  of  birds,  and 
other  circumstances.  The  king  Car,  from  whom  Caria  in  Asia  Minor  is 
aamed,  was  the  inventor  of  augury  by  birds. —  Vossius.  The  augurs  of 
Rome  drew  omens  from  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  the  chirping  and 
flight  of  birds,  and  various  strange  casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST.  The  eighth  month  of  the  year.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  honor  of 
Augustus  Caesar,  from  whom  it  was  named  in  the  year  b  B.  c.,  because  in 
this  month  lie  was  born,  wis  created  consul,  or  chief  magistrate  thrice 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


239 


triumphed  in  Rome,  subdued  Egypt  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  made  ac 
etid  of  th.3  civil  wars.  It  was  previously  called  Sextilis,  or  the  sixth  from 
March. 

^STERLITZ,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  Austrian  armies,  gained  by 
the  former.  Three  emperors  commanded  at  this  battle,  Alexander  of  Rus- 
sia. Francis  of  Austria,  and  Napoleon  of  France.  The  killed  and  wounded 
exceeded  40,000  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  who  lost,  besides,  forty  standards, 
150  pieces  of  cannon,  and  many  thousands  of  prisoners.  This  decisive  vic- 
tory of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty  of  Presbtirg,  which  was  signed  Dec.  26, 
same  year.  The  battle  was  fought  Dec.  2.  1806.  See  Prcsburg. 
AUSTRALASIA,  includes  New  Holland,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Guinea, 
New  Britian,  New  Zealand,  &c.,  mostly  discovered  within  two  centuries.  O< 
a  population  of  twenty-two  millions,  the  native  inhabitants  are  not  supposed 
to  exceed  one  hundred  thousand.  Several  settlements  from  Europe  have 
been  made  since  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  Act  to  pro- 
vide for  the  government  of  Western  Australia,  10  George  IV.  1829.  Act 
to  erect  South  Australia  into  a  British  province,  4  and  2  William  IV.  1834. 
New  act,  5  and  6  William  IV.  1835.  Several  companies  and  institutions  con- 
nected with  Australia  have  lately  been  formed  in  London. 
AUSTRIA,  anciently  the  Berfic  Gaul  of  the  Romans.  It  was  taken  from  Hun- 
gary and  annexed  to  Germany,  when  it  received  its  present  name,  about  A.  D. 
1040.  This  was  after  Charlemagne  had  re-established  the  Western  Empire, 
Austria  being  a  part  of  what  was  called  Eastern  France,  which  its  name  in 
the  German  language  implies. 

Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburs,  seizes 
Austria  from  Bohemia,  and  makes 
himself  archduke  -  -  -  1273 

Revolt  of  Switzerland  from  the  house 

of  Austria,  in  the  reign  of  Albert  I.  -  1307 
Albert  II.  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  to 
three    crowns  —  trie    imperial,    and 
those  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia;  his 
family  still  possess  the  empire,         •  1438 
Burgundy  accrues  to  Austria  by  the 
marriage   of  Maximilian    with  the 
heiress  of  that  province  .          -1477 

Also  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip 
I.  of  Austria  with  the  heiress  of  Ara- 
gon  and  Castile  -  -  -  1496 

Charles  V.,  reigning  over  Germany, 


Austria,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Spain, 
the  Netherlands,  and  their  dependen- 
cies, abdicates,  and  retires  from  the 
world,  leaving  his  German  dominions 
to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands  to  his  son,  Philip 
II. — See  Spain  •  •  •  1557 

The  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
being  oppressed  by  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, call  in  the  aid  of  GustavusAdol- 
phus  of  Sweden,  and  this  leads  to  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia  -  -  -  1648 

Leopold  I  reigns. — See  Germany       -  1658 
Accession  of  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
who  marries  the  celebrated  queen  of 
Hungary,  Maria  Thei%i,  daughterof 
the  deceased  emperor,  Charles  VI.   •  1745 
Reign  of  Joseph  II.  -  -         -1765 

Relfgious  toleration  granted  -     -  1776 

The  emperor  controls  the  pope  -  1782 

R»ign  of  Leopold  II.      -  -  -1790 

Reign  of  Francis  II.  ...  1792 

Austria  becomes  a  distinct  empire,  and 
Francis  II.  of  Germany  takes  the  title 
of  I.  of  Austria  -  Aug.  9,  1804 


The  emperor  issues  his  declaration 
against  France  -  -  Aug.  5,  180r> 

Napoleon,  after  many  victories,  enters 
Vienna  -  -  -  Nov.  14,  ia»5 

Vienna  evacuated   by   the  French, 

Jan.  12,  1806 

They  again  capture  it  •    May  13,  1809 

But  restore  it  at  the  peace         Oct.  24,  1809 

Napoleon  marries  the  archduchess 
Maria  Louisa,  the  daughter  of  the 
emperor  -  -  April  1,  181C 

Congress  at  Vienna  -         Oct.  2,  1814 

Treaty  of  Vienna  .  Feb.  25,  1815 

Death  of  Francis  I.,  and  accession  of 
Ferdinand  -  -  March  2,  183.") 

New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England 

July  3,  1838 

Ferdinand  is  crowned  with  great  splen- 
dor at  Milan  -  -  Sept.  6,  1S3H 

Tumult  at  Vienna,  agitation  for  re- 
forms; Metternich  resigns  and  flies; 
freedom  of  the  press  and  national 
guard  granted  by  the  emperor 

March  ia  1W3 

The  emperor  publishes,  at  Milan,  abo- 
lition of  the  censorship  and  conven 
tion  of  the  states ;  the  people  demand 
more,  and  are  refused  March  18,  '' 

Milan  revolts,  and  contends  successfully 
with  the  soldiery  -  March  23,  " 

Austrians  retire  to  Mantua ;  Milan  en- 
tered by  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia 

March  23,     ' 

Lombardy  and  the  Tyrol  in  rebellion 
Marci 

The  emperor  retires  to  Innsbruck 

May  53,     •' 

Austrian  army  under  Radetsky  holds  in 
check  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  in 
Lombardy  -  -  May  —  " 

Is  defeated  and  driven  to  Mantua  May  29i    * 


240  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [AZQ 

AUSTRIA,  continued. 

Diet  of  the  Croatian-Slavonic  nation  Ferdinand  I.  abdicates ;   his  orother, 

summoned  by  the  Ban  of  Croatia  Francis  Charles,  declines  the  throne ; 

May  20,  1848         it  is  taken  by  his  son,  Francis  Joseph 
Insurrection  at  Rome ;  order  re-esta-  Dec.  2,  1>*1& 

blished  after  bombardment,  June  12-15  "        The  emperor  gives  a  new  constitution 
Vicenza  and  Padua  subdued  by  Ra-  March  4-6,  18U 

detsky          ...       June  '         Haynau    takes    Brescia,    after   great 

Milan  retaken        -  -  Aug.  4,  "  slaughter,  and  sacks  it        March  30.    '- 

The  emperor  returns  to  Vienna    "   12,  "        Bologna  taken,  after  a  siege  of  8  days 
Insurrection  at  Vienna ;  Couht  Latour,  May  16,    '  • 

minister  of  war,  killed  by  the  mob;  Haynau  takes  command  of  the  Aus- 

the  diet  demands  the  retraction  of  the  trian  army  in  Hungary         June  — ,    k 

measures  against   Hungary,  and  a  Ancona  taken,  after  bombardment 

new  ministry;  the  emperor  flies  June  11,    '• 

Oct.  6,  "        Venice  taken  by  Radetsky        Aug.  22,    " 
The  Hungarian  army  advanced  within  Hungarian  war  finished  by  the  surren- 

six  miles  of  Vienna         -•      Oct.  11,  "  derofGorgey  •  Aue.  11,    " 

Prince  Windischgnuz  appointed  com-  Followed  by  numerous  executions. 

mander-in-chief,  Oct.   16 ;    and    be-  See  Germany,  Vienna,  &c. 

sieges  Vienna,  17th;  bombards   the 

city  and  masters  it  Nov.  2,  '•     ; 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  Fran- 
cis ceased  to  be  emperor  of  Germany,  and  became  hereditary  emperor  of 
Austria,  under  the  title  of  Francis  I.  Upon  tfie  formation  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  in  1815,  the  emperor  of  Austria  was  declared  hereditary  head 
of  that  body. 

AUTHORS.     For  laws  securing  copyright,  see  Copyright  and  Literary  Property. 

AUTO  DA  FE.  See  Inquisition.  The  punishment,  often  by  burning  alive,  of 
a  heretic.  This  is  called  an  act  of  Faith,  and  is  coeval  with  the  Inquisition ; 
and  since  its  first  practice  in  A.  D.  1203,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
victims  have  been  sacrificed  by  the  sentence  of  the  Inquisitions  of  Roman 
Catholic  countries  on  the  burning  pile.  One  of  the  last  executions  of  this 
kind  was  at  Goa,  where,  for  the  glory  of  the  Christian  religion  (!)  and  in 
vindication  of  the  Catholic  faith,  twenty  sufferers  perished  in  the  flames, 
1787.  These  horrible  sacrifices  have  ceased  in  Spain. — Ashe. 

AVIGNON,  ceded  by  Philip  III.  of  France  to  the  Pope  in  1273.  The  papal  seat 
was  removed  for  seventy  years  to  Avignon,  in  1308.  It  was  seized  several 
times  by  the  French,  by  whom  it  was  taken  from  the  pope  in  1769,  but  was 
restored  on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Declared  to  belong  to 
France  by  the  National  Assembly,  1791.  Horrible  massacres  in  October  of 
that  year.  Continued  to  France  by  the  Congress  of  sovereigns,  in  1815. 

AXE,  WEDGE,  WIMBLE,  &c.  These  instruments,  with  the  lever,  and  vari- 
ous others  of  a  coarse  construction,  and  still  in  common  use,  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Daedalus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is 
ascribed  the  invontion  of  masts  and  sails  for  ships,  1240  B.  c. 

AZORES,  OR  WESTERN  ISLES,  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ata- 
lantis :  they  were  discovered  by  Vandenburg,  A.  D.  1439 ;  and  were  settled 
by  the  Portuguese,  in  1448.  Martin  Behem  found  one  of  them  covered  with 
boech-trees,  and  he  called  it  therefore  Fayal;  another  abounding  in  sweet 
flowers,  and  he  therefore  called  it  Florcs;  and  all  full  of  hawks,  and  he 
therefore  named  them  the  Azores.  A  violent  concussion  of  the  earth  took 

S'ace  here  for  twelve  days,  in  1591.     A  devastating  earthquake,  in  1757. 
ere  are  fountains  of  boiling  water.    A  volcano  at  St.  George's  destroyed 
the  town  of  Ursulina,  May,  1808;  and  in  1811,  a  volcano  appeared  near  St. 
Michael's  in  the  sea,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fathoms  deep.     An  island 
called.  Sabrina  gradually  disappeared  Dec.  1812. 


BACJ 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


241 


BABEL,  THE  TOWEB.  OF,  built  by  Noah's  posterity,  2247  B  c.  The  temple  of 
Belus,  originally  this  celebrated  tower,  was  the  most  magnificent  in  the 
world;  it  had  lofty  spires,  and  was  enriched  with  many  statues  of  gold,  one 
c  f  them  forty  feet  high.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  temple  was  the  tomb  i  >i 
the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  Scriptures),  who  was  deified 
after  death ;  and  in  an  adjoining  apartment  was  a  magnificent  bed,  whither 
the  priests  daily  conducted  a  female,  who,  as  they  pretended,  was  there 
honored  with  the  company  of  the  god. — Blair. 

HABINGTON  S  CONSPIRACY,  formed  in  the  cause  of  Mary  against  Elizabeth, 
for  which  the  chief  conspirator,  with  thirteen  others,  suffered  death.  BaV 
ington  was  a  gentleman  of  Derbyshire,  and  he  associated  with  persons  of  hia 
own  persuasion  (the  Roman  Catholic),  with  a  design  to  assassinate  the 
queen,  and  deliver  Mary.  He  seems  to  have  been  principally  induced  to 
this  rash  conspiracy  by  a  romantic  hope  that  Mary,  in  gratitude,  would 
accept  of  him  as  a  husband.  1586. 

BABYLON,  EMPIRE  OF,  founded  by  Belus.  supposed  to  be  the  Nimrod  of  holy 
writ,  the  son  of  Chus,  and  grandson  of  Ham,  2245  B.C. — Lenglet.  Ninus  of 
Assyria  seized  on  Babylon,  and  established  what  was  properly  the  Assy- 
rian empire,  by  uniting  the  two  soveieignties,  2059  B.C.  According  to 
Eusebius  this  empire  existed  1240  years;  according  to  Justin.  1300  years; 
according  to  Herodotus,  500  or  600  years.  Of  these  opinions  Blair  has 
adopted  the  first,  which  calculates  from  the  foundation  of  the  empire  by 
Ninus,  B.  c.  2059,  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus,  who  was  de- 
throned by  his  generals,  and  his  kingdom  divided  into  the  Assyrian,  Baby- 
lonian, and  Median  kingdoms,  820  B.  c. — See  Assyria. 


The  tower  of  Babel  built         -        B.  c.  2247 
The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins  -  2245 

Ashur  builds  a  city,  afterwards  called 

Nineveh  -  -  -2245 

The  astronomical  observations  are  be- 

§in  at  Babylon  by  the  Chaldeans  — 
lair ;  Lenglet  •  •  •  2234 

Belus,  king  of  Assyria,  extends  his  em- 
pire over  the  neighboring  states,  de- 
feats the  Babylonians,  and  makes 
them  tributary. —  Usher  •  -2124 

Ninus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria, 


and  names  his  capital  after  himself, 
Nineveh. — Lenglet    •  B.  c  2069 

Babylon  taken  by"Ninus    -  •          2059 

The  Assyrian  empire  ends        -  820 

Belesis  governs  in  Babylon  -          766 

Babylon  taken  by  Esar-haddon    -  680 

Nebuchadnezzar  reigns  •         -        604 

He  lakes  Jerusalem.  —Lenglet   •  587 

He  is  driven  from  among  men          -       569 
Babylon  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, under  Cyrus      -  -  -    538 
Taken  by  Darius.— Usker        .  -   511 


The  city  of  Babylon  was,  anciently,  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  and 
in  later  times  famous  for  the  empire  established  under  the  Seleucidae.  Its 
greatness  was  so  reduced  in  succeeding  ages,  that  Pliny  says,  in  his  time  it 
was  but  a  desolate  wilderness;  and  at  present  the  plao.e  where  it  stood  is 
scarcely  known  to  travellers. — Rollings  Ancient  Hist. 

BACCHANALIA,  games  celebrated  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  They  arose  in 
Egypt,  and  were  brought  into  Greece  by  Melampus.  and  were  there  called 
Dionysia,  about  1415  B.  c. — Diodorus.  They  were  celebrated  in  Rome  under 
the  name  of  Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS.  The  Roman  tensors  frequently  imposed  fines  on  unmarried 
men  ;  and  men  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women  at 
certain  games  laid  hold  of  old  bachelors,  dragged  them  round  their  altarSj 
and  inflicted  on  them  various  marks  of  infamy  and  disgrace. —  Vnsxius.  Aft<;r 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  tax  was  laid  upon  bachelors  in  England.  12£.  105. 
for  a  duke,  and  for  a  common  person,  one  shilling.  7  William  III.  1695, 
Bachelors  were  subjected  to  a  double  tax  on  their  male  and  female  servants 
in  1785- 

BACKGAMMON.  Palamedes  of  Greece  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  this  game 
(ilecidedlv  '>ne  of  the  oldest  known  to  our  times),  about  1224  B.  c.  It  if 
11 


242  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  uu 

stated  by  some  to  have  been  invented  in  Wales  in  the  period  preceding  the 
Conquest. — Henry. 

BADAJOS,  SIEGE  OF.  This  important  barrier  fortress  had  surrendered  to  the 
French,  March  11,  1811,  and  was  invested  by  the  British  under  lord  Wel- 
lington on  March  18,  1812,  and  stormed  and  taken  on  April  6,  following. 
This  victory  was  not  only  a  glorious  military  achievement  in  itself,  but  it 
obliged  the  French,  who  had  entered  Portugal  for  the  purpose  of  plunder, 
to  commence  a  precipitate  retreat  from  that  kingdom. 

BADEN,  HOUSE  OF,  descended  from  Herman,  son  of  Berthold  I.  duke  of  Zah- 
ringen,  who  died  A.  D.  1074.  From  Christopher,  who  united  the  branchei 
of  Hochberg  and  Baden,  and  died  in  1527,  proceed  the  branches  of  Badtn- 
Baden,  and  Baden-Dourlach.  This  family  makes  a  most  conspicuous  figure  in 
the  annals  of  Germany,  and  is  allied  to  all  the  principal  families  in  the  empire. 

BADEN,  TREATY  OF,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  when  Landau  was 
ceded  to  the  former,  Sept.  7,  1714.  Baden  was  formerly  a  margravate ;  it 
was  erected  into  a  grand  duchy,  as  a  member  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation, 
hi  1806.  Its  territorial  acquisitions  by  its  alliances  with  France,  were  gua- 
ranteed by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815.  The  grand  Duke  granted  his 
people  freedom  of  the  press,  a  burgher  guard,  trial  by  jury,  and  the  right 
of  public  meeting.  Feb.  29.  Troops  revolt  at  Rastadt.  May,  1849.  Insur- 
rection at  Carlsruhe ; — the  grand  Duke  flees,  May  13,  1849.  Insurrection 
subdued  by  the  Prussians,  June,  1849. 

BAFFIN'S-BAY,  discovered  by  William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  in  1616.  The 
nature  and  extent  of  this  discovery  were  much  doubted  until  the  expeditions 
of  Ross  and  Parry  proved  that  Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  state- 
ment. These  voyagers  returned  home  in  1818.  See  article  North  West 
Passage. 

BAGDAD,  built  by  Almansor,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire,  A.  D. 
762 — taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  a  period  put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258.  It 
has  since  been  often  taken  by  the  Persians,  and  from  them  again  by  the 
Turks. — Blair. 

BAGPIPE.  This  instrument  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  peculiar  to  Ireland  and 
Scotland ;  but  it  must  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks,  as,  on  a  piece  ol 
Grecian  sculpture  of  the  highest  antiquity,  now  in  Rome,  is  represented  a 
bagpiper  dressed  like  a  modern  highlander..  Nero  is  said  to  have  played 
upon  a  bagpipe,  A.  D.  51. 

BAHAMA  ISLES.  These  were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus. 
San  Salvador  was  seen  by  this  great  navigator  on  the  night  of  the  llth  Octo- 
ber, 1492. — The  Bahamas  were  not  known  to  the  English  till  1667.  Seized 
for  the  crown  of  England,  1718,  when  the  pirates  who  inhabited  them  sur- 
rendered to  Captain  Rogers. 

BAIL.  By  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the  Conquest,  al)  felonies 
were  bailable,  till  murder  was  excepted  by  statute ;  and  by  the  3d  Edward 
I.  the  power  of  bailing  in  treason,  and  in  divers  instances  of  felony,  was  taken 
away,  1274.  Bail  was  further  regulated,  23  Henry  VI. ;  2  Philip  and  Mary 
and  in  later  reigns. 

BAILIFFS  OR  SHERIFFS,  are  said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  London  had  its  shire- 
rei-e  prior  to  the  Conquest,  and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for 
counties  in  England  in  1079.  Sheriffs  were  appointed  in  Dublin  under  the 
name  of  bailiffs,  in  1308;  and  the  name  was  changed  to  sheriff  1548.  There 
are  still  some  places  v/here  the  chief-magistrate  is  called  bailiff  as  the  high 
builiffof  Westminster.  The  term  Bum-baili/\»  a  corruption  of  bound-bailiff, 
every  bailiff  being  obliged  to  enter  into  bonds  of  security  for  hid  good  b*» 
havior.  --  -Blackstoite. 


•AL  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATkS.  243 

BALANCE  OP  POWER,  to  assure  the  independency  and  integrity  of  states,  and 
control  ambition ;  the  principle  is  said  to  he  a  discovery  of  the  Italian  poli- 
ticians of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France — 
Robertson.  By  the  treaty  of  Munster,  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power 
was  first  recognized  by  treaty  October  24,  1648. 

BALLADS.  They  may  be  traced  in  British  history  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. — 
Turner.  Andhelme.  who  died  A.  D.  709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  intro- 
duced ballads  into  England.  "The  harp  was  sent  round,  that  those  might 
s>ing  who  could." — Bede.  Alfred  sung  ballads. — Malmsbury.  Canute  com- 
posed one. — Turner.  Minstrels  were  protected  by  a  charter  of  Edward  IV, ; 
but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they  were  made  punishable  among  rogues 
vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars. —  Viner. 

BALLADS,  NATIONAL.  "Give  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads,  and  you  may 
make  the  laws." — Fletcher  of  Saltoun.  A  British  statesmac  nas  said,  "Give 
'  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads  of  the  country,  and  while  I  place  at  your  com- 
mand every  other  species  of  composition,  I  will  fix  public  opinion,  and  rule 
public  feeling,  and  sway  the  popular  sentiment,  more  powerfully  than  all 
your  writers,  political  and  moral,  can  do  by  any  other  agency  or  influence." 
The  beautiful  and  frequently  touching  ballads  of  Dibdin,  particularly  those 
of  the  sea,  inspired  many  a  brave  defender  of  his  country  in  the  late  war ; 
Dibdin  died  Jan.  20,  1833. 

BALLETS.  They  arose  in  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  Italian  courts.  One 
performed  at  the  interview  between  Hen.  V11I.  of  Eng.  &  Francis  I.  of  France, 
in  the  field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  1520. —  Guiccio.rdini.  In  the  next  century, 
they  reached  the  summit  of  their  glory  in  the  splendid  pomps  of  the  courts 
of  Tuscany  and  Lorraine ;  and  their  most  zealous  patron,  Louis  XIV.,  bore 
a  part  in  one,  1664. 

BALLOON.  Galien  of  Avignon  wrote  on  aerostation,  in  1755.  Dr.  Black  gave 
the  hint  as  to  hydrogen,  in  1767.  A  balloon  was  constructed  in  France  by 
MM.  Montgolfier,  in  1783,  when  Rozier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandes  ascended 
at  Paris.  Pilatre  Desrozier  and  M.  Romairi  perished  in  an  attempted  voyage 
from  Boulogne  to  England,  the  balloon  having  taken  fire.  June  14, 1785.  At 
the  battle  of  Fleurus,  the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the 
enemy's  army,  and  convey  the  observations  by  telegraph,  June  17,  1794. 
Garnerin  ascended  in  a  balloon  to  the  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  descended  by 
a  parachute,  Sept.  21.  1802.  Gay-Lussac  ascended  at  Paris  to  the  height  of 
23.000  feet,  Sept.  6, 1804.  Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at  night, 
and  the  balloon,  being  surrounded  by  fire-works,  took  fire,  and  she  was  pre- 
cipitated to  the  ground,  and  killed,  July  6,  1819. 

BALLOON,  THE  NASSAU.  The  great  Nassau  balloon,  of  immense  dimensions, 
and  which  had  for  some  time  previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inhabitants 
of  London  in  repeated  ascents  from  Vauxhall  gardens,  started  from  that 
place  on  an  experimental  voyage,  having  three  individuals  in  the  car,  and, 
after  having  been  eighteen  hours  in  the  air,  descended  at  Weilburg,  in  the 
duchy  of  Nassau,  Nov.  7,  1836. 

BALTIMORE,  the  third  city  in  population  and  fifth  in  commerce  in  the  United 
States ;  founded  1729 ;  named  from  lord  Baltimore,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Maryland  patent.  In  1765  it  contained  but  50  houses ;  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1797.  Population  in  1790.  13503;  in  1810,  35583;  in  1830,  80,625;  in 
1840,  102,313,  including  3,199  slaves.  A  handsome  monument  in  the  city 
commemorates  its  successful  defence  against  the  attack  of  the  British  under 
general  Ross.  Sept.  12,  1814. 

BALTIMORE,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  army  under  general  Ross  and 
the  Americans ;  the  British  in  making  an  attack  upon  the  town  were  unsuo- 


244  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BAA 

cessful,  and  after  a  desperate  engagement  were  repulsed  with  great  low; 
the  gallant  general  who  led  the  enterprise  was  killed,  Sept.  12,  1814. 

BANK.  The  first  established  was  in  Italy,  A.  D.  808,  by  the  Lombard  Jews,  ol 
whom  some  settled  in  Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still 
reside.  The  name  bank  is  derived  from  banco,  a  bench,  which  was  erected 
in  the  market-place  for  the  exchange  of  money.  The  mint  in  the  tower  oil 
London  was  anciently  the  depository  for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  T. 
laid  his  hands  upon  the  money,  and  destroyed  the  credit  of  the  mint,  in  16-10. 
The  traders  were  thus  driven  to  some  other  place  of  security  for  their  gold, 
which,  when  kept  at  home,  their  apprentices  frequently  absconded  with  to 
the  army.  In  1645,  therefore,  they  consented  to  lodge  it  with  the  goldsmith! 
in  Lombard-street,  who  were  provided  with  strong  chests  for  their  own  vain* 
able  wares ;  and  this  became  the  origin  of  banking  in  England. — 


Bank  of  Venice  formed  -  -           -1157 

Bank  of  Geneva        -  -           -        1315 

Bank  of  Barcelona         -  -           -  1401 

Bank  of  Genoa          -  -           -        1407 

Bank  of  Amsterdam       -  -           -1607 


Bank  of  Hamburgh  •       -1619 

Bank  of  Rotterdam         .  -  163C 

Bank  of  Stockholm           .  •        -  168£ 

Bank  of  England        -  -          -      "694 

Bank  of  the  United  States  •  1791  and  181?. 


BANK  OF  ENGLAND,  (See  preceding  article,)  originally  projected  by  a  mer 
chant  named  Patterson.  It  was  incorporated  by  William  III.  in  1694,  in  con- 
sideration of  1.200000Z.,  the  then  amount  of  its  capital,  being  lent  to  gov- 
ernment. The  capital  has  gone  on  increasing  from  one  period  to  another  up 
to  the  present  time,  as  the  discretion  of  parliament  allowed ;  and  the  same 
authority  has  also  at  different  intervals  prolonged  the  privileges  of  the  bank, 
and  renewed  its  charter.  When  first  established  the  notes  of  the  bank  were 
at  20  per  cent,  discount ;  and  so  late  as  1745,  they  were  under  par.  Bank 
bills  were  paid  in  silver,  1745.  The  first  bank  post-bills  were  issued  1754  ; 
small  notes  were  issued  1759 ;  cash  payments  were  discontinued  February  25, 
1797,  when  notes  of  one  and  two  pounds  were  put  into  circulation.  Silver 
tokens  appeared  in  January,  1798 ;  and  afterwards  Spanish  dollars,  with  the 
head  of  George  III.  stamped  on  the  neck  of  Charles  IV..  were  made  current. 
Cash  payments  were  resumed  partially,  Sept.  22,  1817,  and  the  restriction 
had  altogether  ceased  in  1821.  For  a  number  of  years  the  financial  mea- 
sures of  the  crown  have  been  largely  aided  by  loans  from  this  great  reser- 
voir of  wealth.  The  average  amount  of  the  Bank  of  England  notes  in  cir- 
culation is  as  follows : — 


In  1718  (earliest  account)  -  JE1, 829,930 
1778  ....  7,030,680 
1790  •  .  .  .  10,217,000 
1800  ....  15,450,000 
1810  ....  23,904,000 


In  1815  ....  .£26,803.52) 
1820  ....  27,174,000 
1830  •  ...  20,620,000 
1835  ....  18,21o.220 
1840  -  -  -  -  17,231,000 


The  circulation  of  notes,  in  1845,  exceeded  27  millions,  and  the  bullion  in 
the  bank  fluctuated  between  15  and  16  millions.  The  re.turns  of  issues,  &c. 
are  now  made  weekly.  To  secure  the  credit  of  the  Bank  it  was  enacted. 
"  that  no  other  banking  company  should  consist  of  more  than  six  persons," 
6  Anne  1707.  There  are  branch  banks  of  the  Bank  of  England  in  many  of 
the  chief  towns  of  the  kingdom;  as  Birmingham.  Bristol.  Exeter,  Glouces- 
ter. Hull.  Leeds,  Liverpool.  Manchester,  Newcastle,  Norwich,  Swansea,  &c., 
all  formed  since  1828.  See  Punds. 

BANK  OK  THK  UNITED  STATES,  first  one  established  1791.  Cap.  $10.000.000. 
—A  new  one  with  cap.  of  835  000  000.  1816.  The  act  of  Congress  rechar- 
tering  it  vetoed  by  president  Jackson,  July  10,  1832.  The  "  removal  of 
the  deposits  "  of  the  U.  S.  government  from  the  bank,  by  order  of  presi- 
dent Jackson,  signed  by  R.  B.  Taney.  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  (W.  J, 
Duane  the  late  secretary  having  refused  to  sign  the  order.)  Sept.  23,  1833 
Resolution  of  the  Senate  that  the  removal  was  uncalled  for.  and  tho 
•ibilitr  assumed  by  the  president  unconstitutional,  &c..  introduced  by 


BAP  J  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  246 

Webster  and  passed  (26  to  20)  March  28,  1834.  Senate  refused  to  enter  oa 
their  journal  the  president's  protest  against  their  resolution,  May  7,  1834. 
Noted  resolution  of  the  Senate  "expunging"  from  their  journals  their  reso- 
lution of  1834,  passed  24  to  19,  Jan.  16,  1837.— Sub-Treasury  Bill  passed 
Jan.  1840,  repealed  Aug.  9.  1841.  The  U.  S.  Bank  newly  incorporated  by 
Pennsylvania,  March  29,  1836 :  suspended  payment  Feb.  5,  1841.  Bill  for 
establishing  a  "  Fiscal  Bank  of  the  U.  S."  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
ti  res  Aug.  6,  1841 ;  vetoed  by  president  Tyler  Aug.  16.  Another  bill  for  a 
"  Fiscal  Corporation"  vetoed  Sept.  9,  1841,  followed  by  a  resignation  of  a.V 
<  he  Cabinet,  except  Mr.  Webster. 

BANKRUPTCY.  Suspension  of  specie  payments  by  the  banks  of  New  Eng« 
land  and  New- York,  May  10 — 16,  1837  ; — legalized  for  one  year  by  legisla- 
ture of  N.  Y.  Banks  of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  &c.,  also  suspended  same 
month.  General  bankruptcy  law  passed  by  Congress  Aug.  9,  1841. 

BANKRUPTS,  IN  ENGLAND,  first  law  enacted  regarding  them,  35  Henry  VIII. 
1543.  Again,  8  of  Elizabeth,  1560  ;  again,  1  James  I.  1602 ;  again,  1706 ; 
and  more  recently.  It  was  determined  by  the  King's  Bench  that  a  bankrupt 
may  be  arrested  except  in  going  and  coming  from  any  examination  before 
the  commissioners,  May  13,  1780.  The  lord  chancellor  (Thurlow)  refused 
a  bankrupt  his  certificate  because  he  had  lost  five  pounds  at  one  time  in 
gaming,  July  17,  1788.  Enacted  that  members  of  the  house  of  commons 
becoming  bankrupts,  and  not  paying  their  debts  in  full,  shall  vacate  their 
seats,  1812.  The  new  bankrupt  bill,  constituting  a  new  bankrupt  court, 
passed  October  1831. — Statutes  at  Large. 

NUMBER   OF  BANKRUPTS   IN   GREAT  BRITAIN  AT  DIFFERENT  PERIODS. 


1700   -     -     -   -  38 1  1800   -     -     -  1339 


1725  -  -  .  .416 
1750  -  -  432 
1775-  -  .  -  -520 


1810  -  -  -  2000 
1820  •  -  -  1358 
1825  -  .  -  2683 


1830  -     -  1467 

1835  -     -   -  954 

1840  -     .  1308 

1844  -     -   -  1064 


According  to  a  return  to  parliament  made  at  the  close  of  February  1826. 
there  had  become  bankrupt  in  the  four  months  preceding,  59  banking-houses, 
comprising  144  partners ;  and  20  other  banking  establishments  had  been 
declared  insolvent.  Every  succeeding  week  continued  to  add  from  seventy 
to  a  hundred  merchants,  traders,  and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list. 
This  was,  however,  the  period  of  bubble  speculation,  and  of  unprecedented 
commercial  embarrassment  and  ruin. 

BANNOCKBURN,  BATTLE  OF,  between  king  Robert  Bruce,  of  Scotland,  and 
Edward  II.  of  England ;  the  army  of  Bruce  consisted  of  30,000  Scots,  and 
that  of  Edward  of  100,000  English,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The 
English  crossed  a  rivulet  to  the  attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  pits,  which 
he  had  covered,  they  fell  into  them,  and  were  thrown  into  confusion.  The 
rout  was  complete,  the  king  narrowly  escaping,  and  60,000  English  were 
killed  or  taken  prisoners,  June  25,  1314. — Barbour. 

BANNS.  In  the  feudal  law,  banns  were  a  solemn  proclamation  of  any  thing, 
and  hence  arose  the  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before  marriage. 
The  use  of  matrimonial  banns  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Galli- 
can  church,  about  A.  D.  1210;  and  banns  of  marriage  are  proclaimed  in  the 
church  of  England  to  this  day. 

BAPTISM.  The  sacrament  of  admission  instituted  by  Christ  and  practised  by 
all  sects  professing  Christianity,  except  Quakers.  St.  John,  the  forerunner 
of  our  Saviour,  is  eminently  called  the  Baptist,  as  being  the  first  that  publicly 
baptized  with  a  spiritual  intention.  Christ  came  from  Galilee  to  Jordan, 
and  was  baptized  by  John.  A.  D.  30.  Originally  the  people  were  baptized  in 
rivers ;  but  in  tho  reign  of  Constantine,  A.  D.  319,  in  great  cities  they  built 
chapels,  or  places  sp»)cially  to  baptiz*  in,  which  in  the  eastern  countries  wa? 


246  THE  WORLD'S  PRC  CRESS.  [  BAE 

by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  Now,  in  the  western  and  colder  parts,  they 
use  sprinkling ;  at  first  every  church  had  not  a  baptistery  belonging  to  it ; 
our  fonts  answer  the  same  end. — Pardon. 

BAPTISTS,  OR  ANABAPTISTS,  a  sect  distinguished  from  other  Christians  by  their 
opinions  respecting  baptism,  began  their  doctrine  about  A.  D.  1525,  but  much 
earlier  dates  are  mentioned.  They  suffered  much  persecution  in  England  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  Rhode  Island,  America,  was  settled  by  Baptists  ia 
1635.  Of  Baptist  missions,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  Moravian  brethren  led 
the  way  to  their  benevolent  enterprises,  about  1732. — See  Anabaptists. 

B  ARBADOES,  the  first  English  settlement  in  the  West  Indies.  This  mother 
plantation  gave  rise  to  the  sugar  trade  in  England  about  1605 ;  and  was, 
with  other  Caribbee  islands,  settled  by  charter  granted  to  the  earl  of  Marl- 
borough,  2  Charles  1. 1627.  Barbadoes  has  suffered  severely  from  elemental 
visitations :  in  a  dreadful  hurricane  in  1780,  more  than  4000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants lost  their  lives.  A  large  plantation  with  all  its  buildings  was  destroyed, 
by  the  land  removing  from  its  original  site  to  another,  and  covering  every 
thing  in  its  peregrination.  Oct.  1784.  An  inundation,  Nov.  1795 ;  and  two 
great  fires,  May  and  Dec.  1796.  Awful  devastation,  with  the  loss  of  thou- 
sands of  lives,  and  of  immense  property,  by  a  hurricane,  August  10,  1831. 
The  history  of  Inkle  and  Yarico,  which  Addison,  in  his  Spectator,  has  re- 
corded for  the  detestation  of  mankind,  took  its  rise  in  this  island. 

BARBER.  This  trade  was  practised  at  Rome  in  the  third  century  B.  c.  In 
England,  bar  bers  formerly  exhibited  a  head,  or  pole,  at  their  doors ;  and  the 
barber's  pole  until  lately  used  by  them  was  a  burlesque  imitation  of  the 
former  sign 

BARBER-SURGEONS.  Formerly  the  business  of  a  surgeon  was  united  to  that 
of  a  barber,  and  he  was  denominated  a  barber-surgeon.  A  company  wan 
formed  under  this  name  in  1308,  and  the  London  company  was  incorporated, 
1st  Edward  IV.  1461.  This  union  of  profession  was  dissolved  by  a  statute 
of  Henry  VIII 

BARDS.  The  profession  of  bard  appeared  with  great  lustre  in  Gaul,  Britain, 
and  Ireland.  Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard  by  Homer ;  Alexander  the 
Great  had  a  bard  named  Cherylus ;  and  we  find  bards,  according  to  Strabo, 
among  the  Romans  before  the  age  of  Augustus.  The  druids  among  the 
English  were  philosophers  and  priests,  and  the  bards  were  their  poets. 
They  were  the  recorders  of  heroic  actions,  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  almost 
down  to  our  own  times.  Ossian  flourished  in  the  third  century.  Merlin  in 
the  fifth  The  former  speaks  of  a  prince  who  kept  a  hundred  bards.  Irish 
sonnets  are  the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  history  of  Ireland. — See 
Ballads. 

BARNET,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  when  Ed- 
ward IV  gained  a  decisive  and  memorable  victory  over  the  earl  of  War- 
wick, Easter-day,  April  14,  1471. — Brooks. 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a  Florentine,  having  discovered  that  no  principlo 
of  suction  existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump  owing  to  nature'** 
abhorrence  of  a  vacuum,  imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  aud 
made  the  first  barometer,  in  1643,  and  Descartes  explained  the  phenomena. 
Wheel  barometers  were  contrived  in  1668;  pendant  barometers  in  1696; 
marine  in  1700. 

BARONS.  The  dignity  of  baron  is  extremely  ancient:  its  original  name  in 
England  was  Vavasour,  which,  by  the  Saxons  was  changed  into  T/iane,  and 
by  the  Normans  into  Baron.  Many  of  this  rank  are  named  in  the  his- 
tory of  England,  and  undoubtedly  had  assisted  in.  or  had  been  summoned 
to  parliament;  but  such  is  the  deficiency  of  public  records,  that  the  firaf 


•AT]  DICTIONARY  or  DATES.  247 

precept  to  be  fl/und  is  of  no  higher  date  than  the  49th  Henry  III.,  1265.  Th« 
first  who  was  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent  was  John  de  Beaucharap 
created  Baron  of  Kidderminster,  by  Richard  II.,  1387.  Barons  first  sum 
moned  to  parliament,  1205.  Took  arms  against  king  John,  aod  com- 
pelled him  to  sign  the  great  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of  the 
forests,  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,  June  1215.  Charles  II.  granted  a 
coronet  to  barons  on  his  restoration  :  they  attended  parliament  in  complete 
armor  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. — Bealson. 

B  ARONETS,  the  first  among  the  gentry,  and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  here- 
ditary: instituted  by  James  I.,  1611.  The  baronets  of  Ireland  were  created 
in  1619.  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  were  created,  1625. 

BARRISTERS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  I. 
about  1291 ;  but  there  is  earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates  in  Eng- 
land. There  are  various  ranks  of  barristers,  as  King's  Counsel,  Ser- 
geants, &c. 

BARROW'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  Parry,  who  penetrated  as  far  as  Mel- 
ville Island,  in  lat.  74°  26'  N.,  and  long.  113°  47'  W.  The  strait  was  entered 
on  the  2d  August,  1819.  The  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer  was  55° 
below  zero  of  Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  MASSACRE  OF  ST.  This  dreadful  massacre  in  France  com- 
menced at  Paris  on  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24, 
1572.  More  than  seventy  thousand  Hugonots,  or  French  Protestants,  were 
murdered  throughout  the  kingdom,  by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  queen-dowager,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  his  mother. 
The  masaacre  was  attended  with  circumstances  of  demoniacal  cruelty,  even 
as  regarded  the  female  and  the  infant. 

BASTILE  OP  PARIS.  A  royal  castle,  built  by  Charles  V.  king  of  France,  in 
1369,  et  seq.  for  the  defence  of  Paris  against  the  English,  completed  in  1383. 
It  was  afterwards  used  as  a  state  prison,  like  the  Tower  of  London,  and  be- 
came the  scene  of  the  most  deplorable  suffering  and  frightful  crimes.  It 
was  of  such  strength  that  Henry  IV.  and  his  veteran  army  assailed  it  in 
vain  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  the  intestine  war  that  desolated  France 
between  the  years  1587  and  1594 ;  yet  'it  was  pulled  down  by  the  infuriated 
populace,  July  14,  1789,  and  thus  was  commenced  the  French  revolution. 
On  the  capture  of  this  great  monument  of  slavery,  the  governor  and  other 
officers  were  seized,  and  conducted  to  the  Place  de  Grfeve,  and  having  had 
their  hands  cut  off,  they  were  then  beheaded.  The  furious  citizens  having 
fixed  their  heads  on  pikes,  carried  them  in  triumph  through  the  streets. 
"The  man  with  the  iron  mas>k,"  the  most  mysterious  prisoner  ever  known, 
died  here,  November  19,  1703. — See  Iron  Mask. 

3ATAVIA.  The  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East 
Indies,  fortified  by  that  people,  1618.  Twelve  thousand  Chinese  massacred 
here  in  one  day,  1740.  Taken  by  the  English,  January,  1782.  Again,  by 
the  British,  under  general  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  to  whom  the  garrison 
surrendered,  Aug.  8,  1811. 

B  ATHS,  long  used  in  Greece,  and  introduced  by  Maecenas  into  Rome.  The 
thermae  of  the  Romans  and  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks  were  sumptuous.  The 
marble  Laocoon  was  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  the  Farnese  Hercules 
in  those  of  Caracalla. — Strabo. 

BATTEL  ROLL.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  which  decided  the  fate  of 
England,  and  subjected  it  to  the  Norman  yoke,  a  list  was  taken  of  William's 
chiefs,  amounting  to  629.  and  called  the  Battel-roll ;  and  among  these  chiefs 
the  lands  and  distinctions  of  the  followers  of  the  defeated  Harold  were  dis- 
tributed, 1066. 


248 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


BATTLE,  WAGEB  OF.  A  trial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  English  laws 
where  the  defendant  in  an  appeal  of  murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant, 
and  make  proof  thereby  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In  a  case  of  appeal  oi 
murder,  Ashjord  v.  T/wrnton,  before  the  King's  Bench  in  London,  April  1818. 
the  court  allowed  that  the  law  gave  the  defendant  a  right  to  his  wager  of 
battle;  but  the  appellant,  the  brother  of  a  lovely  girl,  whom  Thornton  had 
first  violated  and  then  murdered,  not  accepting  the  challenge,  the  murderer 
was  discharged.  A  statute  was  immediately  passed,  putting  an  end  to  this 
mode  of  trial,  59  George  III.,  1819. — Statutes  at  large. 

BATTERING-RAM.  TcsLudo  Arietaria,  with  other  military  implements,  some 
of  which  are  still  in  use,  invented  by  Artemones,  about  441  B.  c.  These 
ponderous  engines  by  their  own  weight  exceeded  the  utmost  effects  of  our 
battering  cannon. — Desaguliers.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  employed  a  batter- 
ing-ram in  demolishing  the  old  walls  of  St.  Paul's  church,  previously  to  re- 
building the  new  edifice  in  1675. 

B  A.TTLES.  Palamedes  of  Argos  was  the  first  who  ranged  an  army  in  a  regu- 
lar line  of  battle,  and  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,  and  excited  the  sol- 
dier's vigilance  by  giving  him  a  watch-word. — Lenglet.  The  following  are 
the  principal  and  most  memorable  battles  mentioned  in  guieral  history,  and 
are  those  also  that  are  most  commonly  referred  to : 


B.C. 

A,ctium  (the  empire  of  Rome  is  con- 
firmed to  Augustus)  -           -           -      31 
Arbela  (FaU  of  Persia)      •           -     -    331 

A.  D. 

Aboukir  (  Turks)           -           July  20,  '1799 
Acre  (Siege  commenced)    •     Mar.  18,  1799 
fair  Sydney  Smith)        May  27,  ibid 
(Storming  of  )             •      Nov.  3,  1810 
Adrianople  (Constantine)       •           •    323 
Albuera         -           -           -     May  16,  1811 
AK'ord  (Covenanters)    -            July  2,  1645 
Alexandria  (Abercrombie)  •     Mar.  21,  1801 

A.  D. 

Berwick        -           -           -           •      -  1378 
Bilboa  (British  legion)            Dec.  21,  ia36 
Ulackheath  (Cornish  Rebels  defeated)  1497 
Blackrock  (Amer.  tf  Brit.)  •    Dec.  3,  1813 
Bladensburg  -           -           -    Aug.  24,  1814 
Blenheim  (Marlborough)          Aug.  2,  1704 
Borodina       -           -           -     Sept.  7,  1812 
Bosworth            -           -          Aug.  22,  1485 
Bothwell  Bridge,  Scotland  -           -     -1679 
Boyne,  Ireland    -           -            July  1,  1690 
Bovines  (French  and  Germans)  -     -  1214 
Boxtel      -            -            -          Sept.  17,  1794 
Brandywine  -           -           -    Sept.  11,  1777 
Brcchm,  Scotland          -           -          -  1452 
Brenau  (A'.istrians  and  Bavarians)  •  1743 
Breslau    -           -           -          Nov.  22,  1757 
Briar's  Creek           -           -           -     -  1779 
Brienne    -           •           •           Feb.  29,  1814 
Bridgewater  (Americans  and  British) 
July  25,  1814 
Buena  Vista  (Amer.  and  Mexicans) 
Feb.  22,  1847 
Buenos  Ayres  (Popham)    •    June  21,  1806 
'(Wnitclock)        July  6    1807 

Aleiers  (Exmouth)  -         '•    Aug.  27,'  1816 

Alderton  Moor          -           -           -     -  1&43 
Agiricourt           -           -           Oct.  23,  1415 
Aliwal  (India)         .           •     Jan.  20,  1846 
Almanza,,  in  Spain        •           April  4,  1707 
Amoy  (City  taken)  -           •    Aug.  27,  1841 
Almeida      •        •           •            Aug.  5,  1811 
Anjou,  or  Breagne    •           -           -        1421 
Antoign    •           -           -          Aug.  13,  1792 
Arcola           -           -           -    Nov.  19,  1796 
Ascalori  (Richard  I.)    •           Sept.  3,  1191 
Assaye  (  Wellesley)  •           .    Sept.  23,  1803 
Auerstadt            -           -           Oct.  14,  1806 
Augsburg      -           -           -    Aug.  24,  1796 
Autnerlilz            -           -            Dec.  2,  1805 
Badajos         •           •           -     Mar.  11,  1811 
Balkan,  passage  of  the  -           July  26,  1829 
Baltimore      -           •           •    Sept.  12,  1814 
Bannockburn      -           -          June  25,  1314 
Barnot  (Edward  IV.)         •   April  14,  1471 
Barrosa    -           -           •            Mar.  6,  181  1 
Ilautzea         •           •           •     May  20,  1813 
Ilayonne  .          :          -          Mar.  19,  1794 
Belgrade        1456 
.      .  .           .           .           .           .  1717 

Bunker's  Hill  V        -         '  -    June'l?',  1775 
Busaco     -           -           -         Sept.  27,  1810 
Brownstown  (Canada)       -      Aug.  8,  1812 

B.C. 

Cannae  (  Victory  of  HannibaJ)            •    216 
Carthage  {taken  by  Publiits  Scipio)  •    146 
Choeronea  (  Tulmidas)  •           •           •    4-17 
(Philip)  .           .           -     -    333 
(Sytla)          •           •           -86 
Cnidos  (Lysander  killed)  -           *     •    39! 
Cranon,  in  Thessaly      -           -           -    322 
Cyzicutn       -           -           -           •      •    406 

A.  D. 

Calais  taken       -           -           -Jan.  7,  1558 
Calcutta  (India)      •           •     June       1756 
Camden  (Amer.  If  Brit.)     •  Aug.  16,  1786 
•   •  (  Inter  It  Hi  it  )  •     April  25    1781 

Beanington  (Amer  4  Brit.)      •  Aug.  \777 
Bergen     -           -           -         Aprfl  13,  1759 
-         Sept.  19  and  Oct.  2,  1799 
atorgen-op-Zoom  (taken)          -           -  1747 
Mar  6    1^11 

Campo  Santo      ....  1743 
Canton  (Bogus  forts  taken)     Feb.  26,  1841 
Camel  Nuovo      -           -          Sept.  29,  1SO« 
Castella                   •          •   Apnl  13.  18)3 

Beroeina  -          •           •           Sept.  7\  1812 

DICT.ONARY    OF   DATES. 


249 


BATTLES,  continued. 

A.  ». 

C»w=ano  (Prince  Eugene)       •  -  1705 

Castlebar  (French)  •  •    Aug.  28,  1798 

Castislione          -  -  July  2,  1796 

Castiilon,  in  Guienne          -  •     -  1453 

Charlero!  ....  1600 

Charteroi  Fleurus    -  •    June  17,  1794 

Charleston  (taken  by  the  British) 

May  12,  1780 

Chepultepec(4m.4-Afer.)Sept.  12-14,  1848 
Chippewa  -  July  5  and  25,  1814 

-  -  -  Oct.  i814 

Ciudad  Rodrigo  (invested)      June  11,  1812 

—  (stormed)  •     Jan.  19,  1812 

Clontarf,  Ireland  •  •  •  1039 

Constantina  (Algiers)  -  Oct.  13,  1837 
Contreras  (Amer.  and  Mexicans)  -  1848 
Corunna,  (Moore)  •  •  Jan.  16,  1809 

Cowpens  (Amer.  <f  Brit.)       -  -  1781 

Crauey  island  (Americans  and  Brit.) 

June  21,  1813 

Creasy  (Ich  Dien)   -  -Aug.  25,  1:^6 

Culloden  (Pretender)  •  April  16,  1746 
Cunuersdorf-  -  -  Aug.  12,  1759 

Detroit  (surrendered)  •  Aug.  16,  1812 
Dcttingen  (George  II.)  -  •  -1743 

Dresden   -  -          Aug.  26,  1813 

Ureux.  in  France     -  -  -        1562 

Droeheda  (taken  by  storm)      •  •  1649 

Durnlilain  (Sheriff-Muir)  •  Nov.  12,  1715 
Dunbar  -  -  Sept.  3,  1650 

—  (King  of  Scott  taken)       -     •  1296 

,  Siese  of,  1337 

DunganHili-  -  -     July  10,  1647 

Dunkirk  -  •  -  Sept.  7,  1793 

Dunsinane     -  •        1054 

Durham,  Nevil's  Cross  -  -  1346 

Eastport  (Americans  and  British) 

July  1814 

Edgehill  fight     -  -  Oct.  23,  1642 

Erie,  Fort      -  -  -    Aug.  15,  1814 

Erzeroum  ( Turks  and  Prussians)  •  1745 
Eutaw  Springs  -  -  -  -  1781 

Evesham  -  -  Aug.  4,  1265 

Eylau  -  -  -       Feb.  8,  1807 

Fairfield  (Amer.  $  Brit.)         -  -  1779 

Falkirk,  (Wallace)  -  -     July  22,  1298 

Flatbush,  L.  I.  (Am.  If  Brit.)  Aug.  27,  1776 
Flodden  -  -  -  Sept.  9,  1513 

Fomainebleau     -  -  Feb.  17,  1814 

Fnntenoy       -  -  -  April  30,  1745 

Fort  du  Quesne  -  •  July  9,  1755 

French  Town,  Canada  -  Jan.  22,  1813 
Friedburg  -  -  June  4,  1745 

rriedland      -  -  -    June  14,  1807 

B.  C. 

Granicus 334 

A.  c. 

Gerinantown    •  -    Oct.  4,  1T77 

Gisors  (Dieu  et  man  droit)      •  i!98 

Guilford        •  -  •     Mar.  16,  1781 

Halidon  Hill,  Berwick  -  July  19,  1333 

Halle  (Bernadotte)  •  •     Oct.  17,  1806 

Hanau  (  Wrede)  -  Oct.  29,  1813 

Hastings  (Conquest)  •     Oct.  14,  1066 

Hexham  (  Yorkists  defeated)  May  15,  J464 
Hochkirchen  -  -     Oct.  14,    *%& 

Hoheulinden       -  -  Nov.  3,  1800 

B.  C. 

Ip<ms  (Anlieonus  slain)      •  •     •    301 

Usns  U10,000  Persians  slain)  •    333 

11* 


Mar.  i.  156£ 
Nov.  5.  1792 
Oct.  14J  1806 

-  1549 

July  27,  1639 
Dec.  14,  1812 
Nov  16,  1812 

B.  C. 

-  370 

A.  D. 

Laffeldt  (Duke  of  Cumberland)    -     -  1747 
Landshut  (Prussians  and  Austrian*)  1745 

— (Austrians)        •    April  21,  1809 

I.uiicside  .  .  May  13,  1568 

Leipzic          -  -  -     Oct.  16,  1813 

Lepanto(CrreeAs)       -  -    May  9,  1829 

Lewes      -  -  -  May  14,  1264 

Lexington  (Amer.  revolution)  A  pnl  19,  1775 


Jarnac  •  • 

Jemappe 

Jena   - 

Ket  and  Warwick 

Killiecrankie,  Scotland 

Kowno     • 

Krasnoi 

Leuctra   • 


Ligny 

Lincoln          .       •   « 

Lisle  (taken  by  the  Allies) 
Lissa  .... 
Lodi 

Long  Island  ... 

Lutzen     - 

Lutzingen  (Gustavus  slain) 


Mantinea  (Epaminondas  slain) 
Munda,  in  Spain 


June  16,    S15 
Feb.  2,  1141 
May  19,  1217 
•  1708 

Dec.  5,  1796 

May  10,  1757 

Aug.  27,  1776 

May  2,  1813 

-     -  1632 

B.  C. 

363 
45 

A.  D. 


McHeary,  Fort  (.Americana  and  Brit.) 

Oct.  13,  1814 
Malplaquet  (Marlborough)      •  •  1709 


Manheim 


Mantua    • 


May  30,  1793 
July  12,  1794 
.    Sept.  23,  1795 
May  29,  1796 

-  Jan.  31,  1797 
June  14,  1800 

-  gept.  15,  1515 

July  3,  1644 
Sept.  1S-14,  1848 
April  27,  1799 
Aug.  1,  1759 
1705 


Marenge  - 

Marignan,  Italy 

Marston  Moor     . 

Mexico 

Milan 

Minden 

Mittau  (Swedes  and  Russians) 

Mockern        -  -  •     April  1,  1813 

-  -  Oct.  14,  1813 

Mohartz,  Hungary  -  •  -     •  1687 

Molwitz   •  -  •         April  10,  1741 

Monmouth  (Amer.  $  Brit.)-  June  28,  177% 
Monterey  (Mexico)  •  Sept.  24,  1846 
Monimorenci  •  •  Aug.  10,  1759 

Moodkee,  India  -          Dec.  18,  1845 

Morea  (Castle  surrenders)       Oct.  28,  1828 
Moscow  (burnt) 
Moskwa         •  • 

Moscow  (retaken) 

Narva  (Charles  XII.  of  Stceden)  -  1700 
Naseby  ...  June  14,  1645 
Newark  -  -  -  -  -  1(>44 

Newbury 16H 

(second  battle)    •  _  OU.  20,  Iti-JI 


Sept.  4,  1812 
Sept  7,  1812 
Oct.  22,  1812 


New  London  (burnt  by  tlu.  British)  •  1731 
New  Orleans  -  Jan  8,  1815 

Niagara,  Fort     -  -  -    Nov.  1813 

Nisbet  -  -  -       May  7,  1402 

Norfolk  (burnt  by  the  British)    June  1779 
Northallerton,  (or  the   battle  of  the 
Standard)      •  •  •  113k' 


250 


THE    WORD'S    PROGRESS. 


B  AIT  L  KS,  continued. 

Norwalk  (burnt  by  the  Brit.)  Aug.  22, 
Novi  (Suwarrow)         •          Aug.  16, 

...       Jan.  8, 

Ogdensburg  (British  and  Americans) 
Feb.  22, 

Oporto     -  -  -  May  11, 

Ouerburn  (Chevy  Chase)  •  •     - 

Oudenard  (Marlborough)        July  11, 

Pharsalia  • 

Philippi  (Roman  Republic  ends) 

Palo  Alio  (1st  of  Amer.  Sf  Mex.)  May  8 
Parma  (Austrians  and  French) 

•  (Suwarrow)-  •     July  12, 


Penaacola  (taken  by  general  Jackson) 
Nov.  20, 

Peterwarden       •  •  Aug.  £, 

Pfaffendorf   ...    Aug.  15, 
Pinkey     -  -  -          Sept.  10, 

Plattsburg  (Americans  and  British) 
Sept.  11, 
Poitiers 
Prague 


1779  '  Sobraon  (India)            -          Feb.  1C,  1W€ 

1799  |  Solway  Moss            -           -    Nov.  25,  1542 

1800  :  St.  Albans  (  York  and  Lancaster)      •  1453 

(second)  -  -  -     •  1461 

1813  St.  Denis  (Montmorenci)         •           •  1567 

1809  St  Dizier,  France    •           .     Jan.  27,  '814 

1308  St.  Sebastian      -           -             MayJ.  1836 

1708^  Stamford       -  -           -     Mar.  13.  1470 

B.C.  Stony  Point  (taken  by  the  Amvri  cans)  1779' 

48  i  Stratton  (poet  Waller)        •     May  16,  1643 

42  ;  Talavera  de  la  Reyna    -          July  27,  1809 

A.D.  !  Tarragona     -           -           -     Jan.  24,  818 

,  1846  i  Tewkesbury       -           -             May  4,  1471 

1734  Thames  (America**  and  Brit.)  Sept.  1313 

1799  ;  Thermopylae^  Greeks)  -          July  13,  1822 


Patay  (Joan  of  Arc  and  the  English)  1429     Tiilt-nont  (French  and  Allies)  •  1705 

Pavia  (French  andAustriins)  Feb.  24,  1525  j  Toplitz  (Austrians  and  Prussians)  -  1762 


Sept.  19, 
Nov.  9, 
May  6, 
Jan.  2, 
July  8, 
Dec.  26, 
July  28, 
June  16, 


Princeton  (Amer.  <$•  Brit.) 
Pultowa  (Charles  XII.) 
Pultusk    - 
Pyrenees 
ftuatre  Bras 

Quebec  (or  the  plains  of  Abraham) 
Sept.  13, 

(death  qfMontgomery)Dec.  21, 

-  -  -   April  28, 

ftueenstown  (Amer.  tf  Brit.)  Oct.  13, 
Ramilies  (Marlborough)  •  May  23, 
Resaca  de  la  Palma  (Mexico)  May  9, 
Rosbach  •  -  -  Nov.  17, 

-  Nov.  5. 

Sackett's    Harbor    (Americans    and 

British)          - 

Salamanca  ...  July  22, 
'san  Maretal  (Spaniards)  Aug.  4, 
Saratoga  (Burgoyne's  surrender) 

Oct.  17, 
Savannah  (taken  by  the  British) 

Dec.  29. 

Schwerdnitz        -  -          Aug.  16, 

Sedgemoor  ...  July  5, 
Seidlitz  (Poles)  -  .  Mar.  31, 

Sem  pach  ...  July  gf 
Seringapaiam  - 

( Tippoo  reduced)   • 

(Tippoo  killed)  May  4, 

Shrewsbury  -          •      July  21, 

Skenesborough   -  •  July  7, 

Srnolensko     -  -  -    Aug.  27, 


1814 
1717 
1760 
1547 

1814 
13M 
1620 
1757 
1777 
1709 
1806 
1813 
1815 

1759 
1775 
1760 
1812 
1706 
1846 
1382 
1787 

1813 
1812 
1813 

1777 

1778 
1762 
1685 
1831 
1386 
1791 
1791 
1799 
1403 
1777 
1812 


Tournay 
Toulon 


Aug.  30,  1813 

May8,  1793 

Oct.  1,  1793 

April  10,  1814 

Mar.  29,  1461 


Toulouse 

Towton    •  • , 

Trenton  (Amer.  (f  Brit.)  •  Dec.  26,  7,  1776 
Turin  (French  and  Germans)  -  1706 

Ulm    ....    June  21,  1800 
- —  (surrendered)        •  Oct.  29,  1805 

Valenciennes  -  .     May  23,  1793 

Varna  (surrenders)       •  Oct.  11,  1{125 

Vera  Cruz  (taken  by  Amer.  Gen.  Scott) 

March  27,  1847 
Villa  Franca 
Vimiera  ( Wellington) 
Vittoria,  Spain 


Wagram 

Wafcefield 

Warsaw 


-  (taken) 


April  10,  1812 
Oct.  21,  1808 
-     -  1702 
June  21,  1813 
July  5,  1809 
Dec.  31,  1460 
Oct.  10,  1794 
Nov.  8,  ibid 

Sept.  8,  1831 

Washington  (btimt  by  the  British) 

Aug.  1814 

Waterloo  •  •          June  18,  1815 

White  Plains  (Amer.  $  Brit.)  Oct.  28,  1776 

-          Nov.  30,  ibid 

Wilna  (Poles)         -          -    June  12,  1831 
Worcester  -  -         Sept.  13,  1642 

(Charles  II.)*    -  .     -  1651 

Wyoming  massacre      -  •     July  1778 

York  (Canada)  captured  by  Ameri- 
cans       -          -  -        April  27,  1813 
York  Town  (surrender  of  Cornwaltis) 

Oct.  19,  1781 

B.  0. 

Zama  (Scipio  and  Hannibal)       •     •    202 

Zela.  (Casar :  veni,  vidi,  vici)  -      47 

A.  D 

Zeuta,  Hungary  (Prince  Eugene)     •  1697 
Zurich     -          -          .          .          .  K» 


BAVARIA,  HOUSE  OF.  The  dukedom  founded  in  the  eleventh  century:  thit 
house  has  the  same  origin  as  that  of  Saxony,  and  is  a  branch  of  the  Guel- 
phian  family ;  Henry  Guelph  was  made  duke  jf  Bavaria  by  Conrad  IL  em- 
peror of  Germany,  who  reigned  in  1024.  Otho,  count  Wittelpatch,  was 
made  duke  in  1179;  and  Maximilian  I.  elector  in  1624.  Bavaria  was 


*  This  battle  and  defeat  of  Charles  put  a  period  to  the  civil  war  in  England. 
N.  B.— Many  of  the  above  battles  are  described  more  fully  under  iui-,h  name. 


BW  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES  251 

erected  into  a  kingdom  by  Bonaparte  in  December  1805  ;  and  obtained  by 
the  treaty  of  Presburg  the  incorporation  of  the  whole  of  the  Italian  and 
German  Tyrol,  the  bishopric  of  Anspach,  and  lordships  in  Germany.  This 
kingdom  joined  the  coalition  against  France  in  Oct.  1813.  Bavarian  cham- 
ber recommends  freedom  of  the  press,  &c.,  by  almost  unanimous  vote,  Oct. 
17,  1847.  Riots  at  Munich  on  account  of  Lola  Montes,  the  king's  mistress, 
Feb.  9,  1848.  Violent  movement  at  Munich ;  the  king  abdicates  in  favor  of 
his  son,  Maximillian  II.,  March  22,  1848. 

KINGS  OF  BAVARIA.  i  1825  Louis,    13th    October  ;—  abdicated, 

1805  Maximilian  Joseph,  the  preceding  elec-  I  March  22,  1848. 

tor,  created  king.  |  1848  Maximilian  IL 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY.  This  important  historical  document  was  wi  ought  bj 
Matilda,  the  queen  of  William  I.,  and  represents  the  facts  of  the  Conquest, 
from  the  signature  of  the  will  of  the  Confessor  down  to  the  crowning  of 
William,  1066. — Rapin.  This  curious  monument  of  antiquity  embroidered 
by  Matilda,  is  19  inches  wide,  214  feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  compart- 
ments showing  the  train  of  events,  commencing  with  the  visit  of  Harold  to 
the  Norman  court,  and  ending  with  his  death  at  Hastings ;  it  is  now  presei  ;ed 
in  the  town-house  of  Rouen. — Agnes  Strickland. 

BAYONETS.  The  short  sword  or  dagger  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  musket.  This 
weapon  was  invented  at  Bayonne.  in  France  (whence  the  name),  about  1670. 
According  to  the  abbe  Lenglet,  it  was  first  used  in  battle  by  the  French,  in 
1603,  "with  great  success  against  an  enemy  unprepared  for  the  encounter 
with  so  formidable  a  novelty." 

BAZAAR,  OR  COVERED  MARKET.  The  word  is  of  Arabic  origin.  The  bazaar 
of  Ispahan  is  magnificent,  yet  it  is  excelled  by  that  of  Tauris,  which  has 
several  times  held  30,000  men  in  order  of  battle. 

BE  \DS.  The  Druids  appear  to  have  used  beads.  They  were  early  used  by 
Dervises  and  other  holy  men  of  the  East.  They  were  in  general  use  in 
Roman  Catholic  devotions,  A.  D.  1213.  The  bead-roll  was  a  list  of  deceased 
persons  for  the  repose  of  whose  souls  a  certain  number  of  prayers  were  re- 
cited, which  the  devout  counted  by  a  string  of  beads. — Butler. 

BEARDS.  Various  have  been  the  customs  of  most  nations  respecting  them. 
The  Tartars,  out  of  a  religious  principle,  waged  a  long  and  bloody  war  with 
the  Persians,  declaring  them  infidels,  because  they  would  not  cut  their 
beards  after  the  rites  of  Tartary.  The  Greeks  wore  their  beards  till  the 
time  of  Alexander,  who  ordered  the  Macedonians  to  be  shaved  lest  the 
beard  should  give  a  handle  to  their  enemies.  330  B.  c.  Beards  were  worn 
by  the  Romans,  297  B.  c.  They  have  been  worn  for  centuries  by  the  Jews. 
In  England,  they  were  not  fashionable  after  the  Conquest.  A.  D.  1066,  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  were  discontinued  at  the  Restoration.  The 
Russians,  even  of  rank,  did  not  cut  their  beards  until  within  these  few 
years ;  and  Peter  the  Great,  notwithstanding  his  enjoining  them  to  shave, 
was  obliged  to  keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  off  the  beard  by  force. 

BEARDS  ON  WOMEN.  A  bearded  woman  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  at  the 
battle  of  Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  Czar,  Peter  I.  1724:  her  beard 
measured  1£  yards.  A  woman  is  said  to  have  been  seen  in  Paris  with  a  bushy 
beard,  and  her  whole  body  covered  with  hair. — Diet,  de  Trevoux.  The 
great  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  had  a  very  long  stiff  beard. 
In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  a  virgin  had  a  long  black  beard. 
BEAUVAIS,  HEROINES  OF.  On  the  town  of  Beauvais  being  besieged  b^ 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  the  head  of  80.000  men.  the  women 
under  the  conduct  of  Jeanne  de  la  Hachette,  or  Laine,  particularly  distin- 
guished themselves,  and  the  duke  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  July  10, 
1472.  In  memory  of  their  noble  exploits  during  the  siege,  the  females  of 


252 

Beauvais  walk  first  in  a.  procession  on  the  anniversary  of  thc-ir  delivsranc* 

• — Heiiauit. 

BECKETiS  MURDER.  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  murdered  at 
the  altar,  Dec.  29,  1171.  Four  barons  hearing  Henry  II.  say,  in  a  moment 
of  exasperation,  "What  an  unhappy  prince  am  I.  who  have  not  about  me 
one  man  of  spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  this  insolent  prelate,"  resolved  upon 
Becket's  assassination ;  and  rushing  with  drawn  swords  into  the  cathedral 
of  Canterbury,  where  he  was  at  vespers,  they  announced  their  design,  when 
lie  cried  out,  "I  charge  you.  in  the  name  of  the  Almighty,  not  to  hurt  any 
other  person  here,  for  none  of  them  have  been  concerned  in  the  late  trans- 
actions." The  confederates  then  strove  to  drag  him  from  the  church  ;  but 
not  being  able  to  do  so,  on  account  of  his  resolute  deportment,  they  killed 
him  on  the  spot  with  repeated  wounds:  all  which  he  endured  without  a 
groan.  The  bones  of  Becket  were  enshrined  in  gold  and  set  with  jewels,  in 
1220;  and  were  taken  up  and  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIU.  1539. — 
Stowe. 

BED.  The  practice  was  universal  in  the  first  ages,  for  mankind  to  sleep  upon  the 
skins  of  beasts. —  Wkittaker.  This  was  the  custom  of  the  early  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  of  the  Britons,  before  the  Roman  invasion.  They  were  after- 
wards changed  for  loose  rushes  and  heather.  Straw  followed,  and  was  used 
in  the  royal  chambers  of  England  so  late  as  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Romans  were  the  first  who  used  feathers. 

BEER.  See  Ale.  A  beverage  of  this  sort  is  made  mention  of  by  Xenophon,  in 
his  famous  retreat,  401  B.  c.  Beer  was  drunk  generally  in  England  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  By  a  law  of  James  I.,  when  there  was  a  kind  of  duty 
paid  on  "  ale  called  here,"  one  quart  of  the  best  thereof  was  to  be  sold  for  a 
penny.  Subjected  to  excise  in  1660.  In  England  the  number  of  retailers  in 
1834  amounted  to  about  60.000.  See  Brewers. 

BEES.  Mount  Hybla.  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  flowers,  thyme,  and  abun- 
dance of  honey,  has  been  poetically  called  the  "  empire  of  bees."  Hymettus, 
in  Attica,  is  also  famous  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was 
admired  in  the  earliest  ages;  and  Eumelus.  of  Corinth,  wrote  a  poem  on 
bees,  741  B.  c.  There  are  292  species  of  the  bee.  or  apis  genus,  and  111  in 
England.  Strange  to  s*y,  bees  were  not  originally  natives  of  New  England : 
they  were  introduced  into  Boston  by  the  English,  in  1670,  and  have  since 
spread  over  the  whole  continent ;  the  first  planters  never  saw  any. — Hardie't 
America. 

BEET- ROOT.  It  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  England.  Margraff  first  produced 
sugar  from  the  white  beet-root,  in  1747.  M.  Achard  produced  excellent 
sugar  from  it  in  1799 ;  and  the  chemists  of  France  at  the  instance  of  Bo- 
naparte, largely  extracted  sugar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800.  A  refinery  of 
sugar  from  beetroot  was  lately  erected  at  the  Tliames-bank,  Chelsea. 

BEGUINES.  Nuns,  first  established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle.  in 
120".  The  '-Grand  Beguinage  "  of  Bruges  is  the  most  extensive  of  modern 
times.— Some  of  these  nuns  once  fell  into  the  extravagant  error  that  they 
couhl,  in  this  life,  arrive  at  the  highest  moral  perfection,  even  to  impec- 
cability. The  council  of  Vienne  condemned  this  error,  and  abolished  a 
branch  cf  the  order  in  1311. 

BEHEADING — or  DecoUatio  of  the  Romans,  introduced  into  England  from  Nor- 
mandy (as  a  less  ignominious  mode  of  putting  high  criminals  to  death)  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  1074.  when  Waltheof,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  North- 
ampton, and  Northumberland,  was  first  so  executed.  —  Sal',,K>n's  Cfacn, 
English  history  is  filled  with  instances  of  this  mode  of  execution,  partita- 


EKL  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


253 


1789 
1792 


larly  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  Mary,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest 
blood,  greatest  virtues,  and  most  innocent  lives,  thus  suffered  death.* 
BEHRiNG'S  STRAIT.  Explored  by  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of  Rus- 
sia whose  name  it  bears.  Behring  thus  established  that  the  continents 
of  Asia  and  America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from  each  other  about 
thirty-nine  miles,  1728. 

BELGIUM.  Late  the  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  anciently  the  territory  of  the  Belgae,  who  were  conquered  by  Julius 
Caesar,  47  B.  c.  Under  the  dominion  of  France  so  late  as  A.  D.  1369 ;  formed 
into  a  kingdom  in  1831. 

Became  an  acquisition  of  the  house  of         . 
Austria         ....       1477 ! 
Charles  V  annexed  the  Netherlands  to 

the  crown  ol  Spain      -  -  -  1556 

Seveji  provinces,  under  William,  prince 
of  Orange,  revolt,  owing  to  the  tyranny 
of  Philip  11. ;  freed-  .  -  -  1579 

The  ten  remaining  prorinces  are  given 

to  the  archduke  -  -  1596 

The**;  again  fall  to  Spain     -  -        1648 

Seven  again  ceded  to  Germany  1714 

And  three  to  France         -  -  1748 

Austrians  expelled ;  but  their  rule  after 

wards  restored 

The  French  entered  Belgium     Nov.  1 
United  to  France  -  Sept.  30,  1795 

Placed   under  the  sovereignty   of  the 

house  of  Orange          -  -  -  1814 

The  revolution  commences  at  Brussels 

Aug.  25,  1830 
The  Provisional  Government  declares 

Belgium  independent       -        Oct.  4,  1830 
The  Belgian  troops  take  Antwerp  ;  the 
Dutch  are  driver,  to  the  citadel,  from 
whence    they  cannonade  the   town, 

Oct.  27,  1830 
Belgian    independence    acknowledged 

This  last  treaty  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London  on  the  Belgian 
question;  by  the  decision  of  which,  the  treaty  of  November  15,  1831.  was 
maintained,  and  the  pecuniary  compensation  of  sixty  millions  of  francs, 
offered  by  Belgium  for  the  territories  adjudged  to  Holland,  was  declared  in- 
admissible. 

BELGRADE.  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  German  and  Turkish  armies,  in  which 
the  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men,  fought  1450.  Belgrade 
was  taken  by  Solyman.  1522;  and  re-taken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1688,  from 
whom  it  again  reverted  to  the  Turks  in  1690.  Taken  by  prince  Eugene  in 
1717  (see  next  article),  and  kept  till  1739,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Turks. 
It  was  again  taken  in  1789,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  Reichenbaeh,  in 
1790. 

BELGRADE  SIEGE  or.     The  memorable  siege,  so  often  quoted,  was  undei 
taken  in  May,  1717.  uwder  prince  Eugene.     On  August  5,  of  that  year,  th« 
Turkish  army,  of  200,000,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and  a  battle  was  fought, 
in  which  the  Turks  lost  20000  men;    after  which  Belgrade  surrendered 
Belgrade  has  been  frequently  besieged.     See  Sieges. 


by  the  Allied  Powers,  announced  by 
Van  der  Weyer  -  Dec.  26,  1331 

Duke  de  Nemours  elected  king;  but 
his  father,  the  king  of  France,  refuses 
his  consent  -  -  Feb.  3,  1831 

M.  Surlet  de  Chokier  is  elected  regent 
of  Belgium  -  -  Feb.  24,  1831 

Leopold,  prince  of  Coburg,  is  elected 
king  -  -  -  July  12, 1831 

He  enters  Brussels    -  -     July  19,  1S1I 

The  king  of  the  Netherlands  recom- 
mences the  war  -  Aug.  3, 1831 

[France  sends  50,000  troops  to  assist 
Belgium,  and  an  armistice  ensues.] 

A  conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  five 
great  powers  is  held  in  London,  which 
terminates  in  the  acceptance  of  the 
24  articles  of  pacification  -  Nov.  15,  1831 

Leopold  marries  Louise,  eldest  daughter 
ol  Louis  Philippe  -  -  Aug.  9,  1832 

The  French  army  returns  to  France 

Dec.  27,  1832 

Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Brussels) ;  much 
mischief  ensues  -  -  April  6,  1834 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 
signed  in  London  •  April  19, 1839 


*  Amon?  other  instances  (besides  queens  of  England),  may  be  mentior.ed  the  Lady  Jan*  Graf, 
brheaded,  Feb.  12,  1554 ;  and  the  venerable  countess  of  Salisbury — the  latter  remarkable  for  hel 
resistance  of  the  executioner.  When  he  directed  her  to  lay  her  head  on  the  block,  she  refused  M 
ili»  it;  telling  him,  that  she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not  submit  to  die  like  a  criminal.  He  pur- 
sued her  round  and  round  the  scaffold,  aiming  at  her  hoary  head,  anil  ;it  length  took  it  off,  after 
wangling  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  illustrious  victim  in  a  horrifying  manner.  She  was  daughter 
if  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  last  of  't>»  royal  line  of  Piantageiiet.  Mny  27,  1541. — llumt 


254  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BEH 

BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE ;  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony  of  the  Romish 
church,  used  in  excommunication,  which  see. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  OR  POLITE  LEARNING.  We  owe  the  revival  of  the  belles- 
lettres  in  Europe,  after  the  darkness  of  previous  ages  to  Brunette,  Latini, 
and  other  learned  men  in  different  countries,  about  A.  D.  1272. — Gen.  Hist. 
Learning  greatly  promoted  by  the  Medici  family  in  Italy,  about  1550. — Fon- 
tana.  Literature  began  to  flourish  in  France.  Germany,  and  England,  about 
this  time.  The  belles-lettres  commenced  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  flourished  in  that  of  Anne. 

BELLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  o 
them,  about  569  B.  c.  To  him  is  also  ascribed  the  invention  of  tinder,  tha 
potter's  wheel,  anchors  for  ships,  &c.  Bellows  were  not  used  in  the  furna- 
ces of  the  Romans. 

BELLS.  Used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  Roman  Catholics,  and  heathens.  The 
responses  of  the  Dodonaean  oracle  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells. — Slra&o. 
The  monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated  by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted 
by  bells. — Pliny.  Introduced  by  Paulinus,  bishop  cf  Nole,  in  Campagna, 
about  A.  D.  400.  First  known  in  France  in  550.  The  army  of  Clothair  II., 
king  of  France,  was  frighted  from  the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing  of  the 
bells  of  St.  Stephen's  church.  The  second  Excerption  of  our  king  Egbert 
commands  every  priest,  at  the  proper  hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his  church. 
Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of  pope  John  IX.,  as  a  defence,  by  ring- 
ing them,  against  thunder  and  lightning,  about  900.  First  cast  in  England 
by  Turkeytel,  chancellor  of  England,  under  Edmund  I.  His  successor  im- 
proved the  invention,  and  caused  the  first  tunable  set  to  be  put  up  at 
Croyland  abbey,  960. — Stowe. 


Great  Belief  St.  Pauls,  weighs    -  Ibs.  8,400 
Great  Tom  of  Lincoln  -  -    9,8*4 

Great  Tom  of  Oxford       -  -    -  17,000 


St.  Peter's,  at  Rome       -          •    Ibs.  18,607 
Great  Bell  at  Erfurth  -  -      28,i24 

St.  Ivan's  Bell,  Moscow  -       -    127.836 


Bell  of  the  Palazzo,  Florence  •  17,000  |  Bell  of  the  Kremlin  -  -    443,772 

fhe  last  is  the  great  unsuspended  bell,  the  wonder  of  travellers.  Its  metal 
alone  is  valued,  at  a  very  low  calculation,  at  .£66.565  sterling.  In  its  fusion 
great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  were  thrown  in  as  votive  offerings  by  the 
people. 

BELLS,  BAPTISM  OP.  They  were  early  anointed  and  baptized  in  churches. — 
Du  Fresnoy.  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Dunmow,  in  Essex,  were 
baptized  by  the  name  of  St.  Michael,  St.  John,  Virgin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity, 
&c.,  in  1501. —  Weever.  The  great  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  in  Paris,  was  bap- 
tized by  the  name  of  Duke  of  Angouleme,  in  1816.  On  the  Continent,  in 
the  Catholic  states,  they  baptize  bells  as  we  do  ships,  but  with  religious 
solemnity. — Ashe. 

BENEDICTINES.  An  order  of  monks  founded  by  Benedict,  who  was  the 
first  that  introduced  the  monastic  life  into  the  western  part  of  Europe,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  No  religious  order  has  been  so  remark- 
able for  extent,  wealth,  and  men  of  note,  as  the  Benedictine.  It  spread 
over  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  but  was  superseded  in  the  vast  influence  it 
possessed  over  other  religious  communities,  about  A.D.  1100.  The  Bene- 
dictines appeared  early  in  England :  and  William  I.  built  them  an  abbey  on 
the  plain  where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  fought,  1066. 
William  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Warren,  built  them  a  convent  at  Lewes,  in 
Essex,  in  1077.  At  Hammersmith  is  a  nunnery,  whose  inmates  are  denomi- 
nated Bened'etine  dames. — Leigh.  Of  this  order,  it  is  reckoned  that  there 
have  been  40  popes,  200  cardinals.  50  patriarchs,  116  archbishopt,  4600 
bishops.  4  emperors.  12  empresses,  46  king-?  41  queens,  and  3600  saints, 
Their  founder  was  canonized. — Baroniut 


BEN] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


255 


BENEFICES.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in  the  twelfth  century;  till  then 
the  priests  were  supported  by  alms  and  oblations  at  mass.  All  that  should 
become  vacant  in  the  space  of  six  months  were  given  by  pope  Clement  VET. 
to  his  nephew,  in. 1534. — NotUia  Monastica.  The  number  of  benefices  in 
England,  according  to  parliamentary  returns,  is  10.533,  and  the  number  ol 
glebe-houses  5;527  ;  these  arc  exclusive  of  bishoprics,  deaneries,  canonries 
prebendaries,  priest-vicars,  lay-vicars,  secondaries,  and  similar  church  pre- 
ferments. The  number  of  parishes  is  -11,077,  and  of  churches  and  chapels 
about  12.000.  The  number  of  benefices  in  Ireland  is  1456,  to  which  ther» 
are  not  more  than  about  900  glebe-houses  attached,  the  rest  having  no 
glebe-houses. — See  Church,  of  England. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  A  privilege  first  enjoyed  only  by  clergymen,  but 
afterwards  extended  to  lettered  laymen,  relating  to  divers  crimes,  and  par- 
ticularly manslaughter.  The  ordinary  gave  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  a  Latin 
book,  in  a  black  Gothic  character,  from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two  ;  and 
if  the  ordinary  said  "  Lcgit^  ut  clcricus,"  the  offender  was  only  burnt  in  the 
hand,  otherwise  he  sufFere'd  death,  3  Edward  I.,  1274.  This  privilege  was 
abolished  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other  great  criminals,  as  also  the 
claim  of  sanctuary,  by  Henry  VIII.,  1513. — Stowe.  Benefit  of  clergy  was 
wholly  repealed  by  statute  7  and  8  George  IV.,  June  1827. 


BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS,  PUBLIC  CHARITIES,  &c.,  IN  THE  UXITET 
STATES.  The  known  voluntary  contributions  by  citizens  of  Boston  alone, 
during  45  years,  ending  1845,  was  ascertained  to  be  (see  details  in  American 
Almanac,  1846)  as  follows : 


For  theological  education  and  other 

religious  objects       -  -       81,054,966 

For  purposes  of  instruction  -  1,095,594 

For  charitable  purposes       •        •  2,162,412 


For  miscellaneous  objects  (such  as 
monuments,  &c.)       -          -    • 


438,321 


Total    -    34,751,293 


[Exclusive  of  the  contributions  in  churches,  for  the  poor,  &c.  The  popula- 
tion of  Boston,  in  1800,  was  about  25  000 ;  in  1845,  about  114;000.  Few 
cities  can  boast  of  such  munificence,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  in- 
habitants.] 

BENEVOLENT  SOCIETIES— some  of  the  principal  in  the  United  States. 


Formed.  Income, 

Amer.  Board  of  Com.  Foreign  1849. 

Missions  -  -      -  1810  -  8260,897 

Amer.  Sunday  Sen.  Union  -  1824  207,764 
"       Bible  Society    -        -  1816  -   284,514 

"       Tract  Society       -    - 1814  -  308,428 

"       Home  Miss.  Society  -  1826  •  157,460 


Formed.   Income. 

1849. 

Amer.  Education  Society    •  1816  -   832,754 

Colonization  Society  1819         17,414 

"       Seamen's  Friend  Society    -     23,497 

Miss.  Soc.  Methodist  Church  1819  -     99,635 

Presbyterian  Board  Missions          -    126.0]  3 


United  States  ship,  Jamestown,  sailed  from  Boston  for  Cork,  loaded  with  provisions,  to  be 
given  to  the  distitute  Irish  March  28th,  1847.  The  frigate  Macedonian  sailed  from 
New  York  on  same  errand,  ,,uly  8,  1847. 

Abbott  Lawrence  gave  $50,000  to  Harvard  College,  for  scientific  department,  June,  JB47. 

BENGAL.  Of  the  existence  of  Bengal  as  a  separate  kingdom,  there  is  no 
record.  It  was  ruled  by  governors  delegated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi  in 
1340,  when  it  became  independent,  until  1560.  It  afterwards  fell  to  the 
Mogul  empire. — See  India. 


The  English  were  first  permitted  to 

trade  to  Bengal        -  A.  D   1534 

Factories  of  the  French  and  Danes         1664 
First  factory  at  Calcutta  •  1690 

The  settlements  first  placed  in  a  state 

of  defence         -  -  -  1694 

Calcutta  bought,  and  fortified         -     .   1700 
Iln  garrison  consisted  of  only  129  sol 
•hers,  of  whom  but  55  were  Europeans  1706 


Calcutta  taken  by  Surrjah  Dowla ;  and 
the  dreadful  affair  of  the  Black-hole-  17r-6 

Retaken  by  Colonel  Clive  -         -  1757 

Imperial  grant,  vesting  the  revenues  of 
Benjal  in  the  Company,  by  which 
the  virtual  sovereignty  of  the  country 
was  obtained  -  -  Aug.  12,  1764 

Celebrated  India-bill ;  Bengal  mtde  the 
chief  presidency     -          -    J  me  16,  177S 
See  India. 


256  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

BERESINA,  BATTI  E  OF.  Total  defeat  of  the  French  main  army  by  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  banks  of  the  Beresina,  followed  by  their  disastrous  passage  ol 
it  when  escaping  out  of  Russia.  The  French  lost  20  000  men  in  the  battle, 
and  in  their  retreat  the  career  of  their  glory  was  closed,  Nov.  28,  1812. 

BERGEN,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated.  April 
14,  1759.  The  allies  again  defeated  by  the  French  with  great  loss,  Sept.  19 
1799.  In  another  battle,  fought  Oct.  2,  same  year,  the  allies  lost  4  000  men; 
and  on  the  6th,  they  were  again  defeated  before  Alkmaer,  losing  5  000  men. 
On  the  20th,  the  duke  of  York  entered  into  a  convention  by  which  he 
exchanged  his  army  for  6,000  French  and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable,  taken  by  the 
French,  Sept.  16,  1747,  and  again  in  1794.  Here  a  gallant  attempt  was 
made  by  the  British,  under  Graham,  to  carry  the  fortress  by  storm,  but  it 
was  defeated;  after  forcing  an  entrance  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  a 
dreadful  slaughter  ensued ;  nearly  all  were  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners, 
March  8,  1814. 

BERLIN.  Founded  by  the  margrave  Albert,  surnamed  the  Bear,  in  1163.  Its 
five  districts  were  united  under  one  magistracy,  in  1714 ;  and  it  was  subse- 
quently made  the  capital  of  Prussia.  This  city  was  taken  by  an  army  of 
Russians,  Austrians,  and  Saxons,  in  1760,  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  in 
a  few  days.  On  Oct.  27,  1806,  thirteen  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the 
French  entered  Berlin,  and  from  its  palace  Napoleon  issued  his  famous 
Berlin  decree. — See  next  article. 

BERLIN  DECREE  a  memorable  interdict  against  the  commerce  of  England. 
It  declared  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  English- 
men found  in  countries  occupied  by  French  troops  were  to  be  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war ;  the  whole  world,  in  fact,  was  to  cease  from  any  commu- 
nication with  Great  Britain :  issued  by  Bonaparte  from  the  court  of  the 
Prussian  king,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (which,  for  the  time,  decided 
the  fate  of  Prussia),  Nov.  21,  1806.— See  Jena. 

BERMUDAS  OR  SOMMERS'  ISLES  discovered  by  Joao  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard, 
in  1527 ;  but  they  were  not  inhabited  until  1609,  when  sir  George  Sommers 
was  cast  away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  a  statute  of  9  James  I., 
1612.  Awful  and  memorable  hurricane  here,  October  31.  1780.  Another, 
by  which  a  third  of  the  houses  was  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping  driven 
•xshore,  July  20,  1813. 

BERNARD,  MOUNT  ST.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted  the  Carthaginian 
army  by  this  pass  into  Italy ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  route  that  Bonaparte 
led  his  troops  to  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  before  the  battle  of  Marengo, 
fought  June  14.  1800. 

BERNARD1NE  MONKS.  This  order  was  founded  by  Robert,  abbot  of  Mo- 
Icme,  in  the  twelfth  century.  On  the  summit  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  is  a 
large  community  of  monks,  who  entertain  in  their  convent  all  traveller! 
gratis  for  three  days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK.  Tin's  town  was  the  theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the 
English  and  Scots ;  and  while  England  and  Scotland  remained  two  king- 
doms, was  always  claimed  by  the  Scots  as  belonging  to  them,  because  it 
stood  on  their  side  of  the  river.  Berwick  was  burned  in  1173.  and  again  in 
1210.  It  was  taken  from  the  Scots,  and  annexed  to  England.  1333;  and 
after  having  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times,  was  finally  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1502.  The  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1648.  and  afterward! 
to  general  Monk.  Since  the  union  of  the  crowns  (James  I.  1603).  the  forti- 
fications, which  were  formerly  ve-y  strong,  have  been  much  neglected. 

BETHLEHEM,  the  birth-place  of  CHRIST.     The  Bethlehemite  monks,  who 


•M  1  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  257 

had  an  order  in  England  in  1257,  are  named  from  this  once  distinguished 
city.  It  now  contains  a  church,  erected  by  the  famous  St.  Helena,  in  the 
form  of  a  cross ;  also  a  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  where 
they  pretend  to  show  the  manger  in  which  Christ  was  laid ;  another,  called 
the  Chapel  of  Joseph ;  and  a  third,  of  the  Holy  Innocents.  Bethlehem  is 
much  visited  by  pilgrims. — Ashe. 

BEYROUT.  This  city,  which  was  colonized  from  Sidon,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  A.  D.  566.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alternately  possessed  by  the 
Christians  and  Saracens ;  and  after  a  frequent  change  of  masters,  fell  into 
the  power  of  Amtirath  IV.,  since  when  it  remained  with  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire up  to  the  revolt  of  Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  1832.  Total  defeat  of  the  Egyp- 
tian army  by  the  allied  British,  Turkish,  and  Austrian  forces,  and  evacua- 
tion of  Beyrout,  the  Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
and  20  pieces  of  cannon,  Oct.  10,  1840. 

BIARCHY.  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,  died,  he  left  two  sons  twins, 
Eurysthenes  and  Procles ;  and  the  people  not  knowing  to  whom  precedence 
should  be  given,  placed  them  both  upon  the  throne,  and  thus  established 
the  first  biarchy,  1102  B.  c.  The  descendants  of  each  reigned  alternately 
for  800  years. — Herodotus. 

BIBLE.  The  first  translation  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek  was  made  by 
seventy-two  interpreters,  by  the  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus ;  it  is  thence 
called  the  Septuagint  version,  and  was  completed  in  seventy-two  days,  at 
Alexandria,  277  B.  c. — Josephus.  It  was  commenced  284  B.  c. — Lenglet.  In 
283. — Blair.  The  Jewish  sanhedrim  consisted  of  seventy  or  seventy-two 
members ;  and  hence,  probably,  the  seventy  or  seventy-two  translators  of 
Josephus. — Hewlett.  The  seventy-two  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells,  and 
each  pair  translated  the  whole;  and  on  subsequent  comparison,  it  was 
found  that  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  a  letter. — Justin 
Martyr. 

BIBLE,  ANCIENT  COPIES  OP  THE.  The  oldest  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament belonging  to  the  Christians,  is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  writ- 
ten in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  and  published  in  1455.  The  next  in  age 
is  the  Alexandrine  MS.,  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the  Greek 
patriarch  to  Charles  I.,  and  said  to  have  been  copied  nearly  about  the  same 
time.  The  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  existed  at  Toledo, 
about  A.  D.  1000  ;  and  the  copy  of  Ben  Asher,  of  Jerusalem,  was  made  about 
1100. 

BIBLE,  BISHOPS'.  Bishop  Alley  prepared  the  Pentateuch;  bishops  Davis  and 
Sandys,  the  Historical  Books :  bishop  Bentham.  the  Psalms,  &c. ;  bishop 
Home,  the  prophets ;  bishop  Grindal,  the  Minor  Prophets ;  bishops  Park- 
hurst  and  Barlow,  the  Apocrypha ;  bishop  Cox,  the  Gospels  and  Acts ;  and 
archbishop  Parker,  the  remainder.  Printed  A.  D.  1568. 

BIBLE.  DIVISION  OF  THE.  The  Bible  was  divided  into  twenty-two  books  by  the 
Jews,  the  number  of  letters  in  their  alphabet.  The  Christians  divided  the 
Bible  into  thirty-nine  books.  The  Hebrew  division  into  chapters  was  mad« 
by  the  rabbi  Nathan,  about  1445.  Our  Bible  was  divided  into  chapters,  and 
a  part  into  verses,  by  archbishop  Langton,  who  died  in  1228;  and  tbis 
division  was  perfected  by  Robert  Stephens,  about  1534. 

BIBLE.  EDITIONS  OP  THE.  The  vulgate  edition,  in  Latin,  was  made  by  St.  Je- 
rome. A.D.  405;  and  is  that  acknowledged  by  the  Catholic  church  to  l>e 
authentic:  it  was  first  printed  by  Guttenberg  at  Mayence,  1450 — 55.  (See 
Books.'}  The  first  perfect  edition  in  English  was  finished,  as  appears  from 
the  colophon,  by  Tindal  and  Coverdale,  Oct.  4,  1535.  A  revision  of  tb'ji 
edition  was  made,  ]  538-9.  This  last  was  ordered  to  be  read  in  churches, 


258 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[BO, 


1549.  In  1604,  at  the  conference  at  Hampton-court  (see  Conference),  a  new 
translation  was  resolved  upon,  which  was  executed  1607-11,  and  is  that  now 
generally  used  in  Great  Britain.  J.  Eliot:s  Indian  Bible,  one  of  the  first 
books  printed  in  North  America,  at  Cambridge,  1663.  The  Bible  was  first 
printed  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  in  1704.  Permitted  by  the  pope  to  be  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  the  Catholic  states,  1759.  The  Bible  was  printed 


Spanish 
C»erinan  • 
English 
French    - 
Swedish 
Danish   • 
Dutch 


1478 
1522 
1531 
1535 
1541 
1550 


Russian 

Hungarian 

Polish 

Modern  Greek 

Turkish 

Irish 


1560  |  Portuguese 


1581 

1589 
1596 
1638 
1666 
1685 
- 1748 


Manks  • 

Italian 

Bengalee 

Tartar 

Persian 

African 

Chinese 


1771 
1776 
1801 
1813 
1815 
1816 
1820 


Editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  separately,  appeared  \n  several  in- 
stances at  earlier  dates,  particularly  in  European  languages.  The  Polyglot 
Bible,  edited  by  Walton,  bishop  of  Chester,  in  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee, 
Samaritan,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Persic,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  1657. — 
Wood's  Fasti.  Oxon. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal  and  oldest  societies  which  have 
made  the  dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive  object, 
are  the  following : — The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  was 
formed  1698 ;  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1701 ; 
Society,  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  1709 ;  French 
Bible  Society.  1792 ;  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1801 ;  Hibernian 
Bible  Society,  1806 ;  City  of  London  Auxiliary  Bible  Society.  1812;  American 
Bible  Society  (which  now  has  numerous  branches),  founded  1816 ;  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (Baptist),  founded  at  New- York,  1838.  A 
bull  from  the  pope  against  Bible  Societies  appeared  in  1817. 

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty  parties  with  an  infamous  mark: 
with  us.  the  punishment  of  this  offence,  formerly,  was  death.  The  first  act 
respecting  it  was  passed  5  Edward  I.  1276. —  Viner's  Statutes.  Declared  to 
be  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  I  James  I.  1602.  Subjected  to  the 
same  punishments  as  grand  or  petit  larceny,  35  George  III.  1794. — Statutes 
at  large. 

B(LL  OF  RIGHTS.  One  of  the  great  foundations  of  the  British  constitution, 
was  obtain  nd  from  Charles  I.  by  parliament,  1628.  This  bill  recognized  the 
legal  privileges  of  the  subject;  and  notwithstanding  the  employment  of  all 
manner  of  arts  and  expedients  to  avoid  it.  Charles  was  constrained  to  pass 
it  into  a  law.  The  Bill  of  Rights  declaratory  of  the  rights  of  British  subjects, 
passed  1  William  and  Mary,  February  1689.  This  is  the  only  written  law 
respecting  the  liberties  of  the  people,  except  Magna  Charta. — Viner's 
Statutes. 

BILLS  OP  EXCHANGE.  Invented  by  the  Jews,  as  a  means  of  removing  their 
property  from  nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  A.  D.  1160. — Anderson. 
Bills  were  used  in  England,  1307. — The  only  legal  mode  of  sending  nrmey 
from  England,  4th  Richard  II.,  1381.  Regulated,  1698— first  stamped.  1782 
— duty  advanced  1797 — again.  June  1801;  and  since.  It  was  made  capital 
to  counterfeit  bills  of  exchange  in  1734.  In  1825  the  year  of  disastrous 
speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  computed  that  there  were  400  millions  o/ 
pounds  sterling  represented  by  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes. 
The  present  amount  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions.  The  many 
statutes  regarding  bills  of  exchange  were  consolidated  by  act  9  George  IV. 
1828.  A  new  act  regulating  bills  of  exchange,  passed  3  Victoria.  July  1839. 

SILLS  OF  MORTALITY  FOR  LONDON.  These  bills  were  first  compiled  about 
A.  D.  1536,  but  in  a  more  formal  and  recognized  manner  in  1593,  »fter  the 


BiS  j  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES.  259 

great  plague  of  that  year;  and  however  imperfect  they  still  are,  they  yet 
•fiord  valuable  materials  for  computation  on  the  duration  of  life ;  no  com- 
plete series  of  them  has  been  preserved.  The  following  are  returns,  show- 
ing the  numbers  at  decennial  distances,  within  the  last  sixty  years : — 


In  the  year  1780,  Christenings 
1790,  Christenings 
1800,  Christenings 
1810,  Christenings 
1820,  Christenings 
1830,  Christenings 
1840,  Christenings 


16,634 

18,980 
19,176 
19,930 
26,158 
27,028 
30,387 


In  the  year  1780,  Burials  -       -    20,50? 

1790,  Burials  .           -        18,038 

1800,  Burials  .        -    23,068 

1810,  Burials  .           -        19,092 

1820,  Burials  .            19.348 

1830,  Burials  -           -       23,&M 

1840,  Burials  -       -    26,774 


BILLIARDS.  Invented  by  the  French,  by  whom,  and  by  the  Germans,  Dutch, 
and  Italians,  they  were  brought  into  general  vogue  throughout  Europe. — 
Nouv.  Diet.  The  French  ascribe  their  invention  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an 
artist,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  1571.  Slate  billiard-tables  were 
introduced  in  England  in  1827. 

BIRDS.  Divided  by  Linnaeus  into  six  orders ;  by  Blumenbach  into  eight ;  and 
by  Cuvier  into  six.  Man  is  especially  enjoined  not  to  harm  the  nest  of  the 
bird :  "  If  a  bird's  nest  chance  to  be  before  thee  in  the  way  in  any  tree,  or 
on  the  ground,  whether  they  be  young  ones  or  eggs,  and  the  dam  sitting  upon 
the  young,  or  upon  the  eggs,  thou  shalt  not  take  the  dam  with  the 
young." — Duteranomy,  xxii.  6. 

BIRMINGHAM,  ENGLAND.  This  town  existed  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  A.  D.  872 ; 
but  its  importance  as  a  manufacturing  town  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.  Birmingham  was  besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  in  1643. 
The  great  works  of  Soho  were  established  by  the  illustrious  engineer,  Mat- 
thew Boulton,  in  1764. 

BIRTHS.  Parish  registers  of  them,  and  of  marriages  and  burials,  were  insti- 
tuted by  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  28  Henry  VIII.  1536.  The  births  of  chil- 
dren were  taxed  in  England,  viz. :  birth  of  a  duke,  SOI. — of  a  common 
person,  2s. — 7  William  III.  1695.  Taxed  again,  1783.  The  instances  of 
four  children  at  a  birth  are  numerous ;  but  the  most  extraordinary  delivery 
recorded  in  modern  times  is  that  of  a  woman  of  Konigsberg.  who  had  five 
children  at  a  birth.  September  3  1783. — Phillips.  The  wife  of  a  man  named 
Nelson,  a  journeyman  tailor,  of  Oxford-market,  London,  had  five  children  at 
a  birth,  in  October  1800. — Annals  of  London. 

BISHOPS.  The  name  was  given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had  the  in- 
spection of  the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had  also  a  like  officer ;  but 
now  it  means  only  that  person  who  has  the  government  of  church  affairs  in 
a  certV.ii  district.  In  England,  the  dignity  is  coeval  with  Christianity.  St. 
Petet,  the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  was  martyred  A.  D.  65.  The  bishops  of 
Rome  assumed  the  title  of  pope  in  138,  the  rank  was  anciently  assumed  by 
all  bishops ;  but  it  was  afterwards  ordained  that  the  title  of  pope  should 
belong  only  to  the  occupant  of  St.  Peter's  chair. —  Warner. 

BISHOPS  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  was  appointed  in  A.  D.  180.  See  York, 
London.  They  were  made  barons.  1072.  The  Conge  d'  Elire  of  the-  king 
to  choose  a  bishop  originated  in  an  arrangement  of  king  John  with  the 
clergy.  Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  Consii  d'  Elire,  26  Henry  VIII. 
1535.  Seven  were  deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  Several  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  queen  Mary,  1555-6.  See  Cranmer.  Bishops  were  excluded 
from  voting  in  the  house  of  peers  on  temporal  concerns,  16  Charles  I.  1640. 
Twelve  were  committed  for  high  treason,  in  protesting  against  the  legality 
of  all  acts  of  parliament  passed  while  they  remained  deprived  of  their  votes, 
1641.  Regained  their  seats.  Nov.  1661.  Seven  were  sent  to  the  tower  for  not 
reading  the  king's  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience,  contrived  to  bring 
the  Catholics  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil  jxwer,  and  were  tried  and  acquit- 


260  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  VLA 

ted,  June  29-30,  1688.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Sancrpft)  and 
five  bishops  were  suspended  lor  refusing:  to  take  the  oaths  to  William  and 
Mary,  1689,  and  were  deprived  1690. — 'Warner's  Ecclcs.  Hist.  The  sees  of 
Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  united,  and  that  of  Ripon  created,  in  1836.  An 
order  in  council,  in  Oct.  1838,  directed  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  to 
be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  to  be 
created  thei  eupon.  This  order,  as  regarded  the  union  of  the  sees,  rescinded 
in  1846. — See  Manchester. 

BISHOPS  OF  IRELAND.  Bishops  are  said  to  have  been  consecrated  in  this 
country  as  early  as  the  second  century.  The  bishopric  of  Ossory,  first 
planted  at  Saiger,  was  founded  A.  D.  402.  thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of 
St.  Patrick. 

BJ  SHOPS  OF  SCOTLAND.  They  were  constituted  in  the  fourth  century.  Ths 
see  of  St.  Andrew's  was  founded  by  Her&ustus,  king  of  the  Picts.  whc, 
according  to  a  legendary  tale  of  this  prelacy,  encouraged  the  mission  of 
Regulus.  a  Greek  monk  of  Patrae.  about  A.  D.  370.  The  bishops  were  deprived 
of  their  sees,  and  episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland  at  the  period  of  the  revo- 
lution. 1688-9.  Warner's  Eccles.  Hist. — There  are  now,  however,  six  bishops 
belonging  to  the  Scotch  Episcopal  Church,  viz :  Aberdeen,  Brechin,  Edin- 
burgh. Glasgow,  Moray,  and  St.  Andrew's. 

BISHOPS,  PRECEDENCY  OF,  was  settled  by  statute  31  Henry  VIII.  to  be  »ext  to 
viscounts,  they  being  barons  of  the  realm,  1540 ;  and  they  have  the  title  of 
Lord,  and  Right  Rev.  Father  in  God.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  taking  place  of  all  dukes,  have  the  title  of  Grace.  The  bishops  of 
London,  Durham,  and  Winchester  have  precedence  of  all  bishops;  the 
others  rank  according  to  the  seniority  of  consecration.  A  late  contest  in 
Ireland  between  the  bishops  of  Meath  and  Kildare  for  precedency  was  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  former,  who  now  ranks  after  the  archbishop  of  Dublin. 
The  others  rank  according  to  consecration. 

BISHOPS  IN  AMERICA.  The  first  was  the  Right  Rev.  Doctor  Samuel  Sea- 
bury,  consecrated  bishop  of  Connecticut  by  four  nonjuring  prelates,  at 
Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  Nov.  14,  1784.  The  bishops  of  New-York  and  Penn- 
sylvania were  consecrated  in  London,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Feb.  4  1787 ;  and  the  bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  The  first  Catholic  bishop 
of  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Carroll  of  Maryland,  in  1789. 

BISSEXTILE  OR  LEAP  YEAR.  An  intercalary  day  was  thrown  into  every 
fourth  year  to  adjust  the  calendar,  and  make  it  agree  with  the  sun's  course. 
It  originated  with  Julius  Caesar,  who  ordered  a  day  to  be  counted  before 
the  24th  of  February,  which  among  the  Romans  was  the  6th  of  the  calends, 
and  which  was  therefore  reckoned  twice,  and  called  bissextile :  this  added 
day  we  name  the  29th  of  February  every  fourth  year,  45  B.  c. — See  Calen- 
dar and  Leap  Year. 

B1FHYNIA.  Conquered  by  Crcesus,  about  560  B.  c.;  and  again  by  Alexander, 
332  B.  c.  It  afterwards  recovered  its  liberty ;  but  its  last  king  bequeathed 
it  to  the  Romans,  40  B.  c.  In  modern  history  Bithynia  makes  no  figure, 
except  that  from  its  ruins  rose  the  Othman  Turks,  who,  in  A.  D.  1327,  took 
Prusa  its  capital,  and  made  it  the  seat  of  their  empire  before  they  possessed 
Constantinople. 

BLACK  BOOK,  a  book  kept  in  the  English  monasteries,  wherein  details  of  the 
scandalous  enormities  practised  in  religious  houses  were  entered  for  the 
iwpection  of  visitors,  under  Henry  VIII..  1535  in  order  to  blacken  them  and 
hasten  their  dissolution ;  hence  the  vulgar  phrase  '•  I'll  set  you  down  in  the 
black  book." 

BLASPHEMY.    This  crime  is  recognized  both  by  the  civil  and  canon  law  of 


BLO  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  261 

England.  Justinian  adjudged  it  the  punishment  of  death.  In  Scotland,  the 
tongue  was  amputated.  Visited  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  9  &  10  William 
III.,  1696-7. — Statutes  at  large.  In  England  this  offence  has  been  subjected, 
on  some  late  occasions,  to  the  visitation  of  the  laws.  Daniel  Isaac  Eatvn 
was  tried  and  convicted  in  London  of  blasphemy,  13th  March,  1812.  A  pro- 
testant  clergyman,  named  Robert  Taylor,  was  tried  in  London  twice  for  the 
same  crime,  and  as  often  convicted.  Taylor  was  last  brought  to  the  bar, 
and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  largely  fined,  for  (among 
other  things)  reviling  the  Redeemer  in  his  discourses,  July,  1831.  Even  as 
late  as  in  Dec.  1840,  two  prosecutions  against  publishers  of  blasphemous 
writings,  subjected  the  offenders  to  the  sentence  of  the  court  of  Queen':) 
Bench. 

BLAZONRY.  The  bearing  coats-of-arms  was  introduced,  and  oecame  heredi- 
tary in  families  in  France  and  England,  about  A.  D.  1192,  owing  to  the 
knights  painting  their  banners  with  different  figures,  thereby  to  distinguish 
them  in  the  crusades. — Dugdale. 

BLEACHING.  This  art  was  known  early  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  India.  Known 
in  ancient  Gaul. — Pliny.  In  the  last  century  an  improved  chemical  system 
was  adopted  by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced  it  into  England  and  Scotland  in 
1768.  There  are  now  immense  bleachfields  in  both  countries,  particularly 
in  Lancashire,  and  in  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  and  Renferew,  and  in  the 
vale  of  the  Leven,  in  Dumbarton.  The  chemical  process  of  Berthollet  was 
introduced  in  1795. — JBlanchtment  des  Toiles. 

BLENHEIM,  BATTLE  OP  ;  between  the  English  and  confederates,  commanded 
by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  French  and  Bavarians,  under  marshal 
Tallard  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  Marlborough  signally  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  27,000  in  killed,  and  13,000  prisoners,  Tallard  being  among 
the  latter :  the  electorate  of  Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors. 
The  nation  testified  its  gratitude  to  the  duke  by  the  gifts  of  the  honor  of 
Woodstock  and  hundred  of  Wotton,  and  erected  for  him  one  of  the  finest 
seats  in  the  kingdom,  known  as  the  domain  and  house  of  Blenheim. 
Fought  Aug.  2,  1704;.— Hume. 

BLINDING,  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with  lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  a  punish- 
ment inflicted  anciently  on  adulterers,  perjurers,  and  thieves.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  they  changed  the  penalty  of  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of 
sight.  Blinding  the  conquered  was  a  practice  in  barbarous  states ;  and  a 
whole  army  was  deprived  of  their  eyes  by  Basilius,  in  the  eleventh  century. 
See  Bulgarians.  Several  of  the  Eastern  emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from 
their  heads.  See  article  Eastern  Empire. 

BLISTERS.  They  were  first  made,  it  is  said,  of  cantharides. — Freind.  Blisters 
are  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  medical  practice  by  Aretaeus,  » 
physician  of  Cappadocia,  about  50  B.  c. — £«  Clerc's  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD  CIRCULATION  OP  THE,  through  the  lungs,  first  made  public  by  Michael 
Servetus,  a  Spanish  physician,  in  1553.  Cisalpinus  published  an  account  of 
the  general  circulation,  of  which  he  had  some  confused  ideas ;  improved 
afterwards  by  experiments,  1569.  Paul  of  Venice,  commonly  called  Fatl  or 
Paolo,  whose  real  name  was  Peter  Sarpi,  certainly  discovered  the  valves 
which  serve  for  the  circulation ;  but  the  honor  of  the  positive  discovery  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  belongs  to  Harvey,  an  English  physician,  by 
whom  it  was  fully  confirmed.  1628. — Freind's  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD,  DRINKING  OF.  Anciently  a  mode  was  tried  of  giving  vigor  to  the  sys- 
tem by  administering  blood  as  a  draught.  Louis  XI.,  in  his  last  illness, 
drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  restoring  his  decayed 


262  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BE«J 

strength,  1438. — Henault.    Eating  blood  was  prohibited  to  Noah.  Gen.  ix. 
»nd  to  the  Jews,  Lev.  xvii.    The  prohibition  repeated  by  the  apostles  at 
the  council  of  Jerusalem,  Acts  xv. 

BLOOD,  TRANSFUSION  OF.  In  the  fifteenth  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that 
the  declining  strength  and  vigor  of  old  people  might  be  repaired  by  trans- 
fusing the  blood  of  young  persons,  drawn  from  their  veins,  into  those  of  the 
infirm  and  aged.  It  was  countenanced  in  France  by  the  physicians,  and 
prevailed  for  many  years,  till  the  most  fatal  effects  ensued  from  the  opera- 
tion. Some  of  the  principal  nobility  having  died,  and  others  turned  raving 
mad,  it  was  suppressed  by  an  edict.  Attempted  in  France  in  1797.  Prac- 
tised more  recently  there,  in  a  few  cases,  with  success ;  and  in  England 
(but  the  instances  are  rare)  since  1823. — Med.  Jour.  "  One  English  physi- 
cian, named  Louver,  or  Lower,  practised  in  this  way;  he  died  in  1691." — 
Freind's  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  discarded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell'* 
household,  and  his  confederates,  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond  in  his  coach, 
and  had  got  him  to  Tyburn,  intending  to  hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued 
by  his  friends.  Blood  afterwards,  in  the  disguise  of  a  clergyman,  stole  the 
regal  crown  from  the  Jewel-office  in  the  Tower :  yet,  notwithstanding  these 
and  other  offences,  he  was  not  only  pardoned,  but  had  a  pension  of  £500 
per  annum  settled  on  him  by  Charles  II.  1673. 

BLUE  STOCKING.  This  term  is  applied  to  literary  ladies,  and  was  originally 
conferred  on  a  society  of  literary  persons  of  both  sexes.  One  of  the  most 
active  promoters  of  the  society  was  Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  the  distinguished 
naturalist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  who  always  wore  blue  worsted  stock- 
ings, and  hence  the  name :  the  society  existed  in  1760,  et  seq. — Anec.  oj 
Btnayer.  The  beautiful  and  fascinating  Mrs.  Jerningham  is  said  to  have 
worn  blue  stockings  at  the  conversaziones  of  lady  Montague ;  and  this  pecu- 
liarity also  fastened  the  name  upon  accomplished  women. 

BOARD  OF  TRADE  AND  PLANTATIONS.  Charles  II.,  on  his  restoration, 
established  a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a  control  over  the  whole  com- 
merce of  the  nation,  1660 ;  he  afterwards  instituted  a  board  of  trade  and 
plantations,  which  was  remodelled  by  William  III.  This  board  of  superin- 
spection  was  abolished  in  1782;  and  a  new  council  for  the  affairs  of  trade 
was  appointed,  Sept.  2.  1786. 

BOATS.  Their  invention  was  so  early,  and  their  use  so  general,  the  art  cannot 
be  traced  to  any  age  or  country.  Flat-bottomed  boats  were  made  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror:  the  flat^bottomed  boat  was  again 
brought  into  use  by  Barker,  a  Dutchman,  about  1690.  The  life-boat  was 
first  suggested  at  South  Shields ;  and  one  was  built  by  Mr.  Greathead,  the 
inventor,  and  was  first  put  to  sea,  Jan.  30,  1790. 

BOCCACCIO'S  BOOK,  IL,  DECAMERONE,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  stories  or 
novels,  not  of  moral  tendency :  feigned  to  have  been  related  in  ten  days,  and, 
as  is  said  by  Petrarch,  "possessing  many  charms."  A  copy  of  the  first 
edition  (that  of  Valdafer,  in  1471)  was  knocked  down,  at  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burgh's sale,  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  for  £2260,  June  17,  1812.  This 
identical  copy  was  afterwards  sold,  by  public  auction,  for  875  guineas, 
June  5,  1819. 

BCEOTIA.  the  country  of  which  Thebes  was  the  capital.  Thebes  was  equally 
celebrated  for  its  antiquity,  its  grandeur,  and  the  exploits  and  misfortunes 
of  its  kings  and  heroes.  The  country  was  known  successively  as  Aonia, 
Messapia,  Hyantis,  Ogygia.  Cadmeis,  and  Boeotia ;  and  it  gave  birth  to  Pin- 
dar, Hesiod,  Plutarch,  D*-mocritus,  Epaininondas,  and  the  accomplished 
and  beautiful  Corinna. 


BOI 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES, 


263 


BCEOTIA  continued. 

Arrival  of  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cad- 
mea  •  •  •  B.  c.  1493 

Reign  of  Polydore  -  -  -  1459 

Labdacus  ascends  the  throne          -        1430 

Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebes, 
and  dethrone  Laius  •  -  - 1388 

CEdipus,  not  knowing  his  father  La'ius, 
kills  him  in  an  afiray,  confirming  the 
oracle  as  to  his  death  by  the  hands  of 
his  sou  .....  1276 

CEdipus  encounters  the  Sphinx,  and  re- 
solves her  enigmas  -  -  1266 

War  of  the  Seven  Captains       -  - 1225 


Thebes  besieged  and  taken  -  B.  c.  1216 

Thersander  reigns  in  Thebes     -  -  1215 

The  Thebans  abolish  royalty,  and  ages 
of  obscurity  follow  -  -  -  1126 

Battle  of  Chjeronea,  in  which  the  The- 
bans defeat  the  Athenians  -  -  44? 

Epaminondas  defeats  the  Lacedemo- 
nians at  Leuctra,  restores  his  country 
to  independence,  and  puts  it  in  a  con- 
dition to  dictate  to  the  rest  of  Greece  371 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  defeats  the  The- 
bakis  and  Athenians,  near  CliKronea  -  338 


Here  the  greatness  of  this  country  ends.  Alexander  destroyed  Thebes,  the 
capital,  335  B.  c.,  when  the  house  of  Pindar  alone  was  left  standing,  and  all 
the  inhabitants  were  either  killed  or  sold  as  slaves. — Strabo. 

BOGS.  Commonly  the  remains  of  fallen  forests,  covered  with  peat  and  loose 
soil.  Moving  bogs  are  slips  of  land  carried  to  lower  levels  by  accumulated 
water.  Acts  relating  to  Ireland,  for  their  drainage,  passed,  March,  1830 
The  bog-land  of  Ireland  has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  acres ;  that  of  Scot- 
land, at  upwards  of  2,000,000 ;  and  that  of  England,  at  near  1,000,000  of  acres. 

BOH,  a  fierce  barbarian  general,  son  of  Odin,  lived  60  B.  c.  The  exclamation 
of  his  name  petrified  his  enemies,  and  is  yet  used  to  frighten  children. 

BOHEMIA.  This  country  was  originally  governed  by  dukes:  the  title  of  king 
was  obtained  from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  The  kings  at  first  held  their 
territory  of  the  Empire,  but  they  at  length  threw  off  the  yoke  :  the  crown 
was  elective  till  it  came  into  the  house  of  Axistria,  in  which  it  is  now  here- 
ditary.— See  Germany. 


The  Sc'.avonians,  seizing  Bohemia,  are 
ruled  by  dukes  -  -  A.  D.  550 

City  of  Prague  founded     -  •       -    795 

Introduction  of  Christianity      -  -   894 

Bohemia  conquered  by  the  emperor 
Henry  III.,  who  spreads  devastation 
through  the  country  -  -  - 1041 

The  regal  title  is  conferred  on  Uratislas, 
ths  first  king  ....  1061 

The  regal  title  is  farther  confirmed  to 
Ottoacre  I.  -  -  -  -  - 1199 

Reign  of  Ottoacre  II.,  who  carries  his 
arms  into  Prussia  ...  1258 

Ottoa;re,  refusing  to  do  homage  to  the 
emperor  Rodolphus,  is  by  him  van- 
quished,  and  deprived  of  Austria, 
Styria,  and  Carniola  -  -  -  1282 

In  the  reign  of  Winceslas  III.  mines  of 
silver  are  first  discovered,  and  agri- 
culture is  encouraged  and  improved 
(et  sea.)  ....  1284 

Winceslas  IV.  becoming  odious  for  his 

vices,  is  assassinated        -  -      - 1305 

John,  count  of  Luxemburgh,  is  choeen 

to  succeed        ....  1310 
Silesia  is  made  a  province  of  Bohemia  1342 
King  John  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecj 
fought  with  the  English    -  •         346 


John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two 
of  the  first  Reformers,  are  burnt  for 
heresy,  which  occasions  an  insurrec- 
tion ;  when  Sigismund,  who  betrayed 
them,  is  deposed,  and  the  Imperialists 
are  driven  from  the  kingdom  1415  &  1416 
Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the 
daughter  of  the  late    emperor  and 
king,  and  receives  the  crowns  of  Bo- 
hemia and  Hungary         -  -        1417 
The  succession  infringed  by  Ladislas, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and  George 
Podiebrad,  a  protestant  chief  1440  to  1458 
Ladislas  VI.,  king  of  Poland,  elected 
king  of  Bohemia,  on  the  death  of  Po- 
diebrad   -                    -           -  -1471 
The    emperor    Ferdinand  I.    marries 
Anns,  sister  of  Louis  the  late  king, 
and  obtains  the  crown           -  •  1527 
The  elector  palatine  Frederick  is  driven 

from  Bohemia        -  -  -     - 1618 

The  crown  is  secured  to  the  Austrian 

1643 
1742 
1744 
1757 
1775 
1806 


family  by  the  treaty  of 
Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia 
Prague  taken  by  the  Prussians     • 
The  memorable  siege  of  Prague 
Revolt  of  the  peasantry 
The  French  occupy  Prague 
See  Germany. 

BOILING  TO  DEATH.  A  capital  punishment  in  England,  by  statute  23  Henry 
VIII.,  1532.  This  act  was  occasioned  by  seventeen  persons  having  been 
poisoned  by  Rouse,  the  bishop  of  Rochester's  cook,  when  the  offence  of 
poisoning  was  made  treason,  and  it  was  enacted  to  to  be  punished  by  boil- 
ing the  criminal  to  death  !  Margaret  Davie,  a  young  woman.. suffered  in  th« 
same  manner  for  a  similar  crime,  in  1541. 


264  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BOO 

BOLOGNA.  Distinguished  for  its  many  rare  and  magnificent  specimens  of 
architecture.  Its  ancient  and  celebrated  university  was  founded  by  Theo- 
dosius,  A.  D.  433.  Pope  Julius  II.,  after  besieging  and  taking  Bologna,  made 
his  triumphal  entry  into  it  with  a  pomp  and  magnificence  by  no  means  fitting 
(as  Erasmus  observes)  for  the  vicegerent  of  the  meek  Redeemer.  Nov.  10, 
1506.  Here,  in  the  church  of  St.  Patronius,  which  is  remarkable  for  its 
pavement.  Cassini  drew  his  meridian  line,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Taken  by  the  French,  .  7% ;  by  the  Austrians,  1799 ;  again  by  the 
French,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800;  restored  to  the  pope  in  1815 
Austrians  expelled  by  the  people.  August  8,  1848. 

BOMBAY,  INDIA.  Given  as  part  of  the  marriage-portion  of  the  princess  Cath- 
erine of  Portugal,  on  her  marriage  with  Charles  II..  1661.  Granted  by  Wil- 
liam III.  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1688,  and  it  now  forms  one  of  the 
three  presidencies.  An  awful  fire  raged  here,  and  a  number  of  lives  were 
lost.  Feb.  27,  1803.— See  India. 

BOMBS,  invented  at  Venlo,  in  1495,  but  according  to  some  authorities  near  a 
century  after.  They  came  into  general  use  in  1634.  having  been  previously 
used  only  in  the  Dutch  and  Spanish  armies.  Bomb-vessels  were  invented  in 
France,  in  1681. —  Voltaire.  The  Shrapnel  shell  is  a  bomb  filled  with  balls, 
and  a  lighted  fuse  to  make  it  explode  before  it  reaches  the  enemy ;  a  thirteen* 
inch  bomb-shell  weighs  198  Ibs. 

BONDAGE,  OR  VILLANAGE,  was  enforced  under  William  I.  A  villain  in 
ancient  times  meant  a  peasant  enslaved  by  his  lord.  A  release  from  this 
species  of  servitude  was'  ordered  on  the  manors  of  Elizabeth,  in  1574.  See 
Villain. 

BONE-SETTING.  This  branch  of  the  art  of  surgery  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  practised  scientifically  until  1620,  before  which  time  it  was  rather  im- 
perfectly understood. — Bell.  The  celebrity  obtained  by  a  practitioner  at 
Paris,  about  1600,  led  to  the  general  study  of  bone-setting  as  a  science 
—  f'reind's  Hist  of  Physic. 

BOOKS.  Ancient  books  were  originally  boards,  or  the  inner  bark  of  trees ;  and 
bark  is  still  used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins,  for  which  latter  parch- 
ment was  substituted.  Papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant,  was  adopted  in  that 
country.  Books  whose  leaves  were  vellum,  were  invented  by  Attalus,  king 
of  Pergamus,  about  198  B.  c.,  at  which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls. 
The  MSS.  in  Herculaneum  consist  of  papyrus,  rolled  and  charred,  and  matted 
together  by  the  fire,  and  are  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a  separate  treatise.  The  Pentateuch  of 
Moses,  and  the  history  of  Job,  are  the  most  ancient  in  the  world ;  and  in 
profane  literature,  the  poems  of  Homer,  though  the  names  of  others  still 
more  ancient  are  preserved. 

BOOKS,  PRICKS  OF.  Jerome  states  that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy 
of  the  works  of  Origen.  A  large  estate  was  given  for  one  on  cosmography, 
by  Alfred,  about  A.  D.  872.  The  Roman  de  la  Rose  was  sold  for  above  30/.; 
and  a  Homily  was  exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  quarters  of  wheat;  and 
they  usually  fetched  double  or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold  at 
prices  varying  from  101.  to  40/.  each,  in  1400.  In  our  own  times,  the  value 
of  some  volumes  is  very  great.  A  copy  of  Macklin's  Bible,  ornamented  by 
Mr.  Tomkitis.  has  been  declared  worth  500  guineas. — Butter,  A  yet  more 
superb  copy  is  at  present  insured  in  a  London  office  for  3:000^. —  Times.  II 
DccamcroHC  of  Boccacio,  edition  of  1471.  was  bought  at  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burgh's sale  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  for  2260/..  June  17.  1812. — Phillips 
A  copy  of  the  "  Mazarin  Bible  "  being  the  first  edition  and  first  book  ever 
printed  (byGuttemberg  at  Mentz  in  1465)  was  sold  at  auction  in  London 


BOOJ  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  265 

in  April  1846  for  50%    This  copy,  the  only  one  known  to  exist  except  19 
in  public  libraries,  is  now  in  a  private  library  in  New  York. 

BOOKS,  PRINTED.  The  first  printed  books  were  trifling  hymns  and  psalters,  and 
being  printed  only  on  one  side,  the  leaves  were  pasted  back  to  back.  The 
first  printing  was.  as  a  book,  the  Book  of  Psalms,  by  Faust  and  Schaeffer,  his 
son-in-law.  Aug.  14,  1457.  Several  works  were  printed  many  years  before ; 
but  as  the  inventors  kept  the  secret  to  themselves,  they  sold  their  h'rst  printed 
works  as  manuscripts.  This  gave  rise  to  an  adventure  that  brought  calamity 
on  Faust ;  he  began  in  1450  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was  linished  in 
1460.  See  article  Devil  and  Dr.  faustus.  The  second  printed  was  Ciozfo  (It 
Officiis.  1466. — Bkiir.  The  first  book  printed  in  England  was  Tlte  Game  and 
Play  of  the  C/iesse,  by  Caxton,  1474.  The  first  in  Dublin  was  the  Liturgy, 
.in  1550.  The  first  classical  work  printed  in  Russia  was  Corn.  Nepotis  Vitce, 
in  1762.  Ludan's  Dialog-ties  was  the  first  Greek  book  printed  in  America 
(at  Philadelphia),  1789.  Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were  all  de- 
stroyed in  England  as  being  infected  with  magic,  6  Edward  VI.  1552. — 
Stotce's  Chronicles. 

The  above  is  from  Haydn;  but  according  to  Pettigrew,  (Biblio.  Sussex.) 
the  first  book  printed  with  movable  types  was  the  Latin  Bible,  printed  by 
John  Guttemberg  at  Mayence,  about  1455.  It  was  in  two  folio  volumes ; 
and  so  excellent  was  the  workmanship,  both  in  type,  ink,  paper,  and  press- 
work,  that  it  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  since.  The  succeeding  editions 
for  200  years  were  much  inferior.  This  edition  is  called  the  Mazarin  Bible, 
as  a  copy  was  first  found  in  the  library  of  cardinal  Mazarin.  Only  20  copies 
are  now  known  to  exist — all  but  one  being  in  public  libraries  in  Europe. 
[See  previous  article.]  Specimens  of  the  block  books,  printed  with  engraved 
wooden  blocks,  instead  of  type,  are  now  very  rare.  Of  the  Biblia  Pauperum, 
done  in  this  way,  only  two  copies  exist,  one  of  which  belongs  to  a  citizen  of 
New  York. 

BOOK-BINDING.  The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  earliest  ornamented  book,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  bound  about  A.  D.  650.  A  Latin  Psalter  in  oak  boards 
was  bound  in  the  ninth  century.  A  MS.  copy  of  the  four  evangelists,  the 
book  on  which  Eng.  kings  from  Henry  I.  to  Edward  VI.  took  their  coronation 
oath,  was  bound  in  oaken  boards,  nearly  an  inch  thick.  A.  D.  1100.  Velvet 
was  the  covering  in  the  fourteenth  century ;  and  silk  soon  after.  Vellum 
was  introduced  early  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  it  was  stamped  and  orna- 
mented about  1510.  Leather  came  into  use  about  the  same  time.  Cloth 
binding  superseded  the  common  boards,  generally,  about  1831.  Caoutchouc, 
or  India-rubber  backs  to  account-books  and  large  volumes  introduced  1841. 

BOOK-KEEPING.  The  system  by  double-entry,  called  originally  Italian  book- 
keeping, was  taken  from  the  course  of  algebra  which  was  published  by 
Burgo,  at  Venice,  then  a  great  commercial  stale,  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  was  made  known  in  England  by  James  Peele,  who  published  his  Book- 
keeping  in  1569. — Anderson. 

BOOK  TRADE  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany.  The  number  of  new 
works  published  in  successive  years  is  thus  stated : 


Gt.  Brit.    France.  Germany. 

1S28       -         842       -      —  -      5,654 

1830       -       1,142       .      —  .      5,9-26 

1834       -      1,220       -      —  -      6,074 


Gt.  Brit.    France.     Germany 
1836       .      1.332       •      —        .      7,891 

1849  -         —         -      —        .        — 

1850  .         —         .    7.20S      -        — 


The  number  of  printed  books  received  from  1814  to  1847  inclusive,  under 
the  copyright  acts,  from  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  amount  tc 
56.474,  or  1681  each  year. 

England. — The  whole  number  of  books  printed  in  England  during  14  years. 
from  166G  to  1680,  was  3,550;    equal  to  253  yearly;— but  deducting  th« 
12 


266  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BOO 

reprints,  pamphlets,  single  sermons,  and  maps,  the  annual  average  of  new 
books  may  be  computed  at  much  less  than  100. 

The  number  of  new  works,  exclusive  of  "all  pamphlets  and  other  tracts," 
issued  during  56  years,  as  appears  from  a  "  Complete  Catalogue  of  Modern 
Books  published  from  the  beginning  of  the  century  (1700)  to  1756,"  waa 
5.280 ;  equal  to  a  yearly  average  of  94. 

The  number  of  new  works,  exclusive  of  reprints  and  pamphlets,  issued 
during  eleven  years,  from  1792  to  1802  inclusive,  was  4,096  ;  equal  to  372 
each  year. 

The  number  of  new  publications  issued  in  27  years,  from  1800  to  1827,  in- 
cluding reprints  altered  in  size  and  price,  but  excluding  pamphlets,  was. 
according  to  the  London  Catalogue,  19,860 : — deducting  one  fifth  for  reprints, 
we  have  15,888,  equal  to  588  each  year. 

Mr.  McCulloch  estimates  the  number  of  volumes  of  new  publicaf  ions  pro- 
duced annually  in  Great  Britain  (exclusive  of  reprints,  pamphlets,  and 
periodical  publications  not  in  volumes)  at  about  1,500 ;  and  the  average 
impression  of  each  volume  at  750  copies; — annual  total.  1,125  000  volumes: 
— value  at  9s.  a  volume,  .£506  250.  "  The  number  of  reprinted  volumes, 
particularly  of  school-books,  is  very  great;  and  if  to  these  we  add  the 
reviews,  magazines,  pamphlets,  and  all  other  publications,  exclusive  of  news- 
papers, the  total  publication  value  of  the  new  works  of  all  sorts,  and  new 
copies  of  old  works  that  are  annually  produced,  may  be  estimated  at  about 
.£750,000." 

France. — The  activity  of  the  French  press  has  been  very  greatly  increased 
since  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  The  count  Daru,  in  a  very  instructive 
work  (Notions  Statistiques  sur  la  Librarie},  published  in  1827,  estimated  the 
number  of  printed  sheets,  exclusive  of  newspapers,  produced  by  the  French 
press  in  1816  at  66  852  883 ;  and  in  1825,  at  128,011,483;  and  we  believe 
that  the  increase  from  1825  down  to  the  present  period  has  been  little  if  any 
thing  inferior. 

The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1837,  as  stated  by  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly 
review,"  there  were  printed  in  France,  3.413  works,  in  French  and  other 
languages ;  also  571  engravings  and  lithographs. 

Germany. — The  book-trade  of  Germany  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  book- 
fairs  held  at  Leipsic  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas,  which  are  attended  by  the 
booksellers  of  Germany,  and  by  many  of  those  of  the  neighboring  countries, 
as  France,  Switzerland.  Denmark,  &c.  This  trade  began  to  flourish  in  1814 ; 
the  number  of  works  then  annually  offered  for  sale  was  about  2,000 ;  but 
the  number  has  been  gradually  increasing,  having  for  the  first  time  exceeded 
6,000  in  1827;  and  it  now  exceeds  7,000. 

"  An  Augsburg  paper  states,"  (says  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,"  1836,) 
"  that,  on  a  moderate  calculation,  10,000,000  of  volumes  are  annually  printed 
in  Germany,  and  as  every  half-yearly  fair  catalogue  contains  the  names  of 
more  than  1  000  German  writers,  it  may  be  assumed,  that  there  are  now 
living  upwards  of  50  000  persons  who  have  written  one  or  more  books  The 
total  value  of  all  the  books  published  annually  in  Germany  is  estimated 
from  6  to  6  000,000  dollars." 

Russia.— In  the  year  1836,  674  original  works,  and  124  translations  were 
published  in  Russia,  exclusive  of  46  periodicals. 

Sweden. — There  are  only  28  or  30  printing  presses  in  Sweden ;  10  in  Stock- 
holm 3  in  Gottenburg,  2  in  Upsal,  2  in  Norkoping.  and  1  in  several  otler 
places. 

BOOK-TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.    The  number  of  new  works  wh-cb 
appeared  in  the  United  States,  in  1834  and  1835,  amounted  to  1,013,  forming 


DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  261 

1,300  volumes  and  the  cost  of  which  may  be  estimated  at  $1.220,vXX).  la 
1836.  the  number  was  considerably  increased,  and  the  cost  of  the  books 
published  in  that  year  cannot  be  computed  at  less  than  $  1,500  000.  Boston, 
New  York.  Philadelphia,  and  Hartford  furnished  19  20ths  of  the  amount. 
Another  statement  for  the  years  1833, 1834,  and  1835,  is  as  follows :  —originals 
1,030.  reprints,  854 ;  total,  1,884 ;— number  of  volumes  printed  (1,000  for 
each  edition),  1,884,000. 

In  most  cases  the  editions  of  one  and  the  same  work  are  larger  and  more 
frequent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country.  IVlany  reprinted 
English  works  have  here  passed  three  or  four  editions,  while  the  publishers 
of  the  original  in  England  have  but  one.  In  one  instance,  the  sale  ;f  a 
book  in  America  amounted  to  100.000  copies,  whereas  in  England  only  four 
editions,  of  1,000  copies  each,  were  disposed  of. 

The  amount  of  literary  productions  in  America  has  more  than  doubled 
during  the  last  ten  years.  The  sales  of  five  book-selling  establishments 
amounted  in  1836,  to  8  1,350,000. 

The  following  statement  will  show  the  relative  proportion  of  native  and  im- 
ported literary  productions  in  1834 : 

Original.    Reprint. 


Education  73  9 

Divinity  37  18 

Novels  and  Tales          •  19  95 

History  and   Biography  •    19  17 

Jurisprudence        -  -  20 


'.Jrtginal.  Reprint. 

Poetry       -  •     -         -    i  3 

Travels          .  -  -  8  -        10 

Fine  Arts  -  -  8  -         0 

Miscellaneous  works  59  •       43 

3 

Thus  it  appears  in  American  literature  the  scientific  and  practically  useful 
predominate,  and  that  works  of  imagination  are  chiefly  derived  from 
foreign  sources.  The  school-books  are  almost  all  written  or  compiled  in  the 
United  States ;  and  some  idea  of  the  extensive  business  done  in  them  may 
be  formed  from  the  circumstance,  that,  of  some  of  the  most  popular  com- 
pilations in  geography,  from  100.000  to  300  000  copies  have  been  sold  in  ten 
years ;  so  that,  in  many  instances,  works  of  this  kind  produce  a  permanent 
income,  as  well  to  the  author  as  the  publisher.  During  the  last  five  years, 
the  number  of  American  original  works  in  proportion  to  reprints,  has  nearly 
doubled. 

[The  preceding  paragraph  is  derived  from  statistics  in  trie  Booksellers'  Advertiser,  edited  by 
G.  P.  Putnam,  New  York,  1835.  Since  then,  no  complete  register  has  been  kept  of  publi 
cations  in  successive  years :  but  the  following  list  is  compiled  from  the  semi-monthly  register 


AMERICAN  PUBLICATIONS — January  to  June,  1849. 

Original.    Reprint.  \  Original.    Reprint. 


Education 

Divinity    -           -  -25 

Novels  and  Tales  -           18 

History      -           -  -     20 

Biography  15 


Travels      -  -  -     21       -         7 

Metaphysics    •  3-8 


7 

25 

28      1  Miscellaneous        •  -25-10 

12        Law  ) 

Juvenile      >  not  ascertained. 


0 


Periodical 


11 

For  six  months    -    200      -       128 
Total,  328. 


Political  Economy  • 

Medicine  12 

Science        -           -  -11-9 

Poetry             -  -           11-6 

The  number  of  new  publications  for  the  year  1849  would  thus  be  656,  exclu- 
sive of  law  and  juvenile  books,  and  occasional  pamphlets  and  periodicals. 

BOOTS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the  Carians,  and  were 
made  of  iron,  brass,  or  leather ;  of  the  last  material  some  time  after  their 
invention,  boots  were  known  to  the  Greeks,  for  Homer  mentions  them  about 
907  B.  c. 

BORODINO  OR  MOSKWA,  BATTLE  OF.  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  in  the 
records  of  the  world,  fought  Sept.  7, 1812,  between  the  French  and  Russians: 
commanded  on  the  one  side  by  Nipoleon,  and  on  the  other  by  Kutusoff, 


268  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 

2-40,000  men  being  engaged.  Each  party  claimed  the  victory,  because  the 
loss  of  the  other  was  so  immense ;  but  it  was  rather  in  favor  of  Napoleon, 
for  the  Russians  subsequently  retreated,  leaving  Moscow  to  its  fate.  The 
road  being  thus  left  open,  the  French  entered  Moscow,  Sept.  14.  with  little 
opposition.  But  a  signal  reverse  of  fortune  now  took  place,  which  preserved 
the  Russian  empire  from  ruin,  and  paved  the  way  to  the  downfall  of  the 
French  military  power  over  Europe.  See  Moscow. 

BOROUGH.  Anciently  a  company  of  ten  families  living  together.  The  term 
has  been  applied  to  such  towns  as  send  members  to  parliament,  since  the 
election  of  burgesses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  1265.  Burgesses  were  first 
admitted  into  the  Scottish  parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326 — and  into  the 
Irish,  1365. 

BOROUGH  ENGLISH.  This  was  an  ancient  tenure  by  which  the  younger  son 
inherits.  Its  origin  is  thus  explained :  in  feudal  times  the  lord  is  said  to 
have  claimed  the  privilege  of  spending  the  first  night  with  the  vassal's  bride, 
and  on  such  occasions  the  land  was  made  to  descend  to  the  next  son,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  supposed  illegitimacy  of  the  elder.  This  kind  of  tenure  is 
mentioned  as  occurring  A.  D.  834.  It  existed  in  Scotland,  but  was  abolished 
by  Malcolm  III.  in  1062.— Haydn. 

BOSPHORUS,  now  called  Circassia.  The  history  of  this  kingdom  is  involved 
in  obscurity,  though  it  continued  for  530  years.  It  was  named  Cimmerian, 
from  the  Cimmeri,  who  dwelt  on  its  borders.  The  descendants  of  Archean- 
actes  of  Mytilene  settled  in  this  country,  but  they  were  dispossessed  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Spartacus.  in  438  B.  c.  Mithridates  conducted  a  pris- 
oner to  Rome,  by  Claudius,  and  his  kingdom  soon  afterwards  made  a  pro- 
vince of  the  empire.  A.  D.  40.  The  strait  of  the  Bosphorus  was  closed  by  the 
Turks,  Sept.  8.  1828.  It  was  blockaded  by  the  Russian  squadron  under  ad- 
miral.Greig,  Dec.  81,  same  year.  See  Dardanelles. 

BOSTON,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  founded  in  August  1630.  Here  com- 
menced the  American  Revolution.  British  soldiers  fired  on  the  people.  1770. 
The  celebrated  "Tea-party"  here,  took  place  1773.  The  port  closed  by  par- 
liament 1774.  British  army  evacuated  Boston  in  March  1776.  [See  Lexing- 
ton and  Bunker  Hill.}  The  cause  of  American  freedom  was  nowhere  more 
actively  sustained  than  by  the  people  of  Boston.  Benjamin  Franklin  was 
born  here,  Jan.  17;  1706.  John  Hancock,  the  first  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  a  Bostonian.  Boston  incorporated  as  a  city,  1822. 
Population  in  1700,  7000;  in  1790,  18038;  in  1810,  33.250;  in  1820.  43,298; 
in  1830,  61,391 ;  in  1845,  114,366.  Tonnage  of  vessels  in  1840,  220;243  tons. 

BOSWORTH  FIELD,  BATTLE  OP,  the  thirteenth  and  last  between  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  in  which  Richard  III.  was  defeated  by  the  earl  ot 
Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII..  the  former  being  slain,  Aug.  22.  1485. 
The  crown  of  Richard  was  found  in  a  hawthorn  bush,  on  the  plain  where  the 
battle  was  fought,  and  Henry  was  so  impatient  to  be  crowned,  that  he  had 
the  ceremony  performed  on  the  spot  with  that  very  crown.  In  the  civil  con- 
tests  between  the  "  Roses,"  many  of  the  most  ancient  families  in  the  king- 
dom were  entirely  extinguished,  and  no  less  than  100,000  human  beings  losl 
their  lives. 

BOTANY.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  botany. 
The  Hislaria  Plantarum,  of  Theophrastus,  written  about  820  B.  c.  Authors 
on  botany  are  numerous  from  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  to  the  close  of 
the  15th  century,  when  the  science  became  better  understood.  The  study 
was  advanced  by  Fuchsius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Caesalpinus,  and  others,  between 
1635  and  1600. — Mdchior  Adam.  The  system  and  arrangement  of  Linnaeus, 
the  fiist  botanist  of  modern  times,  made  known  about  1750.  Jussieu's  ay* 


100]  DICTIONARY   OP   DATES.  269 

tern,  in  1758.  At  the  time  of  Linnaeus's  death,  A.  D.  1778,  the  species  of 
plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number  to  11.800.  The  number  of 
species  of  all  denominations  now  recorded  cannot  fall  short  of  100.000. 

BOTANY  BAY,  originally  fixed  on  for  a  colony  of  convicts  from  Great  Britain. 
The  first  governor,  Phillips,  who  sailed  from  England  in  May,  1787,  arrived 
at  the  settlement  in  January,  1788.  The  bay  had  been  discovered  by  cap- 
tain Cook  in  1770,  and  the  place  took  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of 
herbs  which  abounded  on  the  shore.  The  colony  was  fixed  at  Port  Jackson, 
about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of  the  bay.  See  New  South  Woks  and 
Transportation. 

BOTTLES,  of  glass,  were  first  made  in  England,  about  1568.— See  Glass.  The 
art  of  making  glass  bottles  and  drinking  glasses  was  known  to  the  Romans 
at  least  before  79  A.  D.,  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have  been  found 
in  the  Ruins  of  Pompeii.  A  bottle  which  contained  two  hogsheads  was 
blown,  we  are  told,  at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  in  January,  1747-8. 

BOULOGNE,  FRANCE.  Taken  by  the  British  in  1542,  but  restored  to  France 
upon  the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  attacked  Boulogne,  disabling  ten  vessels, 
and  sinking  five.  Aug.  3,  1801.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  made  a  descent  here 
with  about  fifty  followers,  Aug.  6,  1840. — See  next  article  and  France. 

BOULOGNE  FLOTILLA.  This  celebrated  armament  against  England  excited 
much  attention  for  some  years,  but  the  grand  demonstration  was  made  in 
1804.  In  that  year,  Bonaparte  had  assembled  160.000  men  and  10  000  horses, 
and  a  flotilla  of  1300  vessels  and  17  000  sailors  to  invade  England.  The 
coasts  of  Kent  and  Sussex  were  covered  with  martello  towers  and  lines  of 
defence ;  and  nearly  half  the  adult  population  of  Britain  was  formed  into 
volunteer  corps.  It  is  supposed  that  this  French  armament  served  merely 
for  a  demonstration,  and  that  Bonaparte  never  seriously  intended  the  inva- 
sion. 

BOUNDARY  QUESTIONS,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Award  of  the  king  of  the 
Netherlands  on  the  boundary  between  Maine  and  the  British  possessions, 
Jan.  10,  1831  (rejected  by  both  parties).  Collisions  between  the  people  of 
Maine  and  New  Brunswick  in  the  disputed  territory  on  the  Aroostock,  1838-9, 
suspended  by  a  mutual  agreement  between  sir  J.  Harvey,  Governor  of  New 
Brunswick,  governor  Fairfield,  of  Maine,  and  general  Scott,  of  the  U.  S. 
army.  March  21,  1839.  This  boundary  settled  by  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton, 1842.  Oregon  boundary — 49th  parallel  agreed  upon  as  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States,  in  Oregon,  by  treaty  signed  at  Washington, 
June  1846. 

BOUNTIES.  They  were  first  granted  on  the  exportation  of  British  commodi- 
ties— a  new  principle  introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament. 
The  first  bounties  granted  on  corn,  were  in  1688.  First  legally  granted  in 
England  for  raising  naval  stores  in  America,  1703.  Bounties  have  been 
granted  on  sail-cloth,  linen,  and  other  goods. — Elements  of  Commerce. 

BOUNTY,  MUTINEERS  OF  THE  SHIP.  Memorable  mutiny  on  board  the  Bounty, 
armed  ship  returning  from  Otaheite,  with  bread-fruit.  The  mutineers  put 
their  captain,  Bligh,  and  nineteen  men  into  an  open  boat,  near  Annamooka, 
one  of  the  Friendly  Islands.  April  28,  1789,  and  they  reached  the  Island  of 
Timor,  south  of  the  Moluccas,  in  June,  after  a  perilous  voyage  of  nearly 
4000  miles,  in  which  their  preservation  was  next  to  miraculous.  The  muti 
neers  were  tried  Sept.  15,  1792,  when  six  were  condemned,  of  whom  three 
were  executed.  See  Pitcairn's  Island. 

BOURBON,  HOUSE  or.  Anthony  de  Bourbon  was  the  chief  of  the  branch  of 
Bourbon,  so  called  from  a  fief  of  that  name  which  fell  to  them  by  marriage 
with  the  heiress  of  the  estate.  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Navarre,  justl; 


270  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  EOT 

styled  the  Great,  was  son  of  Anthony,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1589.  The 
crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a  younger  branch  of  this  family,  and  guaran- 
teed by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  1713. — Rapin.  The  Bourbon  Family  Compact 
took  place.  1761.  The  Bourbons  were  expelled  France,  1791.  and  were 
restored,  1814.  Re-expelled,  and  again  restored,  1815.  The  elder  branch 
was  expelled  once  more,  in  the  persons  of  Charles  X.  and  his  family  in  1830, 
a  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  the  memorably  days  of  July  in  that 
year. — See  France. 

30URBON,  ISLE  OF,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1545.  The  French 
first  settled  here  in  1672,  and  built  several  towns.  The  island  surrendered 
to  the  British,  July  2,  1810.  It  is  near  the  Isle  of  France,  and  the  two  are 
styled  the  Mauritius.  There  occurred  an  awful  hurricane  here  in  February 
1829,  by  which  immense  mischief  was  done  to  the  shipping,  and  in  the 
Island.  See  Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX  (or  BORDEAUX)  was  united  to  the  dominions  of  Henry  II.  of 
England ,  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  brought  his  royal  captive,  John,  king  of  France,  to  this  city  after  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356,  and  here  held  his  court  during  eleven  years :  his  son, 
Richard  II.,  (of  Eng.)  was  born  at  Bourdeaux,  in  1362.  The  fine  equestrian 
statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  erected  in  1743.  Bourdeaux  was  entered  by  the 
victorious  British  army,  after  the  battle  of  Orthes,  fought  Feb.  25,  1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS  a  sect  founded  by  Madame  Antoinette  Bourignon,  a  fanatic, 
who,  in  1658,  took  the  habit  of  St.  Augustin,  and  travelled  into  France, 
Holland,  England,  and  Scotland.  In  the  last  she  made  a  strong  party  and 
some  thousands  of  sectarists.  about  1670.  She  maintained  that  Christianity 
does  not  consist  in  faith  or  practice,  but  in  an  inward  feeling  and  supernatu- 
ral impulse.  This  visionary  published  a  book  entitled  the  Light  of  the 
World,  in  which,  and  in  several  other  works,  she  maintained  and  taught  her 
pernicious  notions.  A  disciple  of  hers,  named  Court,  left  her  a  good  estate. 
She  died  in  1680. 

BOWLS,  OR  BOWLING,  an  English  game,  played  as  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  once  in  great  repute  among  the  higher  ranks.  Charles  I. 
played  at  it.  It  formed  a  daily  share  in  the  diversions  of  Charles  II.,  at 
Tunbridge. — Memoircs  de  Grammont. 

BOWS  AND  ARROWS.  See  Archery.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to 
Apollo.  Known  in  England  previous  to  A.  D.  450.  The  use  of  them  was 
a'gain  introduced  into  England  by  the  Conqueror,  1066 ;  and  greatly  encour- 
aged by  Richard  I.,  1190. — Baker's  Chronicle.  The  usual  range  of  the  long- 
bow was  from  300  to  400  yards ;  the  length  of  the  bow  was  six  feet,  and 
the  arrow  three.  Cross-bows  were  fixed  to  a  stock  of  iron  or  wood,  and 
were  discharged  by  a  trigger. 

BOXING,  OR  PRIZE-FIGHTING,  the  pngilatus  of  the  Romans,  and  a  favorite 
sport  with  the  British,  who  possess  an  extraordinary  strength  in  the  arm,  an 
advantage  which  gives  the  British  soldier  great  superiority  in  battles  decid- 
ed by  the  bayonet.  A  century  ago,  boxing  formed  a  regular  exhibition,  and 
a  theatre  was  erected  for  it  in  Tottenham-court — Broughton's  amphitheatre, 
behind  Oxford-road,  built  1742.  Schools  were  opened  in  England  to  teach 
boxing  as  a  science  in  1790.  Owing  to  the  dishonest  practices  in  the  "  ring," 
selling  the  victory,  and  one  combatant  allowing  the  other  to  beat  him,  &c., 
the  fights  have  been  fewer  of  late,  and  the  number  of  the  patrons  of  boxing 
have  declined. 

BOYLE  LECTURES.  Instituted  by  Robert  Boyle  (son  of  the  great  earl  of 
Cork),  an  exceedingly  good  man  and  philosopher,  distinguished  by  his 
eenius  virtues,  and  unbounded  benevolence.  He  instituted  eight  lecturea 
fa  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  were  delivered  at  St.  Mary-le- 


BRA  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  271 

Bow  church,  on  the  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  January  to  May,  and 
September  to  November — endowed  1691. 

BOYNE.  BATTLE  OP,  between  king  William  III.  and  his  father-in-law.  James  II., 
fought  July  1,  1690.  The  latter  was  signally  defeated,  his  adherents  losing 
1500  men,  and  the  Protestant  army  about  a  third  of  that  number.  James 
immediately  afterwards  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to  Waterford,  and  escaped  to 
France.  The  duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed  in  the  battle. 

BRABANT.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  A.  D.  620,  and  devolved  upon  Lam- 
bert I.  count  of  Louvain,  in  1005,  and  from  him  descended  to  Philip  II.  of 
Burjnmdy.  and  in  regular  succession  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  In  tho 
seventeenth  century  it  was  held  by  Holland  and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant, 
and  Walloon.  These  provinces  underwent  many  changes  in  most  of  the 
great  wars  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  division  was  taken  by  the  French  174G 
— again  in  1794  by  their  Republic  ;  and  it  now  forms  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium,  under  Leopold,  1831.  See  Belgium. 

BRACELETS.  They  were  early  worn  and  prized  among  the  ancients ;  we  read 
of  them  in  almost  all  nations ;  those  that  were  called  armilltE  were  usually 
distributed  as  rewards  for  valor  among  the  Roman  legions. — Nouv.  Diet. 
Those  of  pearls  and  gold  were  worn  by  the  Roman  ladies ;  and  armlets  are 
female  ornaments  to  the  present  day. 

BRAGANZA,  HOUSE  OF,  owes  its  elevation  to  royalty  to  a  remarkable  and 
bloodless  revolution  in  Portugal,  A.  D.  1640,  when  the  nation,  throwing  off 
the  Spanish  yoke,  which  had  become  intolerable,  advanced  John,  duke  of 
Braganza,  to  the  throne,  on  which  this  family  continues  to  reign. — Abbt 
Vertot. 

BRAHMINS,  a  sect  of  Indian  philosophers,  reputed  to  be  so  ancient  that  Py- 
thagoras is  thought  to  have  learned  from  theni  his  doctrine  of  the  Metemp- 
sitc/iosis ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  some  of  the  Greek  philosophers  went  to 
India  on  purpose  to  converse  with  them.  The  modern  Brahmins  derive 
their  name  from  Brahme,  one  of  the  three  beings  whom  God,  according  to 
their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose  assistance  he  formed  the  world. 
.They  never  eat  flesh,  and  abstain  from  the  use  of  wine  and  all  carnal  enjoy- 
ments.— Slrabo.  The  modern  Indian  priests  are  still  considered  as  the  de- 
positaries of  the  whole  learning  of  India. — Holwett. 

BRANDENBURGH,  FAMILY  or,  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  historians  say 
it  was  founded  by  the  Sclavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Banber,  which 
signifies  Guard  of  the  Forests.  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  fortified 
Brandenburgh,  A.  D.  923,  to  serve  as  a  rampart  against  the  Huns.  He  be- 
stowed the  government  on  Sifroi,  count  of  Ringelheim,  with  the  title  ol 
Margrave,  which  signifies  protector  of  the  marches  or  frontiers,  in  9£7. 
The  emperor  Sigismund  gave  perpetual  investiture  to  Frederick  IV.  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  was  made  elector  in  1417.  See  Prussia. 

BRAND  YWINE.  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  royalist  forces  and  the  Ameri- 
cans, in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Philadelphia  fell 
to  the  possession  of  the  victors,  September  11,  1777. 

BRASS.  Its  formation  was  prior  to  the  Flood,  and  it  was  discovered  in  the 
seventh  generation  from  Adam. — Bible.  Brass  was  known  among  all  the 
early  nations. —  Us/ier.  The  Britons  from  the  remotest  period  were  acquainted 
with  its  use. —  WhMaker.  When  Lucius  Mumonius  burnt  Corinth  to  tho 
ground,  146  B.  c.,  the  riches  he  found  were  immense,  and  during  the  confla- 
gration, it  is  said,  all  the  metals  in  the  city  melted,  and  running  together, 
formed  the  valuable  composition  since  known  under  the  name  of  Corinth- 
ian Brass.  This,  however,  may  well  be  doubted,  for  the  Corinthian  artists 
bad  long  before  obtained  great  credit  for  their  method  of  combining  gold 


272  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BRB 

and  silver  with  copper ;  and  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  Bible  says,  that 
Hiram  made  the  vessels  for  Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass.  Article! 
made  of  this  brilliant  composition,  though  in  themselves  trivial  and  insig 
nificant,  were  yet  highly  valued. — Du  Fresnoy. 

BRAZIL.  It  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  who  was 
driven  upon  its  coasts  by  a  tempest  in  1500.  He  called  it  the  Land  of  the 
Holy  Cross ;  but  it  was  subsequently  called  Brazil  on  account  of  its  red 
wood,  and  was  carefully  explored  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  about  1504.  Th« 
goldmines  were  first  opened  in  1684;  and  the  diamond  mines  were  discov- 
ered 1730  (see  Diamonds').  The  French  having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807, 
the  royal  family  and  most  of  the  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil.  A  revolution 
took  place  here  in  1821.  Brazil  was  erected  into  an  empire,  when  Don 
Pedro  assumed  the  title  of  emperor,  in  November  1825.  He  abdicated  the 
throne  of  Portugal,  May  2,  1826 ;  and  that  of  Brazil,  in  favor  of  his  infant 
son,  now  emperor,  April  7,  1831,  and  returned  to  Portugal,  where  a  civil 
war  ensued. — See  Portugal. 

BREAD.  Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the 
first  who  taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method 
of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  1998  B.  c. — Univ.  Hisi. 
Baking  of  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal  ages;  see  Exodus  xii.  15. 
Baking  bread  became  a  profession  at  Rome,  170  B.  c.  During  the  siege  of 
Paris  by  Henry  IV.,  owing  to  the  famine  which  then  raged,  bread,  which 
had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for  a  crown  a  pound,  was  at  last  made 
from  the  bones  of  the  charnel-house  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  A.  D.  1594. — 
Renault.  In  the  time  of  James  I.  the  usual  bread  of  the  poor  was  made  of 
barley  ;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made  into  bread ; 
and  the  poor  use  potato-bread  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  Earth  has  been 
eaten  as  bread  in  some  parts  of  the  world :  near  Moscow  is  a  portion  of 
land  whose  clay  will  ferment  when  mixed  with  flour.  The  Indians  of  Lou- 
isiana (1)  eat  a  white  earth  with  salt ;  and  the  Indians  of  the  Oronooko  eat 
<a  white  unctuous  earth. — Greig ;  PkillipsS'tt&t  fcldb  &&**<,  ArH^Hi/wvcvA, 

BREAKWATER  AT  PLYMOUTH.  The  first  stone  of  this  stupendous  work 
was  lowered  in  the  presence  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  multitudes  of  the 
great,  August  12.  1812.  It  was  designed  to  break  the  swell  at  Plymouth, 
and  stretches  5280  feet  across  the  Sound ;  it  is  360  feet  in  breadth  at  the 
bottom,  and  more  than  thirty  at  the  top.  and  consumed  3,666,000  tons  of 
granite  blocks,  from  one  to  five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841 ;  and  cost  a 
million  and  a  half  sterling.  The  architect  was  Rennie.  The  first  stone  of 
the  lighthouse  on  its  western  extremity  was  laid  Feb.  1,  1841. 

BREAST-PLATES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Jason.  937  B.  o.  The 
breast-plate  formerly  covered  the  whole  body,  but  it  at  length  dwindled  in 
the  lapse  of  ages  to  the  diminutive  gorget  of  modern  times.  See  Armor, 

BREDA.  This  city  was  taken  by  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1590 ;  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1625 ;  and  again  by  the  Dutch  in  1637.  Charles  II.  resided 
here  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  1660.  See  Restoration.  Breda  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1793.  and  retaken  by  the  Dutch  the  same  year.  The 
French  garrison  was  shut  out  by  the  burgesses  in  1813,  when  the  pow  er  o/ 
France  ceased  here. 

BREECHES.  Among  the  Greeks,  this  garment  indicated  slavery.  It  was 
worn  by  the  Dacians,  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations ;  and  in  Italy, 
it  is  said,  it  was  worn  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar.  In  the  reign  of  Ho- 
norius,  about  A.  D.  394,  the  braccari,  or  breeches-makers,  were  expelled  front 
Rome ;  but  soon  afterwards  the  use  of  breeches  was  adopted  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  at  length  it  became  general. 


SRI  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  273 

BREMEN,  a  venerable  Hanse  town,  and  duchy,  sold  to  George  I.  as  elector  of 
Hanover,  in  1716.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757 ;  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  Hanoverians  in  1758 ;  and  it  was  again  seized  in  1806.  Bremen 
was  annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  in  1810 ;  but  its  indepen- 
dence was  restored  in  1813.  See  Hanse  Towns. 

RRESLAU,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  the  latter  under 
prince  Severn,  who  was  defeated,  but  the  engagement  was  most  bloody  01? 
both  sides.  Nov  22, 1757,  when  Breslau  was  laken;  but  was  regained  the 
same  year.  This  city  was  for  some  time  besieged  by  the  French,  and  sur- 
rendered to  them  January  5,  1807,  and  again  in  1813. 

BREST.  It  was  besieged  by  Julius  Caesar,  54  B.  c. — possessed  by  the  English. 
A.  D.  1378 — given  up  to  the  duke  of  Brittany,  1391.  Lord  Berkeley  and  » 
British  fleet  and  army  were  repulsed  here  with  dreadful  loss  in  1694. 
The  magazine  burnt,  to  the  amount  of  some  millions  of  pounds  sterling, 
1744.  The  marine  hospitals,  with  fifty  galley-slaves,  burnt,  1766.  The 
magazine  again  destroyed  by  a  fire,  July  10.  1784.  From  this  great  depct 
of  the  French  navy,  numerous  squadrons  were  equipped  against  England 
during  the  late  war. 

RRETHREN  IN  INIQUITY.  The  designation  arose  from  persons  covenanting 
formerly  to  share  each  other's  fortune,  in  any  expedition  to  invade  a  coun- 
try, as  did  Robert  de  Oily  and  Robert  de  I  very,  in  William  I.'s  invasion  of 
England,  1066. 

BRETIGNY,  PEACE  OP,  concluded  with  France  at  Bretigny,  and  by  which  Eng- 
land retained  Gascony  and  Guienne.  acquired  Saintonge.  Agenois,  Perigord, 
Limousin,  Bigorre,  Angoumois,  aud  Rovergne,  and  renounced  her  preten- 
sions to  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Normandy ;  England  was  also  to 
receive  3  000.000  crowns,  and  to  release  king  John,  who  had  been  long 
prisoner  in  London,  May  8,  1360. 

BREVIARIES.  The  breviary  is  a  book  of  mass  and  prayer  used  by  the  church 
of  Rome.  It  was  first  called  the  custos,  and  afterwards  the  breviary ;  and 
both  the  clergy  and  laity  use  it  publicly  and  at  home.  It  was  in  use  among 
the  ecclesiastical  orders  about  A.  D.  108"b  ;  and  was  reformed  by  the  councils 
of  Trent  and  Cologne,  and  by  Pius  V.,  Urban  VIII.,  and  other  popes.  The 
quality  of  type  in  which  the  breviary  was  first  printed  gave  the  name  to  the 
type  called  brevier  at  the  present  day. 

BREWERS.  The  first  are  traced  to  Egypt.  Brewing  was  known  to  our  Anglo 
Saxon  ancestors. —  Tindal.  "One  William  Murle  arichmaultman  or bruer, 
of  Dunstable,  had  two  horses  all  traped  with  gold.  1414." — S'owe.  There 
are  about  1700  public  brewers  in  England,  about  200  in  Scotland,  and  250  *'A 
Ireland :  these  are  exclusively  of  retail  and  intermediate  brewers,  of  which 
there  are  in  England  about  1400 ;  there  are.  besides.  28.000  victuallers,  &c., 
who  brew  their  own  ale.  In  London,  there  are  about  100  wholesale  brewers, 
many  of  them  in  immense  trade.  Various  statutes  relating  to  brewers  and 
the  sale  of  beer  have  been  enacted  from  time  to  time.  See  Beer. 

BRIBERY.  In  England  an  indictable  offence  to  bribe  persons  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  justice.  Thomas  de  Weyland,  a  judge,  was  banished  the 
land  for  bribery,  in  1288 ;  he  was  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas.  Wil- 
liam de  Thorpe,  chief  justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  was  hanged  for  bribery 
in  1351.  Another  judge  was  fined  20,OOOZ.  for  the  like  offence,  1616.  Mr. 
Walpole.  secretary-at-war,  was  sent  to  the  tower  for  bribery  in  1712.  Lord 
Strangford  was  suspended  from  voting  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  for  soli- 
citing a  bribe,  January  1784. 

BRIBERY  AT  ELECTIONS,  as  in  the  preceding  cases,  made  an  indictable 
offence,  Messrs.  Sykos  and  Rumbold  fined  and  imprisoned  for  bribery  at 
12* 


274  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BR./ 

an  election.  March  14,  1776.  An  elector  of  Durham  convicted,  July  1803  ; 
and  several  similar  instances  have  occurred  since. 

BRICKS,  for  building,  were  used  in  the  earliest  times  in  Babylon,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Rome.  Used  in  England  by  the  Romans,  about  A.  D.  44.  Made 
under  the  direction  of  Alfred  the  Great,  about  886. — Saxon  Chron.  The 
size  regulated  by  order  of  Charles  I.  1625.  Taxed,  1784.  The  number  of 
bricks  which  paid  duty  in  England  in  1820  was  949,000,000 ;  in  1830,  the 
number  exceeded  1,100,000,000;  and  in  1840  it  amounted  to  14,000,000,000. 
See  Building. 

BRIDAL  CEREMONIES.  Among  the  more  rational  ceremonies  observed  by 
1  he  ancients,  was  the  practice  of  conducting  the  bride  to  the  house  of  her 
spouse  on  a  chariot,  which  was  afterwards  burned ;  it  originated  with  the 
Thebans,  and  was  intended  as  a  symbol  of  the  bride's  future  dependence  on 
her  husband,  from  whom  there  was  no  chariot  to  convey  her  back  to  her 
parents ;  it  is  mentioned  880  B.  c. 

BRIDEWELL.  Originally  the  name  of  a  royal  palace  of  king  Jot,  n,  near 
Fleet-ditch,  London ;  it  was  built  anew  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1522,  and  was 
given  to  the  city  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  There  are  several  prisons  of  this 
name  throughout  England.  The  first  London  Bridewell  was  in  a  locality 
near  to  Bride's  well;  'but  this  is  no  reason,  as  is  justly  observed,  why  simi- 

.      lar  prisons,  not  in  a  similar  locality,  should  have  this  name. 

BRIDGES.  So  early  and  general,  and  the  expedients  for  their  construction  so 
various,  their  origin  cannot  be  traced  ;  they  were  first  of  wood.  The  ancient 
bridges  in  China  are  of  great  magnitude,  and  were  built  of  stone.  Abydos 
is  famous  for  the  bridge  of  boats  which  Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont. 
Trajan's  magnificent  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  4770  feet  in  length,  was 
built  in  A.  D.  103.  The  Devil's  bridge  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  so  called  from  its 
frightful  situation,  was  built  resting  on  two  high  rocks,  so  that  it  could 
scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and  many  fabulous  stories  were 
invented  to  account  for  it  At  Shaff  hausen  an  extraordinary  bridge  was 
built  over  the  Rhine,  which  is  there  400  feet  wide :  there  was  a  pier  in  the 
middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  bridge  rested  upon  it ;  a 
man  of  the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  him.  yet  wagons 
heavily  laden  passed  over  without  danger.  This  bridge  was  destroyed  by 
the  French  in  1799.  Suspension  bridge  at  Niagara  Falls  completed  July 
.  29,  1848. 

BRIDGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  ancient  bridges  in  England  were  of  wood,  and 
were  fortified  with  planks  and  merlined ;  the  first  bridge  of  Stone  was  built 
at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  A.  D.  1087.  Westminster  bridge,  then  the  finest 
erected  in  these  realms,  and  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world,  except  in 
China,  was  completed  in  twelve  years,  1750.  The  other  London  bridges  are 
Blackfriars,  completed  1770 ;  London,  (rebuilt)  1831 ;  Southwark,  or  iron, 
1819.  The  first  iron  bridge,  on  a  large  scale,  was  erected  over  the  Severn, 
in  Shropshire,  1779.  The  finest  chain  suspension  bridge  is  that  of  the 
Menai  Strait,  completed  in  1825.  Hungerford  suspension  bridge.  1845. 

BRIDGEWATER  CANAL,  the  first  great  work  of  the  kind  in  England,  was 
begun  by  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  styled  the  father  of  canal  navigation  in 
that  country,  in  1758 :  Mr.  Brindley  was  the  architect.  The  canal  com- 
mences at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from  Manchester ;  and  at  Barton-bridge  is 
an  aqueduct  which,  for  upwards  of  200  yards,  conveys  the  canal  across  the 
navigable  river  Irwell ;  its  length  is  twenty-nine  miles. 

BRIEF.  A  written  instrument  in  the  Catholic  church,  of  early  but  uncertain 
date.  Briefs  are  the  letters  of  the  pope  dispatched  to  princes  and  others  on 
public  affairs,  and  are  usually  written  short,  and  hence  the  name,  and  are 
without  preface  or  preamble,  and  on  paper ;  in  which  particulars  they  are 


BRI 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


275 


distinguished  fiom  bulls.  The  latter  are  ample,  and  always  .vritten  OB 
parchment ;  a  brief  is  sealed  with  red  wax,  the  seal  of  the  fisherman,  or  St 
Peter  in  a  boat,  and  always  in  presence  of  the  pope  ;  they  are  used  for  graces 
and  dispensations,  as  well  as  business. 

DRIENNE,  BATTLE  or,  between  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  and 
the  French,  fought  on  the  1st,  and  resumed  on  the  2d  February,  1814.  The 
allies  were  defeated  with  great  loss  ;  this  was  one  of  the  last  battles  in  which 
the  French  achieved  victory,  previously  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  t 

BRISTOL.  This  city,  one  of  the  principal  in  England,  was  built  by  Brennus 
a  prince  of  the  Britons,  380  B.  c.  It  was  granted  a  charter  and  became  a 
distinct  county  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Taken  by  the  earl  of  Glouces- 
ter, in  his  defence  of  his  sister  Maude,  the  empress,  against  king  Stephen, 
1138.  Bristol  was  attacked  with  great  fury  by  the  forces  of  Cromwell.  1655. 
Riot  at  Bristol,  on  the  entrance  of  sir  Charles  Wetherell,  the  recorder,  into 
the  city,  attended  by  a  large  police  and  special  force,  to  open  the  sessions. 
He  being  politically  obnoxious  to  the  lower  order  of  the  citizens,  a  riot  en- 
sued, which  was  of  several  days'  continuance,  and  which  did  not  terminate 
until  the  mansion-house,  the  bishop's  palace,  several  merchants'  stores,  some 
of  the  prisons  (the  inmates  liberated),  and  nearly  100  houses  were  burned, 
and  many  lives  lost.  Oct.  29,  1831.  Trial  of  the  rioters,  Jan.  2,  1832 ;  four 
were  executed,  and  twenty-two  transported.  Suicide  of  col.  Brereton  during 
his  trial  by  court-martial.  Jan.  9,  same  year. 

BRITAIN.  The  earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the  manu- 
scripts and  poetry  of  the  Cambrians.  The  Celts  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
Britons  and  modern  Welsh,  and  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Bri- 
tain, including  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion, 
the  name  of  Britain  being  applied  to  all  the  islands  collectively — Albion  to 
only  one. — PLiny.  The  Romans  first  invaded  Britain  under  Julius  Caesar, 
65  B.  c.,  but  they  made  no  conquests.  Tho  emperor  Claudius,  and  his  gen- 
erals. Plautius.  Vespasian,  and  Titus,  subdued  several  provinces  after  thirty 
pitched  battles  with  the  natives,  A.  D.  43  and  44.  The  conquest  was  com- 
pleted by  Agricola,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  A.  D.  85. 

Constantius,  emperor  of  Rome,  dies  at 
York  -  -  -  -  A.  D.  306 

The  Roman  forces  are  finally  with- 
drawn from  Britain  -  420  to  426 

The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to 
aid  the  natives  against  their  northern 
neighbors  the  Picts  and  Scots 

Having  expelled  these,  the  Ans'o-Sax- 
ons  "attack  the  natives  themselves, 
driving  them  into  Wales 

Many  of  the  natives  settle  in  Armorica, 
since  called  Brittany  -  -  -  457 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy ;  Britain  divided 
into  seven  kingdoms  -  - 

Reisn  of  the  renowned  Arthur  - 

Arrfval  of  St.  Augtistin  (or  Austin),  and 
establishment  of  Christianity  - 

Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons, 
becan  his  reign  -  -  -  678 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends  -       -    823 

See  England,  and  also  Tabular  Viewa^  p. 
75,  &c. 

That  Britain  formerly  joined  the  Continent  has  been  inferred  from  the  simi- 
lar cliffs  of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  English  Channel,  and  from  the  con- 
stant encroachments  of  the  sea  in  still  widening  the  channel.  For  instance, 
a  large  part  of  the  cliffs  of  Dover  fell,  estimated  at  six  acres,  Nov.  27,  1810. 
Phillips's  Annals. 
BRITISH  MUSEUM.  The  origin  of  this  great  national  institution  was  the 


51 
-    61 


-    61 


First  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans, 

under  Julius  Caesar     -  -      B.  c.    55 

Cymbeline,  king  of  Britain  -         -     4 

Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain,  A.  D.    40 
London  founded  by  the  Romans  -   49 

Caractacus  carried  in  chains  to  Rome  - 
The   Romans    defeated    by  Boadicea; 

70,000  slain,  and  London  burnt 
A  vast  army  of  Britons  is  defeated  by 

Suetonius,  and  80.000  slain 
Reicr.  of  Lucius,  the  first  Christian  king 

(.if  Britain,  and  in  the  world     -  -  179 

Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then 

called  Eboracum  -  -  -  207 

He  dies  at  York  -  -  -    -  211 

Carausius.  a  tyrant,  usurps  the  throne 

of  Britain  -  -  -  -  286 

He  is  killed  by  Alectus,  who  continues 

the  usurpation        -  -  -      -  293 

Constantius  recovers  Britain  by  the  de- 
feat of  Alectus   -  -  -  -  296 


449 


455 


45. 

936 


596 


276  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [BR» 

grant  by  parliament  of  20,0001.  to  the  daughters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  pay- 
ment for  his  fine  library,  and  vast  collection  of  the  productions  of  nature 
and  art,  which  had  cost  him  50,00(M.  The  library  contained  60,000  volumes 
and  valuable  MSS.,  and  69,352  articles  of  vertu  were  enumerated  in  the  cat- 
alogue of  curiosities.  The  act  was  passed  April  5,  1753 ;  and  in  the  same 
year  Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government  as  a  place  for  the  recep- 
tion of  these  treasures.  The  museum  has  since  been  gradually  increased 
to  an  immense  extent  by  gifts,  bequests,  the  purchase  of  every  species  of 
curiosity,  MSS.,  sculpture  and  work  of  art.  and  by  the  transference  to  its 
rooms  of  the  Cottonian,  Harleian.  and  other  libraries,  the  Elgin  marbles, 
&c.  George  IV.  presented  to  the  museum  the  library  collected  at  Bucking- 
ham-house by  George  III. — See  Cottonian  Library,  and  other  collections. 

BROAD  SEAL  OF  ENGLAND,  first  affixed  to  patents  and  other  grants  of  the 
crown,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  A.  D.  1048. — Baker's  Chron. 

BROCADE.  A  silken  stuff  variegated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  raised  and  en- 
riched with  flowers  and  various  sorts  of  figures,  originally  made  by  the  Chi- 
nese.— Johnson.  The  trade  in  this  article  was  carried  on  by  the  Venetians. 
— Anderson.  Its  manufacture  was  established  with  great  success  at  Lyons, 
in  1757. 

B&OCOLI :  an  Italian  Plant. — Pardon.  The  white  and  purple,  both  of  which 
are  varieties  of  the  cauliflower,  were  brought  to  England  from  the  Isle  of 
Cyprus,  in  the  seventeenth  century. — Anderson.  About  1603. — Burns.  The 
cultivation  of  this  vegetable  was  greatly  improved  in  the  gardens  of  Eng- 
land and  came  into  great  abundance  about  1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS.  Those  both  of  money  and  merchandise  were  known  early  in  Eng- 
land. See  Appraisers.  Their  dealings  were  regulated  by  law,  and  it  was 
enacted  that  they  should  be  licensed  before  transacting  business,  8  and  9 
William  III.  1695-6.  The  dealings  of  stock-brokers  were  regulated  by  act 
6  George  I.  1719,  and  10  George  II.  1736. — Statutes  at  large.  See  Pawn- 
brokers. 

BRONZE,  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of  whose  statues,  vessels  and  various 
other  articles,  made  of  bronze,  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  equestrian 
statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  1699,  in  the  Place  Venddme  at  Paris,  (demolished  Aug. 
10,  1792,)  was  the  most,  colossal  ever  made ; .  it  contained  60,000  Ibs.  weight 
-of  bronze.  Bronze  is  two  parts  brass  and  one  copper,  and  the  Greeks  added 
one  fifteenth  of  lead  and  silver. 

BROTHELS,  were  formerly  allowed  in  London,  and  considered  a  necessary  evil, 
under  the  regulation  of  a  good  police.  They  were  all  situated  on  the  Bank- 
side,  Southwark,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Winches- 
ter ;  and  they  were  visited  weekly  by  the  Sheriff's  officers  and  the  severest 
penalties  being  enacted  against  keeping  infected  or  married  women.  8  Henry 
H.  1162.— Survey  of  London.  Brothels  tolerated  in  France,  1280.  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.  licensed  one  at  Rome,  and  the  prostitutes  paid  him  a  weekly  tax, 
which  amounted  to  20  000  ducats  a  year,  1471. — Ital.  Citron. 

BROWNISTS.  a  sect  founded  by  a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  named  Robert 
Brown,  about  1615.  It  condemned  all  ceremonies  and  ecclesiastical  distinc- 
tions and  affirmed  that  there  was  an  admixture  of  corruptions  in  all  othei 
communions.  But  the  founder  subsequently  recanted  his  doctrines  for  a 
beiufice  in  the  church  of  England. — Collinses  Eccles.  Hist. 

BRUCE  S  TRAVELS  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.  The 
illustrious  Bruce  the  "  Abyssinian  Traveller/'  set  out  in  June  1768,  and  pro- 
ceeding first  to  Cairo  he  navig'ated  the  Nile  to  Syene.  thence  crossed  the 
desert  to  the  Red  Sea.  and.  arriving  at  Jidda,  passed  some  months  in  Arabia 
Felix,  and  after  various  detentions,  reached  Gondar.  the  capital  <j(  Ab}> 


*%C  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  277 

sinia,  iu  Feb.  1770.  On  Nov.  14th,  1770,  he  obtained  the  great  object  of  his 
wishes— a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Bruce  returned  to  England  in 
1773,  and  died  in  1794. 

fcHUNSWICK,  HOUSE  OP.  This  house  owes  its  origin  to  Azo,  of  the  family  01 
Este.  Azo  died  in  1055,  and  left,  by  his  wife  Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of 
Guelph  III.,  duke  of  Bavaria),  a  son  who  was  Guelph  IV.,  the  great-grand- 
father of  Henry  the  Lion.  This  last  married  Maude,  daughted  of  Henry  JI. 
of  England,  and  is  always  looked  upon  as  being  the  founder  of  the  Bruns- 
wick family.  The  dominions  of  Henry  the  Lion  were  the  most  extensive  of 
any  prince  of  his  time ;  but  having  refused  to  assist  the  emperor  Frederick: 
Barbarossa  in  a  war  .against  pope  Alexander  III.,  he  drew  the  emperor's  re 
sentment  on  him.  and  in  the  diet  of  Wurtzburg,  in  1179,  he  was  proscribed 
The  duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho,  from  whom  is  descended  the  farnilj 
of  Bavaria ;  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  to  Bernard  Ascanius,  founder  of  the 
house  of  Anhalt ;  and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On  this,  lie 
retired  to  England ;  but  on  Henry's  intercession.  Brunswick  and  Lunenburg 
were  restored  to  him.  The  house  of  Brunswick  has  divided  into  several 
branches.  The  present  duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel  is  sprung  from  the 
eldest ;  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Zell  was  from  the  second ;  and  from  this 
last  sprang  the  royal  family  of  England.  A  revolution  took  place  at  Bruns- 
wick, when  the  ducal  palace  was  burnt,  and  the  reigning  prince  obliged  to 
retire  and  seek  shelter  in  England,  Sept.  8,  1880. 

BRUSSELS,  founded  by  St.  Gery  of  Cambray,  in  the  seventh  century.  The 
memorable  bombardment  of  this  city  by  Marshal  Villeroy,  when  14  churches 
and  4000  houses  were  destroyed,  1695.  Taken  by  the  French,  174G. 
Again,  by  Dumouriez,  1792.  The  revolution  of  1830  commenced  here,  Aug. 
25. — See  Belgium.  This  town  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  lace,  camlets,  and 
tapestry.  There  is  here  a  noble  building,  called  the  H6tel  de  V-iUe,  whose  tur- 
ret is  364  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its  top  is  a  copper  figure  of  St.  Michael,  17 
feet  high,  which  turns  with  the  wind.  Riot  in  Brussels,  in  which  the  costly 
furniture  of  16  principal  houses  was  demolished,  in  consequence  of  a  dis- 
play of  attachment  to  the  house  of  Orange,  5th  April,  1834. 

BUBBLE  COMPANIES,  in  commerce,  a  name  given  to  projects  for  raising 
money  upon  false  and  imaginary  grounds,  much  practised,  often  with  disas- 
trous consequences,  in  France  and  England,  in  1719  and  1721.  Many  such 
projects  were  formed  in  England  and  Ireland  in  1825.  See  Companies,  and 
Law's  Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS.  These  piratical  adventurers,  chiefly  French.  English,  and  ' 
Dutch,  commenced  their  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America,  soon 
after  the  latter  had  taken  possession  of  that  continent  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  principal  commanders  of  the  first  expedition  were.  Montbar.  Lolonois, 
Basco,  and  Morgan,  who  murdered  thousands,  and  plundered  millions.  The 
expedition  of  Van  Horn,  of  Ostend,  was  undertaken  in  1603 ;  that  of  Gramont. 
in  1685 ;  and  that  of  Pointis,  in  1697. 

BUCHANITES.  Hundreds  of  deluded  fanatics,  followers  of  Margaret  Bucliau, 
who  promised  to  conduct  them  to  the  new  Jerusalem,  and  prophesied  the 
end  of  the  world.  She  appeared  in  Scotland  in  1779,  and  died  in  1791,  whea 
her  followers  dispersed. 

BUCHAREST,  TREATY  or.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  ratified  at  this  place 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  the  Pruth  should  be 
the  frontier  limit  of  those  empires,  signed  May  28,  1812.  The  subsequent 
war  between  those  powers  altered  many  of  the  provisions  of  this  treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  LONDON.  Buckingham-house,  built  1703,  wa« 
pulled  down  in  1825,  and  the  new  palace  commenced  on  its  site  •  and  aftei 


278  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  LBC*, 

expenditure  which  must  have  approached  a  million  sterling,  it  was  com- 
pleted, and  was  taken  possession  of  by  queen  Victoria,  July  13,  1837. 

BUCKLERS.  Those  used  in  single  combat  were  invented  by  Proetus  and  Acri- 
sius,  of  Argos,  about  1370  B.  c.  When  Lucius  Papirius  defeated  the  Sam 
nites,  he  took  from  them  their  bucklers,  which  were  of  gold  and  sih  er,  302 
B.  c.  See  article  Armor. 

BUCKLES.  The  wearing  of  buckles  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  j 
but  people  of  inferior  rank,  and  such  as  affected  plainness  in  their  garb 
wore  strings  in  their  shoes  some  years  after  that  period  :  these  last  were 
however,  ridiculed  for  their  singularity  in  using  them. 

BUDA ;  once  called  the  Key  of  Christendom.  It  was  taken  by  Solyman  II.  at 
the  memorable  battle  of  Mohatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed, 
and  200,000  of  his  subjects  were  carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was 
sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hun- 
gary \vas  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1540.  Retaken  by  the  Imperial- 
ists, and  the  Mahometans  delivered  up  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers,  1686.  See 
Hungary. 

BUENA  VISTA,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  American  force,  of  about  5  000  men,  un- 
der general  Taylor  and  general  Wool ;  and  the  Mexicans,  about  20,000.  under 
Santa  Anna :  the  latter  defeated  with  the  loss  of  2500  killed  and  wounded. 
American  loss,  264  killed,  450  wounded.  This  victory  securing  to  the  Ameri- 
cans the  whole  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Mexico,  Feb.  22,  1847. 

BUENOS  AYRES.  The  capital  was  founded  by  Pedro  Mendoza,  in  1535.  It 
was  taken  by  the  British  under  sir  Home  Popham,  June  21,  1806;  and  was 
retaken,  after  an  attack  of  three  days,  Aug  12.  the  same  year.  The  British 
suffered  a  great  repulse  here  under  general  Whitelock,  who  was  disgraced, 
July  6.  1807.  Declaration  of  independence  of  this  province,  July  19,  1816 : 
the  treaty  was  signed  February  1822.  To  put  a  stop  to  a  war  between  Bue- 
nos Ayres  and  Monte  Video.  England  and  France  blockaded  the  port  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  Oct.  24,  1845;  the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres  under  general  Rosas, 
defeated  by  the  combined  forces,  Nov.  20,  1845. 

BUFFOONS.  These  were  originally  mountebanks  in  the  Roman  theatres.  The 
shows  of  the  buffoons  were  discouraged  by  Domitian,  and  were  finally  abol- 
ished by  Trajan,  A.  D.  98.  Our  ancient  kings  had  jesters,  who  are  described 
•as  being,  at  first,  practitioners  of  indecent  raillery  and  antic  postures ;  they 
were  employed  under  the  Tudors.  Some  writers  state  that  James  I.  con- 
verted the  jesters  into  poet-laureates ;  but  poet-laureates  existed  long  before ; 
Selden  traces  the  latter  to  1251. —  Warton. 

BUILDING.  The  first  structures  were  of  wood  and  clay,  then  of  rough  stone, 
and  in  the  end  the  art  advanced  to  polished  marble.  Building  with  stone 
was  early  among  the  Tyrians ;  and  as  ornaments  and  taste  arose,  every 
nation  pursued  a  different  system.  The  art  of  building  with  stone  may  be 
referred  in  England  to  Benedict,  or  Benet.  a  monk,  about  A.  D.  670.  The  first 
bridge  of  this  material  in  England  was  at  Bow,  in  1087.  Building  with  brick 
was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces.  Alfred  encouraged  ii 
in  England,  in  886.  Brick-building  was  generally  introduced  by  the  earl  <  I 
Arundel  about  1598,  London  being  then  almost  built  of  wood.  The  increase 
of  building  in  London  was  prohibited  within  three  miles  of  the  city  gates  by 
Elizabeth,  who  ordered  that  one  family  only  should  dwell  in  one  house,  1580. 

BULGARIANS.  They  defeat  Justinian,  A.  D.  687;  and  are  subdued  by  the 
emperor  Basilius,  in  1019.  On  one  occasion,  this  emperor  having  taken 
15,000  Bulgarians  prisoners,  he  caused  their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  ont 
eye  only  to  every  hundredth  man,  to  enable  him  to  conduct  his  countrymei 


BUO  ]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  279 

home.    Bulgaria  was  governed  by  Roman  dukes  till  1186 ;    subdued  bj 
Bajazet,  1396. —  Univ.  Hist.  vol.  xvii. 

BULL,  OR  EDICT  OF  THE  POPE.  This  is  an  apostolical  rescript,  of  anuient 
use.  and  generally  written  on  parchment.  The  bull  is,  properly,  the  seal, 
deriving  its  name  from  bulla,  and  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
wax.  On  one  side  are  the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  on  the  other,  the 
name  of  the  pope,  and  the  year  of  his  pontificate.  The  celebrated  goldon 
bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  was  so  called  because  of  its  golden  seal; 
and  was  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire,  at  the  diet  of 
Nuremburg,  A.  D.  1356.  Bulls  denouncing  queen  Elizabeth  and  her  abet- 
tors, and  consigning  them  to  hell-fire,  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada, 
1688. 

BULL-BAITING,  OR  BULL-FIGHTING.  This  atrociously  criminal  sport  of 
Spain  arid  Portugal  is  somewhat  equivalent  in  those  countries  to  the  fights 
of  the  gladiators  among  the  Romans.  It  is  recorded  as  being  an  anrnse- 
ment  at  Stamford  so  early  as  the  reign  of  John,  1209.  Bull-running  was  a 
sport  at  Tutbury  in  1374.  In  the  Sports  of  England,  we  read  of  the  "  Easter 
fierce  hunts,  when  foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls  and 
huge  bears  were  baited  with  dogs  ;"  and  near  the  CLink,  London,  was  the 
Paris,  or  Bear  Garden,  so  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  for  the  exhi- 
bition of  bear-baiting,  then  a  fashionable  amusement.  A  bill  to  abolish 
bull-baiting  was  thrown  out  in  the  Commons,  chiefly  through  the  influence 
of  the  late  Mr.  Windham.  who  made  a  singular  speech  in  favor  of  the  cus- 
tom, May  24,  1802. — Butler.  It  has  since  been  declared  illegal.  See  Cru- 
elty to  Animals.  Bull-fights  were  introduced  into  Spain  about  1260:  abol- 
ished there,  "  except  for  pious  and  patriotic  purposes,"  in  1784.  There  wan 
a  bull-fight  at  Lisbon,  at  Campo  de  Santa  Anna,  attended  by  10,000  specta- 
tors, on  Sunday,  June  14,  1840. 

BULLETS.  Those  of  stone  were  in  use  A.  D.  1514 ;  and  iron  ones  are  first 
mentioned  in  the  Fcedera,  1550.  Leaden  bullets  were  made  before  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  continue  to  be  those  in  use  in  all  nations  for 
musketry.  The  cannon-ball  in  some  Eastern  countries  is  still  of  stone, 
instead  of  iron. — Ashe. 

BUNKER  HILL,  BATTLE  OF,  (near  Boston,)  between  the  British  under  Howe, 
and  the  Americans  under  Prescott  and  Putnam,  June  17, 1775.  British  loss, 
1054  killed  and  wounded ;  American,  453.  The  latter  obliged  to  retreat  for 
want  of  powder.  But  this,  the  first  important  battle  of  the  revolution,  has 
always  justly  been  regarded  as  a  great  victory  for  the  American  cause,  and 
is  so  commemorated  by  the  granite  obelisk  on  the  battle-ground,  of  which 
the  corner-stone  was  laid  by  general  La  Fayette,  in  1825.  It  was  finished 
July  23,  1842,  at  the  cost  altogether  of  about  $100,000,  raised  by  voluntary 
contributions.  The  height  is  220  feet.  Its  completion  celebrated  by  a  pro- 
cession, &c.,  and  an  oration  by  Daniel  Webster ;  president  Tyler  and  60,000 
people  present,  June  17,  1843. 

BUONAPARTE  S  EMPIRE  OF  FRANCE.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  most 
extraordinary  man  of  modern  times,  ruled  over  France,  and  subdued  most 
of  the  nations  of  the  Continent,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 
See  his  various  military  and  other  achievements  under  their  respective  heads 
throughout  the  volume  : — 


Napoleon  born  at  Ajaccio,  in  Ital 


Aug.  fs,  1769 
He  first   distinguishes  himself  in  the 

command  of  the  artillery  at  Toulon  •  1793 
He  embarks  for  Egypt  -  May  10, 1798 
Js  repulsed  before  Acre  -  May  27,  1799 
He  returns  from  Egypt  •  Aug.  23, 1799 


Deposes  the  French  directory,  and  be- 
comes first  consul  -  Nov.  9,  1799 

Sends  overtures  of  peace  to  the  king  of 
England  -  -  -  Jan.  1  1800 

His  life  attempted  by  an  "infernal  ma- 
chine" -  -  -  Dec.  21.  180C 


280 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


[BUH 


BUONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  OF  FRANCE  conlinued. 


Elected  president  of  the  Italian,  late 

Cisalpine,  republic      -  Jan.  25,  1602 

Elected  consul  for  10  years  -  May  8,  1802 
Made  first  consul  for  lite  -  Aug.  2,  1802 
Accepts  'he  title  of  emperor  from  the 

senaVe  in  name  of  the  people  May  13,  1804 
Crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  Dec  2,  1804 
Crowned  king  of  Italy  •  May  26,  1805 
Divorced  from  the  empress  Josephine 

Dec.  16,  1809 

Marries  Maria  Louisa  -  April  7,  1810 
A  son,  the  fruit  of  this  marriage,  born, 

and  styled  king  of  Rome  -  March  20,  1811 
His  overtures  of  peace  to  England  re- 
jected •  •  •  April  14,  1812 
[The  reverses  of  Bonaparte  now  follow 

in  quick  succession.] 
He  renounces  the  thrones  of  France 
and  Italy,  and  accepts  of  the  Isle  of 
Elba  for  his  retreat        -        April  5,  1814 
Embarks  at  Frejus       -        -  April  28,  1814 
Arrives  at  Elba       -         -  May  3,  1814 

Again  appears  in  France ;  he  quits  Elba 

and  lands  at  Cannes  -  March  1,  1815 
Enters  Lyons  -  •  March  10,  1815 

Arrives  at  Fontainebleau  March  20,  1815 
Joined  by  all  the  army  •  March  22,  1815 
The  allies  sign  a  treaty  for  his  exter- 
mination -  -  -  March  25.  1815 
He  abolishes  the  slave-trade  March  29,  1815 
Leaves  Paris  for  the  army  •  June  12,  1815 


Is  defeated  at  Waterloo      -      June  18,  181i 
Returns  to  Paris  •  June.  20,  1815 

And  abdica'es  in  favor  uf  his  infant 

son  -  -  -        June  22,  1815 

Intending  to  embark   for  America,  he 

arrives  ai  Rochefort  -     Juiy  3.  1815 

He  surrenders  to  Capt.  Maitland,  of  the 

Bellerup/ion         -  July  15,  1°'  1 

Transferred  at  Torbay  to  the  A'orthum- 

berlcmd&mi  sails  for  St.  Helena  Aug.  8,  It )  5 
Arrives  at  St.  Helena  (where  it  is  de- 
creed by  the  allied  sovereigns  he  shall 
remain  (or  life)  -  Oct.  15,  ; Sit 

The  family  of  Bonaparte  excluded  Ibr 
ever  from  France  by  the  law  of  am- 
nesty -  -  -      Jan.  '2,  1816 
Death  of  Bonaparte  May  5,  1(521 
His  will  registered  in  England  -    Aug.  1824 
His  son,  ex-king  of  Rome,  dies  July  22.  1832 
The  French  chambers  decree,  with  the 
consent  of  England,  that  the  ashes  of 
Napoleon  be  removed  from  St.  Hele- 
na, and  brought  to  France  -  May  12,  1840 
They  are  exhumed           -         Oct.  16,  1840 
The  Belle  Poule,  French  frigate,  arrives 
at  Cherbourg  with  the  "-emains  of 
Napoleon,  in  the  care  of   lie  prince 
de  Joinville            -            -      Nov.  30,  1840 
They  are  interred  with  great  solemnity 
in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  -  Dec.  15,  1840 


BURGESS,  from  the  French  Bourgeois,  a  distinction  coeval  in  England  with 
its  corporations.  Burgesses  were  called  to  parliament  in  England  A.  D.  12G5  ; 
in  Scotland,  in  1326 ;  and  in  Ireland,  about  1365.  Burgesses  to  be  resident 
in  the  places  which  they  are  elected  to  represent  in  parliament,  1  Henry  V. 
1413. —  Viner's  Statutes.  See  Borough. 

BURGLARY.  Until  the  reign  of  George  IV.  this  crime,  in  England,  was  pun- 
ished with  death. 

BURGOS.  SIEGE  OF.  Wellington  entered  Burgos  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca, 
which  was  fought  July  22,  1812,  and  the  castle  was  besieged  by  the  British 
and  allied  army,  and  several  attempts  were  made  to  carry  it  by  assault,  but 
the  siege  was  abandoned  in  October,  same  year.  The  castle  and  fortifica- 
tions were  blown  up  by  the  French  in  June  1813. 

BURGUNDY.  This  kingdom  begins  in  Alsace,  A. D.  413.  Conrad  II.  of  Ger 
many  being  declared  heir  to  the  kingdom,  is  opposed  in  his  attempt  to  an- 
nex it  to  the  empire,  when  it  is  dismembered,  and  on  its  ruins  are  formed 
the  four  provinces  of  Burgundy,  Provence,  Viennes,  and  Savoy.  1034.  Bui- 
gundy  becomes  a  circle  of  the  German  empire,  1521.  It  falls  to  Philip  li. 
of  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and  religious  persecutions  cause  a  revolt  in  the 
Batavian  provinces,  1566.  After  various  changes,  Burgundy  annexed  to 
France,  and  formed  into  departments  of  that  kingdom. 

BURIAL.  The  earliest  and  most  rational  mode  of  restoring  the  body  (o  earth 
The  first  idea  of  it  was  formed  by  Adam,  on  his  observing  a  live  bird  cover 
ing  a  dead  one  with  leaves.  Barrows  were  the  mo.st  ancient  graves.  See 
Barrows.  Places  of  burial  were  consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  210.— 
Eusebivs.  The  first  Christian  burial-place  was  instituted  in  5% ;  burial  in 
cities.  742 ;  in  consecrated  places.  750  ;  in  church-yards.  758.  Vaults  were 
erected  in  chancels  first  at  Canterbury,  1075.  Woollen  shrouds  used  in  Eng- 
land, 1606.  Linen  scarfs  introduced  at  funerals  in  Ireland  IT'^'.h  and  woollen 
shrouds  used,  1733.  Burials  were  taxed,  1605 — again,  1673..  See  Cemeteries 

BURIALS.     Parochial  registers  of  them,  and  of  births  and  marriages,  were  iu 


•UR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  281 

stituted  in  England  by  Cromwell,  Lord  Essex,  about  1536. — Slmoe.  A  tax 
wao  exacted  on  burials  in  England :  for  the  burial  of  a  duke,  J650,  and  foi 
that  of  a  common  person  4s.,  under  William  III.,  1695,  and  Goo.  III.  1783.— 
Statutes.  See  Bills  of  Mortality. 

BURKING.  A  new  and  horrible  species  of  murder  committed  in  England.  It 
was  thus  named  from  the  first  known  criminal  by  whom  the  deed  was  perpe- 
trated being  called  Burke.  His  victims  were  strangled,  or  made  lifeless  by 
pressure,  or  other  modes  of  suffocation,  and  the  bodies,  which  exhibited  no 
marks  of  violence  were  afterwards  sold  to  the  surgeons  for  the  purpose 
of  dissection.  Burke  was  executed  at  Edinburgh  in  February,  1829.  The 
crime  has  been  more  recently  perpetrated  by  a  gang  of  murderers  in  London. 
The  monsler  named  Bishop  was  apprehended  in  November  1831,  and  exe- 
cuted with  Williams,  one  of  his  accomplices,  for  the  murder  of  a  poor  Italian 
boy,  named  Carlo  Ferrari,  a  friendless  wanderer,  and  therefore  selected  as 
being  less  likely  to  be  sought  after  (they  confessing  to  this  and  other  similar 
murders),  December  5,  same  year. 

BURMESE  EMPIRE.  Founded  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  by  Alorn- 
pra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  present  dynasty. — See  India. 

BURNING  ALIVE.  This  punishment  was  inflicted  among  th:  Romans,  Jews, 
and  other  nations,  on  the  betrayers  of  councils,  incendiaries,  and  for  incest 
in  the  ascending  and  descending  degrees  The  Jews  had  two  ways  of  burn- 
ing alive :  one  with  wood  and  faggots  to  burn  the  body,  the  other  by  pour- 
ing scalding  lead  down  the  throat  of  the  criminal,  combustio  anima,  to  burn 
the  soul. — See  Suttees. 

BURNING  ALIVE,  IN  ENGLAND.  Even  in  England  (see  preceding  article')  burn- 
ing alive  was  a  punishment  upon  the  statute-book.  The  Britons  punished 
heinous  crimes  by  burning  alive  in  wicker  baskets.  See  Stonehenge.  This 
punishment  was  countenanced  by  bulls  of  the  pope  ;  and  witches  suffered 
in  this  manner. — See  Witches.  Many  persons  have  been  burned  alive  on  ac- 
count of  religious  principles.  The  first  sufferer  was  sir  William  Sawtree, 
parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London.  3  Henry  IV.,  February  9,  1401.  In  the 
reign  of  the  cruel  Mary  numbers  were  burned,  among  others,  Ridley,  bishop 
of  London ;  Latimer,  bishop  of  Rochester ;  and  Cranmer.  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  were  burned  at  Oxford  in  1555  and  1556.  Numerous  others 
suffered  this  dreadful  death  in  Mary's  reign.* 

BURNING  THE  DEAD.  The  antiquity  of  this  custom  rises  as  high  as  the  The- 
ban  war ;  it  was  practised  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  poet  Ho- 
mer abounds  with  descriptions  of  such  funeral  obsequies.  The  practice  was 
very  general  about  1225  B.  c.,  and  was  revived  by  Sylla,  lest  the  relics  of  the 
dead  in  graves  should  be  violated ;  and  to  this  day  the  burning  of  the  dead 
is  practised  in  many  parts  of  the  East  and  •West  Indies. 

BURNING-GLASS  AND  CONCAVE  MIRRORS.  Their  power  was  not  unknown 
to  Archimedes,  but  the  powers  of  these  instruments  are  rendered  wonderful 
by  the  modern  improvements  of  Settalla:  of  Tchirnhausen,>1680;  of  Buff'on, 
1T47  ;  and  of  Parker  and  others,  more  recently.  The  following  are  experi- 
ments of  the  fusion  of  substances  made  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens,  or  burning 
miri  or : 


*  It  is  computed,  that  during  the  three  years  of  Mary's  reign  in  which  these  shocking  violence* 
aisd  barbarities  were  carried  on,  there  were  277  persons  brought  to  the  stake;  besides  those  who 
were  punished  by  imprisonment,  fines,  and  confiscations.  Among  those  who  suffered  by  fire  were 
i  bishops,  21  clergymen,  8  lay  gentlement  34  tradesmen,  100  husbandmen,  servants,  and  laborers, 
5i  women,  and  4  children.  The  unprincipled  agents  of  this  merciless  queen  were  the  bishops  Gar- 
diner and  Bonner.  The  latter  especially  was  a  man  of  brutal  character,  who  seemed  to  derive  t 
ravage  pleasure  in  witnessing  the  torture  of  the  sufferers. 


282  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BYZ 

BURNING-GLASS  AND  CONCAVE  MIRRORS,  continued. 


Subs/a.iccs  fused. 
Pure  gold 
Silver       -       -  -    • 
Copper  ... 
Platina 
Cast  iron 
Steel 

Weight.      Time. 
20  grains    4  seconds. 
20  grains    3  seconds. 
33  grains  20  seconds. 
10  grains    3  seconds. 
10  grains    3  seconds. 
10  grains  12  seconds. 

Substances  fused. 
A  topaz  • 
An  emerald 
A  crystal  pebble     • 
Flint   - 
Cornelian 
Pumice  stone 

Weight.      Timt. 
3  grains  45  second*. 
2  grains  25  seconds 
7  grains    C  seconds. 
•  10  grains  30  seconds. 
10  grains  75  seconds. 
•  10  grains  24  seconds. 

Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously ;  water  boils  immediately ;  bones  are 
calcined  ;  and  things,  not  capable  of  melting,  at  once  become  red-hot  like  iron. 

BlfllYJNG  ALIVE.  A  mode  of  death  adopted  in  Boeotia.  where  Creon  ordered 
Antigone,  the  sister  of  Polynices,  to  be  buried  alive,  1225  B.  c.  The  ROIDID 
vestals  were  subjected  to  this  horrible  kind  of  execution  for  any  levity  in  dn.ss 
or  conduct  that  could  excite  a  suspicion  of  their  virtue.  The  vestal  Minutia 
was  buried  alive  on  the  charge  of  incontinence,  337  B.  c.  The  vestal  Sextilia 
was  buried  alive  274  B.  c.  The  vestal  Cornelia  A.  D.  92.  Lord  Bacon  gives 
instances  of  the  resurrection  of  persons  who  had  been  buried  alive  ;  the  fa- 
mous Duns  Scotus  is  of  the  number.  The  assassins  of  Capo  d'Istria,  Presi- 
dent of  Greece,  were  (two  of  them)  sentenced  to  be  immured  in  brick  walls 
built  around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be  supplied  with  food  in  this 
species  of  torture  until  they  died,  October,  1831. — See  Greect. 

BUSTS.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  remembrance  of  the  human  features  is 
the  same  with  the  Jiermee  of  the  Greeks.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the 
inventor  of  moulds  from  which  he  cast  wax  figures,  328  B.  c. — Pliny.  Busts 
from  the  face  in  plaster  of  Paris  were  first  taken  by  Andrea  Verrochi,  about 

A.  D.  1466. —  Vasari. 

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  three  classes :  the  Suarii  pro- 
vided hogs,  the  Boarii  oxen,  and  the  Lanii,  whose  office  was  to  kill.  The 
butchers'  trade  is  very  ancient  in  England ;  so  is  their  company  in  London, 
although  it  was  not  incorporated  until  the  second  year  of  James  I.  1604. — 
Annals  of  London. 

BUTTER.  It  was  late  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the 
early  Romans  it  was  used  only  as  a  medicine — never  as  food.  The  Chris- 
tians of  Egypt  burnt  butter  in  their  lamps,  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury. In  1675.  there  fell  in  Ireland,  during  the  winter  time,  a  thick  yellow 
dew,  which  had  all  the  medicinal  properties  of  butter.  In  Africa,  vegetable 
butter  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of  richer  taste,  at  Kebba; 
than  any  butter  made  from  cow's  milk. — Mungo  Park. 

BUTTONS,  of  early  manufacture  in  England ;  those  covered  with  cloth  were 
prohibited  by  a  statute,  thereby  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  metal  but- 
tons, 8  George  I.  1721.  The  ^nanufacture  owes  nothing  to  encouragement 
from  any  quarter  of  late  years,  although  it  has,  notwithstanding,  much  im- 
proved . — Phillips. 

BYRON'S  VOYAGE.  Commodore  Byron  left  England,  on  his  voyage  round 
the  globe.  June  21,  1764,  and  returned  May  9,  1766.  In  his  voyage  he  dis- 
covered the  populous  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  bears  his  name.  Au- 
gust 16  1765.  Though  brave  and  intrepid,  such  was  his  general  ill  foilune 
at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the  sailors  of  the  fleet,  "  Foul- weather  Jack." — 
Belkhambers. 

E  FZANTIUM.    Now  Constantinople,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Athenians,  716 

B.  c. — Eusebiiis.    It  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  A.  D.  73,  and  was  laid  in  ruins 
by  Severus  in  196.   Byzantium  was  rebuilt  by  Constantino  in  338 ;  and  after 
him  it  received  the  name  of  Constantinople.    See  Constantinople 


CADJ  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  283 

c. 

CABAL.  A  Hebrew  word,  used  in  various  senses.  The  rabbins  wore  cabalists, 
and  the  Christians  so  called  those  who  pretended  to  magic.  In  English  his- 
tory, the  Cabal  was  a  council  which  consisted  of  five  lords  in  administration, 
supposed  to  be  pensioners  of  France,  and  distinguished  by  the  appellation 
of  the  Cabal,  from  the  initials  of  their  names:  Sir  Thomas  Clifford,  vhe  lord 
Ashley,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  lord  Arlington,  and  the  duke  of  Lauder- 
dale,  22  Charles  II.  1670.— Hume. 

CABINET  COUNCIL.  There  were  councils  in  England  so  efiiJy  as  the  reign 
of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  A.  D.  690;  Oft'a.  king  of  the  Mercians,  758, 
and  in  other  reigns  of  the  Heptarchy.  The  cabinet  council,  in  which  secret 
deliberations  were  held  by  the  king  and  a  few  of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the 
great  officers  of  state,  to  be  afterwards  laid  before  the  second  council,  now 
styled  the  privy  council,  was  instituted  by  Alfred  the  Great  about  A.  D.  896. 
SpeLman.  The  modern  cabinet  council,  as  at  present  constituted,  was  recon- 
structed in  1670,  and  usually  consists  of  the  following  twelve  members  :* 


Lord  president. 

Lord  chancellor. 

Lord  privy  seal. 

First  lord  of  the  treasury. 

Chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 


Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of  state. 

President  of  the  board  of  control. 

President  of  the  boari  of  trade. 

Master  of  the  mint. 

First  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


In  1841  the  number  was  14,  and  included  the  Secretary  at  War.  the  Woods 
and  Forests,  and  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  the  Mint  and  the  Board  of 
Trade  being  united  in  right  hon.  H.  Labouchere.  The  cabinet  ministers  of 
the  various  reigns  will  be  found  under  the  head  Administrations  of  England. 

CABLES.  Their  use  was  known  in  the  earliest  times :  a  machine  for  making 
the  largest,  by  which  human  labor  was  reduced  nine-tenths,  was  invented 
in  1792.  This  machine  was  set  in  motion  by  sixteen  horses,  when  making 
cables  for  ships  of  large  size.  Chain  cables  were  introduced  into  the  British 
navy  in  1812. 

CADDEE,  OR  LEAGUE  OF  GOD'S  HOUSE.  The  celebrated  league  of  independence 
in  Switzerland,  formed  by  the  Grisons,  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  A.  D.  1400 
to  1419.  A  second  league  of  the  Grisons  was  called  the  Grise  or  Graj 
league,  1424. 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishman,  a  fugitive  from  his  coun- 
try on  account  of  his  crimes,  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  headed 
20  000  Kentish  men,  who  armed  "  to  punish  evil  ministers,  and  procure  a 
redress  of  grievances."  Cade  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  for  some  time 
bore  down  all  opposition,  and  beheaded  the  lord  treasurer,  Lord  Saye,  and 
several  other  persons  of  consequence.  The  insurgents  at  length  losing 
ground,  a  general  pardon  was  proclaimed ;  and  Cade,  finding  himself  de- 
serted by  his  followers,  fled :  but  a  reward  being  offered  for  his  apprehen- 
sion, he  was  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender,  was  slain  by  Alexander 
Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  1451. 

CADIZ,  formerly  Gades,  was  built  by  the  Carthaginians  530  B.  c. — Priestley. 
One  hundred  vessels  of  the  armament  preparing,  as  the  Spanish  Armada, 

*  The  term  cabinet  ccuncil  is  of  comparatively  modern  date,  and  originated  thus :  the  attain 
of  slate,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  were  principally  managed  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
earl  of  Stratford,  and  the  lord  Cottington ;  to  these  were  added  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  for  or- 
nament ;  the  bishop  of  London  for  his  place,  being  lord  treasurer ;  the  two  secretaries,  Vane  and 
Windebank,  for  service  and  intelligence ;  only  the  marquis  of  Hamilton,  by  his  skill  and  interest, 
meddled  just  so  far,  and  no  further,  than  he  had  a  mind.  These  persons  made  up  ihe  committee  « 
btat«,  reproachfully  called  the  junto,  and  afterwards,  enviously,  the  cabinet  council.— LORD  CIJL 

HEM  J0«. 


284  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [oil. 

against  England,  were  destroyed  in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  1687 
Cadiz  was  taken  by  the  English,  under  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  plundered, 
September  15,  1596.  It  was  attempted  by  sir  George  Rooke  in  1702,  but  he 
failed.  Bombarded  by  the  British  in  1797,  and  blockaded  by  their  fleet, 
under  lord  St.  Vincent,  for  two  years,  ending  in  1799.  Again  bombarded  by 
the  British,  on  board  whose  fleet  were  18,000  land  forces.  October  1800. 
Besieged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  raised  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca 
in  1812.  Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  by  the  soldiery,  March  10,  1820. 
Cadiz  was  declared  a  free  port  in  1829. 

CAESARS,  ERA  OP  THE  ;  OR  SPANISH  ERA,  is  reckoned  from  the  first  of  January 
38  B.  c.,  being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was 
much  used  in  Africa.  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France ;  but  by  a  synod  held 
in  1180  its  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  Barcelona. 
Pedro  IV..  of  Arragon,  abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.  John 
of  Castile  did  the  same  in  1383.  It  continued  to  be  used  in  Portugal  till 
1455.  The  months  and  days  of  this  era  are  identical  with  the  Julian  calen- 
dar, and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,  subtract  thirty-eight  from  the 
year ;  if  before  the  Christian  era  subtract  thirty-nine. 

CAI-FONG,  in  China.  This  city  being  besieged  by  100,000  rebels,  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  who  was  sent  to  its  relief,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy, 
broke  down  its  embankments :  his  stratagem  succeeded,  and  every  man  of 
the  besiegers  perished ;  but  the  city  was  at  the  same  time  overflowed  by 
the  waters,  and  300,000  of  the  citizens  were  drowned  in  the  overwhelming 
flood,  A.  D.  1642. 

CAIRO,  OR  GRAND  CAIRO.  The  modern  capital  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for 
the  minarets  of  its  mosques,  and  the  splendid  sepulchres  of  its  caliphs  in 
what  is  called  the  city  of  the  dead :  it  was  built  by  the  Saracens,  in  A.  D. 
969.  Burnt  to  prevent  its  occupation  by  the  Christian  invaders,  called  Cru- 
saders, in  1220.  Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans,  and  their 
empire  subdued,  1517.  Ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  a  great  fire,  June, 
1754;  when  40  000  persons  perished.  Set  on  tire  by  a  lady  of  the  beglerbeg, 
Dec.,  1755.  Taken  by  the  French  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  July  23, 1798. 
Taken  by  the  British  and  Turks,  when  6000  French  capitulated,  June  27, 
1801. 

CALAIS.  Taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's  siege,  Aug.  4,  1347,  and  held 
by  England  210  years.  It  was  retaken  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  Jan.  7,  1558, 
and  the  loss  of  Calais  so  deeply  touched  the  queen's  heart,  historians  say  it 
occasioned  her  death,  which  occurred  soon  afterwards.  Calais  was  bom- 
barded by  the  English.  1694.  Here  Louis  XVIII.  landed  after  his  long 
exile  from  France.  April  24,  1814.  See  France. 

CALCUTTA.  The  first  settlement  of  the  English  here  was  made  in  1689.  It 
was  purchased  as  a  Zemindary,  and  Fort  William  built  in  1698.  Calcutta 
was  attacked  by  a  large  army  of  70,000  horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants, 
in  June,  1756.  On  the  capture  of  the  fort.  146  of  the  British  were  crammed 
into  the  Black-hole  prison,  a  dungeon  about  18  feet  square,  from  whence 
twenty-three  only  came  forth  the  next  morning  alive.  Calcutta  was  re- 
taken the  following  year,  and  the  inhuman  Soubah  put  to  death.  Supremo 
court  of  Judicature  established  1773.  College  founded  here  1801. — See 
Bengal  and  India. 

CALEDONIA.  Now  Scotland.  The  name  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived 
from  Gael  or  Gael-men,  or  Gadcl-dmne.  corrupted  by  the  Romans.  Tacitus, 
who  died  A.  D.  99,  distinguishes  this  portion  of  Britian  by  the  appellation  of 
Caledonia ;  but  the  etymology  of  the  word  seems  undetermined.  Vener- 
able Bede  says,  that  it  retained  this  name  until  A.  D.  258,  when  it  was  invaded 
by  a  tribe  from  Ireland,  and  called  Scotia,.  The  ancient  inhabitants  appear 


04L.J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  285 

to  have  been  the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  tribes  of  the  Celts,  who  passed 
over  from  the  opposite  coasts  of  Gaul.  About  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
centurj  of  the  Christian  era,  they  were  invaded  (as  stated  by  some  autho- 
rities'), by  the  Scuyths  or  Scythians  (since  called  Scots),  who,  having  driven 
the  Picts  into  the  north,  settled  in  the  Lowlands,  and  gave  their  name  to 
the  whole  country.  Hence  the  origin  of  that  distinction  of  language,  habits, 
customs,  and  persons,  which  is  still  so  remarkable  between  the  Highlanders 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  borders, 


Caledonian  monarchy,  said  to  have  been 
(bunded  by  Fergus  1.,  about  •  B.  c.  330 

The  Picta  from  the  north  of  England 
settle  in  the  southern  borders  -  -  140 

Agrieola  carries  the  Roman  arms  into 
Caledonia,  with  little  success,  in  the 
reign  of  Galdus,  otherwise  called  Cor- 
bred  II.  -  -  A.  D.  79 

He  is  signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Corbred  -  -  -  -  -80 

Christianity  is  introduced  into  Caledonia 
in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.  -  -  201 


The  country  is  invaded  by  the  Scuyths, 
or  IScots.  and  the  government  is  over- 
thrown, about  •  •  A.  ».  30fc' 

The  ( Caledonian  monarchy  is  revived  by 
Fergus  II.  -  -  -  •  -  404 

After  many  sanguinary  wars  between 
the  Caledonians,  Picts,  and  Scots,  Ken- 
neth II.  obtains  a  victory  over  the  Picts, 
unites  the  whcje  country  under  one 
monarchy,  and  gives  it  the  name  of 
Scotland  -  -  -  838  to  843 

See  SCOTLAND. 


The  origin  of  the  Scots,  it  should  be  stated,  is  very  uncertain ;  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  until  the  eleventh  century,  when  Malcolm  III.,  surnamed 
Canmore,  reigned  (1057)  is  obscure,  and  intermixed  with  many  and  improb- 
able fictions. 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  By  means 
of  this  magnificent  canal,  the  nautical  intercourse  between  ihe  western 
ports  of  Great  Britain,  and  those  also  of  Ireland,  to  the  North  Sea  and  Bal- 
tic, is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and  in  others,  1000  miles.  A  sum 
exceeding  a  million  sterling  was  granted  by  parliament  from  time  to  time  ; 
and  this  safe  navigation  for  ships  of  nearly  every  tonnage  was  completed, 
and  opened  in  1822. 

CALENDAR.  The  Roman  calendar,  which  has  in  great  part  been  adopted  by 
almost  all  nations,  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into 
ten  months,  comprising  304  days,  A.  D.  738  B.  c.  The  year  of  Romulus  was 
of  fifty  days  less  duration  than  the  lunar  year,  and  of  sixty-one  less  than 
the  solar  year,  and  its  commencement  did  not,  of  course,  correspond  with 
any  fixed  season.  Numa  Pompilius.  713  B.  c.  corrected  this  calendar,  by 
adding  two  months ;  and  Julius  Caesar,  desirous  to  make  it  more  correct, 
fixed  the  solar  year  as  being  365  days  and  six  hours,  45  B.  c.  This  almost 
perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  gener- 
ally throughout  the  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIII. 
The  calendar  of  Julius  Caesar  was  defective  in  this  particular,  that  the  solar 
year  consisted  of  365  days,  five  hours,  and  forty-nine  minutes :  and  not  of 
365  days  six  hours.  This  difference,  at  the  time  of  Gregory  XIII.  had 
amounted  to  ten  entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  llth,  instead 
of  the  21st  of  March.  To  obviate  this  error,  Gregory  ordained,  in  1582, 
that  that  year  should  consist  of  365  days  only ;  and  to  prevent  further  irregu- 
larity, it  was  determined  that  a  year  beginning  a  century  should  not  be  bis- 
sextile, with  the  exception  of  that  beginning  each  fourth  century :  thus, 
1700  and  1800  have  not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so ;  but  the  year 
2000  will  be  a  leap  year.  In  this  manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  400 
yuars,  because  the  lapse  of  eleven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  about  that 
period.  The  year  of  the  calendar  is  thus  made  as  nearly  as  possible  tc 
correspond  with  the  true  solar  year  ;  and  future  errors  of  chronology  are 
avoided.  See  New  Style. 

(!ALICO.  The  well-known  cotton  cloth,  is  named  from  Calicut,  a  city  of  India, 
which  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1498.  Calico  was  first  brought 
to  England  by  the  East  India  Con  pany,  in  1831.  Calico  printing,  and  th« 


286  THE    WORLD*  S    PROGRESS.  [  CAJ. 

Dutch  loom  engine,  were  first  used  in  1676. — Anderson.  Calicoes  were  pro- 
hibited to  be  printed  or  worn,  in  1700;  and  again,  in  1721.  They  were  first 
made  a  branch  of  manufacture  in  Lancashire,  in  1771.  See  Cotton. 

CALIFORNIA,  LOWER,  discovered  by  Grigalon,  sent  by  Cortes,  the  conqueror 
of  Mexico,  1534;  explored  by  Cortes  himself,  1536,  and  by  his  subordinate 
Ulloa.  1538.  First  settlement  by  Viscaino  and  a  small  colony  sent  out  by 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  1596.  Viscaino  explored  the  coast  and  founded  St.  Diego 
and  Monterey,  and  was  the  first  Spaniard  in  Upper  California,  1602. 

CALIFORNIA,  UPPER,  discovered  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  named  New  Al- 
bion, 1596.  The  Spanish  colonists  having  been  expelled  by  the  i!l-used 
natives,  the  country  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  of  Spain  to  the  Jesuits,  in 
1697.  Jesuit  missions  and  Presidios  established  in  New  ""alifornia  1769. 
Eighteen  missions  established  up  to  1798.  California  a  province  of  Mexico, 
1824 ;  the  Mexican  governor  expelled  from  Monterey,  1836.  California  ex- 
plored by  the  United  States  expedition,  under  Wilkes,  co-operating  with 
that  of  Fremont,  overland,  in  1841-3.  Another  expedition  under  Fremont, 
1845-6.  Mexican  war  began  1845.  San  Francisco  taken  possession  of  by 
Com.  Montgomery.  July  8.  1845.  Com.  Stockton  takes  possession  of  Upper 
California  May- August,  1846,  and  institutes  United  States  military  govern- 
ment. Movements  of  general  Kearney,  lieutenant  Emory,  &c.,  1846.  Cali- 
fornia secured  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  with  Mexico,  1848.  Gold 
placers  first  discovered  on  the  grounds  of  captain  Suter,  February,  1848. 
Great  emigration  from  the  United  States  commenced  November,  1848.  C-^n- 
vention  at  Monterey  for  forming  a  state  constitution,  Aug.  31,  1849.  Con- 
stitution adopted  by  popular  vote,  and  P.  H.  Burnet  chosen  first  governor, 
Dec.  1849. 

CALIPH.  In  Arabic,  vicar,  or  apostle;  the  title  assumed  by  the  Sophi  of 
Persia,  in  the  succession  of  Ali,  and  by  the  Grand  Seigniors  as  the  succes- 
sors of  Mahomet.  The  calipliat  was  adopted  by  Abubeker,  the  father  of 
the  Prophet's  second  wife,  in  whose  arms  he  died,  A.  D.  631.  In  process  of 
time  the  soldans  or  sultans  engrossed  all  the  civil  power,  and  little  but  the 
title  was  left  to  the  caliphs,  and  that  chiefly  in  matters  of  religion. — Sir.  T. 
Herbert. 

CALLIGRAPHY.  Beautiful  writing,  in  a  small  compass,  invented  by  Callicra- 
tes,  who  is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant  distich  on  a  sesamum  seed.  472 
B.  c.  The  modern  specimens  of  this  art  are,  many  of  them,  astonishing  and 
beautiful.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
creed,  decalogue,  two  short  Latin  prayers,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the 
month,  year  of  our  Lord,  and  of  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he 
presented  it  at  Hampton-court,  all  within  the  circle  of  a  silver  penny, 
enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of  gold,  and  covered  with  crystal,  so  accu- 
rately done  as  to  be  plainly  legible,  to  the  great  admiration  of  her  majesty, 
the  whole  of  the  privy  council,  and  several  ambassadors  then  at  court,  1574. 
— Htlinshed. 

CALLAO,  IN  PERU.  Here,  after  an  earthquake,  the  sea  retired  from  the  shore, 
and  returned  in  mountainous  waves,  which  destroyed  the  city,  A.  D.  168". 
The  same  phenomenon  took  place  in  1746,  when  all  the  inhabitants  perished, 
with  the  exception  of  one  man.  who  was  standing  on  an  eminence,  and  to 
whose  succor  a  wave  providentially  threw  a  boat. 

CALOMEL.  The  mercurial  compound  termed  calomel  is  first  mentioned  by 
Crollius,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  must  have  been  previously 
known.  The  first  directions  given  for  its  preparation  were  those  announced 
by  Beguin.  in  1608.  It  is  said  that  corrosive  sublimate  was  known  SODM 
centuries  before. 


CAM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  287 

CALVARY,  MOUNT.  The  place  where  the  REDEEMER  suffered  death,  A.  D.  33. 
Calvary  was  a  small  eminence  or  hill  adjacent  to  Jerusalem,  appropriated 
to  the  execution  of  malefactors.  See  Luke  xxiii.  33.  Adrian  at  the  time 
of  his  persecution  of  the  Christians  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter  en  Mount 
Calvary,  and  a  temple  of  Adonis  on  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  A.  D.  142. 
Here  is  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  whither  pilgrims  flock  from  all 
Christian  countries. 

CALVINISTS.  Named  after  their  founder,  John  Calvin,  the  celebrated  re- 
former of  the  Christian  church  from  the  Romish  superstition  and  doctrinal 
errors.  Calvin  was  a  native  of  Noyon,  in  Picardy ;  but  adopting  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Reformers,  he  fled  to  Angoulfime,  where  he  composed  his  Insti- 
tutio  Christiana:  ftehgionis,  in  1533,  published  about  two  years  afterwards.  Ho 
subsequently  retired  to  Basle,  and  next  settled  in  Geneva.  Although  he 
differed  from  Luther  in  essential  points,  still  his  followers  did  not  consider 
themselves  as  different  on  this  account  from  the  adherents  of  Luther.  £ 
formal  separation  first  took  place  after  the  conference  of  Poissy,  in  1561 
where  they  expressly  rejected  the  tenth  article  of  the  confession  of  Augs 
burg,  besides  some  others,  and  took  the  name  of  Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY.  The  town  whence  the  esteemed  manufacture  called  cambric 
takes  its  name.  This  city  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by  a  memorable  sur- 
prise, in  1595.  Cambray  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times.  In  the  war 
of  the  French  revolution  it  was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  August  8,  1793, 
when  the  republican  general,  Declay,  replied  to  the  Imperial  summons  to 
surrender,  that  "  he  knew  not  how  to  do  that,  but  his  soldiers  knew  how  to 
fight."  In  the  late  war  it  was  seized  by  the  British  under  general  sir  Chas. 
Colville.  June  24,  1815.  The  citadel  surrendered  the  next  day,  and  was 
occupied  by  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  court. 

CAMBRAY,  LEAGUE  OF.  This  was  the  celebrated  league  against  the  republic 
of  Venice,  comprising  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
Spain ;  and  whereby  Venice  was  forced  to  cede  to  Spain  her  possessions  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  entered  into  Dec.  10,  1508. 

CAMBRICS.  A  fabric  of  fine  linen  used  for  ruffles. — Shakspeare,  Cambrics 
were  first  worn  in  England,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury  in  dress,  22  Eliza- 
beth, 1580. — Sbowe.  The  importation  of  them  was  restricted,  in  1745  ;  and 
was  totally  prohibited  by  statute  of  32  George  II.  1758.  Readmitted  in 
1786.  but  afterwards  again  prohibited :  the  importation  of  cambrics  is  now 
allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE,  once  called  Granta,,  and  of  most  ancient  standing,  being  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  oldest  British  historians. 
Roger  de  Montgomery  destroyed  it  with  fire  and  sword  to  be  revenged  of 
king  William  Rufus.  The  university  is  said  to  have  been  commenced  by 
Sigebert.  king  of  East  Angles,  about  A.  D.  631 ;  but  it  lay  neglected  during 
the  Danish  invasions,  from  which  it  suffered  much.  Cambridge  now  contains 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  of  which  first.  Peter-house  is  the  most 
ancient,  and  King's  College  the  noblest  foundation  in  Europe,  and  the 
chapel  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  world. 

CAMERA  LUCID  A.  Invented  by  Dr.  Hooke,  about  1674.—  Woofs  Ath.  Ox. 
Also  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1807.  The  camera  ob- 
scura,  or  dark  chamber,  was  invented,  it  is  believed,  by  the  celebrated  Roger 
Bacon,  in  1297  ;  it  was  improved  by  Baptista  Porta,  the  writer  on  natural 
magic,  about  1500. — Mnreri.  Sir  I.  Newton  remodelled  it.  By  the  recent 
invention  of  M.  Daguerre,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  are  rendered  perma- 
nent ;  the  last  was  produced  in  1839. 

CAMF.RONIANS.  A  sect  in  Scotland  which  separated  from  the  Presbyterians, 
and  continued  to  hold  their  religious  meetings  in  the  fields.-  -Burn"t. 


288  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  OAR 

CAMP.  All  the  early  warlike  nations  had  -  camps,  which  are  consequently 
most  ancient.  The  disposition  of  the  Hebrew  encampment  was,  we  are 
told,  at  first  laid  out  by  God  himself.  The  Romans  and  Gauls  had  in- 
trenched camps  in  open  plains  ;  and  vestiges  of  such  Roman  encampments 
are  existing  to  this  day  in  numerous  places  in  England  and  Scotland.  The 
last  camp  in  England  was  formed  at  Hyde  Park  in  1745. 

t  AMPEACHY-BAY.  Discovered  about  A,  D.  1520;  it  was  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1659  ;  and  was  taken  by  the  Buccaneers,  in  1678 ;  and  by  the  free- 
booters of  St.  Doraingo,  in  1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town  and  blew  up 
the  citadel.  The  English  logwood  cutters  made  their  settlement  here,  iu 
1662. 

CAMPERDOWN,  BATTLE  OP.  Memorable  engagement  offCamperdown,  south 
of  the  Texel,  and  signal  victory  obtained  by  the  British  fleet  under  admiral 
Duncan,  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  de  Winter ;  the  latter 
losing  fifteen  ships,  which  were  either  taken  or  destroyed,  Oct.  11,  1797. 

G  \MPO  FORMIO,  TREATY  OF,  concluded  between  France  and  Austria,  the 
latter  power  yielding  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian  Islands  to  France, 
and  Milan.  Mantua,  and  Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  This  memor- 
able and  humiliating  treaty  resulted  from  the  ill  success  of  Austria  on  the 
Rhine.  By  a  secret  article,  however,  the  emperor  took  possession  of  the 
Venetian  dominions  in  compensation  for  the  Netherlands.  Oct.  17,  1797. 

CANADA.  This  country  was  discovered  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  A.  D. 
1499,  and  was  settled  by  the  French,  in  1608.  but  it  had  been  previously 
visited  by  them.  Canada  was  taken  by  the  English,  in  1628.  but  was  re- 
stored in  1631.  It  was  again  conquered  by  the  English,  in  1759,  and  was 
confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  1763.  This  country  was  divided  into  two 
provinces,  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  in  1791 ;  and  it  was  during  the  debates 
on  this  bill  in  the  British  parliament,  that  the  quarrel  between  Mr.  Burke 
and  Mr.  Fox  arose. 

CANADIAN  INSURRECTION.  The  Papineau  rebellion  commenced  at  Mon- 
treal, Dec.  6,  1837.  The  Canadian  rebels  came  to  an  engagement  at  St. 
Eustace.  Dec.  14,  following.  The  insurgents  surrounded  Toronto,  and  were 
repulsed  by  the  governor,  sir  Francis  Head.  Jan.  5.  1838.  Lord  Durham, 
governor  general.  Jan.  16,  1838.  Lount  and  Mathews  hanged  as  traitors, 
April  12,  1838.  Lord  Durham  resigned,  Oct.  9,  1838.  Rebellion  again  man- 
ifested itself  in  Beauharnais,  Nov.  3,  1838.  The.  insurgents  concentrated  at 
Napierville  under  command  of  Nelson  and  others.  Nov.  6;  some  skirmishes 
took  place,  and  they  were  routed  with  the  loss  of  many  killed  and  several 
hundred  prisoners.  Sir  John  Colborne  announced  the  suppression  of  the  re- 
bellion in  his  dispatches  dated  Nov.  17,  1838.  Lord  Gosford.  governor  of 
Lower  Canada  proclaims  martial  law,  and  a  reward  of  £1  000  for  Papi- 
neau, Dec.  5,  1837.  M  Leod  (charged  with  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline, 
American  steamer,  at  Schlosser,  Dec.  30,  1837)  acquitted  at  Utica,  Oct.  12. 
1841.  President  Van  Buren's  proclamation  warning  citizens  of  the  United 
States  against  meddling  with  the  Canadian  insurrection.  Sir  Charles  Mct- 
calfe,  governor-general,  1844.  Earl  of  Elgin  appointed  governor-general, 
took  the  oath  Jan.  30,  1847.  Riots  at  Montreal,  and  burning  of  the  Parlia 
men!  House  by  a  mob  (caused  by  the  dissatisfaction  about  the  act  for  payin* 
losses  by  the  late  rebellion  to  some  of  the  rebels  themselves).  Aug.  15, 1849. 
Movements  in  favor  of  annexation  to  the  United  States.  Warning  against 
such  movements  as  high  treason,  proclaimed  in  the  dispatch  of  earl  Grey, 
the  British  colonial  secretary,  Feb.  1850. 

CANALS.  The  most  stupendous  in  the  world  is  a  canal  in  China,  which  passes 
over  2000  miles,  and  to  41  cities,  commenced  in  the  tenth  century.  The 
canal  of  Languedoc  which  joins  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean 


CAN  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  289 

was  commenced  in  1666.  That  of  Orleans,  from  the  Loire  to  the  Seine,  com- 
menced in  1676.  That  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  commenced 
1709.  That  from  Stockholm  to  Gottenburg.  commenced  1751.  That  oetween 
the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  at  Kiel,  opened  1785.  That  of  Bourbon,  between 
the  Seine  and  Oise,  commenced  1790.  The  first  canal  made  in  England  was 
by  Henry  I.,  when  the  river  Trent  was  joined  to  the  Witham,  A.  D.  1134. 
That  from  the  Durance  to  Marseilles,  France.  83  000  metres,  of  which  17,000 
are  subterranean  passages  through  the  Alps,  finished  July  8,  1847.  In  Eng- 
land, there  are  2800  miles  of  canals,  and  2500  miles  of  rivers,  taking  the 
length  of  those  only  that  are  navigable — total,  5300  miles.  In  Ireland,  there 
are  but  300  miles  of  canals ;  150  of  navigable  rivers,  and  60  miles  of  the 
Shannon,  navigable  below  Limerick,  making  in  all  510  miles. —  Williams. 

CANALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Act  for  commencing  the  great  Erie  cannl 
in  New  York,  passed  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  1817. 
The  canal  (363  miles  long)  completed ;  a  grand  celebration,  1825.  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  canal  opened,  &c.,  July  4,  1829. 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Fortu- 
nate Isks.  The  first  meridian  was  referred  to  the  Canary  isles  by  Hipparchus, 
about  140  B.  c.  They  were  re-discovered  by  a  Norman,  named  Bethencourt, 
A.  D.  1402;  and  were  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  who  planted  vines,  which 
flourish  here,  about  1420.  The  canary-bird,  so  much  esteemed  in  all  parts 
of  Europe,  is  a  native  of  these  isles ;  it  was  brought  into  England  in  1500. 

CANDIA,  the  ancient  Crete,  whose  centre  is  Mount  Ida.  so  famous  in  history. 
It  was  seized  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D.  808,  when  they  changed  its  name.  Taken 
by  the  Greeks,  in  961 ;  sold  to  the  Venetians,  1194.  and  held  by  them  till  the 
Turks  obtained  it,  after  a  24  years'  siege,  during  which  more  than  200.000 
men  perished,  1669. 

CANDLE.  The  Roman  candles  were  composed  of  strings  surrounded  by  wax, 
or  dipped  in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood,  fatted,  were  used  for  light  among  the 
lower  classes  in  England  about  A.  D.  1300.  At  this  time  wax  candles  were 
little  used,  and  esteemed  a  luxury,  and  dipped  candles  usually  burnt.  The 
wax-chandlers'  company  was  incorporated,  1484.  Mould  candles  are  said 
to  be  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Brez  of  Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are  of 
modern  manufacture.  The  Chinese  candles  (see  Candleberry  Myrtle')  are 
made  from  the  berries  of  a  tree,  and  they  universally  burn  this  wax,  which 
is  fragrant,  and  yields  a  bright  light. 

CANDLEMAS- DAY.  A  feast  instituted  by  the  early  Christians,  who  conse- 
crated on  this  day  all  the  tapers  and  candles  used  in  churches  during  the 
year.  It  is  kept  in  the  reformed  church  in  memory  of  the  purification  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  submitting  to  the  law  under  which  she  lived,  pre- 
sented the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  light, 
this  festival  was  called  Candlemas,  as  well  as  the  Purification.  The  practice 
of  lighting  the  churches  was  discontinued  by  English  Protestants  by  an  order 
of  council  2  Edward  VI.  1548 ;  but  it  is  still  continued  in  the  church  of  Rome. 

CANNAE.  BATTLE  or.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  in  history,  and  most  fatal  to 
the  Romans.  Hannibal  commanded  on  one  side  50  000  Africans.  Gauls,  and 
Spaniards;  and  Paulus  JEmilius  and  Terentius  Varro,  88000  Romans,  of 
whom  40  000  were  slain. — Livy.  The  victor,  Hannibal,  sent  three  bushel.'* 
of  rings,  taken  from  the  Roman  knights  on  the  field,  as  a  trophy  to  Carthage. 
Neither  party  perceived  an  awful  earthquake  which  occurred  during  the 
battle.  The  place  is  now  denominated  the  field  of  blood  ;  fought  May  2! . 
216  B.  c. — Bossuet. 

CANNIBALISM  has  prevailed  from  the  remotest  times.  The  Greeks  inform 
us  that  it  was  a  primitive  »nd  universal  custom,  and  many  of  the  South 
13 


290  THE   WORLDS    PROGRESS. 

American  tribes  and  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  eat  human  flesh  at  the 
present  day,  and  the  propensity  for  it  prevails  more  or  less  in  all  savage 
nations.  St.  Jerome  says,  that  some  British  tribes  ate  human  flesh ;  and  the 
Scots  from  Galloway  killed  and  eat  the  English  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I, 
The  Scythians  were  drinkers  of  human  blood.  Columbus  found  cannibals  in 
America  See  Anthropophagi. 

CANNON.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  early  as  A.  D.  1338.  According 
to  some  of  our  historians  they  were  used  at  the  battle  of  Cressy  in  1346 ;  but 
,his  Voltaire  disputes.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  English  at 
the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  Cannon  were  first  used  in  the  English  service  by 
the  governor  of  Calais,  6  Richard  II.  1383. — Rymer's  Fasdera.  Louis  XIV. 
upon  setting  out  on  his  disastrous  campaign  against  the  Dutch,  inscribed 
upon  his  cannon,  "  The  last  argument  of  kings."  See  Artillery. 

CANNON,  REMARKABKK.  The  largest  known  piece  of  ordnance  is  of  brass,  cast 
in  India  in  1685.  At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in 
Germany,  opposite  Coblentz  on  the  Rhine,  is  a  prodigious  cannon  eighteen 
feet  and  a  half  long,  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  in  the  bore,  and  three  feet 
four  inches  in  the  breech.  The  ball  made  for  it  weighs  1801bs.  and  its  charge 
of  powder  941bs.  The  inscription  on  it  shows  that  it  was  made  by  one  Simon, 
in  1529.  In  Dover  castle  is  a  brass  gun  called  queen  Elizabeth's  pocket- 
pistol,  which  was  presented  to  her  by  the  States  of  Holland;  this  piece  is  24 
feet  long,  and  is  beautifully  ornamented,  having  on  it  the  arms  of  the  States, 
and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  importing  thus, 

"Charge  me  well,  and  sponge  me  cleat., 
I'll  throw  a  ball  to  Calais  Green." 

Some  fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Tower.  A  leathern  cannon  was 
fired  three  times  in  the  King's  Park,  Edinburgh,  Oct.  23,  1788. — Phillips. 

CANON.  The  first  ecclesiastical  canon  was  promulgated,  A.  D.  380. —  Usher. 
Canonical  hours  for  prayers  were  instituted  in  391.  The  dignity  of  canon 
existed  not  previously  to  the  rule  of  Charlemagne,  about  768. — Paschier. 
Canon  law  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  Gratian,  the  celebrated  canon 
law  autho1-,  in  1151,  and  was  introduced  into  England,  19  Stephen,  1154. — 
Stowe. 

CANONIZATION  of  pious  men  and  martyrs  as  saints,  was  instituted  in  the 
Romish  church  by  pope  Leo  III.  in  800. —  TaUent's  Tables.  Saints  have  so 
accumulated,  every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a  saint's  day. — H<:>iaidt. 

CANTERBURY.  The  Durovernum  of  the  Romans,  and  capital  of  Ethelbert, 
king  of  Kent,  who  reigned  A.  D.  560.  Its  early  cathedral  was  erected  during 
the  Heptarchy,  and  was  several  times  burnt,  and  rebuilt.  It  was  once  famous 
for  the  shrine  of  Becket  (see  Becket}  and  within  it  are  interred  Henry  IV.  and 
Edward  the  Black  Prince. 

CANTERBURY,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  OF.  This  see  was  settled  by  St.  Austin,  who 
preached  the  gospel  in  England  A.  D.  596,  and  converted  Ethelbert,  king  of 
K;nt.  The  king,  animated  with  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  bestowed  great 
farorsupon  Austin,  who  fixed  his  residence  in  the  capital  of  Ethelbert's 
dominions.  The  church  was  made  a  cathedral,  and  consecrated  to  Christ, 
although  it  was  formerly  called  St.  Thomas,  from  Thomas  a  Becket,  mur- 
dered at  its  altar,  December  1171.  The  archbishop  is  primate  and  metropo- 
litan of  all  England  and  is  the  first  peer 'in  the  realm  having  precedency  of 
all  officers  of  state,  and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  blood  royal.  Canterbury  had 
formerly  jurisdiction  over  Ireland,  and  the  archbishop  was  styled  a  patriarch. 
This  see  hath  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome.  18  saints  and  9  cardinals ;  and 
to  the  civil  state  of  England.  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord  treasurers.  St, 
Austin  was  the  first  bishop,  596  The  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  1073, 


CAP]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  291 

— See  York.  The  revenue  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  .£2816.  11 5.  9d.— 
Bcatson. 

CANTHARIDES.  A  venomous  kind  of  insects  which,  when  dried  and  pulver- 
ized, are  used  principally  to  raise  blisters.  They  were  first  introduced  into 
medica.  practice  by  Aretaeus,  a  physician  of  Cappadocia,  about  60  B.  c.— 
Prei'iid1 .  History  of  Physic. 

CANTON.  .  The  only  city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  have  been  allowed 
up  to  the  present  time  to  trade.  Merchants  first  arrived  here  for  this  pur- 
pose in  1517.  Nearly  every  nation  has  a  factory  at  Canton,  but  that  of  Eng- 
land surpasses  all  others  in  elegance  and  extent.  Various  particulars  relating 
to  this  city  will  be  found  under  the  article  China.  In  1822.  a  fire  destroyed 
15,000  houses  at  Canton ;  and  an  inundation  swept  away  10,000  houses  and 
more  than  1000  persons  in  October  1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  or  INDIAN  RUBBER,  is  an  elastic  resinous  substance  that  exudes 
by  incision  from  two  plants  that  grow  in  Cayenne,  Quito,  and  the  Brazils, 
called  HtKvia  caoutchouc  and  Siphonia  elastica,  and  vulgarly  called  syringe 
trees.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  from  South  America,  about  1733. — 
See  India  Rubber. 

CAP.  The  Romans  went  for  many  ages,  without  regular  covering  for  the  ^ead, 
and  hence  the  heads  of  all  the  ancient  statues  appear  bear.  But  a.  one 
period  the  cap  was  a  symbol  of  liberty,  and  when  the  Romans  gave  it  to  their 
slaves  it  entitled  them  to  freedom.  The  cap  was  sometimes  used  as  a  mark 
of  infamy,  and  in  Italy  the  Jews  were  distinguished  by  a  yellow  cap,  and  in 
France  those  who  had  been  bankrupts  were  for  ever  after  obliged  to  wear 
a  green  cap.  The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  icferred  to  the  year  1449; 
the  first  seen  in  these  parts  of  the  world  being  at  the  entry  of  Charles  VU. 
into  Rouen,  from  which  time  they  took  the  place  of  chaperons  or  hoods.  A 
statute  was  passed  that  none  should  sell  any  hat  above  2Qd.  (40  cts.)  nor  cap 
above  25.  8d.  (66  cts.)  5  Henry  VII.  1489. 

CAPE  BRETON,  discovered  by  the  English  in  1584.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1632.  but  was  afterwards  restored ;  and  again  taken  in  1745;  and 
re-taken  in  1748.  It  was  finally  possessed  by  the  English,  when  the  garrison 
and  marines,  consisting  of  5600  men,  were  made  prisoners  of  war,  and  eleven 
ships  of  the  French  navy  were  captured  or  destroyed,  1758.  Ceded  to  Eng 
land  at  the  peace  of  1763. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE,  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1610:  but  it  soon  fell  to 
the  Dutch.  It  was  demolished  by  admiral  Holmes,  in  1661.  All  the  British 
settlements,  factories,  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the 
Dutch  admiral,  de  Ruyter,  in  1665.  This  Cape  was  confirmed  to  the  English 
by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667. 

TAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE;  the  geographical  and  commercial  centre  of  the  East 
Indies :  it  was  discovered  by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  in  1486,  and  was  originally 
called  the  "  Cape  of  Tempests."  and  was  also  named  the  "  Lion  of  the  Sea," 
and  the  "Head  of  Africa."  The  name  was  changed  by  John  II.,  king  of 
Portugal,  who  augured  favorably  of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having 
reached  the  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Cape  was  doubled,  and  the  paasage 
to  India  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  Nov.  20.  1497.  Planted  by  tho 
Dutch,  1651.  Taken  by  the  English,  under  admiral  Elphinstone  and  general 
Clarke,  Sept.  16,  1795  and  restored  at  the  peace  in  1802 ;  again  token  by 
sit  David  Baird  and  sir  Home  Popham,  Jan.  8  1806 ;  and  finally  ceded  to 
England  in  1814.  Emigrants  began  to  arrive  here  from  Britain  in  March 
1820.  The  Caffres  have  made  several  irruptions  on  the  British  settlement] 
here ;  and  they  committed  dreadful  ravages  at  Grahamstown,  in  Oct.  T8tf4 
Battle  between  the  English  and  the  Boors,  Aug.  26.  1848. 


292  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  CAf 

CAPE  DE  VERD  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  undei 
the  name  of  Gorgades ;  but  were  not  visited  by  the  moderns  till  discovered 
by  Antonio  de  Noli,  a  Genoese  navigator  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1416. 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT,  BATTLES  OF.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  shij/s  of  war, 
and  the  Turkey  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Tourville, 
with  a  force  vastly  superior  to  his  own,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  twelve 
English  and  Dutch  raen-of-war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  captured  or 
destroyed  by  the  French,  June  16,  1693.  Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  one  of 
the  most  glorious  achievements  of  the  British  navy.  Sir  John  Jervis,  being' 
in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  of  fifteen  sail,  gave  battle  to  the 
Spanish  fleet  of  27  ships  of  the  line  off  this  Cape,  and  signally  defeated  the 
enemy,  nearly  double  in  strength,  taking  four  ships,  and  destroying  several 
others,  Feb.  14,  1797.  For  this  victory  Sir  John  was  raised  to  the  English 
peerage,  by  the  titles  of  baron  Jervis  and  earl  St.  Vincent,  with  a  pension  of 
3000/.  a  year. 

CAPET,  HOUSE  OP,  the  third  race  of  the  kings  of  France.  Hugo  Capet,  count 
of  Paris  and  Orleans,  the  first  of  this  race  (which  was  called  from  him  Cape- 
vigians),  was  raised  to  the  throne  for  his  military  valor,  and  public  virtues, 
A.  D.  QST.—Henault. 

CAPITOL,  the  principal  fortress  of  ancient  Rome,  in  which  a  temy.le  was  built 
to  Jupiter,  thence  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  foundation  laid  by  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus.  616  B.  c.  The  Roman  Consuls  made  large  donations  to 
this  temple,  and  the  emperor  Augustus  bestowed  2000  pounds  weight  of 
gold,  of  which  precious  metal  the  roof  was  composed,  whilst  its  thresholds 
were  of  brass,  and  its  interior  was  decorated  with  shields  of  solid  silver.  De- 
stroyed by  lightning,  188  B.  c. ;  by  fire,  A.  n.  70.  The  Capitoline  games  in- 
stituted by  Domitian,  A.  D.  86. 

CAPPADOCIA.  This  kingdom  was  founded  by  Pharnaces,  744  B.  c.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Pharnaces  are  almost  wholly  unknown,  until  about  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  after  whose  death  Eumenes,  by  defeating  Ariarathes  II. 
became  king  of  Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces  is  declared  king      -       B.  p.  744        in§  the  throne^  poisons  five  of  her  own 


His  successors  are  unknown  for  nearly 
three  centuries. 

*          *  *          *  *  * 

Reign  of  Ariarathea  I.  -          -  362 

Perdiccas  takes  Cappadocia,  and  Aria- 
rathes is  crucified  -  •  -      -  322 
Defeat  of  the  Panhians   -          -          -  217 
Irruption  of  the  Trocmi       •          -      -  164 
Mithridaies,  sumamed  Philopator,  as- 
cends the  throne           ...  162 
Orophemes  dethrones  Philopator         •  161 
Attains   assists    Philopator,   and  Oro- 

phenies  dethroned  -  -  -         154 

Philopator  joins   the  Remans  against 
Aristonicus,  and  perishes  in  battle     -  153 


children,  the  suth  and  only  remaining 
child  is  saved,  and  the  queen  put  to 
death  •  •  •  .  -153 

This  young  prince  reigns  as  Ariarathes 


VII. 

Gordius  assassinates  Ariarathes  VII. 
Ariarathes  VIII.  assassinated 
Cappadocia  declared  a  free  country  b1 

the  senate  of  Rome 
The  people  elect  a  new  king  Ariobar 


zanes 


His  son,  Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns 
He  is  dethroned  by  Marc  Antony 
Archelaus,  the  last  king  of  Cappadocia, 
dies,  and  bequeaihes  his  kingdom  to 


153 
97 

M 

m 


m 


His  queen,  Laodice,  desirous  of  usurp-  the  Roman  empire  -  A.  n.    17 

CAPRI.  The  Capreae  of  the  Romans,  and  memorable  as  the  residence  of  Tibe- 
rius and  for  the  debaucheries  he  committed  in  this  once  delightful  rotreat, 
during  the  seven  last  years  of  his  life:  it  was  embellished  by  him  with  a 
sumptuous  palace,  and  most  magnificent  works.  Capri  was  taken  by  sii 
Sidney  Smith,  April  22,  1806. 

C'APUCHTN  FRIARS.  A  sort  of  Franciscans  to  whom  this  name  was  given, 
from  their  wearing  a  great  Capuc/wn.  or  cowl,  which  is  an  odd  kind  of  cap,  or 
hood  sewn  to  their  habit,  and  hanging  down  upon  their  backs.  The  Capu- 
chins were  founded  by  Matthew  Baschi,  about  A.  D.  1525.  Altho  igh  th«,» 


CAB.  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  293, 

rigors  of  this  order  have  abated,  still  the  brethren  are  remarkable  for  theil 
extreme  poverty  and  privations. — Ashe. 

CAR.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  about  1486  B.  c.  Th« 
covered  cars  (currus  arcuati)  were  in  use  among  the  Romans.  Triumphal 
cars  were  introduced  by  Romulus,  according  to  some ;  and  by  Tarquin  the 
Elder,  according  to  others. 

CARACCAS.  One  of  the  early  Spanish  discoveries,  A.  D.  1498.  The  province 
declared  its  independence  of  Spain,  May  9,  1810.  In  1812,  it  was  visited  by 
a  violent  convulsion  of  nature ;  thousands  of  human  beings  were  lost ;  rocks 
and  mountains  split,  and  rolled  into  valleys ;  the  rivers  were  blackened  or 
their  courses  changed ;  and  many  towns  swallowed  up,  and  totally  destroyed. 

CARBONARI.  A  dangerous  and  powerful  society  in  Italy,  a  substitute  for 
freemasonry,  which  committed  the  most  dreadful  outrages,  and  spread  terror 
in  several  states ;  they  were  suppressed,  however,  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment in  Sept.  1820. 

CARDINALS.  They  are  properly  the  council  of  the  pope,  atd  constitute  the 
conclave  or  sacred  college.  At  first  they  were  only  the  principal  priests,  or 
incumbents  of  the  parishes  in  Rome.  On  this  footing  they  continued  till  the 
eleventh  century.  They  did  not  acquire  the  exclusive  power  of  electing  the 
popes  till  A.  D.  1160.  They  first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind  them  that  they 
ought  to  shed  their  blood,  if  required,  for  religion,  and  were  declared  princes 
of  the  church,  by  Innocent  IV.,  1243.  Paul  II.  gave  the  scarlet  habit.  1464  ; 
and  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of  Eminence  in  1630 ;  some  say  in  1623. — Du  Cange. 

CARDS.  Their  invention  is  referred  to  the  Romans ;  but  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  they  were  invented  in  France  about  the  year  1390,  to  amuse  Charles  VI. 
during  the  interval;}  of  a  melancholy  disorder,  which  in  the  end  brought 
him  to  his  grave. — Mezerai,  Hist,  de  France.  The  universal  adoption  of  an 
amusement  which  was  invented  for  a  fool,  is  no  very  favorable  specimen  of 
wisdom. — Malkm.  Cards  are  of  Spanish,  not  of  French  origin. — Dainef 
Harrington.  Picquet  and  all  the  early  games  are  French.  Cards  first  taxed 
in  England,  1756.  428:000  packs  were  stamped  in  1775,  and  986,000  in  1800. 
In  1825,  the  duty  being  then  2s.  6d.  per  pack,  less  than  150,000  packs  were 
stamped ;  but  in  1827,  the  stamp  duty  was  reduced  to  Is.,  and  310,854  packs 
paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty  was  paid  on  239,200  packs,  in  the  year  ending  5th 
Jan.  1840.— Part.  Reports. 

CARICATURES  originated,  it  is  said,  with  Bufalmaco,  an  Italian  painter:  he 
first  put  labels  to  the  mouths  of  his  figures  with  sentences,  since  follov/ed  by 
bad  masters,  but  more  particularly  in  caricature  engravings,  about  1330. — 
De  Piks.  A  new  and  much  improved  style  of  caricatures  has  latterly  set  in ; 
and  the  productions  in  this  way  of  a  clever  but  concealed  artist,  using  the 
initials  H.  B.,  ar<*  political  satires  of  considerable  humor  and  merit. — Haydn. 

C  A  RLISLE.  The  frontier  town  and  key  of  England,  wherein  for  many  ages  a 
strong  garrison  was  kept.  The  castle,  founded  in  1092,  by  William  II.,  was 
made  the  prison  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  in  1568.  Taken 
by  the  parliament  forces  in  1645.  and  by  the  pretender  in  1745. 

CARLSBAD,  CONGRESS  OF,  on  the  affairs  of  Europe:  The  popular  spirit  ol 
emancipation  that  prevailed  in  many  of  the  states  of  Europe  against  despotic 
government,  led  to  this  congress,  in  which  various  resolutions  were  come 
to,  denouncing  the  press,  and  liberal  opinions,  and  in  which  the  great  conti- 
nental powers  decreed  measures  to  repress  the  rage  for  limited  monarchic* 
and  free  institutions,  August  1,  1819. 

CARMELITES,  OR  WHITE  FRIARS,  named  from  Mount  Carmel,  and  one  of  tht 
four  orders  of  mendicants,  distinguished  by  austere  rules,  appeared  in  1141. 
Their  rigor  was  moderated  about  1640.  They  claim  their  descent  in  an  no- 


294  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [oaf, 

interrupted  succession  from  Elijah.  Elisha,  &c.  Mount  C%rr;iel  has  a  monas- 
tery, and  the  valley  of  Sharon  lies  to  the  south  of  the  mount,  which  is  2000 
feet  high,  shaped  like  a  flatted  cone,  with  steep  and  barren  sides:  it  is  often 
referred  to  in  Jewish  histories. 

"  See  spicy  clouds  from  lowly  Sharon  rise, 
And  Carmel's  flowery  top  perfumes  the  skies." — Pope. 

CAROLINA,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1550.  A  body  of  English, 
amounting  to  about  860  persons,  landed  and  settled  here  in  1667 ;  and  Caro- 
lina was  granted  to  lord  Berkeley  and  others  a  few  years  afterwards.  See 
2V.  <f-  S.  Carolina. 

CARPETS  They  were  in  use,  at  least  in  some  kind,  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Amos,  about  800  B.  c. — Amus  ii  8.  Carpets  were  spread  on  the  ground,  on 
which  persons  sat  who  dwelt  in  tents;  but  when  first  used  in  houses, 
even  in  the  East,  we  have  no  record.  In  the  12th  century  carpets  were  arti- 
cles of  luxury ;  and  in  England,  it  is  mentioned  as  an  instance  of  Becket's 
splendid  style  of  living,  that  his  sumptuous  apartments  were  every  day  in 
winter  strewn  with  clean  straw  or  hay;  about  A.  D.  1160.  The  manufacture 
of  woollen  carpets  was  introduced  into  France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  between  1589  and  1610.  Some  artisans  who  had  quitted  France 
in  disgust  went  to  England,  and  established  the  carpet  manufacture,  about 
1750.  There,  as  with  most  nations,  Persian  and  Turkey  carpets,  especially 
the  former,  are  most  prized.  The  famous  Axminster,  Wilton,  and  Kidder- 
minster manufacture  is  the  growth  of  the  last  hundred  years.  The  manu- 
facture of  Kidderminster  and  Brussels  carpets  has  much  advanced  within 
fifteen  years,  at  Lowell,  Mass,  and  Thomsonville  Conn. 

CARRIAGES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  who 
produced  the  first  chariot  about  1486  B.  c.  Carriages  were  known  in  France 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  A.  D.  1547 ;  but  they  were  of  very  rude  construction, 
and  rare.  They  seem  to  have  been  known  in  England  in  1555;  but  not  the 
art  of  making  them.  Close  carriages  of  good  workmanship  began  to  be  used 
by  persons  of  the  highest  quality  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Hen- 
ry IV.  had  one,  but  without  straps  or  springs.  Their  construction  was  va- 
rious: they  were  first  made  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  were 
then  called  whirlicotes.  The  duke  of  Buckingham,  in  1619,  drove  six  horses; 
and  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove  eight.  They  were  first 
let  for  hire  in  Paris,  in  1650,  at  the  Hotel  Fiacre;  and  hence  their  name. 
See  Coaches. 

\  CARTESIAN  DOCTRINES.  Their  author  was  Rene1  des  Cartes,  the  French 
philosopher,  who  promulgated  them  in  1647.  He  was  an  original  thinker : 
his  metaphysical  principle  "  I  think,  therefore  I  am,"  is  refuted  by  Mr.  Locke ; 
and  his  physical  principle,  that  "nothing  exists  but  substance,"  is  disprov- 
ed by  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  His  celebrated  system  abounds  in  great 
singularities  and  originalities;  but  a  spirit  of  independent  thought  prevails 
throughout  it.  and  has  contributed  to  excite  the  same  spirit  in  others.  Des 
Cartes  was  the  most  distinguished  philosopher  of  his  time  and  country.— 
Dvfresnoy. 

CARTHAGE,  founded  by  Dido,  or  Elissa,  sister  of  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre, 
869  E.  c.  She  fled  from  that  tyrant,  who  had  killed  her  husband  and  took 
refuge  in  Africa.  Carthage  became  so  powerful  as  to  dispute  the  empire  of 
the  world  with  Rome,  which  occasioned  the  Punic  wars,  and  the  total  demo- 
lition of  that  city.  Taken  by  Scipio,  and  burned  to  the  ground  146  B.  c. 
when  the  flames  raged  during  seventeen  days,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants 
perished  in  them,  rather  than  survive  the  subjection  of  their  country.  The 
Roman  senate  ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  that  no  trace  might  remain  ol 
tbis  once  powerful  republic. — Eusebius. 


CAB] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


205 


CARTHAGE,  continued. 

Dido  arrives  in  Africa,  and  builds  Byrsa. 

—Blair  -  -  B.  c.  869 

First  alliance  of  the  Carthaginians  with 

the  Romans  •  -  -       -  509 

The  Carthaginians  in  Sicily  are  defeated 
by  Gelo ;  the  elder  Hamilcar  perishes. 
Herodotus,  1.  vii.  -  -  480 

They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily         -  407 
The  siege  of  Syracuse  -      -396 

The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  -  379 

Their  defeat  by  Timoleon  -  -340 

They  are  defeated  by  Agathocles,  and 
immolate  their  children  on  the  altar  of 
Saturn,  thereby  to  propitiate  the  gods  -  310 
The  first  Punic  war  begins  -         -264 

The  Carthaginians  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  a  naval  engagement  -  -  260 
Xantippus  defeats  Regulus  -  -  255 
Re-'ulus  is  crucified  -  -  -  -  256 
Asdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus  -  -  251  I 
Romans  defeated  before  Lilybceum  -  250  i 
End  of  the  first  Punic  war  -  -  241 1 
War  between  the  Carthaginians  and 

African  mercenaries     -  -  -  241 

Hamilcar  Barcas  is  sent  into  Spain ;  he 
takes  wiih  him  his  son,  the  famous 


Hannibal,  at  the  age  of  nine  years, 
having  first  made  him  swear  an  eter- 
nal enmity  to  the  Romans        -     B.  c.  237 
Hamilcar  is  killed  in  battle  by  the  Vet- 
tones       -  -  -  -  -  227 
Asdrubal  is  assassinated  ...  220 
Hannibal  subjects  all  Spain,  aa  far  as 

the  Iberus          -  -  -  -  219 

The  second  Punic  war  begins  -     -219 

First  great  victory  of  Hannibal  -  •  217 

Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps,  anvl  enters 

Italy  wiih  100.000  men      -  -      -  217 

Great  battle  of  Cannae  (which  see)  •  210 
New  Carthage  taken  by  Pub.  Scipio  -  210 
Asdrubal,  brother  of  Hannibal,  defeated 

and  slain  in  Italy  -  -  -  207 

The  Carthaginians  expelled  Spain  -  -  2CXi 
Scipio  arrives  In  Africa,  and  lays  siege 

to  Utica       -  -  -  -      -  204 

Hannibal  recalled  from  Italy      -  -  203 

Great  battle  of  Zama  (ukich  see)  -  202 
An  ignominious  peace  ends  the  second 

Punic  war         ....  201 
The  third  Punic  war  begins  -      -  149 

Destruction  of  Carthage,  which  is  burned 
to  the  ground     ....  146 


CARTHAGENA,  or  New  CARTHAGE,  in  Spain;  built  by  Asdrubal,  the  Ca.  tha- 
ginian  general,  227  B.  c.  From  here  Hannibal  set  out  in  his  memorable 
mareh  to  invade  Italy,  crossing  the  Alps,  217  B.  c.  Carthagena,  in  Colombia, 
was  taken  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1584.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  French  of 
jEl. 200,000  in  1697  ;  and  was  bombarded  by  admiral  Vernon  in  1740-1,  but 
he  was  obliged,  though  he  took  the  forts,  to  raise  the  siege. 

CARTHUSIANS.  A  religious  order  founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  who  retired 
from  the  converse  of  the  world,  in  1084,  to  Chartreuse,  in  the  mountains  of 
Dauphine".  Their  rules  were  formed  by  Basil  VII..  general  of  the  order,  and 
were  peculiarly  distinguished  for  their  austerity.  The  monks  could  not 
leave  their  cells,  nor  speak,  without  express  leave ;  and  their  clothing  was 
cwo  hair  cloths,  two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  and  a  cloak,  all  coarse.  The 
general  takes  the  title  of  prior  of  the  Chartreuse,  the  principal  monastery, 
from  which  the  order  is  named. — Auberti;  Mirai  Origines  Carthus. 

CARTOONS  OP  RAPHAEL.  They  were  designed  in  the  chambers  of  the  Va- 
tican, under  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X..  about  1510  to  1515.  The  seven  of  them 
that  are  preserved  were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.  of 
England,  for  Hampton-court  palace,  in  1629.  These  matchless  works  repre- 
sent— 1,  The  miraculous  draught  of  Fishes;  2,  the  Charge  to  Peter;  3,  Peter 
and  John  healing  the  Lame  at  the  gate  of  the  Temple ;  4,  the  Death  of  Ana- 
nias; 5,  Elymas,  the  Sorcerer,  struck  with  Blindness;  6,  the  Sacrifice  to 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  by  the  people  of  Lystra ;  7,  Paul  preaching  at  Athens. 

CARVING.  We  have  scriptural  authority  for  its  early  introduction.  See  Ex- 
odus xxxi.  The  art  of  carving  is  first  mentioned  in  profane  history  772  B.  c. 
and  is  referred  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  first  in  wood  next  in  stone,  and 
afterwards  in  marble  and  brass.  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis  were  eminent  carvers 
and  sculptors,  and  opened  a  school  of  statuary,  568  B.  c. — Pliny.  See  arti- 
cle Sculptures.  Carvers  of  meat,  called  by  the  Greeks  deribitares,  are  mention- 
ed by  Homer. 

CASHMERE  SHAWLS.  The  district  from  whence  come  these  costly  shawls 
is  described  as  being  "the  happy  valley,  and  a  paradise  in  perpetual  spring." 
The  true  Cashmere  shawls  can  be  manufactured  of  no  other  wool  than  that 
Thibet.  They  were  first  brought  to  England  in  1666 ;  but  they  were  well 
imitated  by  the  spinning  at  Bradford,  and  the  looms  of  Huddersfield, 


296  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  ("CAT 

Shawls  for  the  omrahs,  of  the  Thibetian  wool,  cost  150  rupees  each,  about 
the  year  1650. — Bernier. 

GASTEL  NUOVO,  BATTLE  OF.  The  Russians  defeated  by  the  French  army. 
Sept.  29,  1806.  Castel  Nuovo  has  several  times  suffered  under  the  dreadful 
visitation  of  earthquakes:  in  the  great  earthquake  which  convulsed  all  Na- 
ples and  Sicily,  in  1783,  this  totfn  was  almost  obliterated.  It  is  recorded 
that  an  inhabitant  of  Castel  Nuovo,  being  on  a  hill  at  no  great  distance, 
looking  back,  saw  no  remains  of  the  town,  but  only  a  black  smoke ;  4000 
persons  perished ;  and  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  more  than  40;000. 

CASTIGLIONE,  BATTLE  OF.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the  French 
arms,  under  general  Bonaparte,  against  the  main  army  of  the  Austrians. 
commanded  by  general  Wurmser :  the  battle  lasted  five  days  successively. 
from  the  2d  to  the  6th  July,  1796.  Bonaparte  stated  the  enemy's  loss  in 
this  obstinate  conflict  at  70  field-pieces,  all  his  caissons,  between  12  and  15,- 
000  prisoners,  and  6000  killed  and  wounded. 

CASTILE.  The  most  powerful  government  of  the  Goths  was  established  here 
about  A.  D.  800.  Ferdinand,  count  of  Castile,  assumed  the  title  of  king  in 
1020.  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Christian  dominions  in  Spain  were  united  in  one  monarchy,  1474. 
See  Arragon  and  Spain. 

CASTLES.  Anciently  British  castles  were  tall  houses,  strongly  fortified,  and 
built  on  the  tops  of  hills,  with  gates  and  walls.  The  castle  of  the  Anglo 
Saxon  was  a  tower-keep,  either  round  or  square,  and  ascended  by  a  flight  01 
steps  in  front.  There  were  eleven  hundred  castles  built  in  England  by  the 
nobles,  by  permission  of  king  Stephen,  A.  D.  1135,  and  1154:  most  of  these 
were  demolished  by  Henry  II.,  who  deprived  the  barons  of  such  possessions, 
on  his  accession,  in  1154. 

CATACOMBS;  the  early  depositories  of  the  dead.  The  name  first  denoted 
the  tombs  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  the  burial-places 
of  all  martyrs.  They  were  numerous  in  Egypt;  andBelzoni.  in  1815  and  1818, 
explored  many  catacombs  both  in  that  country  and  Thebes,  built  3000  years 
ago:  among  others,  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  ancient  sculpture,  the  temple  of  Psam- 
maticus  the  Powerful,  whose  sarcophagus,  formed  of  the  finest  oriental 
alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured,  he  brought  to  England.  Many  other  na- 
tions had  their  catacombs ;  there  were  some  of  great  extent  at  Rome.  The 
Parisian  catacombs  were  projected  A.  D.  1777.  The  bodies  found  in  cata- 
combs, especially  those  of  Egypt,  are  called  mummies.  See  Embalming. 

CATANIA,  OR  CATANEA.  At  the  foot  of  mount  Etna.  Founded  by  a  colony 
from  Chalcis,  753  B.  c.  Ceres  had  a  temple  here,  in  which  none  but  women 
were  permitted  to  appear.  This  ancient  city  is  remarkable  for  the  dreadftu 
overthrows  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  at  various  times  from  its  vicinity 
to  Etna,  which  has  discharged,  in  some  of  its  eruptions,  a  stream  of  lava 
four  miles  broad  and  fifty  feet  deep,  advancing  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  in 
a  day.  Catania  was  almost  totally  overthrown  by  an  eruption  of  Etna  in 
1669.  By  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  1693."  Catania  was  nearly  swal- 
lowed up.  and  in  a  moment  more  than  18  000  of  its  inhabitants  were  biiricd 
in  the  ruins  of  the  city.  An  earthquake  did  great  damage,  and  a  number 
of  persons  perished  here,  Feb.  22,  1817. 

CATAFHRYGIANS.  A  sect  of  heretics,  so  called  because  they  were  Phry- 
gians, who  followed  the  errors  of  Montanus.  They  made  up  the  bread  or 
the  eucharist  with  the  blood  of  infants  whom  they  pricked  to  death  with 
needles,  and  then  looked  upon  them  as  martyrs. — Pnnl/m. 

CATAPULTS.  Ancient  military  engines  for  throwing  stones  of  immense 
weight,  darts,  and  arrows ;  invented  by  Dionysius,  399  B.  c.—Josephus.  They 


CAUj  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  297 

were  capable  of  throwing  darts  and  javelins  of  four  and  five  yards  length.— 

Pardon. 

C  A.THOLIC  MAJESTY.  The  title  of  Catholic  was  first  given  by  pope  Gre- 
gory III.  to  Alphonsus  I.  of  Spain,  who  was  thereupon  surnamed  the  Catho- 
lic; A.  D.  739  The  title  of  Catholic  was  also  given  to  Ferdinand'V.,  1474. 
See  Spain. 

CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY.  Sergius  L.  Catiline,  a  Roman  of  noble  family, 
having  squandered  away  his  fortune  by  his  debaucheries  and  extravagance, 
and  having  been  refused  the  consulship,  he  secretly  meditated  the  ruin  ci 
his  country,  and  conspired  with  many  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Romans, 
as  dissolute  as  himself,  to  extirpate  the  senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  set 
Rome  on  fire.  This  conspiracy  was  timely  discovered  by  the  consul  Cicero, 
whom  he  had  resolved  to  murder ;  and  on  seeing  five  of  his  accomplices 
arrested,  he  retired  to  Gaul,  where  his  partisans  were  assembling  an  army. 
Cicero  punished  the  condemned  conspirators  at  home,  while  Petreir.s 
attacked  Catiline's  ill-disciplined  forces,  and  routed  them,  and  the  consph- 
ator  was  killed  in  the  engagement,  about  the  middle  of  December,  63  B.  c. 
His  character  has  been  branded  with  the  foulest  infamy,  and  to  the  violence 
he  offered  to  a  vestal,  he  added  the  murder  of  his  own  brother ;  and  it  is 
said  that  he  and  his  associates  drank  human  blood  to  render  their  oaths 
more  firm  and  inviolable. — Sallust. 

C  ATO,  SUICIDE  OF.  Termed  as  the  "  era  destructive  of  the  liberties  of  Rome." 
Cato,  the  Roman  patriot  and  philosopher,  considered  freedom  as  that  which 
alone  "  sustains  the  name  and  dignity  of  man:"  unable  to  survive  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country,  he  stabbed  himself  at  Utica.  By  this  rash  act  of 
suicide,  independently  of  all  moral  considerations,  Cato  carried  his  patriot- 
ism to  the  highest  degree  of  political  frensy ;  for  Cato,  dead,  could  be  of 
no  use  to  his  country ;  but  had  he  preserved  his  life,  his  counsels  might 
have  moderated  Caesar's  ambition,  and  have  given  a  different  turn  to  public 
affairs.  Feb.  5,  45  B.  c.  — Montesquieu. 

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY.  The  mysterious  plot  of  a  gang  of  low  and 
desperate  politicians,  whose  object  was  the  assassination  of  the  ministers  of 
the  crown,  with  a  view  to  other  sanguinary  and  indiscriminate  outrages, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  government :  the  conspirators  were  arrested  Feb. 
23,  1820 ;  and  Thistlewood  and  his  four  principal  associates,  Brunt,  Davison, 
Ings,  and  Tidd,  after  a  trial  commenced  on  April  17th.  which  ended  in  their 
co  :viction.  were  executed  according  to  the  then  horrid  manner  of  traitors, 
on  May  1.  following. — Haydn. 

CAUCASUS.  A  mountain  of  immense  height,  a  continuation  of  the  ridge  of 
Mount  Taurus,  between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas,  inhabited  anciently 
by  various  savage  nations  who  lived  upon  the  wild  fruits  of  the  earth.  It 
was  covered  with  snow  in  some  parte,  and  in  others  was  variegated  with 
fruitful  orchards  and  plantations :  its  people  were  at  one  time  supposed  to 
gather  gold  on  the  shores  of  their  rivulets,  but  they  afterwards  lived  with- 
out making  use  of  money.  Prometheus  was  tied  on  the  top  of  Caucasus  by 
Jupiter,  and  continually  devoured  by  vultures,  according  to  ancient  autluus, 
1648  B.  c.  The  passes  near  the  mountain  were  called  Caucasia:  Porta,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  through  them  the  Sarmatians.  called  Huns  made  their 
way,  when  they  invaded  the  provinces  of  Rome,  A.  D.  447. — Strabo.  Hero- 
dolns. 

CAUSTIC  IN  PAINTING.  The  branch  of  the  art  so  called  is  a  method  of 
burning  the  colors  into  wood  or  ivory.  Gausias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon,  was 
the  inventor  of  this  process.  He  made  a  beautiful  painting  of  his  mistress 
Glycere.  whom  he  represented  as  sitting  on  the  ground,  and  making  gai- 
lands  of  flowers;  and  from  this  circumstance  the  picture,  which  WM 
13* 


298  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [CEM 


bought  afterwards  by  Lucullus  for  two  talents,  received  the  name  of 
noplocon,  335  B.  c.  —  Plinii  Hist.  Nat. 

CAVALIERS.  This  appellation  was  given  as  a  party  name  in  England  to  those 
who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  king  during  the  unhappy  war  which  brought 
Charlef  I.  to  the  scaffold.  They  were  so  called  in  opposition  to  the  Round- 
heads, or  friends  of  the  parliament,  between  1642  and  1649.  —  Hume. 

CAVALRY.  Of  the  ancient  nations  the  Romans  were  the  most  celebrated  fo' 
their  cavalry,  and  for  its  discipline  and  efficiency.  Attached  to  each  of  the 
Roman  legions  was  a  body  of  horse  300  strong,  in  ten  turmae  ;  the  com- 
mander was  always  a  veteran,  and  chosen  for  his  experience  and  valor.  In  the 
early  ages,  the  Persians  brought  the  greatest  force  of  cavalry  into  the  field  : 
they  had  10,000  horse  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.  c.  :  and  10,000 
Persian  horse  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.  c.  —  Plutarch. 

CAYENNE.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1625,  but  they  left  it  in  1654.  It 
was  afterwards  successively  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  French,  and  Dutch. 
These  last  were  expelled  by  the  French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by 
the  British,  Jan.  12,  1809,  but  was  restored  to  the  French  at  the  peace  in 
1814.  In  this  settlement  is  produced  the  capsicum  baccatum,  or  cayenne 
pepper,  so  esteemed  in  Europe. 

CELESTIAL  GLOBE.  A  celestial  sphere  was  brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt, 
368  B,  c.  A  planetarium  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before  212  B.  c. 
The  celestial  globe  was  divided  into  constellations  after  the  age  of  Perseus. 
The  great  celestial  globe  of  Gottorp,  planned  after  a  design  of  Tycho  Brache, 
and  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  was  eleven  feet  in 
diameter  :  and  that  at  Pembroke-hall,  Cambridge,  erected  by  Dr.  Long,  is 
eighteen  feet.  See  Globes. 

CELESTINS.  A  religious  order  of  monks,  reformed  from  the  Bernardins  by 
pope  Celestine  V.  in  1294.  The  order  of  nuns  was  instituted  about  the 
same  period. 

CELIBACY,  and  the  monastic  life,  preached  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt,  about 
A.  D.  305.  The  early  converts  to  this  doctrine  lived  in  caves  and  desolate 
places  till  regular  monasteries  were  founded.  The  doctrine  was  rejected  at 
the  council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325.  Celibacy  was  enjoined  on  bishops  only  in 
692.  The  Romish  clergy  generally  were  compelled  to  a  vow  of  celibacy  in 
1073.  Its  observance  was  finally  established  by  the  council  of  PJacentia, 
held  in  10%.  Among  the  illustrious  philosophers  of  antiquity,  the  follow- 
ing were  unfriendly  to  matrimony:  —  Plato.  Pythagoras.  Epicurus,  Bion. 
Anaxagoras,  Heraclitus,  Democritus,  and  Diogenes  ;  and  the  following 
among  the  moderns  :  —  Newton,  Locke,  Boyle,  Gibbon.  Hume,  Adam  Smith. 
Harvey  Leibnitz,  Bayle,  Hobbes,  Hampden,  sir  F.  Drake,  earl  of  Essex, 
Pitt,  Michael  Angelo,  the  three  Caraceis,  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Haydn, 
Handel  Wolsey,  Pascal,  Fenelon,  Pope,  Akenside,  Goldsmith,  Gray,  Collins, 
Thompson,  and  Jeremy  Bentham. 

CEMETERIES.  The  ancients  had  not  the  unwise  custom  of  crowding  all 
their  dead  in  the  midst  of  their  towns  and  cities,  within  the  narrow  pre 
cincts  of  a  place  reputed  sacred,  much  less  of  amassing  them  in  the  bosom 
of  their  fanes  and  temples.  The  burying  places  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
wert  at  a  distance  from  their  towns  ;  and  the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in 
gard  jns  —  John  xix.  41  ;  and  in  fields,  and  aicong  rocks  and  mountains  — 
Mattheio  xxvii,  60.  The  present  practice  was  introduced  by  the  Romish 
clergy,  who  pretended  that  the  dead  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  by  being 
interred  in  consecrated  ground.  The  burying-places  of  the  Turks  are  hand- 
some and  agreeable,  and  it  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  many  tine  plants  thai 
grow  in  them,  and  which  they  carefully  place  over  their  dead.  It  is  only 


CEY  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  299 

within  a  very  few  years  that  public  cemeteries  have  been  formed  in  thes< 
countries,  although  the  crowded  state  of  our  many  churchyards,  and  the 
danger  to  health  of  burial-places  in  the  midst  of  dense  populations,  called 
for  some  similar  institutions  to  that  of  the  celebrated  P&re  la  Chaise  at 
Paris.  Six  public  cemeteries  have  been  recently  opened  in  London 
suburbs.  The  inclosed  area  of  each  of  these  cemeteries  is  planted  and  laid 
out  in  walks  after  the  manner  of  Pfere  la  Chaise.*  There  are  similar  ceme- 
teries in  Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  other  towns ;  and  in  Ireland,  at  Cork, 
Dublin.  &c.  Some  of  the  rural  cemeteries  of  the  United  States,  especially 
that  at  Mount  Auburn,  near  Boston  (opened  1831),  Laurel  Hill,  Philadelphia 
(183-),  and  Greenwood,  near  New-York  (1839),  are  far  more  beautiful  in 
their  natural  features  than  any  of  those  near  London  or  Paris. 

CENSORS.  Roman  magistrates,  whose  duty  it  was  to  survey  and  rate,  and 
correct  the  manners  of  the  people ;  their  power  was  also  extended  over 
private  families,  and  they  restrained  extravagance.  The  two  lirst  censors 
were  appointed  443  B.  c.  The  office  was  abolished  by  the  emperors. 

CENSUS.  In  the  Roman  polity,  a  general  estimate  of  every  man's  estate  and 
personal  effects,  delivered  to  the  government  upon  oath  every  five  years : 
established  by  Servius  Tullius,  566  B.  c. — Legal  Polity  of  the  R&man  Stale. 
In  England  the  census,  formerly  not  periodical,  is  now  taken  at  decennial 
periods,  of  which  the  last  were  the  years  1811, 1821,  and  1831 ;  and  the  new 
census,  1841. 

CENSUS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  has  been  taken  at  six  different  periods, 
viz.  1790,  1800,  1810,  1820,  1030,  and  1840.  The  seventh  census  is  taken 
this  year,  1850. — See  Population. 

CENTURION.  The  captain,  head,  or  commander  of  a  subdivision  of  a  Ro- 
man legion,  which  consisted  of  100  men,  and  was  called  a  centuria.  He  was 
distinguished  by  a  branch  of  vine  which  he  carried  in  his  hand.  By  the 
Roman  census,  each  hundred  of  the  people  was  called  a  centuria,  566  B.  c. 

CENTURY.  The  method  of  computing  by  centuries  was  first  generally 
observed  in  ecclesiastical  history,  and  commenced  from  the  time  of  our 
Redeemer's  incarnation,  A.  D.  1.  It  is  a  period  that  is  particularly  regarded 
by  church  historians. — Pardon. 

CERES.  This  planet,  which  is  only  160  miles  in  diameter,  was  discovered  by 
M.  Piazzi,  astronomer  royal  at  Palermo,  on  the  1st.  of  Jan.  1801.  To  the 
naked  eye  it  is  not  visible,  nor  will  glasses  of  a  very  high  magnifying 
power  show  it  with  a  distinctly  defined  diameter.  Pallas,  discovered  by 
Dr.  Olbers,  is  still  smaller. 

CEYLON.  The  natives  claim  for  this  island  the  seat  of  paradise ;  it  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  A.  D.  1505  ;  but  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  in 
the  time  of  Claudius.  A.  D.  41.  The  capital,  Colombo,  was  taken  by  the 
Hollanders  in  1603;  and  was  recovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1621.  The 
Dutch  again  took  it  in  1656.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  was  taken  by 
the  British  in  1782,  but  was  restored  the  next  year.  The  Dutch  settlements 

*  Pi?  re  la  Chaise  takes  its  name  from  a  French  Jesuit,  who  was  a  favorite  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
his  coi'fessor.  He  died  in  1709 ;  ami  the  site  of  his  house  and  grounds  at  Paris  is  now  occupied  by 
thh  beautiful  cemetery.  It  was  a  practice  of  high  antiquity  to  plant  herbs  and  flowers  about  the 
graves  of  the  dead.  The  women  in  Egypt  go  weekly  to  pray  and  weep  at  the  sepulchres,  and  it  ia 
then  usual  to  throw  a  sort  of  herb  (our  sweet-basil)  upon  the  tombs;  which  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
Turkey  in  Europe,  are  also  adorned  either  with  the  leaves  of  the  palm-tree,  boughs  of  myrtle,  or 
cypresses  planted  at  the  head  and  feet.  Between  some  of  the  tombs  is  placed  a  chest  of  ornamented 
stone,  filled  with  earth,  in  which  are  planted  herbs  and  aromatic  flowers.  These  are  regularly  cul- 
tivated by  females,  who  assemble  in  groups  for  that  duty.  At  Aleppo,  there  grow  many  myrtlea 
which  they  diligently  propagate,  because  they  are  beautiful,  and  remain  long  green,  to  f  ut  aboU 
iheir graves. — Mallet;  Oumdler  ;  Butler. 


300  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  CHA 

were  seized  by  the  British ;  Trincomalee  Aug.  26,  1795,  and  Jaffnapatam,  in 
Sept.  same  year.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens 
in  1802.  The  British  troops  were  treacherously  massacred,  or  imprisoned 
by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Colombo,  June  26,  1803.  The  complete  sove- 
reignty of  the  island  was  assumed  by  England  in  1815. 

CiLERONEA,  BATTLKS  OF.  The  Athenians  are  defeated  by  the  Boeotians, 
and  Tolmidas,  their  general,  is  slain,  447  B.  c.  Battle  of  Chaeronea,  in  which 
Greece  lost  its  liberty  to  Philip,  32,000  Macedonians  defeating  the  confed- 
erate army  of  Thebans  and  Athenians  of  30,000,  Aug.  2,  338  B.  c.  Battle 
of  Chseroriea  in  which  Archelaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  is  defeated  by 
Sylla,  and  110.000  Cappadocians  are  slain,  86  B.  c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES.  The  largest  and  oldest  chain-bridge  in  the  world  is  said  to 
be  that  at  Kingtung,  in  China,  where  it  forms  a  perfect  road  from  the  top  ol 
one  mountain  to  the  top  of  another.  The  honor  of  constructing  the  tirst 
chain-bridge  on  a  grand  scale  belongs  to  Mr.  Telford,  who  commenced  the 
chain-suspension  bridge  over  the  strait  between  Anglesey  and  the  coast  ol 
Wales,  July  1818. — See  Menai  Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES,  PUMPS,  AND  SHOT.  Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the 
Veneti,  a  people  intimately  connected  with  the  Belgas  of  Britain  in  the  time 
of  Caesar,  55  B.  c.  These  cables  came  into  modern  use,  and  generally  in  the 
royal  navy  of  England,  in  1812.  Chain-shot,  to  destroy  the  rigging  of  an 
enemy's  ships,  was  invented  by  the  Dutch  admiral  De  Witt,  in  1666.  Chain- 
pumps  were  first  used  on  board  the  Flora,  British  frigate,  in  1787. 

CHAISE  OR  CALASH.  The  invention  of  the  chaise,  which  is  described  as  a 
light  and  open  vehicle,  is  ascribed  to  Augustus  Caesar,  about  A.  D.  7.  Aure- 
lius  Victor  mentions  that  the  use  of  post-chaises  was  introduced  by  Trajan, 
about  A.  D.  100.  The  chariot  was  in  use  fifteen  centuries  before.  See  Chario' 

CHALDEAN  REGISTERS.  Registers  of  celestial  observations  were  commenced 
2234  B.  c.,  and  were  brought  down  to  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Alexander, 
331  B.  c.,  being  a  period  of  1903  years.  These  registers  were  sent  by  Callis- 
thenes  to  Aristotle.  CHALDEAN  CHARACTERS  :  the  Bible  was  transcribed 
from  the  original  Hebrew  into  these  characters,  now  called  Hebrew,  by  Ezra. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS  an  open  square  space  in  front  of  the  Military  School  at 
Paris,  with  artificial  embankments  raised  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to 
the  rver  Seine,  with  an  area  sufficient  to  contain  a  million  of  people.  Here 
was  held,  on  the  14th  July,  1790,  the  famous  "  fe'de'ration."  or  solemnity  of 
swearing  fidelity  to  the  "  patriot  king"  and  new  constitution.  In  the  even- 
ing great  rejoicings  followed  the  proceedings ;  public  balls  were  given  by 
the  municipality  in  the  Champs  Elysees  and  elsewhere,  and  Paris  was  illumi- 
nated throughout.  1791,  July  17,  a  great  meeting  of  citizens  and  others  held 
here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin  clubs,  to  sign  petitions  on  the  "  altar  of  the 
country" — left  standing  for  some  time  afterwards — praying  for  the  enforced 
abdication  of  Louis  XVI.  Another  new  constitution  sworn  to  here,  under 
the  eye  of  Bonaparte,  May  1,  1815,  a  ceremony  called  the  Champ  de  Mai. 

CHAMPION  OF  ENGLAND.  The  championship  was  instituted  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Richard  II.  1377.  At  the  coronations  of  English  kings  the  champion 
still  rides  completely  armed  into  Westminster-hall,  and  challenges  any  one 
that  would  deny  their  title  to  the,  crown.  The  championship  is  hereditary 
in  the  Dymocke  family. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  OF  ENGLAND.  The  Lord  Chancellor  ranks 
after  the  princes  of  the  Blood  Royal  as  the  first  lay  subject.  Formerly,  the 
office  was  conferred  upon  some  dignified  clergyman.  Maurice,  afterwards 
bishop  of  London,  was  created  chancellor  in  1067.  The  first  personage  who 


CHAj 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


301 


was  qualified  by  great  legal  education,  and  who  decided  causes  upon  his  own 
judgment,  was  Sir  Thomas  More,  in  1530,  before  which  time  the  office  was 
more  that  of  a  high  state  functionary  than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice. 
Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who  was  appointed  chancellor  in  1587,  was  very 
ignorant,  on  which  account  the  first  reference  was  made  to  a  master  ia  1588, 
In  England,  the  great  seal  has  been  frequently  put  in  commission ;  but  it 
was  not  until  1818  that  the  separate  and  co-existent  office  of  Vice-ChenuxUcr 
was  permanently  held. 


LORD  CHANCELLORS  OF  ENGLAND, 

(From  the  time  of  Cardinal  Wolsey.) 
1515  Cardinal  Wolsey. 
1530  Sir  Thomas  More  (beheaded). 

1533  Sir  Thomas  Audley. 

1534  Thomas,  bishop  of  Ely. 
1545  Lord  Wrioihesley. 
1547  Lord  St.  John. 

1547  Lord  Rich. 

1551  Bishop  of  Ely  again. 

1551  Sir  Nich.  Hare,  Lord  Keeper. 

1653  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

1555  Archbishop  of  York. 

1509  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon. 

1579  Sir  Thomas  Bromley. 

1587  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 

1592  Sir  John  Packering. 

1596  Sir  Thomas  Egenon. 

1616  Sir  Francis  Bacon,    afterwards  lord 

Verulam. 
1625  Sir  Thomas  Coventry. 

1639  Sir  John  Finch. 

1640  Sir  Edward  Littleton,  afterwards  lord 

Littleton. 

1645  Sir  Richard  Lane. 
1648  In  commission. 
1653  Sir  Edward  Herbert. 
1658  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  afterwards  earl  of 

Clarendon. 
1667  Sir  Orlando  Bridseman,  L.  K. 

1672  Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 

1673  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  earl  of 

Nottingham. 

1682  Lord  Guilford.  L.  K. 
1685  Sir  George  Jeffreys,  lord  Jeffreys. 
1690  In  commission. 
1690  Sir  John  Trevor,  Sir  William  Rawlin- 

son,  and  Sir  Geo.  Hutchins,  L.  K. 


|  1692  Sir  John    Somers,    aftencardt  l«rt 

Somers. 

I  1702  Sir  Nathan  Wright,  L.  K. 
I  1705  Lord  Cowper,  L.  K. 
1710  In  commission. 

1713  Lord  Harcourt. 

1714  Lord  Cowper  again. 
1718  In  commission. 

1718  Viscount  Parker,  afterwards  earl  of 

Macclesfield. 
1725  Sir  Peter  King,  L.  K.  afterwardt  lord 

King. 

1733  Lord  Talbot. 
1737  Philip,  lord  Hardwicke. 
1761  Sir  Robert  Henley,  afterwards  lord 

Henley,  and  earl  of  Norihington. 
1766  Charles  Pratt,  lord  Camden. 
1770  Hon.  Chas.  Yorke,  Jan.  18;  died  next 

day. 

1770  In  commission. 

1771  Henry  Bathurst,  lord  Apsley,  succeed- 

ed as  earl  Bathurst. 
1778  Lord  Thurlow. 
1783  Lord  Loughborough  and  others 


(in  commission)  -  -        April  9 

1'83  Lord  Thurlow  again    -  -  Dec.  23 

1792  In  commission. 

1793  Lord  Loughborough  again. 

1801  Lord  Eldon.  -  -        April  14 

1806  Lord  Erskine.  -  -      Feb.  7 

1807  Lord  Eldon  again.  -        March  25 
1827  Lord  Lyndhurst.        -  -    April  2C 
1830  Lord  Brougham.           -  Nov.  22 

1834  Lord  Lyndhurst  again        -      Nov  14 

1835  In  commission. 

1836  Lord  Cottenham. 
1841  Lord  Lyndhurst  again. 
1846  Lord  Cottenham  again 


Jan.  16 
Aug.  31 
July  6 

C  HANCELLOR  OF  IRELAND.  LORD  HIGH.  The  earliest  nomination  was  by 
Richard  I.  A.  D.  1186,  when  Stephen  Ridel  was  elevated  to  this  rank.  The 
office  of  vice-chancellor  was  known  in  Ireland,  but  not  as  a  distinct  appoint- 
ment, in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  Geffrey  Turville,  archdeacon  of  Dublin, 
being  so  named,  1232. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  SCOTLAND.  In  the  laws  of  Malcolm  H.  who  reigned 
A.  D.  1004,  this  officer  is  thus  mentioned:  "The  Chancellar  sal  at  al  tymes 
assist  the  king  in  giving  him  counsall  mair  secretly  nor  of  the  rest  of  the 
nobility.  The  Chancellar  sail  be  ludgit  near  unto  the  kingis  Grace,  for 
keiping  of  his  bodie,  and  the  seill,  and  that  he  may  be  readie,  baith  day  and 
nicht,  at  the  kingis  command." — Sir  James  Balfour.  James,  earl  of  Seafield, 
afterwards  Findlater,  was  the  last  lord  high  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  the 
office  having  been  abolished  in  1708. — Scott. 

CHANCERY,  COURT  OF.  Instituted  as  early  as  A.  D.  605.  Settled  upon  a 
better  footing  by  William  I.,  in  1067. — Stowe.  This  court  had  its  origin  in 
the  desire  to  render  justice  complete,  and  to  moderate  the  rigor  of  other 
courts  that  are  bound  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  to  ot 
against  infants,  notwithstanding  their  minority ;  and  to  or  against  married 


302  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  cm 

women,  notwithstanding  their  coverture;  and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches 
of  trust  and  confidence,  for  which  there  is  no  ledress  at  common  law,  are 
rolievable  here. — Blackstone. 

EPPE3T8   OP   SUITORS    LODGED    IN   COURT   AT    THE   FOLLOWING  DECEHKIAL  PERIODS. 

1770    -      Amount  lodged       -      £5,300,000  I    1810    •        Amount  lodged    -      .£20,212,000 


1780       •  ditto          -  •    7,741,000 

1790    •  -  ditto  .         13,338,000 

1800       -  ditto        .  .     19,834,000 


1820         -  ditto       -          -    34.208.785 

1830    •         •      ditto  -          38,886,135 

1840         -  ditto       •         -    39.772746 


There  are  about  10,000  accounts.  By  the  last  official  returns  the  number 
of -committals  for  contempt  was  ninety-six  persons  in  three  years. — Parl 
Returns. 

CHANTRY.  A  chapel  endowed  with  revenue  for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the 
souls  of  the  donors. — Skakspeare.  First  mentioned  in  the  commencement  ol 
the  seventh  century,  when  Gregory  the  great  established  schools  of  chant- 
ers.— See  Chanting. 

CHAOS.  A  rude  and  shapeless  mass  of  matter,  and  confused  assemblage  of 
inactive  elements  which,  as  the  poets  suppose,  pre-existed  the  formation  ot 
the  world,  and  from  which  the  universe  was  formed  by  the  hand  and  power 
of  a  superior  being.  This  doctrine  was  first  advanced  by  Hesiod,  from  whom 
the  succeeding  poets  have  copied  it ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  obscurely 
drawn  from  the  account  of  Moses,  by  being  copied  from  the  annals  of  San- 
choniathon,  whose  age  is  fixed  antecedent  to  the  siege  of  Troy  in  1193  B.  •-.. 
See  Geology. 

CHARIOTS.  The  invention  of  chariots,  and  the  manner  of  harnessing  horses 
to  draw  them,  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  1486  B.  c.  Chariot 
racing  was  one  of  the  exercises  of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the  Ethiopian 
officer,  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  27,  28.  31,  was,  it  is  supposed,  something  in 
the  form  of  our  modern  chaise  with  four  wheels.  Caesar  relates  that  Cassi- 
belanus.  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces,  retained  no  fewer  than  4000 
war  chariots  about  his  person.  The  chariots  of  the  ancients  were  like  our 
phaetons,  and  drawn  by  one  horse.  See  Carriages,  Coaches,  <f-c. 

CHARITIES  in  the  United  States.— See  Benevolence.  In  England  there  are  tens 
of  thousands  of  charitable  foundations ;  and  the  charity  commission  reported 
to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to 
£\  500,000  annually,  in  1840. — Parl.  Rep.  Charity  schools  were  instituted 
in  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic 
seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — Rapin. 

CHARLESTON.  S.  C..  Was  first  settled  in  1680.  In  1690  a  colony  of  French 
refugees,  exiled  in  consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
settled  in  Carolina,  and  some  of  them  in  Charleston :  from  them  are  de- 
scended many  of  the  most  respectable  of  the  inhabitants.  At  the  close  of 
1779,  the  city  was  taken  by  the  British  and  held  by  them  until  May  follow- 
ing. Population  in  1790,  16359;  in  1810.  24711;  in  1820,  24.780;  in  1830, 
30289;  in  1840,  29;261— (a  decrease  of  1,028  in  ten  years)  including  14,673 
slaves. 

CHARTERS  OF  RIGHTS.  The  first  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of 
England  to  their  subjects,  were  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  Henry  I. 
A.  D.  1100.  The  famous  bulwark  of  English  liberty,  known  as  Magna  Ckaita. 
or  the  great  charter,  was  granted  to  the  barons  by  king  John,  June  15  1215. 
The  rights  and  privileges  granted  by  this  charter  were  renewed  and  ratified 
by  Henry  III.  in  1224,  el  seq.  Sir  Edward  Coke  says  that  even  in  his  days  it 
had  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times.  Charters  to  corporations  were  of 
frequent  grant  from  the  reign  of  William  I.  See  Magna  Charl-a. 

CHARTERS  to  the  American  colonies.  That  to  Virginia  granted  by  James  I.,, 
1606 ;  to  Massachusetts,  by  the  same,  1620,  but  withdrawn  by  Charles  II. 


OHEj  DICTIONARY   OP    DATES.  303 

1684 ;  that  granted  to  Connecticut  by  Charles  II.,  1665,  was  concealed  in  an 
oak  to  preserve  it  from  the  tyrannical  Andros.  General  suppression  of 
charter  governments  in  America,  1688. 

CHARTER  PARTY.  The  same  species  of  deed  or  agreement  as  the  ancient 
chirograph.  A  covenant  between  merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating 
to  the  ship  and  cargo.  It  was  first  used  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  about  1243. 

CHARTISTS.  The  agitators  for  radical  political  reforms  in  England  were  so 
called  from  the  Charter  which  they  drew  up  and  urged  for  adoption  as  tho 
law  of  the  land.  1838.  The  petition  for  it,  signed  by  about  5  000  000  names. 
Proclamation  against  tumultuous  assemblies  of  the  Chartists,  Dec.  12,  1838. 
Chartist  attack  on  Newport.  Wales,  headed  by  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate 
defeated,  Nov.  4,  1839.  Frost  and  others  taken  prisoner,  tried,  and  trans- 
ported. Another  Chartist  demonstration  on  Kennington  Common,  near 
London,  exciting  great  alarm  (chiefly  because  of  the  recent  revolution  in 
Paris),  April  10,  1848.  The  six  chief  demands  of  the  Chartists  are:  1.  Uni- 
versal suffrage.  2.  Vote  by  ballot.  3.  No  property  qualification.  4.  Annual 
parliaments.  5.  Payment  of  members.  6.  Equal  electoral  districts. 

CHARTS.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  and  celes- 
tial charts,  about  570  B.  c.  Modern  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by 
Bartholomew  Columbus  with  a  view  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respect- 
ing a  western  continent  1489.  Mercator's  chart,  in  which  the  world  is  taken 
as  a  plane,  was  drawn,  1556. 

CHARYBDIS  a  dangerous  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  another 
whirlpool  called  Scylla  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  It  was  very  dangerous  to  sail- 
ors, and  it  proved  fatal  to  part  of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  The  exact  situation 
of  the  Charybdis  is  not  discovered  by  the  moderns,  as  no  whirlpool  suffi- 
ciently tremendous  is  now  found  to  correspond  to  the  description  of  the 
ancients.  The  words  Incidit  in  Scyllam  qui  vult  •vitate  Chary  bdim,  became  a 
proverb,  to  show  that  in  our  eagerness  to  avoid  an  evil,  we  fall  into  a  greater. 

CHANTING,  Chanting  the  psalms  was  adopted  by  Ambrose  from,  the  pa- 
gan ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  about  A.  D.  350. — Lenglct.  Chanting  in 
churches  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Catholic  service  in  602,  by  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  established  schools  of  chanters,  and  corrected  the  church 
song. — Dufresnoy. 

CHEATS.  The  convicted  cheat  punishable  by  pillory  (since  abolished),  impri- 
sonment, and  fine.  1  Hawk.  L.  C.  188.  A  rigorous  statute  was  enacted 
against  cheats,  33  Henry  VIII.  1542.  Persons  cheating  at  play,  or  winning 
at  any  time  more  than  10Z.,  or  any  valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous, 
and  were  to  suffer  punishment  as  in  cases  of  perjury,  9  Anne,  1711. — Black- 
stone's  Comm. 

CHEESE.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that  the  English  learned  the 
process  of  making  cheese  from  the  Romans  (who  brought  many  useful  arts 
with  them)  about  the  Christian  era.  Cheese  is  made  by  almost  all  nations. 
Wilts.  Gloucester,  and  Cheshire,  make  vast  quantities;  the  last  alone,  annu- 
ally, about  31,000  tons.  The  Cheddar  of  Somerset,  and  Stilton  of  Hunting- 
don, are  as  much  esteemed  as  the  cheese  of  Parma,  and  Gruyfere  of  Switz- 
erland. In  1840  England  imported,  chiefly  from  the  U.  States,  for  home  use, 
a  quantity  exceeding  10  000  tons. 

CHEMISTRY  AND  DISTILLING.  Introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spanish 
Moors,  about  A.  D.  1150;  they  had  learned  them  from  the  African  Moors, 
and  these  from  the  Egyptians.  In  Egypt,  they  had,  in  very  early  ages,  ex- 
tracted salts  from  their  bases,  separated  oils,  and  prepared  vinegar  and  winei 


304  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  CHI 

and  embalming  was  a  kind  of  chemical  process.  The  Chinese  also  claim  an 
early  acquaintance  with  chemistry;  but  the  fathers  of  true  chemical  philo- 
sophy were  of  our  own  country;  Bacon,  Boyle,  Hooke,  Mayow,  Newton,  &c. 
The  modern  character  of  chemistry  was  formed  under  Beecjier  and  Stahl, 
who  perceived  the  connection  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  gases,  with  the 
production  of  phenomena.  Bergman  and  Scheele  were  cotemporary  with 
Priestley  in  England,  and  Lavosier  in  France ;  then  followed  Thomson,  Davy, 
and  other  distinguished  men. 

CHERRIES.  They  were  brought  from  Pontus,  to  Lucullus,  to  Rome,  about  70 
B.  o.  Apricots  from  Epirus :  peaches  from  Persia ;  the  finest  plums  from 
Damascus  and  Armenia;  pears  and  figs  from  Greece  and  Egypt;  citrons 
from  Media;  and  pomegranates  from  Carthage;  114  B.  c.  The  cherry  tree 
was  first  planted  in  Britain,  it  is  said,  about  A.  D.  100.  Fine  kinds  werp 
brought  from  Flanders,  and  planted  in  Kent,  and  with  such  success  that  an 
orchard  of  thirty-two  acres  produced  in  one  year  .£1000,  A.  D.  1540.  See 
Gardening. 

CHESAPEAKE,  BATTLE  OF.  At  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  that  name,  between 
the  British  admiral  Greaves,  and  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse,  with  the 
naval  force  sent  to  assist  the  United  States ;  the  former  was  obliged  to  retire, 
1781.  The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  were  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet 
in  1812.  The  Chesapeake  American  frigate  struck  to  the  Shannon  British 
frigate,  commanded  by  captain  Broke,  after  a  severe  action,  June  2,  1813. 

('HESS,  GAME  OF.  Invented,  according  to  some  authorities,  680  B.  c. ;  and  ac- 
cording to  others,  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  The  learned  Hyde  and 
Sir  William  Jones  concur  in  stating  (as  do  most  writers  on  the  subject)  that 
the  origin  of  chess  is  to  be  traced  to  India.  The  automaton  chess-player 
was  exhibited  in  England  in  1769. 

CHEVALIER  D'EON.  This  extraordinary  personage,  who  had  been  acting  in 
a  diplomatic  capacity  in  several  countries,  and  who  was  for  some  time  :i 
minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  in  London,  was  proved  upon  a  trial 
had  in  the  King's  Bench,  in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to  his  sex,  to  be 
&  woman,  July  1,  1777.  He  subsequently  wore  female  attire  for  many  years; 
yet  at  his  death,  in  London,  in  1810,  it  was  manifest,  by  the  dissection  of 
his  body,  and  other  undoubted  evidence,  that  he  was  of  the  male  sex. — 
Bio.  Die. 

CHILDREN.  Most  of  the  ancient  nations  had  the  unnatural  custom  of  expos- 
ing their  infants — the  Egyptians  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on 
highways — when  they  could  not  support  or  educate  them;  in  such  cases 
they  were  taken  care  of,  and  humanely  protected  by  the  state.  The  custom 
which  long  previously  existed  of  English  parents  selling  their  children  to 
the  Irish  for  slaves,  was  prohibited  in  the  reign  of  Canute,  about  1017. — 
Mat.  Paiis.  At  Darien.  it  was  the  practice  whet  a  widow  died,  to  bury 
with  her,  in  the  same  grave,  such  of  her  children  as  vere  unable,  from  their 
tender  years,  to  take  care  of  themselves.  And  in  some  parts  of  China,  su- 
perstition has  lent  her  hand  to  sanction  the  horrid  deed  of  offering  infants 
to  the  spirit  of  an  adjoining  river,  first  attaching  a  gourd  to  their  necks  to 
prevent  them  from  immediately  drowning. 

CHILI.  Discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru,  A.  D. 
1536.  Almagro  crossed  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  natives,  regarding  the  Span- 
iards on  their  first  visit  as  allied  to  the  Divinity,  collected  tor  them  gold  and 
silver,  amounting  to  290.000  ducats,  a  present  which  led  to  the  subsequent 
cruelties  and  rapacity  of  the  invaders.  Chili  was  subdued,  but  not  wholly, 
in  1546.  The  Chilians  fought  for  liberty  at  various  times,  aid  with  various 
success,  until  1817,  when,  by  the  decisive  victory  gained  by  PKJI  Martin  f  vei 


1H1  } 


MCT10NARY    OF    DATES. 


305 


the  royal  forces,  Feb.  12,  in  that  year,  the  province  was  released  from  its  op- 
pressors, and  declared  independent. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.  An  estate  of  the  crown  in  England,  on  the  chain 
of  chalk  hills  that  pass  from  east  to  west  through  the  middle  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, the  stewardship  whereof  is  a  nominal  office,  conferred  on  members 
of  parliament  when  they  wish  to  vacate  their  seats,  as,  by  accepting  an 
office  under  the  crown,  a  member  becomes  disqualified,  unless  he  be  again 
returned  by  his  constituents :  this  custom  has  existed  time  immemorial. 

CHIMNEYS.  Chafing-dishes  were  in  use  previous  to  the  invention  of  chim- 
neys, which  were  first  introduced  into  these  countries  in  A.  D.  1200,  wheu 
they  were  confined  to  the  kitchen  and  large  hall.  The  family  sat  round  the 
stove,  the  funnel  of  which  passed  through  the  ceiling,  in  1300.  Chimneys 
were  general  in  domestic  architecture  in  1310.  The  ancients  made  use  of 
stoves,  although  Octavio  Ferrari  affirms  that  chimneys  were  in  use  among 
them ;  but  this  is  disputed. 

CHINA.  This  empire  is  very  ancient,  and  the  Chinese  assert  that  it  existed 
many  thousands  of  years  before  Noah's  flood ;  but  it  is  allowed  by  some  author- 
ities to  have  commenced  about  2500  years  before  the  birth  of  Chribt.  By 
others  it  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah  of 
the  Bible,  2240  B.  c.  We  are  told  that  the  Chinese  knew  the  periods  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and  were  ucute  astronomers,  in  the  reign  of  Yao, 
which  is  set  down  2357  B.  c.  But  dates  cannot  be  relied  upon  until  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  B.  c.  when  the  history  of  China  becomes 
more  distinct.  In  the  battle  between  Phraates  and  the  Scythians  129  B.  c., 
the  Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  afterwards  ravaged  the  countries  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  their  first  appearance  in  history. — Lenglet. 


The  Chinese  state  their  first  cycle  to 
have  commenced  -  -  B.  c  2700 

The  first  of  the  22  Chinese  dynasties 
commenced      ....  2207 
*          *         *         *         *  * 

In  the  history  of  China,  the  first  dates 
which  are  fixed  to  his  narrative,  by 
Se-ma-tsien,  begin  -  -  -  651 

Confucius,  the  father  of  the  Chinese 

philosophers,  born  ...  551 
Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed  -  211 
The  dynasty  of  Han  -  -  -  -  206 

Literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encou- 

raeed 202 

Religion  of  Ta  --tse  commenced  15 

Religion  of  the  followers  of  Fo,  com- 

mejiced  about        •  •  A.  c      60 

Embassy  from  Rome      ...    166 
Nankin  becomes  the  capital  -      -   420 

The  atheistical  philosopher,  Fan-Shin, 

flourishes  ....  449 
The  Nestorian  Christians  permitted  to 

preach  their  doctrines      -  -      -   635 

They  are  proscribed,  and  extirpated    •   845 
The  seat  of  the  imperial  government  is 

transferred  to  Pekin         -  -      •  1260 

Wonderful  canal,  called  the  Yu  Ho, 

completed  about          -  -  -  1400 

Eur  v  sans  first  arrive  at  Canton          - 1517 
Macao  is  granted  as  a  settlement  to  the 

Portuguese  -  -  -        1536 

Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  by  the  pope 

from  Rome       ....  1575 
The  country  is  conquered  by  the  East- 
ern Tartars,  who  establish  the  pre- 
sent reigning  house  -  -     - 1644 
An  earthquake  throu  shout  China  buries 
300,00  persons  at  Pekin  alone          -  1662 


Jesuit  missionaries  endeavor  to  esta- 
blish Christianity  -  -  -  1692 

The  Jesuits  are  expelled  through  their 
own  misconduct  ...  1724 

ENGLISH   INTERCOURSE   WITH   CHINA. 

Earl  Macartney's  embassy  ;  he  leaves 
England  -  -  Sept.  26,  1792 

He  is  ordered  to  depart  from  Pekin, 

Oct.  7,  1793 

Edict  against  Christianity         -  -  1812 

Lord  Amherst's  embassy;  he  leaves 
England  -  -  -  Feb.  8,  1816 

[His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of 
his  mission,  having  refused  to  make 
the  prostration  of  the  kou-tou,  lest  he 
should  thereby  compromise  the  ma- 


jesty of  England.] 
he 


The  exclusive  rights  of  the  East  India 
Company  cease  -  April  22,  1834 

Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao,  to  super- 
intend British  commerce  •  July  15,  1834 

Opium  trade  interdicted  by  the  Chinfse, 

Nov  7,  1334 

Commissioner  Lin  issues  an  edict  foi 
the  seizure  of  opium  -  March  18.  1831! 

British  and  other  residents  forbidden  to 
leave  Canton  -  -  March  19,  1839 

The  factories  surrounded,  and  outrages 
committed  -  -  March  24,  1839 

The  opium  destroyed  during  several 
days  by  the  Chinese  -  June  3,  1839 

The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  the  last 
servant  of  the  company  leaves  the 
country  this  day  •  -  Dec.  6,  1831 

Edict  of  the  emperor  interdicting  all 
trade  and  intercourse  with  England 
for  ever  •  -  -  Jan.  5,  184* 


306 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[cm 


CHINA,  continued. 

Blockade  of  Canton  by  a  British  fleet  of 
15  sail  and  several  war  steamers,  hav- 
ing 4,000  troops  on  board,  by  orders 
from  Sir  Gordon  Bremer  •  June  28,  1840 

Seizure  of  Capt.  Anstruther  •  Sept.  16,  1840 

Lin  deprived  of  his  authority,  and 
finally  degraded;  Keshin  appointed 
imperial  commissioner  -  Sept.  16,  1840 

Capt.  Elliott  declares  a  truce  with  the 
Chinese  -  -  -  Nov.  6,  1840 

Honi-Kong  ceded  by  Keshin  to  Great 
Britain,  and  6,000,0110  dollai-s  agreed  to 
be  paid  within  ten  days  to  the  British 
authorities  -  -  -  Jan.  20,  1841 

Imperial  edict  from  Pekin  rejecting  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  made  by  Ke- 
shin -  -  •  Feb.  11,  1341 

Hostilities  are  in  consequence  resumed 
a-rainst  the  Chinese  -  -  Feb.  '23,  1841 

Chusan  evacuated    -         -        Feb.  24,  1841 

Rewards  proclaimed  at  Canton  for  the 
bodies  of  Englishmen,  dead  or  alive ; 
50,000  dollars  to  be  given  for  ring- 
leaders and  chiefs  -  Feb.  25,  1841 

Bogue  Forts  taken  by  Sir  Gordon  Bre- 
mer ;  admiral  Kwan  killed,  and  459 
guns  captured  -  -  Feb.  26,  1841 

Sir  Hugh  Gough  takes  the  command  of 
the  army  -  -  March  2,  1841 

Heights  behind  Canton  taken,  and  94 


guns  captured 


May  25,  1841 


Treaty  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin, 
on  board  the  Cornwai'  s  by  sir  Henry 
Pottinger  for  Englanc.,  and  Keying 
Elepoo  and  Neu-Kien  on  tht  part  of 
the  Chinese  emperor  -  Aug.  29,  1843 

CONDITIONS   OP   THE   TREATY. 

Lasting  peace  and  friendship  between 
the  two  empires. 

China  to  pay  21,000,000  of  dollars,  pan 
forthwith  and  the  remainder  within 
three  years. 

The  ports  of  Canton.  Amoy,  Foo-choo- 
foo,  Ning-po,  and  Shang-hae  to  b* 
thrown  open  to  the  British. 

Consuls  to  reside  at  these  cities. 

Tariffs  of  import  and  export  to  be  esta- 
blished, &c.  &c. 

The  emperor  signifies  his  assent  to  the 
conditions  -  -  Sept.  8, 1842 

Mr.  Da  vis  succeeds  Sir  Henry  Poumger 
as  British  commissioner  •  Feb.  16,  13H 

Bogue  Forts  captured  by  Gen.  Aguilar 
and  Sir  John  Davis,  836  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery seized  and  spiked  -_  April  5,  1847 

Treaty  between  China  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  negotiated  by  Caleb 
pushing,  American  Commis- 
sioner •  •  July  3, 1844 

ratified  at  Washington 

Jan.  16.  1845 

Alexander  H.  Everett  appointed 
commissioner  to  China  from  the 
United  States  -  -  - 1845 

John  W.  Davis  appointed  commis- 
sioner from  the  United  States  - 1847 

CHINESE   EMPERORS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  those  who  have 
reigned  for  the  last  two  centuries : — 
Chwang-lei  -  -  -      -  1627 

Shun-che   -  1644 

Kang-he 1669 

Yung-ching         ....  1693 
Keen-lung     -  •  •  •     •  1736 

Kea-ding 1796 

Taou-kwang-  -  •  -     -  1821 

Sze-Hing,  present  emperor      -          -  1850 

The  embassy  of  lord  Macartney  from  England  procured  the  first  authentic 
information  respecting  this  empire :  it  appears  that  it  is  divided  into  15  pro- 
vinces, containing  4402  walled  cities ;  the  population  of  the  whole  country  is 
given  at  333  000.000 ;  its  annual  revenues  at  £66,000.000;  and  the  army,  in- 
cluding the  Tartars,  1,000,000  of  infantry,  and  800:000  cavalry;  the  religion 
is  pagan,  and  the  government  is  absolute.  Learning,  with  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences in  general,  are  encouraged,  and  ethics  are  studied  profoundly,  and 
influence  the  manners  of  the  people.  See  details  in  Williams' s  "  Middh 
Kingdom." 

3JHINA  PORCELAIN.  This  manufacture  is  first  mentioned  in  history  in  153]  ; 
it  was  introduced  into  England  so  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Porcelain 
was  made  at  Dresden  in  1706 ;  fine  ware  in  England,  at  Chelsea,  1752 ;  at 
Bow  in  1758;  in  various  other  parts  of  England,  about  1760;  and  by  the 
ingenious  Josiah  Wedgwood,  who  much  improved  the  British  manufacture, 
in  Staffordshire,  1762  ct  seg. 

CHINESE  ERAS.  They  are  very  numerous,  fabulous,  and  mythological. 
Like  the  Chaldeans,  they  represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years;  and  their  annals  and  histories  record  evecU 


The  citv  ransomed  for  6,000,000  dollars, 
of  which  5.000,000  are  paid  down, 
and  hostilities  cease  -  May  31,  1841 

British  trade  re-opened       -      July  16,  1841 

Arrival  at  Macao  of  Sir  Henry  Pottin- 
ger;  who,  as  plenipotentiary,  pro- 
claims the  objects  of  his  mission ; 
Capt.  Elliott  superseded  -  Aug.  10,  1841 

Amoy  taken,  and  296  guns  found  and 
destroyed  -  -  Aug.  27,  1841 

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed   -   Sept.  14,  1841 

The  city  of  Ting  hae  taken,  136  guns 
capturedj  and  the  island  of  Chusan 
re-occupied  by  the  British  -  Oct.  1,  1841 

Chin-hae  taken,  with  157  guns,  many 
of  them  brass  -  •  Oct.  10,  1841 


CHO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  307 

said  to  have  occurred,  and  name  philosophers  and  heroes  said  to  have  lived, 
more  than  27,000  years  ago.  By  their  calculation  of  time,  which  must,  of 
course,  differ  essentially  from  ours,  they  date  the  commencement  of  their 
empire  41,000  years  B.  c. — Abbe.  Lenglet. 

O.HIPPEWA,  BATTLES  OF.  The  British  forces  under  general  Riall  weie  ie- 
feated  by  the  Americans  under  general  Brown,  July  5,  1814.  Another  ac- 
tion with  the  British,  commanded  hy  generals  Drummond  and  Riall ;  the 
latter  taken  prisoner  at  Bridgwater,  near  Chippewa.  July  25,  1814. 

CHIVALRY.  Began  in  Europe  about  A.  D.  912.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fif- 
teenth  century  it  had  a  considerable  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of 
most  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  The  knight  swore  to  accomplish  the  duties 
of  his  profession,  as  the  champion  of  God  and  the  ladies.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  speak  the  truth,  to  maintain  the  right,  to  protect  the  distressed,  to 
practise  courtesy,  to  fulfil  obligations,  and  to  vindicate,  in  every  perilous 
adventure,  his  honor  and  character.  Chivalry,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the 
feudal  system,  expired  with  it.— Robertson ;  Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY,  COURT  OF.  It  was  commonly  after  the  lie-direct  had  been  given, 
that  combats  took  place  in  the  court  of  chivalry.  By  letters  patent  of 
James  I.  the  earl-marshal  of  England  had  "  the  like  jurisdiction  in  the  court 
of  chivalry,  when  the  office  of  lord  high  constable  was  vacant,  as  this  latter 
and  the  marshal  did  jointly  exercise,"  1623.  The  following  entries  are 
found  in  the  pipe-roll  of  31  Henry  I.,  the  date  of  which  has  been  fixed  by 
the  labors  of  the  record  commission  : — "  Robert  Fitz  Seward  renders  account 
of  fifteen  marks  of  silver,  for  the  office  and  wife  of  Hugh  Chivill.  Paid  into 
the  exchequer  four  pounds.  And  he  owes  six  pounds ;"  p.  53.  "  William 
de  Hocton  renders  account  of  ten  marks  of  gold  that  fie  may  have  the  wife  of 
Geoffrey  de  Faucre  in  marriage,  with  her  land,  and  may  have  her  son  in 
custody  until  he  is  of  age  to  become  a  knight;  he  paid  into  the  exchequer 
ten  marks  of  gold,  and  is  discharged." — Parl.  Reports. 

CHOCOLATE.  First  introduced  into  Europe  from  Mexico  about  A.  D.  1520.  It 
is  the  flour  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  makes  a  wholesome  beverage,  much  used 
in  Spain.  It  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses  soon  after  their  establish- 
ment, 1650.— Taller. 

CHOIR.  The  choir  was  separated  from  the  nave  of  the  church  in  the  time 
of  Constantine.  The  choral  service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canter- 
bury, A.  D.  677.  The  service  had  been  previously  in  use  at  Rome  about  602. 
— See  Chanting.  The  Choragus  was  the  superintendent  of  the  ancient 
chorus. —  Warburton. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS.  This  fatal  disease,  known  in  its  more  malignant  form 
as  the  Asiatic  cholera,  after  having  made  great  ravages  in  many  countries 
of  the  north,  east,  and  south  of  Europe,  and  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  where 
alone  it  had  carried  off  more  than  PjOO.OOO  persons  in  its  progress  within  two 
years,  made  its  first  appearance  in  England,  at  Sunderland,  October  26.  1831. 
Proclamation,  ordering  all  vessels  from  Sunderland  to  London,  to  perform 
quarantine  at  the  Nore,  December  4,  18ol.  Cholera  first  appeared  at  Edin- 
burgh, Feb.  6, 1832.  First  observed  at  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse.  London; 
February  13 ;  and  in  Dublin.  March  3.  same  year.  The  mortality  was  verj 
great,  but  more  so  on  the  Continent ;  the  deaths  by  Cholera  in  Paris  were 
18.000  between  March  and  August,  1832.  Cholera  first  appeared  on  this 
continent  at  Quebec,  June  8.  1832 ;  and  at  New- York,  June  27.  1832.  Cho- 
lera again  raged  in  Rome,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Genoa.  Berlin,  &c.  in  1836-7.  It 
again  appeared  in  Asia  and  the  east  of  Europe  in  1848,  and  raged  in  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  Liverpool,  and  Paris  at  intervals,  in  1848-9.  First  ap- 
peared again  on  this  continent  in  1849,  on  the  Mississippi,  in  New  York  in 


308 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


I  CHS. 


May.  and  continued  more  or  less  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States 
until  November  of  that  year. 

CHRIST.  See  JESUS  CHRIST.  This  name,  so  universally  given  to  the  Redeemer 
of  the  world,  signifies,  in  Greek,  The  Anointed,  being  the  same  with  Mes- 
siah, in  the  Hebrew,  which  the  Jews  called  that  Saviour  and  Deliverer  whom 
thoy  expected,  "and  who  was  promised  to  them  by  all  the  prophets.  This 
appellation  is  commonly  put  to  our  Jssus  (signifying  Saviour),  the  name  of 
the  great  object  of  our  faith,  and  divine  author  of  our  religion.  St.  Clement, 
the  earliest  father,  according  to  St.  Epiphanius,  fixes  the  birth  of  CHRIST  on 
the  18th  of  November,  in  the  28th  year  of  Augustus,  i.  e.  two  years  before 
the  Christian  era  as  adopted  in  the  sixth  century.  Cerinthus  was  the  first 
Chri3tian  writer  against  the  divinity  of  Christ,  about  A.  D.  67.  The  divinity 
of  Christ  was  adopted  at  the  council  of  Nice,  in  A.  D.  325,  by  two  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  bishops  against  eighteen. 

CHRISTIAN.  This  name  was  first  givon  to  the  believers  and  followers  of 
CHRIST'S  doctrines  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  .t</.  xi.  26,  in  the  year  38,  accord- 
ing to  Butler ;  in  the  year  40,  according  to  Tacitus ;  and  according  to  other 
authorities  in  the  year  60.  The  Christians  were  divided  into  episcopoi, 
presbyteroi,  diaconoi,  pistoi,  catachumens,  or  learners,  and  energumens  who 
were  to  be  exorcised. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.  The  era  which  is  used  by  almost  all  Christian  nations ;  it 
dates  from  January  1st,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th 
Olympiad,  in  the  753d  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  4714th  of  the  Julian 
period.  It  was  first  introduced  in  the  sixth  century,  but  was  not  very 
generally  employed  for  some  centuries  after.  We  style  the  Christian  era 
A.  D.  1.  It  was  first  used  in  modern  chronology  in  516. 

CHRISTIAN  KING;  MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING;  Christianissimus.  This  title  was 
given  by  pope  Paul  II.  to  Louis  XI.  of  France  in  1469 ;  and  never  was  a 
distinction  more  unworthily  conferred.  His  tyranny  and  oppressions 
obliged  his  subjects  to  enter  into  a  league  against  him ;  and  4,000  persons 
were  executed  publicly  or  privately  in  his  merciless  reign. — Henauli :  Flcurij. 

CHRISTIANITY.  Founded  by  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  The  persecutions  of 
the  Christians  commenced  A.  D.  64. — See  Persecutions.  Christianity  was  first 
taught  in  Britain  about  this  time ;  and  it  was  propagated  with  some  success 
in  156. — Bede.  Lucius  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Christian  king  of  Bri- 
tain, and  in  the  world:  he  reigned  in  179.  But  the  era  of  Christianity  in 
England  commenced  with  the  mission  of  St.  Austin  in  596,  from  which  time 
it  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  whole  of  Britain.*  It  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  in  the  second  century,  but  with  more  success  after  the  arrival  of  St. 
Patrick  in  432.  It  was  received  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.  about 
201,  when  it  was  embraced  by  that  king,  his  queen,  and  some  of  his  nobility. 


Constantino  the  Great  made  his  solemn 
declaration  of  the  Christian  religion  A. D.  312 
Christianity  was  established  in  France 


under  Clovis  the  Great 
In  Helvetia,  by  Iristi  missionaries 
In  Flanders  in  the  seventh  century. 
In  Denmark,  under  Harold 
In  Bohemia,  under  Borzivoi  • 

In  Russia,  by  Swiatoslaf 
In  Poland,  under  Meicislaus  I. 
In  Hungary,  under  Geisu 
In  Norway  and  Iceland,  undev  Olaf  I. 


496 
643 

827 
894 
940 
992 
994 
1000 


In  Sweden,  between  10th  and  llth  centuries. 

In  Prussia,  by  the  Teutoric  knights, 
when  they  were  returning  from  the 
holy  wars  -  -  A.  D.  1227 

In  Lithuania,  where  Paganism  was  abo- 
lished, about  -  -  -  1386 

In  China,  where  it  madesorr.e  progress 
(but  was  afterwards  extirpated,  and 
thousands  of  Chinese  Christians  were 
put  to  death)  ....  1576 

In  Greece,  where  it  was  once  more  re- 
established ....  1628 


*  It  is  said  that  Gregory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair,  chanced  one 
d«T  lo  pass  through  the  slave-market  at  Rome,  and  perceiving  some  children  of  great  beauty  wh» 
were  set  up  for  sale,  he  inquired  about  their  country,  and  finding  they  were  English  Pasans,  he  if 
did  to  have  cried  out,  in  the  Latin  language,  "  Non  Angli,  sed  Angnli.forent,  si  esseiit  Chris  iani.'- 


^HU  ]  DICTIONARY    DP    DATES.  309 

Christianity  was  propagated  in  various  parts  of  Africa,  as  Guinea,  Angola, 
and  Congo,  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  America  and  India  it  made  some 
progress  in  the  sixteenth,  and  now  rapidly  gains  ground  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

CHRISTMAS-DAY.  A  festival  of  the  church,  universally  observed  in  com 
memoiation  of  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour.  It  has  been  denominated  Christ- 
mass,  from  the  appellative  Christ  having  been  added  to  the  name  of  Jesus  to 
express  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  or  The  Anointed.  It  was  first  observed  as  a 
festival  A.  D.  98.  Ordered  to  be  held  as  a  solemn  feast,  and  Divine  service  to  be 
performed  on  the  25th  of  December,  by  pope  Telesphorus,  about  A.  D.  137.* 
In  the  eastern  primitive  church,  Christmas  and  Epiphany  (which  see)  were 
deomed  but  one  and  the  same  feast;  and  to  this  day  the  church  universally 
keeps  a  continued  feast  within  those  limits.  The  he  ?ly  and  misletoe  used 
at  Christmas  are  remains  of  the  religious  observances  of  the  Druids,  and  so 
with  many  other  like  customs. 

CHRONICLES.  The  earliest  chronicles  are  those  of  the  Chinese,  Hindoos, 
Jews,  and  perhaps  those  of  the  Irish.  After  the  invention  of  writing,  all 
well-informed  nations  appear  to  have  kept  chroniclers,  who  were  generally 
priests  or  astrologers,  and  who  mingled  popular  legends  with  their  records. 
— Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY.  The  Chinese  pretend  to  the  most  ancient,  but  upon  no  cer- 
tain authority.  The  most  authentic,  to  which  all  Europe  gives  credit,  is  the 
Jewish ;  but  owing  to  the  negligence  of  the  Jews,  they  have  created  abun- 
dance of  difficulties  in  this  science,  and  very  little  certainty  can  be  arrived 
at  as  to  the  exact  time  of  many  memorable  events.  The  eai'liest  epoch  is 
the  creation  of  the  world,  4004  B.  c.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the 
first  Christian  chronologist,  about  A.  D.  169.  See  the  different  eras  through  the 
volume. 

f'HURCH.  It  is  said  that  a  church  was  built  for  Christian  worship  in  the  first 
century ;  and  some  will  have  it  that  one  was  built  in  England,  A.  D.  60.  See 
Glastonbury.  In  the  small  island  of  Whitehorn,  Scotland,  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  church,  which  was  the  first  place  of  Christian  worship,  it  is  be- 
lieved, in  that  country,  and  supposed  to  have  been  built  before  the  cathedral 
at  Whitehorn,  in  Wigtonshire,  where  Nenian  was  bishop  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  Christians  originally  preached  in  woods,  and  in  caves,  by  candle- 
light, whence  the  practice  of  candle-light  in  churches.  Most  of  the  early 
churches  were  of  wood.  The  first  church  of  stone  was  built  in  London,  in 
1087.  The  first  Irish  church  of  stone  was  built  at  Bangor,  in  the  county  of 
Down,  by  Malachy,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  was  prelate  in-1134. — Gar- 
don's  Ireland.  Church  towers  were  originally  parochial  fortresses.  Church- 
yards were  permitted  in  cities  in  742. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  (the  present).  Commenced  with  the  Reformation 
and  was  formally  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1534.  This  church 
consists  of  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops,  exclusively  of  that  of 
Sodor  and  Man ;  and  the  other  dignitaries  are  chancellors,  deans  (of  cathe- 
drals and  collegiate  churches),  archdeacons,  prebendaries,  canons,  minor 
canons,  and  priest  vicars ;  the'-e,  and  the  incumbents  of  rectories,  vicarages, 

that  us,  "  they  would  not  be  English,  but  angels,  if  they  were  Christians."  From  that  time  lie  wa* 
struck  with  an  ardent  desire  to  convert  that  unenlightened  nation,  and  ordered  a  monk,  named 
Austin,  or  Augustin,  and  others  of  the  same  fraternity,  to  undertake  the  mission  to  Britain,  in  the 
year  596  — Goldsmith. 

'  Diocletian,  the  Roman  emperor,  keeping  his  court  at  Nicomedia,  being  informed  that  the 
Christians  were  assembled  on  this  day  in  great  multitudes,  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity,  ordered  [he 
doors  to  be  shut,  and  the  ebuich  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  six  hundred  perished  in  the  binning  pile 
This  was  Hie  commencemi  it  of  the  tenth  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  A.  D  303. 


310  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ci« 

and  ch<ipelries,  ml  ke  the  number  of  preferments  of  the  established  church, 
according  to  the  last  official  returns.  12,327.  The  number  of  churches  for 
Protestant  worship  in  England  was  1 1,742  in  1818. 

CHURCH  or  IRELAND.  Called,  in  connection  with  that  of  England,  the 
United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  Previously  to  the  Church  Tempo- 
ralities Act  of  \Villiam  IV.  in  1833,  there  were  four  archbishoprics  and 
eighteen  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  of  which  several  have  since  ceased;  that  act 
providing  for  the  union  of  sees,  and  for  the  abolition  of  certain  sees,  accord- 
ingly as  the  present  possessors  of  them  die.  There  are  1,659  places  of  Prot- 
estant worship,  2  109  Catholic  chapels,  452  Presbyterian,  and  414  other 
houses  of  prayer.  See  Bishops. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  Presbyterianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland.  Its 
distinguishing  tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formuiary  of 
faith  attributed  to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformer  in  1560.  It 
was  approved  by  the  parliament  and  ratified  in  1567 ;  was  finally  settled  by 
an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate  in  1696,  and  was  afterwards  secured  by  the 
treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1707.  Previously  to  the  abolition  of  episco- 
pacy in  Scotland  in  1688.  there  existed  two  archbishoprics  and  twelve  bish- 
oprics, which  were  then  dissolved ;  but  there  are  now  six  bishops.  Thd 
Church  of  Scotland  is  regulated  by  four  courts — the  General  Assembly,  the 
Synod,  the  Presbytery,  and  Kirk  Session.  See  Presbyterians. 

CHURCH  MUSIC,  was  introduced  into  the  Christian  church  by  Gregory  the 
Great,  in  A.  D.  602.  Choir  service  was  first  introduced  in  England,  at  Can- 
terbury, in  677.  Church  organs  were  in  general  use  in  the  tenth  century 
Church  music  was  first  performed  in  English  in  1559.  See  Choir;  Chanting. 

CHURCH- WARDENS.  Officers  of  the  parish  church,  appointed  by  the  first 
canon  of  the  synod  of  London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  every  parish  were  also 
appointed  by  the  same  body,  and  they  continue  now  nearly  as  then  consti- 
tuted.— Johnson's  Canons. 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN.  It  originated  in  the  Jewish  rite  of  purification. 
A.  D.  214.  Churching  is  the  act  of  returning  thanks  in  the  church  for  any 
signal  deliverance,  and  particularly  after  the  delivery  of  women. —  Wheatley. 
It  was  a  Jewish  law  that  a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days 
after  her  lying  in.  if  she  had  a  son.  and  eighty  if  she  had  a  daughter,  at  the 
expiration  whereof  she  was  to  go  to  the  temple,  and  offer  a  lamb  with  a 
young  pigeon  or  turtle  and  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons  or  turtles. 
See  Purification. 

CIDER.  Anciently  this  beverage,  when  first  made  in  England,  was  called  wine, 
about  A.  D.  1284.  When  the  earl  of  Manchester  was  ambassador  in  Frame, 
he  is  said  to  have  frequently  passed  off  cider  upon  the  nobility  of  that  coun- 
try for  a  delicious  wine.  It  was  subjected  to  the  excise  regulations  in 
England,  1763,  et  seq.  A  powerful  spirit  is  drawn  from  cider  by  distillation. — 
Butler. 

•CIMBRI.  The  war  of  the  Cimbri,  113  B.  c.  They  defeat  the  consul  Marcus 
Silanus,  109  B.  c.  They  defeat  the  Romans  under  Manlius.  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  where  80  000  Romans  are  slain,  105  B.  c.  The  Teutones  are  de- 
feated by  Marius  in  two  battles  at  Aquae  Sextiaa  (Aix)  in  Gaul,  200  000  art- 
killed,  and  70.000  made  prisoners,  102  B.  c.  The  Cimbri  are  defeated  by 
Marius  and  Catullus  as  they  were  again  endeavoring  to  enter  Italy ;  120  000 
are  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners,  101  B.  c.  Their  name  afterwards  sunk 
in  that  of  the  Teutones  or  Saxons. 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO,  the  most  populous  city  west  of  the  Alleghanies  in  tlio 
United  States,  was  founded  in  1789,  by  emigrants  from  New  England  and 


0*Jt 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


311 


New  Jersey.     Population  in  1795,  500  ;  in  1800,  750  ;  in  1810,  2,540  ;  in  1820 
9,642  ;  in  1830,  24,831  ;  in  1840,  46.338. 

CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF.  Established  by  the  officers  of  the  American  army, 
in  1783.  after  the  Revolution,  and  still  continued  by  them  and  their  descend- 
ants. There  was  at  one  time  a  popular  jealousy  of  this  society  as  suggest- 
ing a  sort  of  hereditary  nobility  or  aristocracy  ;  but  this  has  long  since  passed 
away,  and  the  society  is  now  but  seldom  mentioned. 

(1IRCASSIA.  The  Circassians  are  descended  from  the  Alanians.  They  contin- 
ued unsubdued,  even  by  the  arms  of  the  celebrated  ""imur  ;  but  in  the  six- 
teenth century  the  greater  part  of  them  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the 
Czar,  Ivan  II.  of  Russia.  About  A  D.  1745.  the  princes  of  Great  and  Little 
Kabarda  took  oaths  of  fealty  to  that  power.  One  branch  of  their  traffic  is 
the  sale  of  their  daughters,  famed  throughout  the  world  for  their  beauty, 
and  whom  they  sell  for  the  use  of  the  seraglios  of  Turkey  and  Persia  :  the 
merchants  who  come  from  Constantinople  to  purchase  these  girls  are  gener- 
ally Jews.  —  KlaproMs  Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY.  The  first  in  England,  on  a  public  plan,  was  opened 
by  Samuel  Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister  of  Salisbury,  about  1740.  He  had 
little  encouragement  in  the  undertaking,  which  in  the  end  failed.  —  Fergu- 
son's Biog. 

CIRCULATION  or  THE  BLOOD,  and  the  motion  of  the  heart  in  animals,  con- 
firmed experimentally  by  William  Harvey,  the  celebrated  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  between  1619  and  1628.  See  article  Blood.  By  this  dis- 
covery the  medical  and  surgical  art  became  greatly  improved,  to  the  benefit 
of  mankind.  —  Freind's  Hist,  of  P/iysic. 

CIRCUMCISION.  A  rite  instituted  1897  B.  c.  It  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant 
made  by  God  with  Abraham.  —  Josephus.  Even  to  the  present  day  many  of 
the  Turks  and  Persians  circumcise,  although  not  regarding  it  as  essential  to 
salvation  ;  but  in  some  eastern  and  African  nations  it  is  rendered  necessary 
by  a  peculiar  conformation,  and  is  used  without  any  reference  to  a  religious 
rite.  —  Bell.  The  festival  of  the  Circumcision  was  originally  called  the  Octave 
of  Christmas.  The  first  mention  found  of  it  is  in  A.  D.  487.  It  was  instituted 
by  the  church  to  commemorate  the  ceremony  under  the  Jewish  law  to 
which  Christ  submitted  on  the  eighth  day  of  his  nativity  ;  it  was  introduced 
into  the  Liturgy  in  1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  greatest  and  most  daring  of  human  en- 
terprises was  the  circumnavigation  of  the  earth  at  the  period  when  it  was 
first  attempted,  A.  D.  1519.*  The  following  are  the  most  renowned  of  this 
illustrious  class  of  men  ;  their  voyages  were  undertaken  at  the  dates  affixed 
to  their  names.  See  Navigators. 


Magellan,  a  Portuguese,  the  first  who 
entered  the  Pacific  ocean       •    A.  D  1519 


Groalva,  a  Spanish  navigator 
Avalradi,  a  Spaniard      -  - 

Mendana,  a  Spaniard  -        - 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  first  English 
Cavendish,  his  first  voyage 
Le  Maire,  a  Dutchman  -  - 

Quiros,  a  Spaniard  - 

Tasman.  Dutch   -  .  - 

Cowley,  British        -  - 

Dampier,  an  Ersrlishman         • 
Cooke,  an  Englishman        - 


1537 
1537 
1567 
1577 
1586 
1615 
1625 
1642 
1683 
1689 
1708 


Clipperton,  British  -           -           A.  D.  1719 

Roggewein,  Dutch           -  -  1721 

Anson  (afterwards  Lord)     -           -  1740 

Byron  (grandfather  of  Lord  Byron)  -  1764 

Wallis,  British          -           -           -  -  1766 

Carteret,  an  Englishman           •  -  176f 

Cook,  the  illustrious  captain          •  •  1766 
On  the  death  of  Captain  Cook,  his  last 

voyage  was  continued  by  King  -  1779 

Bougainville,  French           -           -  1776 

Portlocke,  British           -           -  -  1788 

Wilkes,  American    -           -           -  -  1837 

D'Urville,  French           -           -  -  1837 


*  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  and  hence  determined  its  being  globular,  WM 
Magellan's,  or  Magelhoen's ;  he  was  a  native  of  Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  and  by  keeping  a 
westerly  course  he  returned  to  the  same  place  he  had  set  out  from  in  1519.  The  voyage  was  com- 
pleted in  three  years  and  twenty-nine  days ;  but  Magellan  was  killed  or  his  homeward  p;issage,  af 
«he  Philippines,  in  1521.— Butler. 


312  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [en 

Several  voyages  have  been  since  undertaken,  and,  among  other  nations,  bj 
the  Russians.  The  early  navigators,  equally  illustrious,  are  named  else- 
where. 

CIRCUS.  There  were  eight  (some  say  ten)  buildings  of  this  kind  at  Rome ; 
the  largest  of  them  was  called  the  Circus  Maximus,  which  vas  built  by  the 
elder  Tarquin,  605  B.  c. ;  it  was  of  an  oval  figure ;  its  length  was  three  stadia 
and  a  half,  or  more  than  three  English  furlongs,  and  its  breadth  960  Roman 
feet.  This  circus  was  enlarged  by  Caesar  so  as  to  seat  150  000  persons,  and 
was  rebuilt  by  Augustus.  All  the  emperors  vied  in  beautifying  it,  and 
Julius  Cajsar  introduced  in  it  large  canals  of  water,  which  on  a  sudden  could 
be  covered  with  an  infinite  number  of  vessels,  and  represent  a  sea-fight. — 
Pliny. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  June  1797.  It  was  ac- 
knowledged by  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  be  independent,  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio  (which  see),  Oct.  17,  following.  Received  a  new  constitution 
in  Sept.  1798.  It  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805 ;  Napo- 
leon was  crowned  king  in  May  following,  and  was  represented  by  his  vice- 
roy, Eugene  Beauharnois.  See  Italy. 

CISTERCIANS.  An  order  founded  by  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  in  the  eleventh 
century.  They  became  so  powerful  that  they  governed  almost  all  Europe 
in  spiritual  and  temporal  concerns.  They  observed  a  continual  silence,  ab- 
stained from  flesh,  lay  on  straw,  wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts,  and  were  most 
austere. — De  Vitri. 

CITIES.  The  word  city  has  been  in  use  in  England  only  since  the  Conquest,  at 
which  time  even  London  was  called  Londonburgh,  as  the  capital  of  Scotland 
is  still  called  Edinburgh.  The  English  cities  were  very  inconsiderable  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Cities  were  first  incorporated  A.  D.  1079.  The  institu- 
tion of  cities  has  aided  much  in  introducing  regular  governments,  police, 
manners,  and  arts. — Robertson. 

CITIZEN.  It  was  not  lawful  to  scourge  a  citizen  of  Rome. — Livy.  In  England 
a  citizen  is  a  person  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carry  on  a  trade 
therein. — Camden.  Various  privileges  have  been  conferred  on  citizens  as 
freemen  in  several  reigns,  and  powers  granted  to  them.  The  wives  of  citi- 
zens of  London  (not  being  aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent) 
were  obliged  to  wear  minever  caps,  being  white  woollen  knit  three-cornered, 
with  the  peaks  projecting  three  or  four  inches  beyond  their  foreheads;  alder- 
men's wives  made  them  of  velvet,  1  Elizabeth,  1558. — Stowe.  The  title  of 
citizen,  only,  was  allowed  in  France  at  the  period  of  the  revolution.  1792.  et  seq 

CIUD  AD  RODRIGO.  This  strong  fortress  of  Spain  was  invested  by  the  French 
June  11,  1810:  and  it  surrendered  to  them  July  10,  following.  It  remained 
in  their  possession  until  it  was  gallantly  stormed  by  the  British  commanded 
by  Wellington,  Jan.  19,  1812.  Wellington  had  made  a  previous  attack  upon 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  (Sept.  25,  1811),  which  ended  in  his  orderly  retreat  from 
the  position. 

CIVIL  LAW.  Several  codes  come  under  this  denomination  of  laws.  A  body 
of  Roman  laws,  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations,  was  firat 
collected  by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  Civilian,  who  flourished  about  66  B.  c. ;  and 
a  digest  of  them  was  made  by  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  Civilian,  53  B.  c.  The 
Gregorian  laws  were  compiled  A.  D.  290;  the  Theodosian  in  435;  and  the 
Justinian.  529-534.  Many  of  the  former  laws  having  grown  out  of  use,  the 
emperor  Justinian  ordered  a  revision  of  them,  which  was  called  the  Justinian 
cod'.',  and  this  code  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  present  civil  law.  Civil 
law  was  restored  in  Italy.  Germany,  &c.  1127. — Blair.  Civil  law  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Norman  abbot,  who  was  afterward* 


CLE]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  313 

archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1138.    It  is  now  used  in  the  spiritual  court* 
only,  and  in  maritime  affairs.    See  Laws. 

CIVIL  LIST  IN  ENGLAND.  This  comprehends  the  revenue  awarded  to  the 
kings  of  England,  partly  in  lieu  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The 
entire  revenue  of  Elizabeth  was  not  more  than  600,000^.  and  that  of  Charles  I. 
was  but  800,000^.  After  the  Revolution  a  civil  list  revenue  was  settled  on 
the  new  king  and  queen  of  700.00W.,  the  parliament  taking  into  its  own 
hands  the  support  of  the  forces,  both  maritime  and  military.  The  civil  list 
of  George  II.  was  increased  to  800,000^. ;  and  that  of  George  III.  in  the  65th 
year  of  his  reign,  was  1,030,000/.  By  the  act  1  William  IV.  1831,  the  civil 
list  of  that  sovereign  was  fixed  at  510.000J.  By  the  act  of  1  Victoria,  Dec, 
1837,  the  civil  list  of  the  queen  was  fixed  at  385,000/. ;  and  Prince  Albert 
obtained  an  exclusive  sum  from  parliament  of  30,000£.  per  ann.  4  Victoria. 
1840. 

CLANSHIPS.  These  were  tribes  of  the  same  race,  and  commonly  of  the  same 
name,  and  originated  in  feudal  times. — See  Feudal  Laws.  They  may  be 
said  to  have  arisen  in  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008. 
Clanships  and  other  remains  of  heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scot- 
land (where  clans  were  taken  to  be  the  tenants  of  one  lord),  and  the  liberty 
of  the  English  was  granted  to  clansmen.  20  George  II.,  1746. — Ruffhead. 
The  chief  of  each  respective  clan  was,  and  is,  entitled  to  wear  two  eagle's 
feathers  in  his  bonnet,  in  addition  to  the  distinguishing  badge  of  his  clan. — 
Chambers. 

CLARENDON,  STATUTES  OP.  These  were  statutes  enacted  in  a  parliament 
held  at  Clarendon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  retrench  the  then  enormous 
power  of  the  clergy.  They  are  rendered  memorable  as  being  the  ground  of 
Becket's  quarrel  with  Henry  II.  A  number  of  regulations  were  drawn  up 
under  the  title  of  the  statutes  or  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  were  voted 
without  opposition,  A.  D.  1164.  These  stringent  statutes  were  enacted  to 
prevent  the  chief  abuses  which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  and  put  a  stop  to  church  usurpations  which,  gradually  stealing  on, 
threatened  the  destruction  of  the  civil  and  royal  power. — Hume. 

CLARION.  This  instrument  originated  with  the  Moors,  in  Spain,  about  A.  D. 
800  it  was  at  first  a  trumpet,  serving  as  a  treble  to  trumpets  sounding  their 
tenor  and  bass. — Ashe.  Its  tube  is  narrower,  and  its  tone  shriller  than  the 
common  trumpet. — Pardon. 

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  given  by  Tullius  Servius  in  making  divisions  of 
the  Roman  people.  The  first  of  six  classes  were  called  dassici,  by  way  of 
eminence,  and  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  came  to  be  called  classics, 
573  B.  c. 

CLEMENTINES.  Apocryphal  pieces,  fable  and  error,  attributed  to  a  primi- 
tive father,  Clemens  Romanus,  a  cotemporary  of  St.  Paul;  some  Bay  he 
succeeded  Peter  as  bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  A.  D.  102. — Niceron.  Also  the 
decretals  of  pope  Clement  V.,  who  died  1314,  published  by  his  successor. — 
Bowuer.  Also  Augustine  monks,  each  of  whom  having  been  a  superior  nine 
years,  then  merged  into  a  common  monk. 

CLEMENTINES  AND  URBANISTS.  Parties  by  whom  Europe  was  distracted 
for  several  years.  The  Urbanists  were  the  adherents  of  pope  Urban  VI..  the 
others  those  of  Robert,  son  of  the  count  of  Geneva,  who  took  the  title  of 
Clement  VII.  All  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom  according  to  their  various 
interests  and  inclinations  were  divided  between  these  two  pontiffs ;  the  courts 
of  France,  Castile,  Scotland,  &c.  adhering  1o  Clement,  and  Rome,  Italy,  and 
14 


314  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  |  CLC 

England  declaring  for  Urban.  This  contention  was  consequent  upon  the 
death  of  Gregory  XI.  1378.— Hu,me. 

CLERGY.  In  the  first  century  the  clergy  were  distinguished  by  the  title  o< 
presbyters  or  bishops.  The  bishops  in  the  second  century  assumed  higher 
functions,  and  the  presbyters  represented  the  inferior  priests  of  the  Levites: 
this  distinction  was  still  further  promoted  in  the  third  century;  and,  under 
Coustantine,  the  clergy  attained  the  recognition  and  protection  of  the  secu- 
lar power. 

CLERGY  IN  ENGLAND.  They  increased  rapidly  in  number  early  in  the  seventh 
century  and  at  length  controlled  the  king  and  kingdom.  Dnmkenness  wa^ 
forbidden  among  the  clergy  by  a  law,  so  early  as  747  A.  D.  The  first  fruits 
of  the  then  clergy  were  assigned  by  parliament  to  the  king.  1534.  The  cler- 
gy were  excluded  from  parliament  in  1536.  The  conference  between  tho 
Protestant  and  Dissenting  clergy  was  held  in  1604.  See  Conferenc'..  Two 
thousand  resigned  their  beneh'ces  in  the  church  of  England,  rathei  than 
subscribe  their  assent  to  the  book  of  common  prayer,  including  the  thirty- 
nine  articles  of  religion,  as  enjoined  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1661-2.  The 
Irish  Protestant  clergy  were  restored  to  their  benefices,  from  which  they  had 
been  expelled,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  kingdom  under  .Junes  II.,  1689. 
The  Clergy  Incapacitation  act  passed,  1801.  See  Church  of  England. 

CLERK.  The  Clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges  being  chosen 
after  the  Norman  custom  from  the  sacred  order ;  and  the  officers  being  cler- 
gy; this  gave  them  that  denomination,  which  they  keep  to  this  day. — Black- 
stone's  Comm. 

CLOCK.  That  called  the  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was  introduced  at  Rome 
158  B.  c.  by  Scipio  Nasica.  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them  by  Ctesi- 
bius,  about  140  B.  c.  Said  to  have  been  found  by  Caesar  on  invading  Britain, 
55  B.  c.  The  only  clock  supposed  to  be  then  in  the  world  was  sent  by  pope 
Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  France,  A.  D.  760.  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Verona, 
invented  one  in  the  ninth  century.  Originally  the  wheels  were  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  earliest  complete  clock  of  which  there  is  any  certain  record, 
was  made  by  a  Saracen  mechanic,  in  the  13th  century. 

The  scapement,  ascribed  to  Gerbert,  A.D.  1000  ,  den)  and  the  younger  Galileo  con- 

A  clock  constructed  by  Richard,  abbot  structed  the  pendulum         -        A.  D.  1641 

of  St.  Alban's,  about   -           -           -  1326  Christian  Huygens  contested  this  disco- 

A  striking  clock  in  Westminster          •  1368  very,  and  made  his  pendulum  clock 

A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris  by  Vick   -  1370  some  time  previously  to           -         - 1658 

The  first  portable  one  made       -          -  1530  Fromantil,  a  Dutchman,  improved  the 

In  England  no  clock  went  accurately  pendulum,  about         -           .           - 1659 

before  that  set  up  at  Hampton-court          t  Repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented 

(maker's  initials,  N.  O.)         -           -  1540  by  Barlow,  about            -           •        - 1676 

Richard  Harris  (who  erected  a  clock  in  The  dead  beat,  and  horizontal  escape- 

the  church  of  St.  Paul  s,  Covent-Gar-  ments,  by  Graham,  about   -         -    - 1700 

The  subsequent  improvements  were  the  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and 
the  duplex  scapement  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke ;  pivot  holes  jewelled  by  Facio ; 
the  detached  scapement  invented  by  Mudge,  and  improved  by  Berthoud, 
Arnold,  Earnshaw  and  others. 

CLOCK,  MAGNETIC.    Invented  by  Dr.  Locke  of  Cincinnati,  1847-8. 

CLOTH.  Both  woollen  and  linen  cloth  were  known  in  very  early  times.  Coarse 
woollens  were  introduced  into  England  A.  D.  1191 ;  and  Seventy  families  of 
cloth-workers  from  the  Netherlands  settled  in  England  by  Edward  III.'s  in- 
vitation, and  the  art  of  weaving  was  thereby  introduced,  1331. — Rymer's  FCR- 
dera.  Woollens  were  first  made  at  Kendal.  in  1390.  Medleys  were  manu- 
factured. 1614.  Our  fine  broad  cloths  were  yet  sent  to  Holland  to  be  dyed, 
1654.  Dyed  and  dressed  in  England,  by  one  Brewer,  from  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, 1667.  The  mamfacture  was  discouraged  in  Ireland  and  that  of  linen 


COA  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  315 

countenanced,  at  the  request  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  1698.  See 
Woollen  Cloth. 

"LOVIS,  FAMILY  OF.  Kings  of  France.  The  real  founder  of  the  French  mo- 
narchy was  Clovis  I.,  who  commenced  his  reign  A.  n.  481.  and  was  a  warlike 
prince.  He  expelled  the  Romans,  embraced  the  Christian  religion,  and  pub- 
lished the  Salique  law.  On  his  being  first  told  of  tho  sufferings  of  Christ, 
he  exclaimed,  "0,  had  I  been  there  with  my  valiant  Gauls,  how  I  would 
have  avenged  him !"  Clovis  united  his  conquests  from  the  Romans.  Germans, 
and  Goths,  as  provinces  to  the  then  scanty  dominions  of  France :  removed 
the  seat  of  Government  from  Soissons  to  Paris,  and  made  this  the  capital  of 
his  new  kingdom;  he  died  in  *si\.\.—Henault. 

COACH.  The  coach  is  of  French  invention.  Under  Francis  I.,  who  was  a  co- 
temporary  with  our  Henry  VIII.,  there  were  but  two  in  Paris,  one  of  which 
belonged  to  the  queen,  and  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of 
Henry  II.  There  were  but  three  in  Paris  in  1550 ;  and  Henry  IV.  had  one,  but 
without  straps  or  springs.  The  first  courtier  who  set  up  this  equipage  was 
John  de  Laval  de  Bois-Dauphin,  who  could  not  travel  otherwise  on  account 
of  his  enormous  bulk.  Previously  to  the  use  of  coaches  the  kings  of  France 
travelled  on  horseback,  the  princesses  were  carried  in  litters,  and  ladies  rode 
behind  their  squires.  The  first  coach  seen  in  England  was  in  the  reign  of 
Mary,  about  1553. — Priestley's  Lect.  They  were  introduced  much  earlier. — 
Andrews'  Hist.  Great  Brit.  They  were  introduced  by  Fitz- Allen,  earl  of 
Arundel,  in  1580. — S.'awe.  And  in  some  years  afterwards  the  art  of  making 
them. — Anderson's  Hist,  of  Commerce.  A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament 
to  prevent  the  effeminacy  of  men  riding  in  coaches,  43  Eliz.  1601.* — Carle. 
See  Carriages,  Hackney  Coaches,  Mail  Coaches,  &c. 

COALITIONS.  The  great  coalitions  against  France  since  the  period  of  the 
French  revolution,  have  been  six  in  number  ;  and  they  generally  arose  out 
of  the  subsidizing  by  England  of  the  great  powers  of  the  Continent.  They 
were  entered  into  as  follows : 


1st.  The  king  of  Prussia  issues  his  ma- 
nifesto -  -  •  June  26,  1792 

5Jnd.  By  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Rus- 
sia, Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey, 
iiarned  -  -  -  June  22, 1799 


4th.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia.  Prussia, 

and  Saxony  -  -  Oct.  6, 1306 
5th.  By  England  and  Austria  -  April  6,  1809 
6th.  By  Russia  arid  Prussia ;  the  treaty 

ratified  at  Kalisch    -     March  17, 1813 


3rd.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,          I  See  Treaties. 

and  Naples  -  -  Aug.  5,  1805  | 

COALITION  MINISTRY.  This  designation  was  given  to  the  celebrated  min- 
istry of  Mr.  Fox  and  lord  North,  and  which  was  rendered  memorable  as  an 
extraordinary  union  in  political  life,  on  account  of  the  strong  personal  dis- 
like which  had  always  been  displayed  by  these  personages,  each  towards 
the  other.  The  ministry  was  formed  April  5,  1783,  and  dissolved  Dec.  19, 
same  year.  See  Administrations. 

COALS.  It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming  truth,  that  coals,  although  they 
are  not  mentioned  by  the  Romans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  were  yet  in  use 
by  the  ancient  Britons. — Brandt.  They  were  first  discovered  at  Newcastle* 
upon-Tyne  in  1234,  some  say  earlier ;  and  others  in  1239.  Sea-coal  was  prc- 
hibited  from  being  used  in  and  near  London,  as  being  "  prejudicial  to  human 
health ;  "  and  even  smiths  were  obliged  to  burn  wood,  1273. — Stowe.  Coals 
were  first  made  an  article  of  trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,  4  Richard  D. 
1381. — Kymer's  Fazdera.  Notwithstanding  the  many  previous  complaints 


*  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1619,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  been  imprisoned  evei 
liner,  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  obtained  his  liberation  Hearing  that  Buckingham  was  drawn  about 
with  fix  horses  in  his  coach  (being  the  first  that  was  so),  he  put  on  eight  to  his,  and  in  that  marine; 
puse*  tiom  the  tower  through  the  city. — Rajnn. 


316  THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS.  [  CO* 

against  coal  as  a  public  nuisance,  it  was  at  length  generally  burned  in  Lou- 
don  in  1400 ;  but  coals  were  not  in  common  use  in  England  until  the 
of  Charles  I.,  1625. 

NUMBER  OF   CHALDRONS   OP   COALS    CONSUMED   IN   LONDON   IN   THE   FOLLOWING   YE/IRS: 


1650       •       -    160,000  chald. 
1700  •         317.000  ditto. 

1750    -  -    610,000  ditto. 


1800  •      -  814,000  chald. 

1810       -        -      980,372  ditto. 
1820       -     -      1,171,178  ditto. 


1830  -  -  1,588,360  chald 
1835  -  2,299,816  tons. 
1840  -  -  2,633,256  ditto. 


The  coal-fields  of  Durham  and  Northumberland  are  723  square  miles  in 
extent ;  those  of  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  Whitehaven,  and  other  places,  are 
also  of  vast  magnitude  ;  and  there  are  exhaustless  beds  of  coal  in  Yorkshire. 
The  coal  in  South  Wales  alone,  would,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption, 
supply  all  England  for  2000  years. — Hlakewell.  It  is  supposed  that  there  aro 
now  about  25,000,000  of  tons  consumed  annually  in  Great  Britain. — Phillips, 
Scotland  teems  with  the  richest  mines  of  coal,  and  besides  her  vast  collieries 
there  must  be  vast  fields  unexplored. — Pennant.  Fine  coal  is  found  in  Kil- 
kenny, Ireland.  The  first  ship  laden  with  Irish  coal  arrived  in  Dublin  from 
Newry,  in  1742. — Burns. 

COALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Lehigh  coal  from  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylva- 
nia, first  mined  and  used,  1806.  According  to  Mr.  Lyell,  the  coal  strata  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  &c.,  extend  700  miles. 

COCCEIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  John  Cocceius  of  Bremen;  they  held, 
amongst  other  singular  opinions,  that  of  a  visible  reign  of  Christ  in  this  world, 
after  a  general  conversion  of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the  Christian 
faith,  1665. 

COCHINEAL.  The  properties  of  this  insect  became  known  to  the  Spaniards 
soon  after  their  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  1518.  Cochineal  was  not  known  in 
Italy  in  1548,  although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there. — See  Dyeing. 
The  annual  import  of  this  article  into  England  was  260,000  Ibs.  in  1830 ;  and 
1,081,776,  in  1845. 

COCK-FIGHTING.  Practised  by  the  early  barbarous  nations,  and  by  Greece. 
It  was  instituted  at  Rome  after  a  victory  over  the  Persians,  476  B.  c. ;  and 
was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  England.  William  Fitz-Stephen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  describes  cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  school-boys  on 
Shrove  Tuesday.  Cock-fighting  was  prohibited,  39  Edward  III.,  1365 ;  and 
again  by  Henry  VIII.  and  Cromwell.  Till  within  these  few  years  there  was 
a  Cock-pit  Royal,  in  St.  James's-park :  but  this  practice  is  happily  now  dis- 
couraged by  the  law. 

COCK-LANE  GHOST.  A  famous  imposition  (7)  practised  upon  the  credulous 
multitude  by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter.  The  contrivance 
was  that  of  a  female  ventriloquist,  and  all  who  heard  her  believed  she 
was  a  ghost :  the  deception,  which  arose  in  a  malignant  conspiracy,  was 
carried  on  for  some  time  at  the  house,  No.  33  Cock-lane,  London ;  biit 
it  was  at  length  detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned  to  the  pillory 
and  imprisonment,  July  10,  1762. 

COCOA.  Unknown  in  Europe  until  the  discovery  of  America,  about  1600. 
The  cocoa-tree  supplies  the  Indians  with  almost  whatever  they  stand  in  need 
of,  as  bread,  water,  wine,  vinegar,  brandy,  milk,  oil,  honey,  sugar,  needier 
clothes,  thread,  cups,  spoons,  basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts  for  ships,  sails, 
•sordage,  nails,  covering  for  their  houses,  &c. — Ray. 

CODES  OF  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Phoronous  were  instituted  1807  B.  c. :  those 
of  Lycurgus.  884  B.  c. ;  of  Draco,  623  B.  c. ;  of  Solon,  587  B.  c.  Alfrenug 
Varus.  the  civilian,  first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about  66  B.  c. ;  and  Ser- 
vius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian,  embodied  them  about  53  B.  c.  The  Gregorian 
and  Hermoginian  codes  were  published  A.  D.  290  ;  the  Theodosian  code  in 
435  •  the  celebrated  code  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  in  629— a  digest  from 


OOIj  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  317 

this  last  was  made  in  533.— Blair.    Alfred's  code  of  laws  is  the  foundation 
of  the  common  law  of  England,  887. — See  Laws. 

CODICILS  TO  WILLS.  C.  Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian  of  Rome,  was  the 
first  who  introduced  the  use  of  this  supplementary  instrument  to  wills, 
about  31  B.  c. 

CCEUR  DE  LION,  OR  THE  LION-HEARTED.  The  surname  given  to  Richard  Plan- 
tagenet  I.  of  England,  on  account  of  his  dauntless  courage,  about  A.  D.  1192. 
This  surname  was  also  conferred  on  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  who  signalized 
himself  in  the  crusades  and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1223.  Thia 
latter  pr'nce  had  also  the  appellation  of  the  Lion  given  Mm. 
COFFEE.  It  grows  in  Arabia,  Persia,  the  Indies,  and  America.  Its  use  as  a 
beverage  is  traced  to  the  Persians.*  It  came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia 
Felix  about  A.  D.  1454 ;  and  passed  thence  into  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  thence, 
in  1511,  to  Constantinople,  where  coffee-houses  were  opened  in  1554.  M. 
Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  first  who  brought  it  into  France,  to  which 
country  he  returned  after  an  absence  of  seven  years,  in  1662. — Chambers.  Cof- 
fee was  brought  into  England  by  Mr.  Nathaniel  Canopus.  a  Cretan,  who 
made  it  his  common  beverage  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1641. — Anderson. 
COFFEE  AND  TEA.  The  consumption  in  the  United  States  at  different  periods 
is  reported  by  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  (see  American  Almanac,  1848) 
thus : — 

1821        --.    Tea,  4,586.223  ]bs.        -       •        •    Coffee,  11,886,063  Ibs. 

1830    ..."      6,873,091  Ibs.    ...  "       38,363.687  Ibs 

1885       ..."    12,331,638  Ibs.        ..."       91,753,002  Ibs. 

1842    ...»    13,482,645  Ibs.    ...  "      107,387,567  Ibs. 

1846  "    16,891,020  Ibs.        ...»      124,336,054  Ibs. 

COFFEE-HOUSES.  The  first  in  England  was  kept  by  a  Jew,  named  Jacobs, 
in  Oxford,  1650.  In  that  year,  Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant, 
brought  home  with  him  a  Greek  servant  named  Pasquet,  who  kept  the  first 
house  for  making  coffee  in  London,  which  he  opened  in  George-yard,  Lom- 
bard-street, in  1652.  Pasquet  afterwards  went  to  Holland,  and  opened  the 
first  house  in  that  country. — Anderson.  The  Rainbow  coffee-house,  near 
Temple-bar,  was  represented  as  a  nuisance  to  the  neighborhood,  1657. 
Coffee-houses  were  suppressed  by  proclamation,  26  Charles  II.,  1675.  The 
proclamation  was  afterwards  suspended  on  the  petition  of  the  traders  in  tea 
and  coffee. 

COFFEE-TREES.  These  trees  were  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland  in  1616; 
and  wore  carried  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  year  1726.  First  cultivated  at 
Surinam  by  the  Dutch  about  1718.  The  culture  was  encouraged  in  the 
plantations  about  1732. 

COFFINS.  The  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  the  cedar  tree ;  ow- 
ing to  its  aromatic  and  incorruptible  qualities. —  Thucydides.  Coffins  of 
marble  and  stone  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  in  one  of  gold :  and  glass  coffins  have  been  found  in  England. — Gough. 
The  earliest  record  of  wooden  coffins  amongst  us,  is  that  of  the  burial  of 
king  Arthur,  who  was  buried  in  an  entire  trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  A.  D.  642, 
— Asser.  The  patent  coffins  were  invented  in  1796. 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as  existing  1184  B.  c.  The  invention  of 
coin  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  who  cherished  commerce,  and  whose  money 

*  Some  ascribe  the  discovery  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  to  the  prior  of  a  monastery,  who,  being  in- 
tamed  by  a  goat  herd  that  his  cattle  sometimes  browsed  upon  the  tree,  and  that  they  would  then 
wake  at  night,  ai  d  sport  and  bound  upon  the  hills,  became  curious  to  pro^e  its  virtues.  He  uc 
eordingly  tried  it  on  his  monks,  to  prevent  the>r  sleeping  at  macins,  and  he  found  that  u  cherkml 
their  slumbers. 


318  THE    WO]  LD'S    PROGRESS.  \  CO* 

was  of  gold  and  silver.  Both  were  coined  by  Phidon  tyrant  of  Argos,  862 
B.  c.  Money  was  coined  at  Rome  under  Servius  Tnllius,  about  573  B.  c. 
The  most  ancient  known  coins  are  Macedonian,  of  the  fifth  century  E.  c. ;  but 
others  are  bel'.eved  to  be  more  ancient.  Brass  money  only  was  in  use  at 
Rome  previously  to  269  B.  c.  (when  Fabius  Pictor  coined  silver),  a  sign  that 
little  correspondence  was  then  held  with  the  East,  where  gold  and  silver 
were  in  use  long  before.  Gold  was  coined  '206  B.  c.  Iron  money  was  used 
in  Sparta,  and  Iron  and  tin  in  Britain. — Dufresnoy.  Julius  Caesar  was  the 
first  who  obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate  to  place  his  portrait 
on  the  coins,  and  the  example  was  soon  followed.  In  the  earlier  and  moro 
simple  days  of  Rome,  the  likeness  of  no  living  personage  appeared  upon 
their  money:  the  heads  were  those  of  their  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  re- 
ceived divine  honors. 

COIN  IN  ENGLAND.  The  flist  coinage  in  England  was  under  the  Romans  at 
Camulodunum,  or  Colchester.  English  coin  was  of  different  shapes,  as 
square,  oblong,  and  round,  until  the  middle  ages,  when  round  coin  only  was 
used.  Groats  were  the  largest  silver  coin  until  after  A,  D.  1351.  Coin  was 
made  sterling  in  1216,  before  which  time  rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and 
maney  was  found  only  in  the  coffers  of  the  barons. — Stowe 


The  first  gold  coins  on  certain  record, 
struck,  42  Henry  HI.  •  A.  D.  1257 

Gold  florin  first  struck,  Ed.  III.  (Cam- 
den)  1337 

First  large  copper  coinage,  putting  an 


end  to  the  circulation  of  private  lead- 
en pieces,  dec.  ....  1620 
Halfpence  and  farthings  coined  •  1665 

Guineas  first  coined,  25  Char.  IL         •  1673 
Sovereigns,  new  coinage  -  •  181 1' 

Half-farthings          -          -          .     .  1843 

Gold  coin  was  introduced  in  six  shilling  pieces  by  Edward  III.  and  nobles 
followed,  at  six  shillings  and  eightpence,  and  hence  the  lawyer's  fee:  after- 
wards there  were  half  and  quarter  nobles.  Guineas  were  of  the  same  size  • 
but  being  made  of  a  superior  gold  from  sovereigns,  guineas  passed  fo> 
more.  SeeGui?ieas.  English  and  Irish  money  were  assimilated  Jan.  1. 1826 
See  Gold. 

MONEYS   COINED   IN   THE    FOLLOWING   REIONS,   AND    THEIR   AMOUNT. 


Elizabeth  -        -    jE5,832,000  I  James  II.      -        -  £3,740,000 
James  I.        .        .   2,500,000  |  William  III.  -        -10,511,900 


Charles  I.  -  -  -  10,500,000 
Cromwell  -  -  1,000,000 
Charles  II.  -  -  7,524,100 


Anne  -  -  -  2,091,026 
George  I.  -  -  8,725,920 
George  II.  -  -  11,966,576 


George  III.  and  regency. 

gold  -  -  £74,501,586 
George  IV.  -  -  41,782,815 
William  IV.  -  -  10,827,603 
Victoria,  to  1848,  82.370.814 


The  coin  of  the  realm  was  about  twelve  millions  in  1711. — Davenant.  It  was 
estimated  at  sixteen  millions  1762. — Anderson.  It  was  supposed  to  be  twen- 
ty millions  in  1786. —  Chalmers.  It  amounted  to  thirty-seven  millions  in  1800. 
— PluUips.  The  gold  is  twenty-eight  millions,  and  the  rest  of  the  metallic 
currency  is  thirteen  millions,  while  the  paper  largely  supplies  the  place  of 
coin, 1830. — Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1841,  it  may  be  calculated  as  reaching 
forty-five  millions.  See  Gold. 

COIN  OP  THE  U.  S.    The  U.  S.  Mint  was  established  in  1792.   The  coinage  from 
that  time  to  1836  was  thus : — 

Pieces.  Value. 

Gold  -  -       4,716,325  .  -     $22,102,035 

Silver     -  -    -    115,421,762      •  -  46,739.182 

Copper       -  -      77,752,965       '     .  740,331 

Total  -    197391,502       .  -          869,581,549 

1837  to  1848  inclusive    145,389,748  '•''        •      $81,436,155 

Total  in  66  years    -    343,231,250  pieces.        -       8151,017,714 

The  gold  coinage  consists  of  double  eagles  $20,  eagles,  half  eagles,  quarter 
eagles  and  dollars.  Gold  dollars  were  first  coined  in  1849.  The  first  de- 
posit of  California  gold  for  coining,  was  made  by  Mr.  David  Carter,  1804 
ounces,  Dec.  8,  1848. 


COL  J  J1CTIONARY    OF    DATES.  319 

COINING.  This  operation  was  originally  performed  by  the  metal  being  placed 
between  two  steel  dies,  and  struck  by  a  hammer.  In  1553,  a  mill  wai 
invented  by  Antonie  Brucher.  and  introduced  into  England  in  1562.  An  en- 
gine for  coining  was  invented  by  Balancier  in  1617.  The  great  improvements 
of  the  art  were  effected  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho.  1788,  and  subsequently. 
The  art  was  rendered  perfect  by  the  creation  of  the  present  costly  machinery 
at  the  mint,  London,  commenced  in  1811. 

COLT).  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  found  to  prcduce  the  same  percep- 
tions on  the  skin,  and  when  mercury  is  frozen  at  forty  degrees  below  zero, 
the  sensation  is  the  same  as  touching  red-hot  iron.  During  the  hard  frost 
1740,  a  palace  of  ice  was  built  at  St.  Petersburg,  after  an  elegant  model,  and 
in  the  just  proportions  of  Augustan  architecture. —  Greig.  Perhaps  the  cold- 
est day  ever  known  in  London  was  Dec.  25, 1796.  when  the  thermometer  was 
16°  below  zero.  Quicksilver  was  frozen  hard  at  Moscow  Jan.  13,  1810.  See 
Frosts,  Ice. 

COLISEUM.  The  edifice  of  this  name  at  Rome  was  built  by  Vespasian,  in 
the  place  where  the  basin  of  Nero's  gilded  house  had  previously  been  A.  D. 
72.  The  splendid  Colisaeum  of  London,  and  one  of  its  most  worthy  objects 
of  admiration,  is  built  near  the  Regent's  Park,  and  was  completed  in  1827-8. 

COLLEGES.  University  education  preceded  the  erection  of  colleges,  which 
were  munificent  foundations  to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of  liv- 
ing at  lodging-houses  and  at  inns.  Collegiate  or  academic  degrees  are  said 
to  have  been  first  conferred  at  the  University  of  Paris,  A.  D.  1140;  but  sonje 
authorities  say.  not  before  1215.  In  England,  it  is  contended  that  the  date 
is  much  higher,  and  some  hold  that  Bede  obtained  a  degree  formally  at 
Cambridge,  and  John  de  Beverlcy  at  Oxford,  and  that  they  were  the  first 
doctors  of  those  universities.  Cambridge,  Oxford,  &c. 

CheshunMI!ollege  founded          •    A.  D  1792      Mareschal  College,  Aberdeen    •    A-  D.  1593 

Maynooth  College  -  -  - 1795 


Doctor's  Commons,  civil  law    • 

Durham  University        .,   -. 

Edinburgh  University    - 

Eton  College  - 

Glasgow  University 

Harrow 

Highbury  College 

King's  College,  Aberdeen   - 

King's  College,  London  - 


1670 

1580 
1441 
1451 
1585 
18-26 
1494 
1829 


Collegf 

1'hysicians,  London  -  -  -        1518 

Sion  College        ....  1329 
Sion  College,  re-founded     -  •      -  1630 

Surgeons,  London  -  -  -1745 

Trinity  College,  Dublin      -  -      -  1591 

University,  London         ...  1826 
Winchester  College  -  •  •        1387 


COLLEGES  IN  THE  UNITKD  STATES.  The  first  established  was  Harvard,  at 
Cambridge.  Mass.,  by  John  Harvard,  1638 ;  and  this  is  now  the  most  im- 
portant and  best  endowed  in  the  United  States.  The  second  was  William 
and  Mary,  in  Virginia.  1693.  Third.  Yale,  at  New  Haven.  1700.  Fourth, 
College  of  New  Jersey.  Princeton,  1746.  Fifth.  Columbia,  New- York,  1754. 
Sixth,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  1755.  Seventh.  Brown 
University,  Providence,  1764.  Eighth,  Dartmouth,  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  1769. 
Ninth,  Rutgers.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1770.  These  were  all  prior  to  the 
Revolution.  The  first  medical  school  was  that  at  Philadelphia,  founded 
1764.  The  first  law  school  was  founded  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1782.  In 
1849  there  were  118  colleges  in  the  United  States ;  42  theological  schools  ; 
12  law  schools ;  36  medical  schools.  See  list  in  American  Almanac.  Girard 
Cottrge  opened  Jan.  1,  1848. 

COLOGNE.  A  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league.  1260.  The  Jews  were  expelled 
from  here  in  1485.  and  the  Protestants  in  1618.  and  it  has  since  fallen  into 
ruin.  Cologne  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  Oct.  6,  1794.  In 
the  cathedral  are  shown  the  heads  of  the  three  Magi ;  and  in  the  church  of 
St.  Ursula  is  the  tomb  of  that  saint,  and  bones  belonging  to  the  11  000  vir- 
gins said  to  have  been  put  to  death  along  with  her. 

COLOMBIA.    A  republic  in  South  America,  formed  of  states  which  have 


320  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [COL 

declared  their  independence  of  the  crown  of  Spain ;  but  its  several  chief* 
have  been  contending  one  against  another,  and  each  state  has  been  a  prej 
to  civil  war,  aud  the  stability  of  the  union  is  far  from  assured. 


New  Grenada,  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus -  -  -A.  D.  1497 
Venezuela  discovered           -  -     -  1498 
1  he  Caraccas  formed  into  a  kingdom, 

under  a  captain-general          -  -  1547 

The  history  of  those  provinces  under 
the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  the  Spa- 
niards, presents  but  one  continuous 
scene  of  rapine  and  blood. 

Confederation  of  Venezuela       -  - 1810 

Independence  formally  declared    -      -  1811 
Defeat  of  General  Miranda        -  -  1812 

Bolivar  defeated  by  Boves  -  -      -  1816 

Bolivar  defeats  Morillo  in  the  battle  of 
Sombrero        -  -  -      Feb.  1818 


Battle  of  Carabobo,  the  Royalists  wholly 

overthrown         -  -       June  24, 1821 

Bolivar  is  named  Dictator  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Peru  -  -    Feb.  10,  1824 
Alliance  between  Colombia  and  Mexico 

formed  -  -  -  June  30,  1624 

Alliance  with  Guatimala  -  March  1628 
Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  Pre- 
sident of  the  republic  -  Aug.  1326 
Bolivar's  return  to  Bogota  -  Nov.  1326 
He  assumes  the  dictatorship  -  Nov.  23.  1S36 
Padilla's  insurrection  •  April  9^  1829 
Conspiracy  of  Santander  against  the 

life  of  Bolivar  -  Sept.  25.  1828 

Bolivar  resigns  his  office  of  president  of 
the  republic  -  -    April  II, 


Union  of  the  States  of  Grenada  and  Ve-  He  dies  ...     Dec.  17,  1830 

nezuela  -          -    Dec.  17, 1819    Santander  dies    -          -          May  M,  1840 

COLON.  This  point  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  not  expressed  as  it 
is  in  modern  times.  The  colon  and  period  were  adopted  and  explained  by 
Thrasymachus  about  373  B.  c. — Suidas.  It  was  known  to  Aristotle.  Our 
punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing. 
The  colon  and  semicolon  were  both  first  used  in  British  literature,  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  They  are  described  under  the  name  of  each. 
The  white  and  the  free  colored  population,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained, 
amounts  to  about  2  500,000,  and  the  slaves  at  the  period  of  their  emancipa- 
tion, were  770  280.  The  number  of  convicts  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van 
Diemen's  Land  is  36,267  ;  the  aborigines  of  the  latter  place  have  not  been 
ascertained.  The  act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  British 
colonies,  and  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves  (£20,000,000  sterling) 
was  passed  3  &  4  William  IV.  1833.  By  the  provisions  of  this  statute  all 
the  slaves  throughout  the  British  colonies  were  emancipated  on  August  1, 
1834. 

COLONIZATION.  The  American  Colonization  Society,  for  colonizing  free 
people  of  color  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  founded  December,  1816,  at  Wash- 
ington, chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  Rev.  Robert  Finley.  [Plan  advo- 
cated by  Jefferson  as  early  as  1777.  urged  by  Dr.  Thornton,  1787,  and  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia,  1801.]  First  president  of  the  society,  Bushrod- 
Washington ;  succeeded  by  Charles  Carroll,  James  Madison,  and  Henrj 
Clay  Liberia  purchased  1821. 

COLOSSLS  OF  RHODES.  A  brass  statue  of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high, 
erected  at  the  port  of  Rhodes  in  honor  of  the  sun,  and  esteemed  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Built  by  Chares  of  Lindus,  290  B.  c.  It  was  thrown 
down  by  an  earthquake  224  B.  c. ;  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
on  their  taking  Rhodes  in  A.  D.  672.  The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles,  a  leg 
being  extended  on  each  side  of  the  harbor,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could 
enter  between.  A  winding  staircase  ran  to  the  top,  from  which  could  be 
discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the  ships  that  sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt. 
The  statue  had  lain  in  ruins  for  nearly  nine  centuries,  and  had  never  been 
impaired ;  but  now  the  Saracens  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  sold  the  metal, 
Tve'.ghing  720,900  Ibs  ,  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have  loaded  900  camels  in 
transporting  it  to  Alexandria — Uu,  Fresiwy. 

COLUMBIA,  DISTRICT  CF.  A  tract  of  country  10  miles  square,  ceded  by  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland  to  the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the 
seat  of  government.  It  included  the  cities  of  Washington,  Georgetown. 


COM  J  D  ;TIONARY  OF  DATES  321 

and  Alexandria ;  but  in  1&13  the  latter  was  re-ceded  to  Virginia.  Popula- 
tion in  1800,  14,093 ;  in  1840,  43,712,  including  8,361  free  colored  persons, 
and  4,694  slaves. 

COMEDY.    Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and  lyric  poetry.    Susarion  an^ 
Colon  were  the  inventors  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  562  B.  c.   They  performed 
the  first  comedy  at  Athens,  on  a  wagon  or  movable  stage,  on  four  wheels, 
for  which  they  were  rewarded  with  a  basket  of  figs  and  a  cask  of  wine. — 
Arundelian  Marbles.     Aristophanes  was  called  the  prince  of  ancient  comedy, 
434  B.  c.,  and  Menander  that  of  new,  320  B.  c.     Of  Plautus,  20  comedies  are 
extant ;  he  flourished  220  B.  c.    Statius  Caecilius  wrote  upwards  of  30  come- 
dies ;  he  flourished  at  Rome,  180  B.  c.    The  comedies  of  Laelius  and  Terence 
were  first  acted  154  B.  c.    The  first  regular  comedy  was  performed  in  Eng- 
land about  A.  D.  1551.    It  was  said  of  Sheridan,  that  he  wrote  the  best  comedy 
(the  School  far  Scandal),  the  best  opera  (the  Duenna),  and  the  best  after- 
piece (the  Critic'),  in  the  English  language. — See  Drama. 
COMETS.    The  first  that  was  discovered  and  described  accurately,  was  by 
Nicephorus.      At  the  birth  of  the  great    Mithridates  two  large  comets 
appeared,  which  were  seen  for  seventy-two  days  together,  and  whose  splen- 
dor eclipsed  that  of  the  mid-day  sun,  and  occupied  forty-five  degrees,  or 
the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens,  135  B.  c. — Justin.     A  remarkable  one  was 
seen  in  England,  10  Edward  III.,  1337. — Stowe.    These  phenomena  were  first 
rationally  explained  by  Tycho  Brache,  about  1577.     A  comet,  which  terri- 
fied the  people  from  its  near  approach  to  the  earth,  was  visible  from  Nov. 
3,  1679,  to  March  9,  1680.     The  orbits  of  comets  were  proved  to  be  ellipses, 
by  Newton,  1704.     A  most  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1769,  which  passed 
within  two  millions  of  miles  of  the  earth.     One  still  more  brilliant  appeared 
in  Sept.,  Oct.,  and  Nov.,  1811,  visible  all  the  autumn  to  the  naked  eye. 
Another  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1823. — See  the  three  next  articles. 
COMET,  BIEL  A'S.    This  comet  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many  on  account 
of  the  nearness  with  which  it  has  approached,  not  the  earth,  but  a  point  ot 
the  earth's  path :    it  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Biela.  an  Austrian  officer, 
Feb.  28,  1826.     It  is  one  of  the  three  comets  whose  reappearance  was  pre- 
dicted, its  revolution  being  performed  in  six  years  and  thirty-eight  weeks. 
Its  second  appearance  was  in  1832,  when  the  time  of  its  perihelion  passage 
was  Nov.  27.    Its  third  appearance  was  in  1839,  and  its  fourth  in  1845. 
COMET,  ENCKE'S.     First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  Nov.  26,  1818,  but  justly 
named  by  astronomers  after  professor  Encke,  from  his  success  in  detecting 
its  orbit,  motions,  and  perturbations ;  it  is,  like  the  preceding,  one  of  the 
three  comets  which  have  appeared  according  to  prediction,  and  its  i  evolu- 
tions are  made  in  3  years  and  15  weeks. 

f!OMET,  HALLEY'S.  This  is  the  great  and  celebrated  comet  of  the  greatest 
astronomer  of  England. — Lalande.  Doctor  Halley  first  proved  that  many  of 
the  appearances  of  comets  were  but  the  periodical  returns  of  the  same  todies, 
and  he  demonstrated  that  the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same  with  the  cornet 
of  1456,  of  1531.  and  1607,  deducing  this  fact  from  a  minute  observation  of 
the  first  mentioned  comet,  and  being  struck  by  its  wonderful  resemblance  to 
the  comets  described  as  having  appeared  in  those  years  :  Halley,  therefore, 
first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets,  and  first  predicted  their  periodical  returns. 
—  Vince's  Astronomy.  The  revolution  of  Halley's  comet  is  performed  in 
about  seventy-six  years  •  it  appeared  in  1759.  and  came  to  its  perihelion  or. 
March  13 ;  and  its  last  appearance  was  in  1835. 

COMMERCE.     Flourished  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians  in 
the  earliest  ages.    In  later  times  it  was  spread  over  Europe  by  a  confed- 
eracy of  maritime  cities  A.  D.  1241. — See  Hanse  Towns.    The  discoveries  of 
Columbus  and  the  enterprises  of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese,  enlarged  the 
14* 


322  THE   WORLD  S   I'UUUKb&H.  .L  o'OM 

sphere  of  commerce,  and  led  other  nations,  particularly  England  to  engage 
extensively  in  its  pursuit. — See  the  various  articles  connected  with  this  tnwject. 

COMMERCE.     See  Navigation. 

COMMERCE,  NEW-YORK  CHAMBER  OP,  instituted  1783. 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  Eng- 
land with  any  foreign  nation,  was  entered  into  with  the  Flemings.  1  Edward 
I.,  1272.  The  second  was  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  2  Edward  II.  1308.— 
Anderson.  See  Treaties. 

HOMMON  COUNCIL  OF  LONDON.  Its  formation  commenced  about  1208. 
The  charter  of  Henry  I.  mentions  the  folk-mote,  this  being  a  Saxon  appella- 
tion, and  which  may  fairly  be  rendered  the  court  or  assembly  of  the  people. 

COMMON  LAW  OF  ENGLAND.  Custom,  to  which  length  of  time  has 
given  the  force  of  law,  or  rules  generally  received  and  heij  as  law,  called 
lex  non  scripta,  in  contradistinction  to  the  written  law.  Common  law 
derives  its  origin  from  Alfred's  body  of  laws  (which  was  lost),  A.  D.  890. 
The  common  law  of  the  United  States  is  founded  on  that  of  England. — See 
Custom.  Laics. 

COMMON  PRAYER.  Published  in  the  English  language  by  the  authority  of 
parliament,  in  1548.  The  Common  Prayer  was  voted  out  of  doors,  by  par- 
liament, and  the  Directory  (which  see),  set  up  in  its  room  in  1644.  A  pro- 
clamation was  issued  against  it,  1647.  See  Directory. 

COMMONS  HOUSE  OF.  The  great  representative  assembly  of  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  and  third  branch  of  the  Imperial  legislature,  originated  with 
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  ordered  returns  to  be  made  of 
two  knights  from  every  shire,  and  deputies  from  certain  boroughs,  to  meet 
the  barons  and  clergy  who  were  his  friends,  with  a  view  thereby  to  strengthen 
his  own  power  in  opposition  to  that  of  his  sovereign  Henry  III.  This  was 
the  first  confirmed  outline  of  a  house  of  commons  ;  and  the  rirst  commons 
were  summoned  to  meet  the  king  in  parliament  42  &  43  Henry  III.  1258. 
— Goldsmith.  Slowe.  According  to  other  authorities,  the  first  parliament 
formally  convened  was  the  one  summoned  49  Henry  III.,  Jan.  23,  1265;  and 
writs  of  the  latter  date  are  the  earliest  extant.  Some  historians  date  the 
first  regularly  constituted  parliament  from  the  22d  of  Edward  1. 1294.  The 
first  recorded  speaker,  duly  chosen,  was  Petre  de  Montfort  in  1260 ;  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  in  1265.  The  city  of  London  first  sent 
members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  while  Westminster  was 
not  represented  in  that  assembly  until  the  latter  end  of  Henry  VIII's  life, 
or  rather  in  the  first  House  of  Commons  of  Edward  VI.  The  following 
is  the  constitution  of  the  House  of  Commons  since  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Bills  (which  see,)  in  1832:— 


ENGLISH. — County  members 
Universities  • 

Cities  and  boroughs  - 

WELSH. — County  members 
Cities  and  Boroughs    - 


144 

4 

323—471 
15 
14 — 29 


English  and  Welsh         -      500 


SCOTCH.— County  members 
Cities  and  Boroughs 

IRISH.— County  members 
University    • 
Cities  anu  boroughs 


30 
23 — 5J 
64 
2 
39-106 


English  and  Welsh     -      500 

Total  (see  Parliament)      •     658 

COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND.  This  was  the  interregnum  between  the 
decollation  of  Charles  I.  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  11.  The  form  of  the 
government  was  changed  to  a  republic  on  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  Jan.  30, 
1649.  Oliver  Cromwell  was  made  Protector,  Dec.  12,  1653.  Richard  Crom- 
well was  made  Protector,  Sept.  1658.  Monarchy  was  restored  in  the  person 
of  Charles  II..  who  returned  to  London  May  29,  1670.  See  England. 

COMMONWEALTH  OF  ROME.  See  ROME.  The  greatest  and  most  renown- 
ed  republic  of  the  ancient  world.  It  dates  from  509  B.  c.,  when  the  govenv 


CON  J  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  32$ 

ment  of  kings  ceased  with  the  expulsion  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  the  seventh 
and  last  king  of  Rome,  and  the  election  of  consuls.  After  this  revolution  Rome 
advanced  by  rapid  strides  towards  universal  dominion.  The  whole  of  Italy 
received  her  laws.  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Carthage,  Africa,  Greece,  Asia,  Sy- 
ria. Egypt,  Gaul,  Britain,  and  even  a  part  of  Germany,  were  successively  sub- 
dued by  her  arms :  so  that  in  the  age  of  Julius  Caesar  this  republic  had  the 
Euphrates.  Mount  Taurus,  and  Armenia,  for  the  boundaries  in  the  east; 
Ethiopia,  in  the  south;  the  Danube,  in  the  north;  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
in  the  west.  The  republic  existed  under  consuls  and  other  magistrates  un- 
til the  battle  of  Actium.  from  which  we  commonly  date  the  commencement 
of  the  Roman  empire,  31  B.  c. 

COMMUNION.  It  originated  in  the  Lord's  supper,  and  was  practised  early  in 
the  primitive  church.  Communicating  under  the  form  of  bread  alone  is 
said  to  have  its  rise  in  the  west,  under  pope  Urban  II.  1096.  The  fourth 
Lateran  council  decreed  that  every  believer  shall  receive  the  communion  at 
least  at  Easter,  1215.  The  communion  service,  as  now  observed  in  the 
church  of  England,  was  instituted  by  the  authority  of  council,  1548. 

COMPANIES.  Among  the  earliest  commercial  companies  in  England  may  be 
named  the  Steel-yard  society,  established  A.  D.  1232.  The  second  company 
was  the  merchants  of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket.  in  1248. — Stowe.  The  third  was 
the  Merchant  Adventurers,  incorporated  by  Elizabeth,  1564.  Thvre  are 
ninety-one  city  companies  in  London ;  the  first  twelve  are 


1  Mercers  •  •  A.  D  1393 

2  Grocers     ....          1340 

3  Drapers  -  -  -  1489 

4  Fishmongers         ...        1384 

5  Goldsmiths       ...  1327 

6  Skinners     ....        1327 


7  Merchant  Tailors  •         -  A.  D   1466 

8  Haberdashers  -  -  1447 

9  Sailers      ....        1553 

10  Ironmongers  ...  14&4 

11  Vintners   ....        1437 

12  Clothworkers  -          -          -  1482 


COMPANIES,  BUBBLE.  Ruinous  speculations  coming  under  this  name  have 
been  formed,  commonly  by  designing  persons.  Law's  Bubble,  in  1720-1, 
was  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  the  South  Sea  Bubble, 
in  the  same  year,  was  scarcely  less  memorable  for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of 
families.  Many  companies  were  established  in  Great  Britain  in  1824  and 
1825,  and  most  of  them  turned  out  to  be  bubbles;  and  owing  to  the  rage  for 
taking  shares  in  each  scheme  as  it  was  projected,  immense  losses  were  in- 
curred by  individuals,  and  the  families  of  thousands  of  speculators  were 
totally  ruined.  See  Law's  Bubble,  and  Bankrupts. 

COMPASS,  THE  MARINER'S.  It  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese, 
1115  B.  c. ;  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake.  They  had  a  machine  which  self- 
moved,  pointed  towards  the  south,  and  safely  guided  travellers  by  land  or 
water;  and  some  authors  have  mistaken  it  for  the  mariner's  compass,  the 
invention  of  which  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Marcus  Paulus,  a  Venetian.  A.  D. 
1260;  while  others,  with  more  seeming  justice,  assign  it  to  Flavio  Gioja,  of 
Pasitano,  a  navigator  of  Naples.  Until  his  time  the  needle  was  laid  upon  a 
couple  of  pieces  of  straw,  or  small  split  sticks,  in  a  vessel  of  water ;  Gioja  in- 
troduced the  suspension  of  the  needle  as  we  have  it  now,  1302.  Its  variation 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1492.  The  compass-box  and  hanging  com- 
pass used  by  navigators  were  invented  by  William  Barlowe.  an  English  di- 
vine and  natural  philosopher,  in  1608. — Biog.  Die.  The  measuring  compass 
was  invented  by  Jost  Byng,  of  Hesse,  in  1602. 

CONCEPTION  OF  THE  VIRGIN.  This  is  a  feast  in  the  Romish  church  in 
honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary  having  been  conceived  and  born  immaculate,  or 
without  original  sin.  The  festival  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  8th  of 
Dec.  by  the  church,  in  1389.  CONCEPTIONISTS,  an  order  of  nuns,  established 
1488. 


324  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  con 

CONCERT.  The  first  public  subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford,  ic 
1665,  when  it  was  attended  by  a  great  number  of  personages  of  rank  and 
talent  from  every  part  of  England.  The  first  concert  of  like  kind  perform 
ed  in  London  was  in  1678.  Concerts  afterwards  became  fashionable  and 
frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  is  mentioned  by  Anstotle  and 
Pliny,  and  was  a  favorite  with  the  most  intellectual  and  illustrious  men.  It 
Tvas  first  reduced  to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major  of  Kiel,  who  published 
nis  classification  of  the  Tcstacea  in  1675.  Lister's  system  was  published  in 
1685;  and  that  of  Largius  in  1722. 

CONCLAVE  TOR  THE  ELECTION  OF  POPES.  The  conc'ave  is  a  range  of  small 
cells  in  the  hall  of  the  Vatican,  or  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  where  the 
cardinals  usually  hold  their  meetings  to  elect  a  pope.  The  word  is  also  used 
lor  the  assembly,  or  meeting  of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a 
pope.  The  conclave  had  its  rise  in  A.  D.  1271.  Clement  IV.  being  dead  at 
Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals  were  nearly  three  years  unable  to  agree  in  the 
choice  of  a  successor,  and  were  upon  the  point  of  breaking  up,  when  the 
magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Bonaventure,  then  at  Viterbo.  shut  the 
gates  of  their  city,  and  locked  up  the  cardinals  in  the  pontifical  palace  till 
they  agreed.  Hence  the  present  custom  of  shutting  up  the  cardinals  while 
they  elect  a  pope. 

CONCORDANCE  TO  THE  BIBLE.  An  index  or  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all 
the  words  in  the  Bible,  and  also  a  chronological  account  of  all  the  transac- 
tions of  that  sacred  volume.  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible  was  made 
under  the  direction  of  Hugo  de  St.  Charo,  who  employed  as  many  as  500 
monks  upon  it,  A.  D.  1247. — Abbl  Lenglet. 

CONCORDAT.  The  name  given  to  an  instrument  of  agreement  between  a 
prince  and  the  pope,  usually  concerning  benefices.  The  celebrated  concordat 
between  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  Pius  VII.,  whereby  the  then  French  consul 
was  made,  in  effect,  the  head  of  the  Gallican  Church,  as  all  ecclesiastics 
were  to  have  their  appointments  from  him,  was  signed  at  Paris,  July  15, 
1801.  Another  concordat  between  Bonaparte  and  the  same  pontiff  was  sign- 
ed at  Fontainbleau,  Jan.  25,  1813. 

CONCUBINES.  They  are  mentioned  as  having  been  allowed  to  the  priests,  A.  D. 
1132.  Cujas  observes,  that  although  concubinage  was  beneath  marriage, 
both  as  to  dignity  and  civil  effects,  yet  concubine'was  a  reputable  title,  very 
different  from  that  of  mistress  among  us.  This  kind  of  union,  which  \i 
formed  by  giving  the  left,  hand  instead  of  the  right,  and  called  half -marriage, 
is  still  in  use  in  some  parts  of  Germany. 

CONFEDERATION  AT  PARIS.  Upwards  of  600,000  citizens  formed  this 
memorable  confederation,  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  the  bas- 
tile.  at  which  ceremony  the  king,  the  national  assembly,  the  army,  and  the 
people,  solemnly  swore  to  maintain  the  new  constitution,  July  4,  1790.  See 
Champ  de  Mars,  Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE,  or  League  of  the  Germanic  States  form- 
ed under  the  auspices  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By  this  celebrated  league, 
ll?e  minor  German  princes  collectively  engaged  to  raise  258.000  troops  to 
serve  in  case  of  war.  and  they  established  a  dk  t  at  Frankfort,  July  12,  1806 
See  Germanic  Confederation. 

CONFERENCE.  The  celebrated  religious  conference  held  at  Hampton  Court 
pulace,  between  the  prelates  of  the  church  of  England  and  the  dissenting 
ministers,  in  order  to  effect  a  general  union,  at  the  instance  o.'  the  king.  2 
James  I.  1604.  This  conference  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 


CON  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  325 

was  executed  in  1607-11,  and  is  that  now  in  general  use  in  England  and  the 
United  States ;  and  during  the  meeting  some  alterations  in  the  church  liturgy 
were  agreed  upon,  but  this  not  satisfying  the  dissenters,  nothing  more  was 
done.  A  conference  of  the  bishops  and  presbyterian  ministers  with  the  same 
view  was  held  in  1661. 

CONFESSION.  Auricular  confession  in  the  Romish  church  was  first  instituted 
about  A.  D.  1204,  and  was  regularly  enjoined  in  1215.  It  is  made  to  a  priest, 
in  order  to  obtain  absolution  for  the  sins  or  faults  acknowledged  by  the  pe- 
nitent, who  performs  a  penance  enjoined  by  the  priest;  and  if  this  be  done 
with  a  contrite  heart,  the  sins  thus  absolved  are  supposed  to  be  absolved  in 
heaven.  At  the  reformation,  the  practice  was  at  first  left  wholly  indifferent, 
by  the  council ;  but  this  was  the  prelude  to  its  entire  abolition  in  the  church 
of  England. — Burnet. 

TONFIRMATION.  One  of  the  oldest  rites  of  the  Christian  .hurch;  it  was 
used  by  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  was  general,  according  to  some  church  au- 
thorities, in  A.  D.  190.  It  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian  religion 
by  an  adult  person,  who  was  baptized  in  infancy.  It  is  still  retained  in  the 
church  of  England ;  but  to  make  it  more  solemn,  it  has  been  advanced  into 
a  sacrament  by  the  church  of  Rome. 

CONGE  D'ELIRE.  The  license  of  the  king,  as  head  of  the  church,  to  chap- 
ters, and  other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,  particularly  bishops.  After  the 
interdict  of  the  pope  upon  England  had  been  removed  in  1214,  king  John  had 
an  arrangement  with  the  clergy  for  the  election  of  bishops.  Bishops  were 
elected  by  the  king's  Conge  d'Elire,  26  Henry  VIII.,  1535. 

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  ministers,  or  meeting  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  nations,  or  of  a  people.  Several  congresses  were  held 
during  the  continental  wars;  but  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable 
congresses  of  Europe : — 

Congress  of  Soissons  -      June  14,  1728     Congress  of  Carlsbad  •       Aug.  1,  1819 


Congress  of  Antwerp  -           April  8,  1793 

Congress  of  Radstadt  -        Dec.  9,  1797 

Congress  of  Chatillon  -           -  Feb.  5,  1814 

Congress  of  Vienna  -        Nov.  3,  1814 


Congress  of  Troppau      •  Oct.  20,  1S<!0 

Congress  of  Laybach  -        May  6,  1821 

Congress  of  Verona       -  Aug.  25,  18£J 

See  Alliances,  Conventions,  Sfc. 


CONGRESS,  U.  S.  A.  The  first  Colonial  Congress,  composed  of  the  delegates 
from  nine  of  the  colonies  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y..  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md..  S. 
Ca.),  met  at  N.  Y.  Dec.  7, 1765.-Tim.  Ruggles.  Prest.  The  Continental  Congress 
met  at  Phila.  Sep.  5,  1774:  again  May  10,  1775:  adopted  Dec.  Indep.  July  4, 
1776;  met  at  Bait.  Dec.  20,  1776;  at  Phila.  March  4,  1777;  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 
Sep.  27,  1777;  at  York,  Pa.  Sep.  30.  1777;  at  Phila.  July  2,  1778;  at  Prince- 
ton. June  30,  1783;  at  Annapolis,  Nov.  26,  1783;  at  Trenton,  Nov.  30,  1784; 
at  N.  York,  Jan.  1785;  and  that  continued  to  be  the  place  of  meeting  until 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  1789:  removed  to  Phila.  1790 :  to  Wash- 
ington, 1800. 

CONVENTION,  THE,  for  forming  he  Constitution  of  *he  U.  S.  met  at  Phila. 
May  10,  1787 ;  in  session  till  Sep.  17,  same  year. 

CONGREVE  ROCKETS.  Invented  by  general  sir  William  Congreve.  in  180j, 
They  were  used  with  great  effect  in  the  attack  upon  Boulogne,  in  Oct.  1806, 
when  they  set  a  part  of  the  town  on  fire,  which  burned  for  two  days;  they 
were  employed  in  various  operations  in  the  late  war  with  much  success,  dis- 
charged by  a  corps  called  rocket-men. 

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  most  remarkable  properties  were  probably  known 
to  the  Greeks  four  or  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The  study  of 
them  was  cultivated  in  the  time  of  Plato  390  B.  c.  The  earliest  treatise 
was  written  by  Aristteus,  about  380  B.  c.  Appolonius's  eight  books  were 


326  THE   WOULP'S  PROGRESS.  [CCS 

written  about  240  B.  c    The  parabola  was  applied  to  projectiles  by  Galileo  j 
the  ellipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets,  by  Kelper. 

CONJURATION  AND  WITCHCRAFT.  They  were  declared  to  be  fdony  by 
various  statutes,  and  the  most  absurd  and  wicked  laws  were  in  force  aga-nst 
them  in  England  in  former  times.  See  article  Witchcraft.  Conjuration  vvaa 
felony  by  statute  1  James  I.,  1603.  This  law  was  repealed  9  George  II., 
1735;  but  pretensions  to  such  skill  was  then  made  punishable  as  a  aiisd&- 
meaner. — English  Statutes. 

CONNECTICUT.  One  of  the  U.  States:  first  settled  in  1633,  at  'Windsor,  by 
a  colony  from  Massachusetts.  Hartford,  settled  by  the  English  in  1635,  tho 
Dutch  having  previously  built  a  fort  there,  which  they  did  not  permanently 
hold.  English  colony  founded  at  New  Haven,  1638.  The  two  colonies  of  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  united  by  a  charter  of  Charles  II.,  in  1655.  This  char- 
ter, when  in  danger  from  the  tyranny  of  Andros,  was  preserved  in  an  oak, 
near  Hartford,  since  called  the  Charter  Oak.  Conn,  took  an  active  part  in 
the  revolution ;  a  number  of  its  towns,  Danbury,  N.  London,  &c.,  burnt  by 
the  British  during  that  struggle.  It  became  one  of  the  original  13  states, 
adopting  the  constitution  of  the  Union  in  1788.  by  a  vote  of  128  to  40.  Pop- 
ulation 1713,  17,000:  1790,  237,946;  1810,  261,942;  1830,  297,655;  1840, 
309,978. 

CONQUEST,  THE.  The  memorable  era  in  British  history,  when  William  duke 
of  Normandy  overcame  Harold  II.,  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  obtained  the 
crown  which  had  been  most  unfairly  bequeathed  to  him  by  Edward  the 
Confessor  (for  Edgar  was  the  rightful  heir)  Oct.  16, 1066.  William  has  been 
erroneously  styled  the  Conqueror,  for  he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  England 
by  compact.  He  killed  Harold,  who  was  himself  a  usurper,  and  defeated 
his  army,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  kingdom  afterwards  held  out  against 
him,  and  he,  unlike  a  conqueror,  took  an  oath  to  observe  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce  the  submission  of  the  people.  For- 
merly the  judges  were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman  at  the  bar 
who  casually  gave  him  the  title  of  William  the  Conqueror,  instead  of  Wil- 
liam I. — Selden. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.  Patres  conscripti  was  the  designation  given  to  the 
Roman  senators,  and  used  in  speaking  of  them,  in  the  eras  of  the  rejublic 
and  the  Caesars :  because  their  names  were  written  in  the  registers  of  thrf 
senate. 

CONSECRATION.  Tha4  of  churches  was  instituted  in  the  second  century, 
the  temple  of  worship  being  dedicated  with  pious  solemnity  to  God  and  a 
patron  stint.  Tl>°  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c.,  is  admit- 
ted in  the  reformed  religion.  The  consecration  of  bishops  was  ordained  in 
the  latter  church  in  1549. — Stowe. 

CONSISTORY  COURT  IN  ENGLAND.  Anciently  the  Consistory  was  joined  with 
the  Hundred  court,  and  its  original,  as  divided  therefrom,  is  found  in  a  law 
of  William  I.  quoted  by  lord  Coke,  1079.  The  ehief  and  most  ancient  Con- 
sistory court  of  the  kingdom  belongs  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  is  called 
the  Court  of  Arches. 

CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Among  the 
recorded  conspiracies,  real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most  remark- 
able. They  are  extracted  from  Camden,  Temple,  Hume,  and  other  authori- 
ties of  note : — 

Of  Anthony   Babington   and    others,          i      the  Duke  of  Ormond,  wounded  hiin. 
kgainst  Elizabeth        -  -     A.  D.  1586  I      and  would   have  hanged  him ;  and 


TVi  Gunpowder  Plot  (which  see)        •  1605 
ln«urrection  of  the  fifth  monarchy  men 

kgainsf.  Charles  II.  -  -  1660 

O*  Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seized 


who  afterwards  stole  the  crown       -  1671 
The  pretended  conspiracy  of  the  French, 
Spanish,  and  English  Jesuits  to  assas- 
si  late  Ch.  II.  revealed  by  the  infa- 


DON  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  327 


mous  Titus  Gates,  Dr.  Tongue,  and 
others    .....  1678 

The  Meal-tub  plot 1679 

The  Rye-house  plot  to  assassinate  the 
king  on  his  way  to  Newmarket.  (See 
Rye-house  plot)       ....  1683 
Of  Simon  Fraser.  lord  Lovat,  against 
Queen  Anne.     '  -  -        -  -  1703 


Of  Colonel  Despard  and  others,  to  over- 
turn the  government  -  -  -  1802 

Of  Robert  Emmett  in  Dublin,  when 
lord  Kilwarden  was  killed  •  July  '23,  1803 

Of  Moreau,  Pichegru,  and  Georges, 
against  Bonaparte  -  Keb.  15,  1801 

Of  Thistlewood,  to  assassinate  the 
king's  ministers.  (See  Cato-street)  -  1820 


CONSPIRACIES,  in  or  relating  to  the  United  States. 


Burr's  trial  for  conspiracy  to  divide  the 
United  States    ....  1807 


John  Henry's  secret  mission  from  the 


British  government,    to   undermine 
the  American  union,  exposed,  Feb.  '25, 1819 

CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF.  The  celebrated  council  of  divvies  (!)  which  con- 
demned the  pious  martyrs  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  to  be  burnt 
alive,  a  sentence  executed  upon  the  first  on  July  6,  1415,  and  on  the  other, 
on  May  30,  following.  Huss  had  complied  with  a  summons  from  the  coun- 
cil of  Constance  to  defend  his  opinions  before  the  clergy  of  all  nations  in 
that  city,  and  though  the  emperor  Sigismund  had  given  him  a  safe-conduct, 
he  was  cast  into  prison.  Jerome  of  Prague  hastened  to  Constance  to  defend 
him.  but  was  himself  loaded  with  chains,  and  in  the  end  shared  the  fate  of 
his  friend.  This  scandalous  violation  of  public  faith,  and  the  cruelty  and 
treachery  which  attended  the  punishment  of  these  unhappy  disciples  of 
Wickliffe,  our  great  reformer,  prove  the  melancholy  truth,  that  toleration 
is  not  the  virtue  of  priests  in  any  form  of  ecclesiastical  government. — Hume. 

CONST ANTINA.  The  former  capital  of  Numidia.  It  has  become  known  to 
Europeans  but  very  recently,  they  being  strangers  to  it  until  the  French 
occupation  of  Algiers.  Here  was  fought  a  great  battle  between  the  French 
and  the  Arabs,  Oct.  13,  1837,  when  the  former  carried  the  town  by  assault, 
but  the  French  general,  Daremont,  was  killed.  Achmet  Bey  retired  with 
12,000  men  as  the  victors  entered  Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE.  So  called  from  Constantine  the  Great,  who  removed  the 
seat  of  the  Eastern  Empire  here,  A.  D.  328.  Taken  by  the  western  crusaders 
who  put  the  emperor  Mourzoufle  to  death,  first  tearing  out  his  eyes,  1204. 
Retaken  by  Michael  Palasologus,  thus  restoring  the  old  Greek  line,  1261. 
Conquered  by  Mahomet  II.,  who  slew  Constantine  Palaeologus,  the  last 
Christian  emperor,  and  60,000  of  his  people,  1453.  The  city,  taken  by  as- 
sault, had  held  out  for  fifty-eight  days.  The  unfortunate  emperor,  on  seeing 
the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy, 
and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  imperial  house  were  massacred 
by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the  conquer- 
or. This  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  subsisted  for  1125 
years,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  present  empire  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
See  Eastern  Empire  and  Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  ERA  or.  This  era  has  the  creation  placed  5508  years  B.  c. 
It  was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  still  used 
in  the  Greek  church.  The  civil  year  begins  September  1,  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical year  towards  the  end  of  March;  the  day  is  not  exactly  determined. 
To  reduce  it  to  our  era,  subtract  5508  years  from  January  to  August,  and 
5509  from  September  to  the  end. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  Those  of  Arctums,  Orion,  the  Pleiades,  and  Mazzaroth, 
are  mentioned  by  Job,  about  1520  B.  c.  Homer  and  Hesiod  notice  constel- 
lations ;  but  though  some  mode  of  grouping  the  visible  stars  had  obtained 
in  very  early  ages,  our  first  direct  knowledge  was  derived  from  Claud. 
Ptolemajus,  about  A.  D.  140. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND.  See  Magna  Charta.  It  comprehends  the 
whole  body  of  laws  by  which  the  British  people  are  governed,  and  to  which 


328  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [con 

it  is  presumptively  held  that  every  individual  has  assented. — Lord  Sowers. 
This  assemblage  of  laws  is  distinguished  from  the  term  government,  in 
this  respect — that  the  constitution  is  the  rule  by  which  the  sovereign  ought 
to  govern  at  all  times :  and  government  is  that  by  which  he  does  govern  at 
any  particular  time. — Lord  Bolingbrokt  The  king  of  England  is  not  seated 
on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power;  on  the  contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in  tho 
co-existing  branches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognizes  his  superior  in 
the  LAW. — Sheridan. 

CONSTITUTION  OP  THE  U.  S.  Adopted  by  the  general  convention  of  dele- 
gates  from  all  the  (then)  states,  May.  1787.  Ratified  by  the  several  states 
at  different  times.  See  the  respective  states. 

The  60th  anniversary  of  Washington's  inauguration,  was  celebrated  in  New 
York  as  a  jubilee  of  the  constitution,  and  John  Quincy  Adams  pronounced 
an  oration  before  the  Hist.  Soc'y,  April  30,  1840. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  GUERRIERE.  The  American  frigate  Constitution, 
capt.  Hull,  after  an  action  of  30  minutes,  captured  the  British  frigate  Guer- 
riere.  capt.  Dacres,  Aug.  20,  1812.  American  loss  7  killed,  and  7  wounded, 
British  loss  100  killed  and  wounded.  The  English  attribute  the  victory  to 
the  superior  force  of  the  American  frigate.  As  this  was  the  first  important 
naval  victory  of  the  U.  S..  it  caused  a  strong  sensation.  For  others  see 
Naval  Battles. 

CONSULS.  These  officers  were  appointed  at  Rome.  509  B.  c.  They  possessed 
regal  authority  for  the  space  of  a  year:  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  and  Lucius 
Tarquinius  Collatinus,  the  latter  the  injured  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the 
first  consuls.  A  consular  government  was  established  in  France,  November 
9, 1799,  when  Bonaparte,  Cambace"re,  and  Lebrun,  were  made  consuls ;  and 
subsequently  Bonaparte  was  made  first  consul  for  life,  May  6,  1802.  Com- 
mercial agents  were  first  distinguished  by  the  name  of  consuls  in  Italy,  in 
1485. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  VOLUNTARY.  In  the  two  last  wars  voluntary  contributions 
to  a  vast  amount  were  several  times  made  by  the  British  people  in  aid  of 
the  government.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  acts  of  patriotism  was  that 
in  1798,  when,  to  support  the  war  against  France,  the  contributions  amount- 
ed to  two  millions  and  a  half  sterling.  Several  men  of  wealth,  among  others, 
sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lancashire,  subscribed  each  10,CKXM. ;  and200.000/. 
were  transmitted  from  India  in  1799. 

CONVENTICLES.  These  were  private  assemblies  for  religious  worship,  and 
were  particularly  applied  to  those  who  differed  in  form  and  doctrine  from 
the  established  church.  But  the  term  was  first  applied  in  England  to  the 
schools  of  Wickliffe.  Conventicles,  which  were  very  numerous  at  the  time, 
were  prohibited  12  Charles  II.,  1661. 

CONVENTIONS.  See  Alliances,  Treaties,  &c.  in  their  respective  places  through 
out  the  volume. 

CONVENTS.  They  were  first  founded,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  A.  D. 
270.  The  first  in  England  was  erected  at  Folkstone,  by  Eadbald,  in  630. — 
Camden.  The  first  in  Scotland  was  at  Coldingham,  when  Ethelreda  took 
the  veil,  in  670.  They  were  founded  earlier  than  this  last  date  in  Ireland. 
Convents  were  suppressed  in  England  in  various  reigns,  particularly  in  that 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  comparatively  few  now  exist  in  Great  Britain.  More 
than  3000  have  been  suppressed  in  Europe  within  the  last  few  years.  The 
emperor  of  Russia  abolished  187  convents  of  monks,  by  a  ukase  dated  July 
81,  1832.  The  king  of  Prussia  followed  his  example,  and  secularized  all 
the  convents  in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  Don  Pedro  put  down  300  convents  in 
Portugal,  in  1834,  and  Spain  has  lately  abolished  1800  convents. 


COP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  329 

CONVICTS.  The  first  arrival  of  transported  convicts  from  England,  at  Botany 
Bay,  was  in  1788.  Convicts  are  now  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Norfolk 
Island.  Sydney,  in  New  South  Wales,  &c.  See  New  South  Wales  and  Trans- 
portation. 

COOK'S  VOYAGES.  The  illustrious  captain  Cook  sailed  from  England  in  the 
Endeavor,  on  his  first  voyage.  July  30,  1768  ;*  and  returned  home  after  hav- 
ing circumnavigated  the  globe,  arriving  at  Spithead,  July  13,  1771.  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  afterwards  the  illustrious  president  of  the  Royal  Society, 
accompanied  captain  Cook  on  this  voyage.  Captain  Cook  again  sailed  to 
explore  the  southern  hemisphere,  July  1772.  and  returned  in  July  1775.  I» 
his  third  expedition  this  great  navigator  was  killed  by  the  savages  of  O-why* 
nee,  at  8  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  February  14,  1779.  His  ships,  the  Reso- 
lution and  Discovery,  arrived  home  at  Sheerness,  Sept.  22,  1780. 

COOPERAGE.  This  art  must  be  coeval  with  the  dawn  of  history,  and  seems 
to  have  been  early  known  in  every  country.  The  coopers  of  London  were 
incorporated  in  1501. 

COPENHAGEN.  Distinguished  as  a  royal  residence,  A.  D.  1443.  In  1728  more 
than  seventy  of  its  streets  and  3785  houses  were  burnt.  Its  famous  palace, 
valued  at  four  millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,  Feb.  1794,  when  100  per- 
sons lost  their  lives.  In  a  fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arseaal, 
admiralty,  and  fifty  streets  were  destroyed.  1795.  Copenhagen  was  bom- 
barded by  the  English  under  lord  Nelson  and  admiral  Parker :  and  in  their 
engagement  with  a  Danish  fleet,  of  twenty-three  ships  of  the  line,  eighteen 
were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  British,  April  2,  1801.  Again,  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  three  days,  the  city  and  the  Danish  fleet  surrendered  to  admi- 
ral Gambier  and  lord  Cathcart,  Sept.  7,  1807.  The  capture  consisted  of 
eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  gun- 
boats, and  immense  naval  stores. — See  Denmark. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  the  world  wherein  the  sun  is  sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  centre,  and  immovable,  and  the  earth  and  the  rest  of  tho 
planets  to  move  round  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  The  heavens  and  stars  are 
here  imagined  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  diurnal  motion,  which  they  seem  to 
have  from  east  to  west,  is  imputed  to  the  earth's  motion  from  west  to  east. 
This  system  was  published  at  Thorn,  A.  D.  1530;  and  may  in  many  points  be 
regarded  as  that  of  Pythagoras  revived. —  Gassendus. 

COPPER.  It  is  one  of  the  six  primitive  metals  ;  its  discovery  is  said  to  have 
preceded  that  of  iron.  We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  vessels  of  fine 
copper,  precious  as  gold. — Ezra  viii.  27.  The  great  divisibility  of  this 
metal  almost  exceeds  belief;  a  grain  of  it  dissolved  in  alkali,  as  pearl  ashes, 
soda,  &c.,  will  give  a  sensible  color  to  more  than  500.000  times  its  weight  in 
water ;  and  when  copper  is  in  a  state  of  fusion,  if  the  least  drop  of  water 
touch  the  melted  ore,  it  will  fly  about  like  shot  from  a  gun. — Bmjle.  The 
mine  of  Fahlun.  in  Sweden,  is  the  most  surprising  artificial  excavation  in  the 
world.  In  England,  copper-mines  were  discovered  in  1561,  and  copper  now 
forms  an  immense  branch  in  the  British  trade  :  there  are  upwards  of  fifty 


*  A  memorial  was  presented  to  the  king  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1768.  settins  forth  the  a.!  van- 
Uges  which  would  be  derived  to  science  if  an  accurate  observation  of  the  then  appioachmg  transit 
of  Venus  over  the  "sun  were  taken  in  the  South  Sea.  The  shij] >  Endeavor  was,  in  consequence, 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  and  the  command  of  her  given  to  Lieutenant  James  Cook.  He  sailed 
in  July  1768,  touched  at  Madeira  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  and  after  a  prosperous 
voyage  reached  Otaheite,  the  place  of  destination,  in  April  1769.  By  a  comparison  of  the  observa- 
tions made  on  this  transit  (June  3, 1769)  from  the  various  parts  of  the  globe,  on  which  it  was  viewed 
by  men  of  science,  the  system  of  the  universe  has  in  some  particulars,  been  better  understood  ;  tne 
distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth,  as  calculated  by  this  and  the  transit  in  1761.  is  now  settled  at 
106,000,000  miles,  instead  of  the  commonly  received  computation,  of  95,000,000.— Butler. 


330 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[CO? 


mines  in  Cornwall,  where  mining  has  been  increasing  since  the  reign  of  Wit 
liara  III. 

COPPER-MONEY.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign  of  Servius  Tullius,  used 
rude  pieces  of  copper  for  money. — See  Coin.  In  England,  copper-money  is 
of  extensive  coinage.  That  proposed  by  sir  Robert  Cotton  was  brought  into 
use  in  1609.  Copper  was  extensively  coined  in  1665.  It  was  again  coined 
by  the  crown,  23  Charles  II.,  1672.  Private  traders  had  made  them  previ- 
ously to  this  act.  In  Ireland  copper  was  coined  as  early  as  1339 ;  in  Scot- 
land in  1406 ;  in  France  in  1580.  Wood's  coinage  in  Ireland  (lohwh.  see)  com- 
menced in  1723.  Penny  and  two-penny  pieces  were  extensively  used,  1797. 

Ci  )PrER-PLATE  PRINTING.  This  species  of  printing  was  first  attempted  in 
Germany,  about  A.  D.  1450.  Rolling-presses  for  working  the  plates  were  in- 
vented about  1545.  Messrs.  Perkins  of  Philadelphia,  invented,  in  1819,  a 
mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel  which,  when  hardened,  will  multiply  cop- 
per-plates and  fine  impressions  indefinitely. — See  Engraving. 

COPPERAS.  First  produced  in  England  by  Cornelius  de  Vos,  a  merchant,  in  1587. 

COPYRIGHT  ON  BOOKS,  &c.  IN  ENGLAND.  The  decree  of  the  Star-chamber 
regarding  it,  A.  D.  1556.  Every  book  and  publication  ordered  to  be  licensed, 
1585.  An  ordinance  forbidding  the  printing  of  any  work  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  1649.  Copyright  further  secured  by  a  statute  en- 
acted in  1709.  Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engraving.  17  George 
III.,  1777.  Copyright  protection  act.  54  George  III.,  1814.  Dramatic  au- 
thors' protection  act,  3  William  IV.,  1833.  The  act  for  preventing  the  pub- 
lication of  lectures  without  consent,  6  William  IV.,  1835.  The  act  of  the 
17th  George  III.,  extended  to  Ireland,  7  William  IV.,  1836.  International 
copyright  bill,  1  Victoria,  1838.  Copyright  of  designs  for  articles  of  manu- 
facture protected,  2  Victoria,  1839.  For  important  act  of  1842,  see  Literary 
Property. — Haydn. 

COPYRIGHT  IN  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  act  for  the  protection  of  literary 
property  in  the  United  States  passed  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Noah 
Webster,  the  lexicographer,  May  31,  1790.  Another  act  in  relation  to  it, 
April  29,  1802 — granting  copyright  for  14  years,  subject  to  renewal  for  14 
years  if  the  author  is  living.  Memorial  of  56  British  authors  asking  for 
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Book. 


800 


COR]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  331 

CORDAGE.  The  naval  cordage  in  early  ages  was,  probably,  merely  thongs  of 
leather ;  and  these  primitive  ropes  were  retained  by  the  Caledonians  in  the 
third  century,  and  by  some  northern  nations  in  the  ninth.  Cordage  of  weed 
and  of  horse-hair  was  also  used  anciently  before  that  made  of  hemp.  See 
Hemp. 

CORFU.  So  celebrated  in  mythology  and  poetry,  and  capital  of  the  island  of 
the  same  name,  was  placed  under  British  administration,  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  Nov.  1815.  It  is  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  which  see. 

CORINTH.  This  city  was  built  in  1520  and  the  kingdom  founded  by  Sisyphus 
in  1376  B.  c.  In  146  B.  c.  the  capital  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  but  was 
rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar ;  and  was  among  the  first  cities  of  Greece  that  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion.  It  was  defended  by  a  fortress  called  Aero- 
corinth,  on  a  summit  of  a  high  mountain,  surrounded  with  strong  walls. 
The  situation  of  this  citadel  was  so  advantageous,  that  Cicero  named  it  the 
Eye  of  Greece,  and  declared,  that  of  all  the  cities  known  to  the  Romans. 
Corinth  alone  was  worthy  of  being  the  seat  of  a  great  empire. 


Corinth  built  on  the  ruins  of  Ephyra, 
(Abbe  Lenglet)  .  -  B.  c.  1520 

Rebuilt  by  the  king  of  Sicyon,  and  first 
called  by  its  name  -  •  - 1410 

Sisyphus,  a  public  robber,  seizes  upon 
the  city  (.idem)  -  •  -  -  1375 

The  Pythian  games  instituted,  it  is  said 
by  Sisyphus  -  -  -  -  1375 

The  reign  of  Bacchus,  whose  successors 
are  called  Bacchidse,  in  remembrance 
of  the  equity  ot  his  reign  -  -  935 

The  Corinthians  invent  ships    called 


A  colony  goes  to  Sicily,  and  they  build 

Syracuse          -  -          -      B.  c.  732 

Sea  fight  between  the  Corinthians  and 

Cprcyreans  -  -  -          664 

Periander  rules  and  encourages  genius 

and  learning      -  -  -  .  629 

Death  of  Periander    ••          -  .      •  585 

The  Corinthians  form  a  republic  -  582 

War  with  the  Corcyreans  -  -  439 

The  Corinthian  war  (which  see)  •  -  395 
Acrocorinth  (citadel)  taken  by  Araius  •  242 
The  Roman  ambassadors  first  appear 


triremes ;  vessels  consisting  of  three 

benches  of  oars  •  -    786,    Corinth  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummius 

Thelestes  deposed,  and  the  government  who  sends  to  Italy  the  first  fine  paint- 

of  the    Prytanes    instituted :    Auto-  ings  there  seen,  they  being  part  of  the 

menes  is  the  first  on  whom  this  dig- 
nity is  conferred          ...   757 


at  Corinth          ....  228 
orimh  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummius 
who  sends  to  Italy  the  first  fine  paint- 
ings  there  seen,  they  being  part  of  the 
spoil  (Livy)      ....  146 


CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  The  finest  of  all  the  orders  of  ancient  architecture, 
aptly  called  by  Scamozzi,  the  virginal  order,  as  being  expressive  of  the  deli- 
cacy, tenderness,  and  beauty  of  the  whole  composition.  The  invention  of  it 
is  attributed  to  Callimachus,  540  B.  c. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.  The  war  which  received  this  name,  because  the  battles 
were  mostly  fought  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corinth,  was  begun  B.  c.  395,  by  a 
confederacy  of  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,  against 
the  Lacedaemonians.  The  most  famous  battles  were  at  Coronea  and  Leuc- 
tra,  which  see. 

CORN  OR  GRAIN.  The  origin  of  its  cultivation  is  attributed  to  Ceres,  who 
having  taught  the  art  to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  B.  c. — 
Arundelian  Marbles.  The  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making 
bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  is  attributed  by  the  Chinese  to  Ching 
Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  second  monarch  of  China,  1998  B.  c  — 
Univ.  Hist.  But  corn  provided  a  common  article  of  food  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  world,  and  baking  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal  ages. — 
See  Exodus  xii.  15.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  sixth  century, 
by  Coll  ap  Coll  Frewi. — Roberts'  Hist.  Anc.  Britons.  The  first  importation 
of  corn  of  which  we  have  note,  was  in  1347.  Bounties  were  granted  on  its 
importation  into  England,  in  1686. 

CORN  LAWS  IN  ENGLAND.  Various  enactments  relative  to  the  duty  on  "  corn1' 
or  grain  passed  1814.  Riots,  caused  by  the  passing  of  the  act  permitting  its 
importation  when  corn  should  be  80s.  "per  quarter,"  1815.  The  "sliding- 
scale"  of  duties  passed  July  15,  !828.  Another,  April  29,  1842;  act  fixing 


332  THE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  f  COB 

tt«  duty  on  wheat  at  is.  until  Feb.  1849,  and  after  that  atl«.  per  quarter, 
passed  June  26,  1846.  This  was  the  virtual  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws — 
and  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League — which  had  been  formed  in  1841  was  there- 
fore formally  dissolved,  July  2,  1846. 

CORONATION.  The  first  coronation  by  a  bishop,  was  that  of  Majocianus,  at 
Constantinople,  in  A.  D.  457.  The  ceremony  of  anointing  at  coronations  was 
introduced  into  England  in  872,  and  into  Scotland  in  1097.  The  coronatiou 
of  Henry  III.  took  place,  in  the  first  instance,  without  a  crown,  at  Gloucester, 
October  28,  1216.  A  plain  circle  was  used  on  this  occasion  in  lieu  of  the 
crown,  which  had  been  lost  with  the  other  jewels  and  baggage  of  king  John, 
in  passing  the  marshes  of  Lynn,  or  the  Wash,  near  Wisbeach. — Matthew 
Paris.  Rymer. 

CORONATION  FEASTS,  AND  OATH.  The  oath  was  first  administered  to  the 
kings  of  England  by  Dunstan  (the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  afterwards 
canonized),  to  Ethelred  II.  in  979.  An  oath,  nearly  corresponding  with  that 
now  in  use,  was  administered  in  1377 ;  it  was  altered  in  1689.  The  fdtes 
given  at  coronations  commenced  with  Edward  I.  in  1273.  That  at  the  cor- 
onation of  George  IV.  rivalled  the  extravagances  and  sumptuousness  of 
former  times. 

CORONERS.  They  were  officers  of  the  realm  in  A.  D.  925.  Coroners  for  every 
couivty  in  England  were  first  appointed  by  statute  of  Westminster,  4  Edward 
I.  1276. — Stowe.  Coroners  were  instituted  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Mai  • 
colm  II.,  about  1004.  By  an  act  passed  in  the  6th  and  7th  of  queen  Victoria, 
coroners  are  enabled  to  appoint  deputies  to  act  for  them,  but  only  in  case  of 
illness.  Aug.  22,  1843. 

CORONETS.  The  caps  or  inferior  crowns,  of  various  forms,  that  distinguish 
the  rank  of  the  nobility.  The  coronets  for  earls  were  first  allowed  by  Henry 
III. ;  for  viscounts  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  for  barons  by  Charles  II.— Baker. 
But  authorities  conflict.  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbury,  was  the  first  of 
the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a  coronet.  1604. — Beatson.  It  is  uncertain  when 
the  coronets  of  dukes  and  marquesses  were  settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS.  They  are  stated  by  Livy  to  have  been  of  very  high  anti- 
quity among  the  Romans.  They  were  introduced  into  other  countries  from 
Italy.  These  political  bodies  were  first  planned  by  Numa,  in  order  to  break 
the  force  of  the  two  rival  factions  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  by  instituting  sep- 
arate societies  of  every  manual  trade  and  profession. — Plutarch,. 

CORPORATIONS,  MUNICIPAL,  IN  ENGLAND.  Bodies  politic,  authorized 
by  the  king's  charter  to  have  a  common  seal,  one  head  officer,  or  more,  and 
members,  who  are  able,  by  their  common  consent,  to  grant  or  receive,  in 
law,  any  matter  within  the  compass  of  their  charter. — Cowel.  Corporations 
were  formed  by  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of  England  to  vari- 
ous towns,  first  by  Edward  the  Confessor.  Henry  I.  granted  charters,  A.  D. 
1100 ;  and  succeeding  monarchs  gave  corporate  powers,  and  extended  them 
to  numerous  large  communities  throughout  the  realm,  subject  to  tests,  oath?, 
and  conditions. — Blackstone. 

CORSICA.  Called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this 
island  were  savage,  and  bore  the  character  of  robbers,  liars,  and  atheists, 
according  to  Seneca,  when  he  existed  among  them.  It  was  held  by  the  Car- 
thaginians ;  and  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  231  B.  c.  In  modern  time*, 
Corsica  was  dependent  upon  the  republic  of  Genoa,  until  1730;  and  was  sold 
to  France  in  1733.  It  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  under  Theodore,  its  first 
and  only  king,  in  1736.  He  came  to  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  King's  Bench  prison  for  debt,  and  for  many  years  subsisted  on  the  be- 
nevolence of  private  friends.  Having  been  released  by  an  act  of  insolvency 


COS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  333 

ill  1756,  he  gave  in  his  schedule  the  kingdom  of  Corsica  as  an  estate  to  hif 
creditors,  an  I  died  the  same  year,  at  his  lodgings  in  Chapel- street,  Soho. 
The  earl  of  Oxford  wrote  the  following  epitaph,  on  a  tablet  erected  near  hia 
grave,  in  St.  Anne's  church,  Dean-street : — 

"  The  grave,  great  teacher !  to  a  level  brings 

Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-slaves  and  kings. 

But  Theodore  this  moral  learn'd  ere  dead ; 

Fate  pour'd  its  lesson  on  his  living  head, 

Bestow'd  a  kingdom  and  denied  him  bread." 

The  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli  was  chosen  for  their  general  by  the  Corsicans, 
in  1753.  He  was  defeated  by  the  count  de  Vaux,  and  fled  to  England,  1769. 
The  people  acknowledged  George  III.  of  England  for  their  king,  June  17, 
1794,  when  sir  Gilbert  Elliott  was  made  viceroy,  and  ae  opened  a  parliament 
in  1795.  A  revolt  was  suppressed  in  June  1796 ;  and  the  island  was  -elin- 
quished  by  the  British,  Oct.  22;  same  year,  when  the  people  declared  for  the 
French. 

CORTES  OP  SPAIN.  A  deliberative  assembly  under  the  old  constitution  ol 
Spain ;  several  times  set  aside.  The  cortes  were  newly  assembled  after  a 
long  interval  of  years,  Sept.  24,  1810;  and  they  settled  the  new  constitution, 
March  16,  1812.  This  constitution  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who 
banished  many  members  of  the  assembly  in  May,  1814.  The  cortes  or  states- 
general  were  opened  by  Ferdinand  VII.  1820,  and  they  have  since  been  reg- 
ularly convened. 

CORUNNA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  army  under  sir  John  Moore  (who 
was  killed)  and  the  French,  Jan.  16,  1809. 

COSMETICS.  Preparations  for  improving  beauty  were  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  some  authorities  refer  them  even  to  mythology,  and  others  to  the  Gre- 
cian stage.  The  Roman  ladies  painted ;  and  those  of  Italy  excelled  in  height- 
ening their  charms  artificially,  by  juices  and  colors,  and  by  perfumes. 
Rouge  has  always  been  in  disrepute  among  the  virtuous  and  well-ordered 
women  of  England,  though  some  simple  cosmetics  are  regarded  as  innocent, 
and  are  in  general  use. — Ashe.  The  females  of  France  and  Germany  paint 
more  highly  than  most  other  nations. — Richardson.  A  stamp  was  laid  on 
cosmetics,  perfumery,  and  such  medicines  as  really  or  suppositiously  beau- 
tify the  skin,  or  perfume  the  person,  and  the  venders  were  obliged  to  take 
out  licenses,  26th  Geo.  III.  1786. 

COSMOGRAPHY.  The  science  which  teaches  the  structure,  form,  disposition, 
and  relation  of  the  parts  of  the  world,  or  the  manner  of  representing  it  on  a 
plane. — Selden.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  astronomy  and  geography :  the 
earliest  accounts  of  the  former  occur  2234  B.  c. — Blair.  The  first  record 
of  the  latter  is  from  Homer,  who  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  rep- 
resenting the  earth. — Iliad.  See  the  articles  on  Astronomy  and  Geography 
respectively. 

COSSACKS.  The  warlike  people  inhabiting  the  confines  of  Poland,  Russia,, 
Tartary,  and  Turkey.  They  at  first  lived  by  plundering  the  Turkish  galleys 
and  the  people  of  Natolia :  they  were  formed  into  a  regular  army  by  Ste- 
phen Batori,  in  1576,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  Russia  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Tartars.  In  the  late  great  war  of  Europe  against  France,  a  vast  bodj 
of  Cossacks  formed  a  portion  of  the  Russian  armies,  and  fought  almost  in- 
vin<  ibly 

COSTUME.  See  Dress.  Accounts  of  magnificent  attire  refer  to  very  remote 
antiquity  The  costume  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  ladies  was  comely  and 
graceful.  The  women  of  Cos,  whose  country  was  famous  for  the  silkworm, 
wore  a  manufacture  of  cotton  and  silk  of  so  beautiful  and  delicate  a  torture, 
and  their  gain  ents.  which  were  always  white,  were  so  clear  and  thin,  th-U 


334 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[  COT 


their  bodies  could  be  seen  through  them  -  Ovid.  As  relates  to  costume 
worn  on  the  stage,  ^Eschylus  the  Athenian  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who 
erected  a  regular  stage  for  his  actors,  and  ordered  their  dresses  to  be  suited 
to  their  characters,  about  436  B.  c. — Parian  Marbles. 

COTTON.  The  method  of  spinning  cotton  formerly  was  by  the  hand ;  but 
about  1767,  Mr.  Hargreaves,  of  Lancashire,  invented  the  spinning-jenny 
with  eight  spindles ;  he  also  erected  the  first  carding-machine  with  cylin- 
ders. Sir  Richard  Arkwright  obtained  a  patent  for  a  new  invention  of 
machinery  in  1769 ;  and  another  patent  for  an  engine  in  1775.  Crorapton 
invented  the  mule,  a  further  and  wonderful  improvement  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton,  in  1779,  and  various  other  improvements  have  been  since 
made.  The  names  of  Peel  and  Arkwright  are  eminently  conspicuous  in  con- 
nection with  this  vast  source  of  British  industry ;  and  it  is  calculated  that 
more  than  one  thousand  millions  sterling  have  be  >n  yielded  by  it  to  Great 
Britain.  Cotton  manufacturers'  utensils  were  prohibited  from  being  export- 
ed in  1774. — Haydn. 

HISTORT  OP  COTTON,  FOR  OVER  ONE  HUNDRED  TEARS. 

The  following  brief  items  of  the  history  of  cotton,  from  1730  to  1836,  are  taken  from  a  South 

Carolina 


1730.  Mr.  Wyatt  spins  the  first  cotton  yarn 
in  England  by  machinery. 

1735.  The  Dutch  first  export  cotton  from 
Surinam. 

1742  First  mill  for  spinning  cotton  erected 
at  Birmingham,  moved  by  mules  or  horses ; 
but  not  successful  in  its  operations. 

1749.  The  fly  shuttle  generally  used  in 
England. 

1750.  Cotton  velvets  and  quillings  made 
in  England  for  the  first  time. 

1701.  Arkwright  obtained  the  first  patent 
for  the  spinning  frame,  which  he  further 
improved. 

17(38.  The  stocking  frame  applied  by 
Hammond  to  making  of  lace. 

1773.  A  bill  passed  to  prevent  the  export 
of  machinery  used  in  cotton  factories. 

1779.  Mule  spinning  invented  by  Hargrave. 
1782.  First  import  of  raw  cotton    from 

Brazil  into  England. 

1782.  VVatt  took  out  his  patent  for  the 
steam-engine. 

1783.  A  bounty  granted  in  England  on  the 
export  of  certain  cotton  goods. 

1785.  Power-looms  invented  by  Dr.  <  !art- 
wright — steam  engir.es  used  in  cotton  fac- 
tories. 

1785.  Cotton  imported  into  England  from 
the  United  States. 

1780.  Bleaching  first   performed   by  the 
agency  of  the  oxymuriatic  acid. 

17N7.  First  machinery  to  spin  cotton  put 
in  operation  in  France. 

176V.  Sea  Island  cotton  first  planted  in  the 
United  States;  and  upland  cotton  first  cul- 
tivated for  use  and  export  about  this  time. 

1790  Slator,  an  Englishman,  builds  the 
first  American  cotton  factory, at  Pawtucket, 
Rhode  Island. 

1792.  Eli  Whitney,  an  American,  invents 
the  cotton  gin,  which  he  patents. 

1798.  First  mill  and  machinery  for  cotton 
erecied  in  Switzerland. 

1799.  Spinning  by  machinery  introduced 
into  Saxony  this  year. 


ina  paper: — 


1803.  First  cotton  factory  built  in  New 
Hampshire. 

1805.  Power-looms  successfully  and  widely 
introduced  into  England. 

1807.  The  revolution  in  Spanish  America 
begins  to  furnish  new  markets  for  cotton 
manufactures. 

1810.  Digest  of  cotton  manufactures  in  tho 
United  States  by  Mr.  Gallatin,  and  another 
by  Mr.  Tench  Coxe,  of  Philadelphia. 

1811.  Machinery  to  make  bobbin  lace  pa 
tented  by  John  Bum. 

1813.  The  India  trade  more  free,  and  more 
British  manulactures  sent  thither. 

1814.  The  power-loom  introduced  into  the 
United  States ;  first  at  Waltham. 

1818.  Average  price  of  cotton  34  cents — 
higher  than   since  1810.     New   method  of 
preparing  sewing  cotton  by  Mr  Holt. 

1819.  Extraordinary  prices  for  Alabama 
cotton  lands. 

1820.  Steam  power  first  applied  With  suc- 
cess extensively  to  lace  manufactures. 

1822  First  cotton  factory  in  Lowell  erected. 
\8'~3.  First  export  of  raw  cotton  from  Egypt 
into  Great  Britain. 

1825.  In  New  Orleans  cotton  at  from  23  to 
25  cents  per  pound. 

1826.  Self-acting  mule  spinner  patented 
in  England  by  Roberts. 

1827.  American  cotton  manufactures  first 
exported  to  any  considerable  extent. 

1829.  Highest  duty  in  the  United  States  on 
foreign  cotton  manufactures. 

1830.  About  this  time  Mr.  Dyer  introduced 
a  machine  from  the  United  States  into  Eng' 
land  for  the  purpose  of  making  cards. 

1832.  Duty  on  cotton  goods  Imported  inta 
the  United  States  reduced ;  and  in  England 
it  is  forbid  to  employ  minors  in  cotton  mills, 
to  work  them  more  than  ten  hours  per  day, 
or  more  than  nine  hours  on  a  Saturday;  IB 
consequence  they  work  at  something  else. 

1834.  Cotton  at  17  cents. 

1835.  Extensive  purchases  madeof  cottoi 
lands  by  speculators  and  others. 

1836.  Cotton  at  from  18  to  20  cent*. 


eou] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


COTTONIAN  LIBRARY.  Formed  by  great  labor  and  with  great  judgment 
by  sir  Robert  Cotton,  A.  D.  1600  et  seq.  This  vast  treasury  of  knowledge, 
after  having  been  with  difficulty  rescued  from  the  fury  of  the  republicans 
during  the  protectorate,  was  secured  to  the  pxiblic  by  a  statute,  13  William 
III.  1701.  It  was  removed  to  Essex-house  in  1712;  and  in  1730  to  Dean's- 
yard,  Westminster,  where,  on  Oct.  23,  1731,  a  part  of  the  books  sustained 
damage  by  fire.  The  library  was  removed  to  the  British  Museum  in  17&3. 

COUNCILS.  An  English  council  is  of  very  early  origin.  The  wise  Alfred,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  institutions,  so  arranged  the  busi- 
ness of  the  nation,  that  all  resolutions  passed  through  three  councils.  The  first 
was  a  select  council,  to  which  those  only  high  in  the  king's  confidence  were 
admitted ;  here  were  debated  all  affairs  that  were  to  be  laid  before  the 
second  council,  which  consisted  of  bishops  and  nobles,  and  resembled  the 
present  privy  council,  and  none  belonged  to  it  but  those  whom  the  king  was 
pleased  to  appoint.  The  third  was  a  general  council  or  assembly  of  the  na- 
tion, called  in  Saxon,  Wittenagemot.  to  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a  right 
to  sit  independent  of  the  king.  In  these  three  councils  we  behold  the  origin 
of  the  cabinet  and  privy  councils,  and  the  antiquity  of  parliaments ;  but  the 
term  cabinet  council  is  of  a  much  more  modern  date,  according  to  lord  Clar- 
endon.— See  Cabinet  Council,  Common  Council,  Privy  Council,  &c. 

COUNCILS  OP  TUB  CHURCH,  The  following  are  among  the  most  memorable 
Christian  councils,  or  councils  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Most  other  councils 
(the  list  of  which  would  make  a  volume)  either  respected  national  churches 
or  ecclesiastical  government.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  enumerates  1604  councils. 


Of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem    -    A.  p 

Of  the  western  bishops  at  Aries,  in 
France,  to  suppress  the  Donatists ; 
three  fathers  of  the  English  church 
went  over  to  attend  it  - 

The  first  Oecumenical  or  General  Ni- 
cene,  held  at  Nice,  Constantine  the 
Great  presided ;  Anns  and  Eusebius 
condemned  for  heresy.  This  council 
composed  the  Nicene  Creed  - 

At  Tyre,  when  the  doctrine  of  Athana- 
sius  was  canvassed 

The  first  held  at  Constantinople,  when 
the  Arian  heresy  gained  ground 

At  Rome,  concerning  Athanasius,  which 
lasted  eighteen  months 

At  Sardis ;  370  bishops  attended 

Of  Rimini ;  400  bishops  attended,  and 
Constantine  obliged  them  to  sign  a 
new  confession  of  faith 

The  second  General  at  Constantinople ; 
350  bishops  attended,  and  pope  Da- 
masius  presided 

The  third  at  Ephesus,  when  pope  Ce- 
lestine  presitfed  - 

Fourth  at  Chalcedon ;  the  emperor  Mar- 
cian  and  his  empress  attended 

The  fifth  at  Constantinople,  when  pope 
Vigi'.ius  presided 

The  sixth  a.!  Constantinople,  when  pope 
Agatho  presided 

Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  re- 
established by  Theodosius 

Tho  second  Nicene  council,  seventh  Ge- 
neral; 350  bishops  attended  - 

Of  Constantinople,  eighth  General ;  the 
emperor  Basil  attended 

The  first  Lateran,  the  ninth  General ; 
the  right  of  investitures  settled  by 
treaty  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and 
til*  emperor  Henry  V.  »•'  "  •' 


50 
314 

325 
335 
337 

342 
347 

359 

381 
431 
451 

553 
680 
715 
787 
869 

1192 


The  second  Lateran,  tenth  General,  In- 
nocent II.  presided ;  the  preservation 
of  the  temporal  ties  of  ecclesiastics, 
the  principal  subject,  which  occa- 
sioned the  attendance  of  1000  fa- 
thers of  the  church  -  -  A.  D.  1139 

The  third  Lateran,  eleventh  General ; 
held  against  schismatics  -  -  1179 

Fourth  Lateran,  twelfth  General ;  400 
bishops  and  1000  abbots  attended; 
Innocent  III.  presided  -  -  -  1215 

Of  Lyons,  the  thirteenth  General,  under 
pope  Innocent  IV.  -  -  1245 

Ol  Lyons,  the  fourteenth  General,  under 
Gregory  X.  -  -  -  -1274 

Ol'Vienne  in  Dauphine,  the  fifteenth 
General;  Clement  V.  presided,  and 
the  kings  of  France  and  Arragon  at- 
tended. The  order  of  the  Knight 
Templars  suppressed  -  -  -1311 

Of  Pisa,  the  sixteenth  General;  Gre- 
gory XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  deposed, 
and  Alexander  elected  -  -  1409 

Of  Constance,  the  seventeenth  General ; 
Martin  V.  is  elected  pope  ;  and  John 
Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  con- 
demned to  be  burnt  -  -  -  1414 

Of  Basil,  the  eighteenth  General          •  1431 

The  fifth  Lateran,  the  nineteenth  Gene- 
ral, begun  by  Julius  II.  -  -  151S 

Continued  under  Leo  X.  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Pragmatic  sanction  of 
France,  against  the  council  of  Pisa, 
&c.  till 151v 

Of  Trent,  the  twentieth  and  last  Gene- 
ral council,  styled  (Ecumenical,  as  re- 
garding the  affairs  of  all  the  Chris- 
tian world ;  it  was  held  to  condemn 
the  doctrines  of  the  reformers,  Luther, 
Zuinglius,  and  Calvin.—  Abbe  Lenglet  1544 


336  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  co\ 

COUNCILS,  FRENCH  REPUBLICAN.  The  council  of  A  NCIENTS  was  an  assembly 
of  revolutionary  France,  consisting  of  250  members,  instituted  at  Paris,  Nov. 
1,  1795,  together  with  the  council  of  FIVE  HUNDRED  ;  the  executive  was  a 
Directory  of  FIVE.  Bonaparte  dispersed  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  at  St. 
Cloud,  Nov  9,  1799,  declaring  himself,  Roger  Ducos.  and  Sieves,  consuls  pro- 
iisoires. — See  France. 

COUNSEL.  See  Barristers.  Counsel  who  were  guilty  of  deceit  or  collusion 
were  punishable  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edward  I.,  1284.  Coun- 
sel were  allowed  to  persons  charged  with  treason,  by  act  8  William  III.  1696. 
Act  to  enable  persons  indicted  of  felony  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel 
6  &  7  William  IV...  Aug.  1836. 

COUNTIES.  The  division  of  England  into  counties  began,  it  is  said,  with  king 
Alfred  ;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names  a  century  before.  The 
division  of  Ireland  into  counties  took  place  in  1562.  County  courts  were 
instituted  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  896.  Counties  first  sent  members  to  par- 
liament, before  which  period  knights  met  in  their  own  counties,  1259. — See 
Commons,  and  Parliament. 

COURIERS  OR  POSTS.  Xenophon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus ;  and 
Herodotus  says  that  they  were  common  among  the  Persians.  But  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  Greeks  or  Romans  had  regular  couriers  till  the  time  of 
Augustus,  when  they  travelled  in  cars,  about  24  B.  c.  Couriers  or  posts  are 
said  to  have  been  instituted  in  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  A.  D.  800. 
The  couriers  or  posts  for  letters  were  established  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  owing  to  this  monarch's  extraordinary  eager- 
ness for  news.  They  were  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  A.  D. 
1463.— Henault. 

COURTS.  Courts  of  justice  were  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  B.  c. — See  Areopa- 
gitte.  There  were  courts  for  the  distribution  of  justice  in  Athens,  in  1272 
B.  c. — Blair.  They  existed  under  various  denominations  in  Rome,  and  other 
countries. 

COURT  OF  HONOR.  In  England,  the  court  of  chivalry,  of  which  the  lord  high 
constable  was  a  judge,  was  called  Curia  Militaris  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV., 
and  subsequently  the  Court  of  Honor.  In  the  States  of  Bavaria,  in  order  to 
prevent  duelling,  a  court  of  honor  was  instituted  in  April,  1819.  In  these 
countries,  Mr.  Joseph  Hamilton  has  ardently  labored  to  establish  similar  in- 
stitutions. 

COVENANTERS.  The  name  which  was  particularly  applied  to  those  persons 
who  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  took  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  thereby 
mutually  engaging  to  stand  by  each  other  in  opposition  to  the  projects  o/ 
the  king ;  it  was  entered  into  in  1638.  The  covenant  or  league  between 
England  and  Scotland,  was  formed  in  1643;  it  was  declared  to  be  illegal  by 
parliament,  14  Charles  II.,  1662. 

COVENTRY.  PEEPING  TOM  OF.  The  great  show  fair  of  Coventry  owes  its 
origin  to  the  following  tradition : — Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia,  had  imposed  such 
heavy  taxes  on  the  citizens,  his  lady,  Godiva,  moved  by  their  entreaties, 
importuned  her  lord  to  remit  them,  and  he  consented  on  the  condition  of  her 
riding  naked  through  the  city  at  mid-day.  Her  humanity  induced  her  to 
consent,  and  she  so  disposed  her  flowing  tresses  as  to  hide  her  person ;  and 
ordering  all  the  inhabitants,  on  pain  of  death,  to  close  their  doors  and  win- 
dows, she  rode  quite  naked  through  the  town.  One  person,  yielding  to 
curiosity,  stole  a  glance  at  the  countess,  and  was  struck  dead ;  and  has  been 
famed  evei  since  under  the  name  of  Peeping  Tom,  and  his  effigy  is  shown 
to  this  day.  To  commemorate  this  event,  A.  D.  1057,  at  the  great  show  fair 
the  ma/or  and  corporation  walk  in  procession  through  the  town,  accom 


ORE  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  33^ 

paniod  by  a  female  on  horseback,  clad  in  a  linen  dress  closely  fitted  to  he! 
limbs. 

COW-POCK  INOCULATION.  This  species  of  inoculation,  as  a  security 
against  the  small-pox,  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  and  it  became  general 
in  1799.  The  genuine  cow-pox  appears  in  the  form  of  vesicles  on  the 
.eats  of  the  cow,  and  was  first  noticed  by  Dr.  Jenner,  in  1796.  He  was  re- 
warded by  parliament  with  the  mmificent  grant  of  .£10,000,  June  2.  1802. — 
See  Inoculation,  Small-Pox,  Vaccination. 

CRACOW.  The  Poles  elect  Cracus  for  their  duke,  and  he  builds  Cracow  with 
the  spoils  taken  from  the  Franks,  A.  D.  700,  et  seq.  Taken  by  Charles  XII. 
in  1702 ;  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Russians  and  confederates  on  the  ono 
side  and  the  patriotic  people  on  the  other  several  times.  Kosciusko  expel- 
led the  Russian  garrison  from  the  city,  March  24,  1794.  It  surrendered  to 
the  Prussians,  June  15,  same  year.  Formed  into  a  republic  in  1815.  Occu- 
pied by  10,000  Russians  who  followed  there  the  defeated  Poles,  Sept.  1831. 
Its  independence  extinguished ;  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  Austrian  empire,  November,  1846. — See  Poland. 

CRANES.  They  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines  of  Archimedes  may 
be  so  called.  The  theory  of  the  inclined  plain,  the  pulley,  &c.  are  also  his, 
220  B.  c.—Livy. 

CRANIOLOGY.  The  science  of  animal  propensities.  Dr.  Gall,  a  German, 
started  this  new  doctrine  respecting  the  brain,  in  1803.  Dr.  Spurzheim  fol- 
lowed, and  by  his  expositions  gave  a  consistency  to  the  science,  and  it  seems 
to  be  rapidly  gaining  ground ;  it  has  now  many  professors,  and  in  almost  all 
countries  craniology  is  countenanced  by  learned  and  enlightened  men.  The 
science  assigns  the  particular  locations  of  certain  organs,  or  as  many  differ- 
ent seats  of  the  most  prominent  operations  of  the  mind. 

CRANMER,  LATIMER,  AND  RIDLEY.  Illustrious  names  in  the  list  of  Eng 
lish  martyrs  of  the  reformed  religion.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Lati- 
mer,  bishop  of  Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555»;  and  Cran 
mer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  March  21,  1556.  His  love  of  life  had  in- 
duced Cranmer,  some  time  previously,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  to  sign  a 
paper  wherein  he  condemned  the  Reformation ;  and  when  he  was  led  to  the 
stake,  and  the  fire  was  kindled  round  him,  he  stretched  forth  his  right  hand, 
with  which  he  had  signed  his  recantation,  that  it  might  be  consumed  before 
the  rest  of  his  body,  exclaiming  from  time  to  time.  "  This  unworthy  hand !" 
Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  expired  with  the  dying  prayer  of  the  first 
martyr  of  the  Christian  church,  "  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit !" 

CRAPE.  A  light  kind  of  stuff  like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk  gummed  and 
twisted  on  the  mill.  Its  manufacture  is  of  very  early  date,  and  it  is  said 
some  crape  was  made  by  St.  Badour,  when  queen  of  France,  about  A.  D.  680. 
It  was  first  made  at  Bologna,  and  in  modern  times  has  been  principally  used 
for  mourning. 

CRAYONS.  They  were  known  in  France  before  A.  D.  1422 — improved  by 
L'Oriot,  1748. 

CREATION  OP  THE  WORLD.  It  was  placed  by  Usher,  Blair,  and  DufYesnoy, 
4004  B.  c.  Josephus  makes  it  4658  years. —  Whiston.  The  first  date  agrees 
with  the  common  Hebrew  text,  and  the  vulgate  Latin  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  There  are  about  140  different  dates  assigned  to  the  creation: 
some  place  it  3616  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  Plato,  in  his  dia- 
logue entitled  Critias.  asserts  his  celebrated  Atalantis  to  have  been  buried 
in  the  ocean  about  9000  years  before  the  age  in  which  he  wrote.  The  Chi- 
nese represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
years  j  and  we  are  told  that  the  astronomical  records  of  th«  ancient  CbaJ 
15 


338  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  JB.I 

deans  carried  back  the  origin  of  society  to  a  period  of  no  less  than  473,000 
years. 

CREATION,  ERA  OP  THE.  In  use  by  many  nations.  This  era  would  be  found 
convenient,  by  doing  away  with  the  difficulty  and  ambiguity  of  counting 
before  and  after  any  particular  date,  as  is  necessary  when  the  era  begins  at 
a  later  period ;  but,  unfortunately,  writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  right 
time  of  commencing.  This  epoch  is  fixed  by  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  at 
4700  B.  c.  The  Septuagint  makes  it  5872.  The  authors  of  the  Talmud 
make  it  5344 ;  and  ditlerent  chronologers,  to  the  number  of  120,  make  it 
vary  from  the  Septuagint  date  to  3268.  Dr.  Hales  fixed  it  at  6411 ,  but  th« 
Catholic  church  adopted  the  even  number  of  4000,  and  subsequently,  a  cor- 
rection as  to  the  birth  of  Christ  adds  four  years:  therefore,  it  is  now  gener- 
ally considered  as  4004  years,  which  agrees  with  the  modern  Hebrew  text. 

CREED.  The  Apostles'  Creed  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  a  great  while 
after  their  time. — Pardon.  It  was  introduced  formally  into  public  worship 
in  the  Greek  church  at  Antioch.  and  subsequently  into  the  Roman  church. 
This  creed  was  translated  into  the  Saxon  tongue,  about  A.  D.  746.  The 
Nicene  Creed  takes  its  name  from  the  council  by  whom  it  was  composed,  in 
A  D.  325.  The  Athanasian  Creed  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  about 
340. — See  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  other  creeds. 

CRESSY,  OR  CRECY,  BATTLE  OF.  Edward  III.  and  his  son,  the  renowned  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince,  obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory  over  Philip, 
king  of  France,  Aug.  26,  1346.  This  was  one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs 
ever  achieved  by  English  arms.  John,  duke  of  Bohemia ;  James,  king  of 
Majorca ;  Ralph,  duke  of  Lorraine  (sovereign  princes) ;  a  number  of  French 
nobles,  together  with  30  000  private  men.  were  slain,  while  the  loss  ot  the 
English  was  very  small.  The  crest  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  was  three  ostrich 
feathers,  with  the  motto  <:  Ick  Dien"  in  English,  "  I  serve  ;"  and  in  memory 
of  this  victory  it  has  since  been  adopted  by  the  heirs  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land.— F'roissart,  Carte,  Hume. 

CRESTS.  The  ancient  warriors  wore  crests  to  strike  terror  into  their  enemies 
by  the  sight  of  the  spoils  of  the  animals  they  had  killed.  The  origin  of 
crests  is  ascribed  to  the  Carians.  In  English  heraldry,  are  several  represen- 
tations of  Richard  I.,  1189,  with  a  crest  on  the  helmet  resembling  a  plume 
of  feathers :  and  after  his  reign  most  of  the  English  kings  have  crowns 
above  their  helmets;  that  of  Richard  II.,  1377,  was  surmounted  by  a  lion 
on  a  cap  of  dignity.  In  later  reigns,  the  crest  was  regularly  borne  as  well 
on  the  helmet  of  the  kings,  as  on  the  head-trappings  of  their  horses. 

CRETE.  Now  Candia.  whick  see.  This  island  was  once  famous  for  its  hundred 
cities,  and  for  the  laws  which  the  wisdom  of  Minos  established  about  1015 
B.  c.  Some  authors  reckon  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete  as  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  world.  Crete  became  subject  to  the  Roman  empire,  68  B.  c.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Saracens.  A.  D.  808;  taken  by  the  Greeks,  961 ;  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  1194:  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
Turks,  in  1669.— Priestley. 

CRIME.  "At  the  presetit  moment,"  observes  a  popular  English  writer,  •'  a 
one-fifteenth  part  of  the  whole  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  sub- 
sisting by  the  lowest  and  most  degrading  prostitution ;  another  fifteenth 
have  no  means  of  support  but  by  robbery,  swindling,  pickpocketing,  and 
every  species  of  crime ;  and  five-fifteenths  of  the  people  are  what  are  denomi- 
nated poor,  living  from  hand  to  mouth,  and  daily  sinking  into  beggary,  and, 
as  an  almost  necessary  consequence,  into  crime.1'  A  comparative  view  of 
foreign  countries  with  Great  Britain  demonstrates  the  effects  of  poverty  and 
ignorance  on  this  great  mass  of  the  population.  In  North  America  pauper- 
ism is  almost  unknown,  and  one  fourth  of  the  people  are  educated ;  pro 


DICTIONARY    OP    DAlES.  339 

meditated  murder  is  alone  capital ;  imprisonment  for  debt  has,  in  several 
states,  been  abolished,  and  crimes,  particularly  of  enormity,  are  exceedingly 
rare.  The  Dutch,  who  possess  a  competency,  and  are  generally  educated, 
are  comparatively  free  from  grave  offences ;  and  France  affords  a  remark- 
able illustration  in  the  same  way.  But  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  differ- 
ence is  painfully  exemplified : — 

Scotland.      England.        Ireland. 

Instruction  to  the  people-          -  •    1  in     11    •    1  in   20     -     1  in  35 

Criminals  among  the  people  «         1  in  5093    •    I  in  920     -     1  in  468 

There  was  recently  a  revision  of  the  English  criminal  code,  and  several 
acts  have  been  passed  calculated  to  reduce  the  amount  of  crime,  and  miti- 
gate the  severity  of  its  punishment.  An  act  for  improving  the  criminal  law 
of  England,  passed  8  George  IV.,  -1827.  An  act  for  consolidating  and 
revising  the  laws  relating  to  crime,  conformably  with  Mr.  Peel's  digest, 
passed  9  George  IV.,  1828.  Hanging  criminals  in  chains  was  abolished  by 
statute  4  William  IV.,  1834.  See  Executions,  Hanging,  Triau,  &c. — Haydn. 

•CRIMEA.  The  ancient  Taurica  C/iersonesus.  Settled  by  the  Genoese,  in  1193. 
The  Genoese  were  expelled  by  the  Crim  Tartars,  in  1474.  The  khans  were 
tributary  to  the  Turks  until  1774.  The' Russians,  with  a  large  army,  took 
possession  of  this  country,  in  1783 ;  and  it  was  ceded  to  them  the  following 
year;  and  secured  to  them  in  1791. 

CRISPIN.  The  name  sometimes  given  to  shoeYnakers.  Crispin  and  Crispianus 
were  two  legendary  saints,  born  at  Rome,  from  whence,  it  is  said,  they  tra- 
velled to  Soissons,  in  France,  about  A.  D.  303,  to  propagate  the  Christian 
religion ;  and  because  they  would  not  be  chargeable  to  others  for  their  main- 
tenance, they  exercised  the  trade  of  shoemakers ;  but  the  governor  of  the 
town  discovering  them  to  be  Christians  ordered  them  to  be  decollated.  Ou 
this  account,  the  shoemakers,  since  that  period,  have  made  choice  of  them 
as  their  tutelar  saints. 

CRITICS.  The  first  society  of  them  was  formed  276  B.  c.— Blair.  Of  this  class 
were  Varro,  Cicero,  Appolonius,  and  many  distinguished  men.  In  modern 
times,  the  Journal  de  Scavans  was  the  earliest  work  of  the  system  of  period- 
ical criticism,  as  it  is  now  known,  It  was  originated  by  Dennis  de  Sallo, 
ecclesiastical  counsellor  in  the  parliament  of  France,  and  was  first  published 
at  Paris,  May  30,  1665,  and  continued  for  nearly  a  century.  The  first  work 
of  this  kind  in  England,  was  called  the  Review  of  Daniel  Defoe  (the  term 
being  invented  by  himself)  published  in  Feb.  1703.  The  Waies  of  Litera- 
ture was  commenced  in  1714,  and  was  discontinued  in  1722.  The  Mo-nthly 
Revunc,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  third  work  of  this  nature  in 
England,  was  published  1749.  The  Critical  Review  appeared  in  1756;  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  in  1802;  and  London  Quarterly  in  1809.  The  American 
Review,  established  in  N.  Y.  1799,  was  the  first  Review  in  the  U.  S.  The 
North,  American  Review  was  established  by  Wm.  Tudor  in  1818;  the  Am-r-i- 
can  Quarterly,  by  Robert  Walsh,  at  Phila.,  1827 ;  the  New  York  Review,  by 
Prof.  C.  S.  Henry,  1835;  the  Sout/iern  Qudrterly,  at  Charleston,  1842.  See 
Periodicals.  The  legality  of  fair  criticism  was  established  in  the  English 
courts,  in  Feb  1794,  when  an  action  that  excited  great  attention,  brought 
by  an  author  against  a  reviewer  for  a  severe  critique  upon  his  work,  was  de- 
termined in  favor  of  the  defendant,  on  the  principle  that  criticism,  however 
sharp,  if  just  and  not  malicious,  is  allowable.  See  Reviews,  &c. 

CROCKERY.  In  use,  and  made  mention  of,  as  produced  by  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks,  so  early  as  1390  B.  c.  The  Romans  excelled  in  this  kind  of  ware, 
many  of  their  domestic  articles  being  of  earthen  manufacture.  Crockery, 
of  a  fine  kind,  in  various  household  utensils,  was  made  at  Faenza.  in  Italy, 
about  A.  D.  1310;  and  it  is  still  calisd/ayewce  in  French.  See  Earthenware- 


340  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS  f  cm, 

CROWN.  "The  ancientest  mention  of  a  royal  crown  is  in  the  holy  story 
of  the  Araalekites  bringing  Saul's  crown  to  David." — Selden.  The  first  Ro- 
man who  wore  a  crown  was  Tarquin,  616  B.  c.  The  crown  was  first  a  fillet 
tied  round  the  head ;  afterwards  it  was  formed  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and 
also  of  stuffs  adorned  with  jewels.  The  royal  crown  was  first  vorn  in  En- 
gland by  Alfred,  in  A.  D.  872.  The  first  crown  or  papal  cap  was  used  by 
pope  Damasius  II.,  in  1053;  John  XIX.  first  encompassed  it  with  a  crown, 
1276;  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second  crown  in  1295;  and  Benedict  XII,  form- 
ed the  tiara,  or  triple  crown,  about  1334.  The  pope  previously  wore  a  crown 
with  two  circles. — Rainaldi. 

CRUCIFIXION.  A  mode  of  execution  common  among  the  Syrians,  Egyptians, 
Persians.  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews,  and  esteemed  the  most  dreadful  on 
account  of  the  shame  attached  to  it :  it  was  usually  accompanied  by  other 
tortures.  Among  early  acc'ounts  may  be  mentioned,  that  Ariarathes  of  Cap- 
padocia.  when  vanquished  by  Perdiccas,  was  discoveitd  among  the  prison- 
ers ;  and  by  the  conqueror's  orders  the  unhappy  monarch  was  flayed  alive, 
and  then  nailed  to  a  cross,  with  his  principal  officers,  in  the  eighty-first  year 
of  his  age,  322  B.  c.  Crucifixion  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued  by  Constan- 
tine,  A.  D.  330. — Lenglet.  See  Death,  Punishment  of. 

CRUSADES,  OR  HOLY  WARS.  (In  French,  Croisades.)  Undertaken  by  the  Chris- 
tian powers  to  drive  the  infidels  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
called  the  Holy  Land.  They  were  projected  by  Peter  Gautier,  called  Peter 
the  Hermit,  an  enthusiast,  and  French  officer  of  Amiens,  who  had  quitted 
the  military  profession  and  turned  pilgrim.  Having  travelled  to  the  Holy 
Laud,  he  doplored.  on  his  return,  to  pope  Urban  II.  that  infidels  should  be  in 
possession  of  the  famous  city  where  the  author  of  Christianity  first  promul  - 
gated  his  sacred  doctrines.  Urban  convened  a  Council  of  310  bishops  at 
Clermont  in  France,  at  which  the  ambassadors  of  the  chief  Christian  poten- 
tates assisted,  and  gave  Peter  the  fatal  commission  to  excite  all  Europe  to  a 
general  war,  A.  D.  1094.  The  first  crusade  was  published;  an  army  of  300.- 
000  men  was  raised,  and  Peter  had  the  direction  of  it,  1095. —  Voltaire.  The 
holy  warriors  wore  a  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulders,  with  the  name  o( 
Croise"s,  Crossed,  or  Crusaders;  their  motto  was  Volonte  de  Dieu,  "God:s 
will."  The  epidemical  rage  for  crusading  now  agitated  Europe,  and  in  the 
end,  these  unchristian  and  iniquitous  wars  against  the  rights  of  mankind, 
cost  the  lives  of  2  000;000  of  men.—  Voltaire. 

IUB  A .  Discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage,  in  1492.  It  was  conquered 
by  Valasquez,  in  1511,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards.  The  Buccaneer  Mor- 
gan took  Havana  in  1669.  See  Buccaneers.  The  fort  here  was  erected  by 
admiral  Vernon,  in  1741.  Havana  was  taken  by  admiral  Pococke  and  lord 
Albermarle  in  1762.  but  was  restored  at  the  peace,  in  1763.  Attempt  of 
Lopez  and  his  400  followers,  landing  at  Cardenas,  to  stir  up  a  revolution, 
defeated  May,  1850. 

CUBIT.  This  was  a  measure  of  the  ancients,  and  is  the  first  measure  we  reai 
of;  the  ark  of  Noah  was  made  and  measured  by  cubits. — Hollen.  The  Pe- 
brew  sacred  cubit  was  two  English  feet,  and  the  great  cubit  eleven  Eng1  ,sh 
feet.  Originally  it  was  the  distance  from  the  elbow,  bending  inwards  to  ihe 
extremity  of  the  middle  finger. — Col-met. 

CUCUMBERS.  They  grew  formerly  in  great  abundance  in  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  where,  it  is  said,  they  constituted  the  greater  part  of  the  food  of  the 
poor  and  slaves.  This  plant  is  noticed  by  Virgil,  and  other  ancient  poets. 
It  was  brought  to  England  from  the  Netherlands,  about  1538. 
CCLLODEN  BATTLR  OF.  In  which  the  English,  under  William  duke  of  Cum- 
berland, defeated  the  Scottish  rebels  headed  by  the  young  Pretender,  the 
last  of  the  Stuarts,  near  Inverness.  April  16,  1746.  The  Scots  lost  2500  men 


CYC  J 


DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


341 


in  killed  upon  the  field,  or  in  the  slaughter  which  occurred  in  the  pursuit, 
while  the  loss  of  the  English  did  not  far  exceed  200.  The  duke's  army  prac- 
tised great  cruelties  upon  the  vanquished,  as  well  as  upon  the  defenceless 
inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  districts  after  the  battle. — Smollett.  Immediately 
after  the  engagement,  Prince  Charles  sought  safety  by  flight,  and  continued 
wandering  among  the  frightful  wilds  of  Scotland  for  six  months,  while  30.- 
0002.  were  offered  for  taking  him,  and  the  troops  of  the  conqueror  were 
constantly  in  search.  He  at  length  escaped  from  the  Isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix, 
and  died  at  Rome,  in  1788. 

Cl/RACOA.  In  the  Caribbean  Sea,  seized  by  Holland,  in  1634.  In  1800:  th« 
French  having  settled  on  part  of  this  island,  and  becoming  at  variance  with 
the  Dutch,  the  latter  surrendered  the  island  to  *  single  British  frigate.  It 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1802,  and  taken  from  them  by  a 
British  squadron,  in  1807,  and  again  restored  by  the  peace  of  1814. 

CURFEW  BELL.  From  the  French  couvrefeu.  This  wi,s  a  Norman  institu- 
tion, introduced  into  England  in  the  reign  of  William  I.,  A.  D.  1068.  On  the 
ringing  of  the  curfew  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  all  fires  and  candles 
were  to  be  extinguished,  under  a  severe  penalty. — Rapin.  The  curfew  was 
abolished  1  Hen.  I.,  A.  D.  1100. 

CURRANTS.  They  were  brought  from  Zante,  and  the  tree  planted  in  England 
1533.  The  hawthorn  currant-tree  (Ribes  oxyacanthoides)  came  from  Canada 
in  1705. 

CUSTOM.  This  is  a  law,  not  written,  but  established  by  long  usage  and  con- 
sent. By  lawyers  and  civilians  it  is  defined  lex  non  scripta,  and  it  stands 
opposed  to  lex  scripta,  or  the  written  law.  It  is  the  rule  of  law  when  it  is 
derived  from  A.  D.  1189,  downwards.  Sixty  years  is  binding  in  civil  law, 
and  forty  years  in  ecclesiastical  cases. 

CUSTOMS.  They  were  collected  upon  merchandise  in  England,  under  Ethel- 
red  II.,  in  979.  The  king's  claim  to  them  by  grant  of  parliament  was  estab- 
lished 3  Edward  I.,  1274.  The  customs  were  farmed  to  Mr.  Thomas  Smith, 
for  20,0002.  for  several  years,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. — Stowe.  They  were 
farmed  by  Charles  II.  for  390,0002.  in  the  year  1666.— Davenant. 

jei4,ooo 

50,000 
148,000 
168,000 
500,000 
1,555,600 

The  customs  in  Ireland  were,  in  the  year  1224,  viz.,  on  every  sack  of  wool. 
3d. ;  on  every  last  of  hides,  6d. ;  and  2d.  on  every  barrel  of  wine. — Artnals 
of  Dublin.  Custom-house  officers,  and  officers  of  excise,  were  disqualified 
from  voting  for  the  election  of  members  of  parliament,  by  statute  22  George 
III.,  1782.  See  Revenue. 

CUSTOMS  (DUTIES)  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  amounts  collected 
were,  in 

$27,528,113 
-    26,712,668 
23,747.964 
-  31,757,070 
See  Tariff. 

CYCLE.  That  of  the  sun  is  the  twenty-eight  years  before  the  days  of  the 
week  return  to  the  same  days  of  the  month.  That  of  the  moon  is  nineteen 

'  lunar  years  and  seven  intercalary  months,  or  nineteen  solar  years.  The 
cycle  of  Jupiter  is  sixty  years,  or  sexagenary.  The  Paschal  cycle,  or  the 
time  of  keeping  Easter,  was  first  calculated  for  the  period  of  532  years  by 
Victorius,  A.  D.  463. — Blair. 


In  1530  they  amounted  to 

In  1592       ditto 

In  1614       ditto 

In  1622       ditto 

In  1642       ditto 

In  1720       ditto 


In  1748  they  amounted  to 

In  1808       ditto 

In  1823       ditto 

In  1830  United  Kingdom  - 

In  1835       ditto 

In  1840       ditto 


J62,000,00fi 
9,973,240 
11,498,768 
17,540,323 
18,612,906 
19,915,296 


1789-9. 
1800 
1305 
1810  - 
1815 


12,936,487 
8,533,309 
7,282,942 


1820 
1825  - 
1830 
1835  - 
1840 


•15.005,612 

-  20,098,714 
21,922.391 

-  19,39.1,311 
13,499,940 


1845 
1846 
1847. 
1848  - 


342  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  D  us 

CYCLOPEDIA.— See  Encyclopedia. 

CYMBAL.  The  oldest  musical  instrument  of  which  we  have  certain  record 
It  was  made  of  brass,  like  a  kettle  drum,  and  some  think  in  the  same  form, 
but  smaller.  Xenophon  makes  mention  of  the  cymbal  as  a  musical  instru- 
ment, whose  invention  is  attributed  to  Cybele.  by  whom,  we  are  told,  it  was 
used  in  her  feasts,  called  the  mysteries  of  Cybele,  about  1580  B.  c.  Tho 
festivals  of  Cybele  were  introduced  by  Scamander,  with  the  dances  of  Cory- 
bantes,  at  Mount  Ida,  1546  B.  c. 

CYNICS.  The  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Antisthenes,  396  B.  c. — Diog. 
L<iert.  He  lived  in  the  ninety-fourth  Olympiad. — Pardon.  These  philoso- 
phers valued  themselves  for  contemning  all  worldly  things,  and  even  all 
sciences,  except  morality ;  they  were  very  free  in  reprehending  vice,  and  did 
all  their  actions  publicly,  and  practised  the  greatest  obscenities  without 
blushing. — Idem.  Diogenes  was  one  of  this  sect.  They  generally  slept  on 
the  ground. — Diog.  Laert. 

CYPRUS.  An  island,  w"hose  inhabitants  anciently  were  much  given  to  love 
and  pleasure. — Pliny.  It  was  divided  among  several  petty  kings  till  the 
time  of  Cyrus,  who  subdued  them;  it  ranked  among  the  proconsular  pro- 
vinces in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Conquered  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D.  648;  but 
recovered  by  the  Romans,  in  957.  Cyprus  was  reduced  by  Richard  I.  of 
England,  in  1191.  Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Venetians,  in  1670. — 
Priestley. 

CYRENAIC  SECT.  Aristippus  the  Elder,  of  Cyrene,  was  the  founder  of 
the  Cyrenaici,  392  B.  c.  They  maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  supreme 

food  of  man  in  this  life  is  pleasure,  and  particularly  pleasure  of  a  sensual 
ind ;  and  said  that  virtue  ought  to  be  commended  because  it  gave  pleasure, 
and  only  so  far  as  it  conduced  thereto.    The  sect  flourished  for  several  ages. 
— Laer.  Ar.  Cicero. 

CYRENE.  Founded  by  Battus,  630  B.  c.  Aristaeus,  who  was  the  chief  of  the 
colonists  here,  gave  the  city  his  mother's  name.  It  was  also  called  Pentap- 
olls,  on  account  of  its  five  towns,  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptolemais,  Berenice,  Apol- 
lonia,  and  Arsinoe.  Cyrene  was  left  by  Ptolemy  Apion  to  the  Romans,  97 
B.  c.  It  is  now  a  desert. — Priestley. 

CZAR,  From  Caesar,  a  title  of  honor  assumed  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia. 
Ivan  Basilowitz.  after  having  achieved  great  triumphs  over  the  Tartars,  and 
made  many  conquests,  pursued  them  to  the  centre  of  their  own  country,  and 
returning  in  triumph,  took  the  title  of  Tzar,  or  Czar  (signifying  Great  King). 
-r-Aspiris  Ckron.  The  courts  of  Europe  consented  to  address  the  Russian 
Czar  by  the  title  of  Emperor  in  1722. — Idem. 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE.  The  name  given  to  a  process  invented  by  M.  Daguerre  o. 
Paris,  in  1839.  by  which  perfect  fac-similes  of  objects  are  transferred  upon 
thin  copper  plates,  plated  with  silver.  The  images  are  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  light  upon  the  iodine,  through  the  focus  of  the  camera  obscura.  Ac. 
apparatus  somewhat  kindled- in  design,  was  in  contemplation  about  the  same 
time  by  M.  Niepce",  and  about  5  years  previously  by  Henry  Fox  Talbot  of  Lon- 
don :  the  original  idea,  however,  is  traceable  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  Roger 
Bacon.  By  means  of  the  Talbotype.  a  recent  improvement  upon  the  above 
process,  pictures  in  colors  are  produced  both  on  paper  and  plates.  So  im- 
portant a  discovery  in  the  fine  arts,  was  the  Daguerreotype  deemed  by  the 
French  government,  that  it  awarded  to  its  inventor  a  life  pen>ion  of  GOOQ 
francs. 


LAR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  343 

DAMASCUS.  This  city  was  in  being  in  the  time  of  Ahraham. — Gen.  xiv.  It 
is,  consequently,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  From  the  Assyrians, 
Damascus  passed  to  the  Persians,  and  from  them  to  the  Greeks  under  Alex- 
ander ;  and  afterwards  to  the  Romans,  about  70  B.  c.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  A.  D.  633;  by  the  Turks  in  1006;  and  was  destroyed  by  Tamerlane 
in  1400.  It  was  in  a  journey  to  this  place  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  miracu- 
lously converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  here  he  began  to  preach  the 
gospel,  about  A.  D.  SO.  Damascus  is  now  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pacha  lie. 

DAMASK  LINENS  AND  SILKS.  They  were  first  manufactured  at  Damascus, 
and  hence  the  name,  their  large  fine  figures  representing  flowers,  and  being 
raised  above  the  groundwork.  They  were  beautifully  imitated  by  the 
Dutch  and  Flemish  weavers;  and  the  manufacture  was  brought  to  England 
by  artisans  who  fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  between 
the  years  1571  and  1573. — Anderson. 

I  AMON  AND  PYTHIAS.  Pythagorean  philosophers.  When  Damon  was  con- 
demned  to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  he  obtained  leave  to 
go  and  settle  some  domestic  affairs,  on  a  promise  of  returning  at  the  t>  ppoint- 
ed  time  of  execution,  and  Pythias  being  surety  for  the  performance  of  his 
engagement.  When  the  fatal  hour  approached,  Damon  had  not  appeared, 
and  Pythias  surrendered  himself,  and  was  led  away  to  execution ;  but  at 
this  critical  moment  Damon  returned  to  redeem  his  pledge.  Dionysius  was 
so  struck  with  the  fidelity  of  these  friends,  that  he  remitted  the  sentence, 
and  entreated  them  to  permit  him  to  share  their  friendship,  387  B.  c. 

DANCING.  The  dance  to  the  measure  of  time  was  invented  by  the  Curetes, 
1534  B.  c. — Eusebius.  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  united  the  dance  to 
their  tragedies  and  comedies.  Pantomimic  dances  were  first  introduced  on 
the  Roman  stage.  22  B.  c. —  Usher.  Dancing  by  cinque  paces  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Italy  A.  D.  1541.  In  modern  times,  the  French  were  the 
first  who  introduced  ballets  analogues  in  their  musical  dramas.  The  country 
dance  (contre-danse)  is  of  French  origin,  but  its  date  is  not  precisely  known. 
— Spelman. 

DANES,  INVASIONS  OF  THE.  The  invasions  of  this  people  were  a  scourge  to 
England  for  upwards  of  two  hundred  years.  During  their  attacks  \ipon 
Britain  and  Ireland,  they  made  a  descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,  under 
Rollo,  they  received  presents  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They  returned  and 
ravaged  the  French  territories  as  far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked  Italy 
in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the  king  of  France  to  Rollo  and  his  Nor- 
mans (Northmen),  hence  Normandy,  in  912. 

DANTZIC.  A  commercial  city  in  A.  D.  997. — Buscking.  It  was  built,  accord- 
ing to  other  authorities,  by  Waldemar  I.  in  1169.  Seized  by  the  king 
of  Prussia,  and  annexed  to  his  dominions  in  1793.  It  surrendered  to  the 
French  after  a  siege  of  four  months,  May  5.  1807 ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Til- 
sit, it  was  restored  to  its  former  independen  je,  under  the  protection  of 
Prussia  and  Saxony.  Dantzic  was  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1812 ;  and  after 
a  gallant  resistance,  surrendered  to  them  Jan.  1. 1814.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris 
it  again  reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  Awful  inundation  here,  owing  to 
the  Vistula  breaking  through  its  dykes,  by  which  10.000  head  of  cattle 
and  4,000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  a  vast  number  of  lives  lost,  April  9, 
1829. 

DARDANELLES.  PASSAGE  OP  THE.  The  Dardanelles  are  two  castles,  one  called 
Sestos,  seated  in  Romania,  the  other  called  Abydos,  in  Natolia,  commanding 
the  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli.  They  were  built  by  the  emperor 
Mahomet  IV.,  in  1659,  and  were  named  Dardanelles  from  the  contiguous 
to<rn  of  Dardanus.  The  gallant  exploit  of  forcing  1  he  passage  of  the  Dar 


344  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  DBA 

;  danelles  was  achieved  by  the  British  squadron  under  admiral  sir  John 
Duckworth,  Feb.  19,  1807 ;  but  the  admiral  was  obliged  to  repass  them, 
which  he  did  with  great  loss  and  immense  damage  to  the  fleet,  March  2, 
following,  the  castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  rocks  of  stone, 
each  of  many  tons  weight,  upon  the  decks  of  the  British  ships. 

DAUPHIN.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France,  from 
the  province  of  Dauphine".  which  was  ceded  by  its  last  prince,  Humbert  II. 
to  Philip  of  Valois,  on  the  condition  that  the  heirs  of  the  French  throne 
should  bear  the  arms  and  name  of  the  province,  A.  D.  1343. — Priestley. 

HA.  VIS'S  STRAIT.  Discovered  by  the  English  navigator,  John  Davis,  whose 
name  it  bears,  or.  his  voyage  to  find  a  North-west  passage,  in  1585. 

DAY.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the  northern  nations,  and  at  sun- 
set among  tha  Athenians  and  Jews.  Among  the  Romans  day  commenced 
at  midnight,  as  it  now  does  among  us.  The  Italians  in  most  places,  at  the 
present  time,  reckon  the  day  from  sunset  to  sunset,  making  their  clocks 
strike  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  dividing  the  day.  as  is  done  in  all 
other  countries,  into  equal  portions  of  twelve  hours.  This  mode  is  but  par- 
tially used  in  the  larger  towns  of  Italy,  most  public  clocks  in  Florence.  Rome, 
and  Milan,  being  set  to  the  hour  designated  on  French  or  English  clocks. 
The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  Our  civil 
day  is  distinguished  from  the  astronomical  day,  which  begins  at  noon,  and  is 
the  mode  of  reckoning  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanac.  At  Rome,  day  and 
night  were  first  divided  in  time  by  means  of  water-clocks,  the  invention  of 
Scipio  Nasica,  158  B.  c. —  Vossius  tie  Scien.  Math. 

DEACON.  An  order  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  which  took  its  rise  from  the 
institution  of  seven  deacons  by  the  Apostles,  which  number  was  retained  a 
long  period  in  many  churches,  about  A.  D.  61.  See  Acts,  chap.  vi.  The 
original  deacons  were  Philip,  Stephen.  Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parme- 
nos,  and  Nicolas.  The  qualifications  of  a  deacon  are  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul,  1st  Timothy  iii.  8-13. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb 
was  made  by  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  about  A.  D.  1570. 
Bonet,  who  was  also  a  monk,  published  a  system  at  Madrid,  in  1620.  Dr. 
Wallis  published  a  work  in  England  on  the  subject,  in  1650.  The  first 
regular  academy  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Great  Britain  was  opened  in 
Edinburgh  in  1773. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB,  BLIND,  AND  INSANE  PERSONS,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
In  1840  there  were  6916  blind  persons,  or  1  in  2467  of  the  population; 
7.659  deaf  and  dumb,  or  1  in  2  228;  17,434  insane  and  idiotic,  or  1  in  979. 
There  were  in  the  United  States  23  asylums  for  the  insane,  with  about 
2,840  patients. 

Among  the  most  prominent  and  successful  of  the  philanthropists  who  have 
promoted  the  education  and  good  treatment  of  the  above  persons  in  the 
United  States  are  Dr.  Amariah  Brigham,  of  Hartford;  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  of 
Boston ;  Rev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet  Hartford. 

DEATH.  P-JNisHMENT  op.  Death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire  was  a  punish- 
ment among  the  Britons  before  450  B.  c.—Stowe.  The  most  eulogized 
heroes  of  antiquity  inflicted  death  by  crucifixion,  and  even  women  suffered 
on  the  cross,  the  victims  sometimes  living  in  the  most  excruciating  torture 
many  days.  A  most  horrifying  instance  of  death  by  torture  occurs  in  the 
fate  of  Mithiidates.  an  assassin  of  Xerxes.  See  a  note  to  the  article  Persia; 
see  also  RaviUac ;  Boiling  to  Death ;  Burning  to  Death.  &c.  Maurice,  the 
son  of  a  nobleman  was  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  for  piracy,  the  first 
et'.'cution  in  that  manner  in  England  25  Henry  III.,  1241.  The  punishment 


DEL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 

of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great  number  of  cases  by  Mr.  Peel's  acts,  1624-9 
in  other  cases  1832.  for  forg-ery  1837.  Capital  punishment,  except  in  case» 
of  martial  law,  abolished  by  Prussia,  and  by  German  parliament,  at  Frank- 
fort, same  day,  August  4,  1848. 

DECEMBER.  In  the  year  of  Romulus  this  was  the  tenth  month  of  the 
year,  called  so  from  deccm.  ten,  the  Romans  commencing  their  year  ia 
March.  Numa  introduced  January  and  February  before  the  latter  month, 
in  71  •  B.  c.,  and  from  thenceforward  December  became  the  twelfth  of  the 
year 

DKCEMVTRI.  Ten  magistrates,  who  were  chosen  annually  at  Rome  to  go- 
vern the  commonwealth  instead  of  consuls;  first  instituted  450  B.  c. — Livy, 
The  decemviral  power  became  odious  on  account  of  their  tyranny,  and  the 
attempt  of  Appius  Claudius  to  defile  Virginia,  and  the  office  was  abolished, 
the  people  demanding  from  the  senate  to  burn  the  decemviri  alive.  Con- 
suls were  again  appointed,  and  tranquillity  restored. — See  Virginia. 

DEEDS.  They  were  formerly  written  in  the  Latin  and  French  languages :  the 
earliest  known  instance  of  the  English  tongue  having  been  used  in  deeds,  is 
that  of  the  indenture  between  the  abbot  and  convent  of  Whitby,  and  Robert, 
the  son  of  John  Bustard,  dated  at  York,  in  the  year  1343.  The  English 
tongue  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law  pleadings  in  1364.  Ordered  to  be 
used  in  all  law-suits  in  May,  1731. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH.  Fidei  Defensor.  A  title  conferred  by  Leo  X. 
on  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  The  king  wrote  a  tract  in  behalf  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  then  accounted  Domicilium  fidei  CatlwliccE,  and  against  Luther, 
who  had  just  begun  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  upon  which  the  pope  gave 
him  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,  a  title  still  retained  by  the  monarchs 
of  Great  Britain:  the  bull  conferring  it  bears  date  Oct.  9.  1521. 

DEGREES.  The  first  attempt  to  determine  the  length  of  a  degree  ia  recorded 
as  having  been  made,  by  Eratosthenes,  about  250  B.  c. — Snellius.  The  first 
degree  of  longitude  was  fixed  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice  (by  whom  the  latitude 
was  determined  also),  at  Ferro.  one  of  the  Canary  islands,  whose  most  west- 
ern point  was  made  the  first  general  meridian.  162  B.  c.  Several  nations 
have  fixed  their  meridian  from  places  connected  with  their  own  territories ; 
and  thus  the  English  compute  their  longitude  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich. See  Latitude,  Longitude,  and  the  various  Collegiate  degrees. 

DEISM.  This  denomination  was  first  assumed  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  by  some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy,  in  order  thus  to 
disguise  their  opposition  to  Christianity  by  a  more  honorable  appellation 
than  that  of  Atheism. —  Virot's  Instruction  Ckretienne.  1563.  Deism  is  a 
rejection  of  all  manner  of  revelation :  its  followers  go  merely  by  the  light 
of  nature,  believing  that  there  is  a  God  a  providence,  vice  and  virtue,  and 
an  after  state  of  punishments  and  rewards :  it  is  sometimes  called  free-think- 
ing. The  first  deistical  writer  of  any  note  in  England,  was  Herbert,  baron 
of  Cherbury,  in  1624.  The  most  distinguished  deists  were  Hobbes,  Tindal, 
Morgan,  lord  Bolingbroke,  Hume.  Holcroft.  and  Godwin. 

DELAWARE.  The  smallest  of  the  U.  States  except  R.  Island.  First  settled 
in  1630  by  the  Swedes  and  Fins  under  the  patronage  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
and  received  the  name  of  New  Sweden.  They  were  subdued  in  1655  by  the 
Dutch,  who  in  turn  surrendered  it.  with  New  Netherlands,  to  the  English  in 
1664  and  then  named  Delaware.  The  duke  of  York  granted  it  to  Wm. 
Penn,  in  1682,  and  it  remained  nominally  united  to  Pennsylvania  until  1775. 
This  state  bo-e  an  honorable  part  in  the  revolution,  and  suffered  much  in 
the  struggle.  She  adopted  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  by  a  unanimous 
15* 


346  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  DE» 

Tote  iu  convention,  Dec.  3,  1787.     Population,—  1790,  59.J94;  1840,  78,085; 
including  2,605  slaves. 

DELHI.  The  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire:  :t  is  now  in  decay,  but 
contained  a  million  of  inhabitants,  in  1700.  In  17l>8,  when  Nadir  Shah 
invaded  Hindoostan,  he  entered  Delhi,  and  dreadful  massacres  and  famine 
followed :  100  000  of  the  inhabitants  perished  by  the  sword ;  and  plunder  to 
the  amount  of  62,000,000^.  sterling  was  said  to  be  collected. 

DELPHI.  Celebrated  for  its  oracles  delivered  by  Pythia,  in  the  temple  ol 
Apollo,  which  was  built,  some  say,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyous, 
1263  B.C.  The  priestess  delivered  the  answer  of  the  god  to  such  as  came 
to  consult  the  oracle,  and  was  supposed  to  be  suddenly  inspired.  The  tem- 
ple was  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidae,  548  B.  c.  A  new  temple  was  raised  by  the 
Alcmaeonidae.  and  was  so  rich  in  donations  that  at  one  time  it  was  plundered 
by  the  people  of  Phocis  of  20:000  talents  of  gold  and  silver;  and  Nero  car- 
ried from  it  500  costly  statues.  The  first  Delphic,  or  sacred  war,  concerning 
the  temple  was  449  B.C.  The  second  sacred  war  was  commenced  c »  Delphi 
being  attacked  by  the  Phocians,  356  B.  c. — Du  Fresnoy. 

DELUGE,  THE  GENERAL.  The  deluge  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the 
world  1536 ;  and  it  began  Dec.  7.  1656,  and  continued  377  days.  The  ark 
rested  on  Mount  Ararat.  May  6,  1657 ;  and  Noah  left  the  ark,  Dec.  18,  follow- 
ing. The  year  corresponds  with  that  of  2348  B.  c. — Blair.  The  following 
are  the  epochs  of  the  deluge,  according  to  the  table  of  Dr.  Hales. 


Sepiuagint  B.C.  8246 
Jackson  -  3170 
Hales  -  .  3155 
Josephus  -  3146 


Persian  -  B.  c.  3103 
Hindoo  -  -3102 
Samaritan  -  -  2998 
Howard  -  -  2698 


Playfair  -  B.  c.  2352 
Usher  -  -  2348 
English  Bible  •  2348 
Marsham  •  -2344 


Petavhis  -  B.  c.  2329 
Siraucliuis  -  2293 
Hebrew  -  -  2288 
Vulgar  Jewish  2104 


Some  of  the  states  of  Europe  were  alarmed,  we  are  told,  by  the  prediction 
(!)  that  another  general  deluge  would  occur,  and  arks  were  everywhere  built 
to  guard  against  the  calamity;  but  the  season  happened  to  be  a  very  fine 
dry  one,  A.  D.  1524. 

DELUGE  OF  DEUCALION.  The  fabulous  one,  is  placed  1503  B.  c.  according 
to  Eusebivs.  This  flood  has  been  often  confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the 
general  flood :  but  it  was  845  years  posterior  to  that  event,  and  was  merely 
a  local  inundation,  occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Pineus.  whose 
course  was  stopped  by  an  earthquake  between  the  Mounts  Olympus  and 
Ossa.  Deucalion,  who  then  reigned  in  Thessaly,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  and 
some  of  their  subjects,  saved  themselves  by  climbing  up  Mount  Parnassus. 

DELUGE  OP  OGYGES.  In  the  reign  of  Ogyges  was  a  deluge  which  so  inun- 
dated the  territories  of  Attica  that  they  lay  waste  for  near  200  years ;  it 
occurred  before  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  about  1764  B.  c. — Blair.  Bnffon 
thinks  that  the  Hebrew  and  Grecian  deluges  were  the  same,  and  arose  from 
the  Atlantic  and  Bosphorus  bursting  into  the  valley  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA  AND  ESSEQUIBO.  These  colonies,  founded  by  the  Dutch,  were 
taken  by  the  British.  1796  but  were  restored  at  the  peace  of  1802.  Demarara 
and  Essequibo  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general  Grinfield  and 
commodore  Hood,  Sept.  20,  1803.  They  are  now  fixed  English  colonies. 

DENMARK.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  kingdom  were  the  Cimbri 
and  the  Tcutoncs,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones 
Bottled  in  Germany  and  Gaul ;  the  Cimbrians  invaded  Italy,  where  they  were 
defeated  by  Marius.  The  peninsula  of  Jutland  obtains  its  name  from  the 
Jutes ;  and  the  general  name  of  Denmark  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
Dan,  the  founder  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  and  mark,  a  German  word  signi- 
fying country,  i.  e.  Dan-mark,  the  country  of  Dan. 


DEN 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


347 


DENMARK,  continited. 

Reign  of  Sciold,  first  king          -    B.  c.     60 

The  Danish  chronicles  mention  18  kinss 
to  the  time  of  Radnor  Lodbrog  -  A.  D.  750 

[Ragnor  is  killed  in  an  attempt  to  )•:- 
vade  England,  and  for  more  thai  1200 
years  from  this  time  the  Danes  were 
a  terror  to  the  northern  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, and  at  length  conquering  all 
England.  See  Dares.] 

Reisn  of  Canute  the  Great        -  -  1014 

Reiin  of  VValdemar  the  Great       -      -  1157 

Waldemar  II.,  with  a  fleet  of  1000  sail, 
makes  immense  conquests  -  -  1223 

Gothland  conquered  -  -      -  1347 

Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  are 
united  into  one  kingdom  -  •  1397 

Revolt  of  the  Swedes  -  -      -1414 

The  nations  reunited      ...  1439 

Copenhagen  made  the  capital        -      -  1440 

Accession  of  Christian  I.,  from  whom 
the  present  royal  family  springs  •  1448 

Christian  II.  is  deposed,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  Sweden  acknowledged  -  1523 

Lutheranism  established  by  Christian 
III. 1536 

Danish  East  India  Company  established 
by  Christian  IV.  -  -  -  -1612 

Christian  IV.  chosen  head  of  the  Pro- 
testant league  ....  1629 

Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  invades 
Denmark,  besieges  Copenhagen,  and 
makes  large  conquests  •  •  1658 

The  crown  made  hereditary  and  abso- 
lute   1660 

Frederick  IV.  takes  Holstein.  Sleswick, 
Tonningen,  and  Stralsund ;  reduces 
Weismar,  and  drives  the  Swedes  out 
of  Norway  -  -  1716  et  seq. 

Copenhagen  destroyed  by  a  5re  which 
consumes  1650  houses,  5  churches,  the 
university,  and  4  colleges  -  -  1728 

The  peaceful  reign  of  Christian  VI., 
who  promotes  the  happiness  of  his 
subjects  ....  1730 

Christian  VII.  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  sud- 
denly confines  his  queen,  Caroline 
Matilda,  sister  of  George  III.  who  is 
afterwards  banished.  See  ZellJan.  18, 1772 

KINGS  OP 

A.  D  714  Gormo  I. 

750  Ragnor  Lodbrog. 
770  Siaefrid. 
801  Godefrid. 
809  Olaus  I. 

811  Hemming. 

812  Si  ward  and  Ringon,  killed  in  a  sea-fight. 
814  Harold  and  Regner;  the  latter  made 

prisoner  in  Ireland,  and  died  in  a 

dungeon  there. 
849  Siward  Il.deposed. 
856  Eric  ;  killed  in  battle 
858  Eric  II. 
873  Canute  I. 
915  Frothon 
920  Gormo  II. 
925  Harold. 
928  Hardicanute 
930  Gormo  III. 
935  Harold  in. 
960  Suenon. 


The  counts  Struensee  ad  Brandt  an 
seized  at  the  same  timt  on  the  charge 
of  a  criminal  intercourse  with  the 
queen;  and  the  former  confessing  to 
avoid  the  torture,  both  are  beheaded 
for  high  treason  -  April  28,  1772 

The  queen  Caroline  Matilda  dies  at 
Zell  -  -  -  May  10. 1773 

Christian  VII.  becomes  denuvjcd,  and 
prince  Frederick  is  appointed  regent  1794 

One-fourth  of  Copenl  agen  is  destroy  sd 
by  fire  -  -  -  June  9  1736 

Admirals  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard 
Copenhagen,  and  engage  the  Danish 
fleet,  taking  or  destroying  13  ships  of 
the  line,  of  whose  crews  1SOO  are  kill- 
ed. The  Confederacy  of  the  North 
(see  Armed  Neutrality)  is  thus  dis- 
solved -  -  -  April  2, 1801 

Admiral  Gambier  and  Lord  Cathcart 
bombard  Copenhagen,  and  seize  the 
Danish  fleet  01  I?  shins  of  the  line,  15 
fi  eates,  and  37  brigs,  &c.  -  Sept.  7,  1807 

Pomerania  and  Rugen  are  annexed  to 
Denmark,  in  exchange  for  Norway  •  1814 

Commercial  treaty  with  England        -  1824 

Frederick  bestows  a  new  constitution 
on  his  kingdom  -  -  •  1831 

A  new  constitution  offered  by  Christian 
VIII.  -  -  Jan.  20,  1848 

Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  de- 
mand separation  from  Denmark 

March,  1848 

The  king  grants  freedom  of  the  press 
and  of  public  meetings  •  March,  1848 

Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  re- 
volt and  join  the  great  German  na- 
tion March  26, 1848 

Prussia  aids  the  duchies,  and  re-organ- 
izes the  Grand  Duchy  of  Posen 

March  26, 1848 

Danes  victorious  over  the  Germans, 
April  10:  but  driven  out  of  Schleswig 

April  23, 1848 

Truce  agreed  upon  (provisional  govern- 
ment of  5  to  rule  the  duchies  mean- 
while) -  -  -  July  10, 1848 

Armistice  till  March  1, 1849,  signed  Aug.  1848 
(See  Copenhagen.) 

DENMARK. 

1014  Canute  II.  the  Great. 

1036  Hardicanute  II. 

1041  Magnus  I. 

1048  Suenon  II. 

1079  Harold  IV. 

1060  Canute  III.  assassinated. 

1066  Olaus  II. 

1097  Eric  III. 

1 106  Nicholas,  killed  in  Sleswick. 

1135  Eric  IV.,  killed  at  Ripen. 

1138  Eric  V. 

1147  Suenon  III.,  beheaded  by  Waldcnar 

for  assassinating  prince  Canute. 
1157  Waldemar  the  Great. 
1182  Canute  V. 
1202  Waldemar  II 
1240  Eric  VI. 
1250  Abel  I.,  killed  in  an  expedition  again* 

the  Prisons. 
1252  Christopher  I.,  jioLsoned  by  the  bwhop 

of  Arhus. 


348 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


DU 


15U3  Frederick. 

1334  Christian  III. 

1559  Frederick  II. 

1588  Christian  IV. 

IMS  Frederick  III. 

1670  Christian  V. 

1699  Frederick  IV. 

1730  Christian  VI. 

1746  Frederick  V. 

1766  Christian  VII. 

1808  Frederic  VI. 

1839  Christian  VIII.  died  Jan.  a,  164& 


DENMARK,  continued. 

1259  Eric  VII.  assassinated. 

1286  Eric  VIII. 

1319  Christopher  II.    (An  interregnum  of 

seven  years.) 
1340  Waldemar  IIL 
1375  Olaus  III. 
1375  Margaret  I.,  queen  of  Denmark  and 

Norway. 

1411  Eric  IX.,  abdicated. 
1439  Christopher  HI. 

1448  Christian  I.  of  the  house  of  Oldenburgh. 
1481  John. 
1513  Christian  II.,  confined  27  years  in  a 

dungeon,  where  he  died. 

PENIS,  ST.  An  ancient  town  of  France,  six  miles  Irom  Paris  to  the  north- 
ward, the  last  stage  on  the  road  from  England  to  that  capital, — famous  foi 
its  abbey  and  church,  the  former  abolished  at  the  Revolt  ion;  the  lattei 
desecrated  at  the  same  epoch,  after  having  been  the  appointed  place  ol 
sepulture  to  the  French  kings,  from  its  foundation  by  Dagobert,  in  613. 

:  DEVIL  AND  DR.  FAUSTUS."  Faustus,  one  of  the  earliest  printers,  had  the 
policy  to  conceal  his  art,  and  to  this  policy  we  are  indebted  for  the  tradition 
of  "  The  Devil  and  Dr.  Faustus."  Faustus  associated  with  John  of  Gut- 
temberg;  their  types  were  cut  in  wood,  and  fixed,  not  movable,  as  at 
present.  Having  printed  off  numbers  of  copies  of  the  Bible,  to  imitate 
those  which  were  commonly  sold  in  MS.,  he  undertook  the  sale  of  them  at 
Paris,  where  printing  was  then  unknown.  As  he  sold  his  copies  for  sixty 
crowns,  while  the  scribes  demanded  five  hundred,  he  created  universal  as- 
tonishment ;  but  when  he  produced  copies  as  fast  as  they  were  wanted,  and 
lowered  the  price  to  thirty  crowns,  all  Paris  was  agitated.  The  uniformity 
of  the  copies  increased  the  wonder ;  informations  were  given  to  the  police 
against  him  as  a  magician,  and  his  lodgings  being  searched,  and  a  great 
number  of  copies  being  found,  they  were  seized.  The  red  ink  with  which 
they  were  embellished  was  supposed  to  be  his  blood,  and  it  was  seriously 
adjudged  that  he  was  in  league  with  the  devil ;  and  if  he  had  not  fled,  he 
would  have  shared  the  fate  of  those  whom  superstitious  judges  condemned 
in  those  days  for  witchcraft,  A.  D.  1460.  Nouv.  Diet.  See  Printing. 

DIADEM.  The  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the  ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and 
which  was  consecrated  to  the  gods.  At  first,  this  fillet  was  made  of  silk  or 
wool,  and  set  with  precious  stones,  and  was  tied  round  the  temples  and 
forehead,  the  two  ends  being  knotted  behind,  and  let  fall  on  the  neck. 
Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman  emperor  who  wore  a  diadem,  A.  D.  272. — 
Tillemant. 

DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  B.  c. — Pliny.  The  first  dial  of  the 
sun  seen  at  Rome,  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Quirinus  by  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  when  time  was  divided  into  hours,  293  B.  c. — Blair.  In  the  times 
of  the  emperors  almost  every  palace  and  public  building  had  a  sun-dial. 
They  were  first  set  up  in  churches  in  A.  D.  613. — Lengkt. 

DIAMONDS.  They  were  first  brought  to  Europe  from  the  East,  where  the 
mine  of  Sumbulpour  was  the  first  known ;  and  where  the  mines  of  Golconda 
were  discoverd  in  1584.  This  district  may  be  termed  the  realm  of  diamonds. 
The  mines  of  Brazil  were  discovered  in  1728.  From  these  last  a  diamond, 
weighing  1680  carats,  or  fourteen  ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Portugal, 
and  was  valued  by  M.  Romeo  de  1'Isle  at  the  extravagant  sum  of  224  mil- 
lions ;  by  others  it  was  valued  at  fifty-six  millions :  its  value  was  next  stated 
to  be  three  millions  and  a  half;  but  its  true  value  is  400.000J.  The  diamond 
called  the  "  mountain  of  light,"  which  belonged  to  the  king  of  C  bul,  was 
the  most  superb  gem  ever  seen :  it  was  of  the  finest  water,  and  the  size  of 


0IBJ  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  349 

an  egg,  and  was  also  valued  at  three  millions  and  a  h.ilf.  The  great  dia- 
mond of  the  emperor  of  Russia  weighs  193  carats,  or  1  oz.  12  dwt.  4  gr., 
troy.  The  empress  Catharine  II.  offered  for  it  104.166Z.  besides  an  annuity 
for  life,  to  the  owner,  of  1041i.  which  was  refused ;  but  it  was  afterwards 
sold  to  Catharine's  favorite,  count  OrlofF,  for  the  first  mentioned  sum,  with- 
out the  annuity,  and  was  by  him  presented  to  the  empress  on  her  birth- 
day, 1772 ;  it  is  now  in  the  sceptre  of  Russia.  The  Pitt  diamond  weighed 
136  carats,  and  after  cutting  106  carats  ;  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of  France 
for  125 .0001.  in  1720. 

DIANA,  TEMPLE  OP,  AT  EPHESUS.  One  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world, 
built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  States.  The  chief  architect 
was  Ctesiphon  ;  and  Pliny  says  that  220  years  were  employed  in  completing 
this  temple,  whose  riches  were  immense.  It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad, 
and  was  supported  by  127  columns,  (60  feet  high,  each  weighing  150  tons 
of  Parian  marble,)  furnished  by  so  many  kings.  It  wzu  set  on  tire  on  the 
night  of  Alexander's  nativity,  by  an  obscure  individual  named  Eratostratns, 
who  confessed  on  the  rack,  that  the  sole  motive  which  had  prompted  him 
to  destroy  so  magnificent  an  edifice,  was  the  desire  of  transmitting  his  name 
to  future  ages,  356  B.  c.  The  temple  was  rebuilt,  and  again  burned  by  the 
Goths,  in  their  naval  invasion,  A.  D.  256,  Univ.  Hist. 

DICTATORS.  These  were  supreme  and  absolute  magistrates  of  Rome,  in 
stituted  498  B.  c..  when  Titus  Larcius  Flavus,  the  first  dictator,  was  ap 
pointed.  This  office,  respectable  and  illustrious  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
Republic,  became  odious  by  the  perpetual  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  J. 
Caesar ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  Roman  senate,  on  the  motion 
of  the  consul  Antony,  passed  a  decree,  which  for  ever  forbade  a  dictator  to 
exist  in  Rome,  44  B.  c. 

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language,  containing 
about  40,000  characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  representations 
somewhat  like  our  signs  of  the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who 
lived  about  1100  B.  c. — Morrison.  Cyclopaedias  were  compiled  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  first  dictionary  of  celebrity,  perhaps 
the  first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini.  a  Venetian  friar,  in  Latin ;  he  wrote  one 
in  eight  languages,  about  A.  D.  1500. — Niceron.  The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton 
was  published  by  Edmund  Castell,  in  1659.  Bayle's  dictionary  was  pub- 
lished in  1696,  "  the  first  work  of  the  kind  in  which  a  man  may  learn  to 
think." — Voltaire.  Chambers'  Cyclopaedia,  the  first  dictionary  of  the  circle 
of  the  arts,  sciences,  &c.,  was  published  in  1728.  The  great  dictionary  of 
the  English  language,  by  Samuel  Johnson,  appeared  in  1755.  Francis 
Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue,  was  compiled  in  1768;  and  from 
this  period  numerous  dictionaries  have  been  added  to  our  store  of  literature. 
Noah  Webster's  great  American  Dictionary  of  the  English  language,  in  two 
quarto  volumes,  was  first  published  at  New  Haven  in  1828.  It  was  re- 
printed in  I  adon,  under  the  supervision  of  E-  H.  Barker,  1832.  Numerous 
abridgments  and  a  new  edition  of  the  whole  work  have  since  b«vn  published. 
See  Encyclopedia. 

DIET  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.  The  supreme  authority  of  this  empire 
may  be  said  to  have  existed  in  the  assemblage  of  princes  under  this  name. 
The  diet,  as  composed  of  three  colleges,  viz. : — the  college  of  electors,  the 
college  of  princes,  and  the  college  of  imperial  towns,  commenced  with 
the  famous  edict  of  Charles  IV.  1356.— See  Golden  Bull.  Diets  otherwise 
constituted  had  long  previously  been  held  on  important  occasions.  The 
diet  of  Wurtzburg,  which  proscribed  Henry  the  Lion,  was  held  in  1179. 
The  celebrated  diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Luther  assisted  in  person,  waa 
held  in  1521.  That  of  Spires,  to  condemn  the  Reformers,  wa?  held  in  1629 


350 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


I 


and  the  famous  t.iet  of  Augsburg,  in  1530.  In  the  league  of  the  German 
princes,  called  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  they  fixed  the  diet  at  Frank- 
fort, July  12,  1806.  A  new  diet  at  Frankfort,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
solidating the  government  of  the  German  States,  1848.  See  Germany, 

IHEU  ET  MON  DffOIT,  "God  and  my  right."  This  was  the  panic  ot 
the  day,  given  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  to  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors, 
in  France.  In  this  battle  (which  see)  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated ; 
and  in  remembrance  of  this  victory,  Richard  made  "  Dieu  et  man  droit" 
the  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of  England,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  retained 
A.  D.  1198. — Rymer's  Fadera. 

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws  under  this  title  was  prepared 
by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  civilian  of  Cremona,  66  B.C. — Quintil.  Jnst.  Orat. 
Other  digests  of  Roman  laws  followed.  The  Digest,  so  called  by  way  of 
eminence,  was  the  collection  of  laws  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian :  it  made  the  first  part  of  the  Roman  law,  and  the  first  volume  of  the 
civil  law.  Quotations  from  it  are  marked  with  a  ff. — Pardon, 

DIOCESE.  The  first  division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  dioceses,  which  were 
at  that  period  civil  governments,  is  ascribed  to  Constantine.  A.  D.  323  ;  but 
Strabo  remarks  that  the  Romans  had  the  departments  called  dioceses  long 
before. — Slrabo,  lib.  xiii.  In  England  these  circuits  of  the  bishops'  juris- 
diction are  coeval  with  Christianity ;  there  are  twenty-four  dioceses,  of 
which  twenty-one  are  suffragan  to  Canterbury,  and  three  to  York. 

DIOCLETIAN  ERA.  Called  also  the  era  of  Martyrs,  was  used  by  Christian 
writers  until  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  era  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
is  still  employed  by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  dates  from  the  day  on 
which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Chalcedon,  29th  August,  284. 
It  is  called  the  era  of  martyrs,  on  account  of  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

DIORAMA.  This  species  of  exhibition,  which  had  long  previously  been  an 
object  of  wonder  and  delight  at  Paris,  was  first  opened  in  London,  Sept.  29, 
1823.  The  diorama  differs  from  the  panorama  in  this  respect,  that,  instead 
of  a  circular  view  of  the  objects  represented,  it  exhibits  the  whole  picture 
at  once  in  perspective,  and  it  is  decidedly  superior  both  to  the  panorama 
and  the  cosmorama  in  the  fidelity  with  which  the  objects  are  depicted,  and 
in  the  completeness  of  the  illusion. 


DIPLOMACY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Great  Britain  and  France. 

GREAT   BRITAIN. 

1783  John  Adams. 
1739  Gouv.  Morris,  commissioner. 
1792  Thomas  Pinckney,  ol'S.  C.,  min.  tlen. 
1794  John  Jay,  of  N.  Y.  do! 

1796  Ruius  King,       do.  do. 

1803  James  Monroe,  Va.     )  Jointly, 
1806  Wm.  Pinckney,  Mass.  \  in  1806. 
1808  Wm.  Pinckney,  do.  alone         do. 
1815  John  Quincy  Adams,  Mass.       do. 
1817  Richard  Rush,  Pa.  do. 

1896  Albert  Gallatin,  N.  Y.  do. 

1828  James  Harbour.  Va.  do. 

1830  Lou's  McLane,  Del.  do. 

1831  M.  Van  Buren,  N.  Y.  do. 

1832  Aaror  Vail,  charse  d'affaires. 
183(5  And  Sievenson,  Va.,  minister  plen. 
1841  Edward  Everett,  Mass.  do. 
ISto  Louis  McLi.ie,  Md.                 do. 
1846  Georse  Bancroft,  Mass.          do. 
!849  Abbott  Lawrence,  do.             do. 


List  of  ministers  plenipotentiary  to 


1776  B.  Franklin .  S  l)eane .  &  A.  Lee,  com' rs 
1790  Wm.  Short,  of  Va.,  charge  d'affaires. 
1792  Gouv.  Morris,  N.  J.,  minister  plen. 
1799  James  Munroe,  Va.  do. 

1796  C.  C.  Pinckney,  S  C.          >  ,,. 

1797  E.  Gerry  &  John  Marshall,  \  ao> 
1799  Ol.  Ellsworth,  Patrick  Henry, 

and  W.  Vans  Murray,  do. 
1801  James  A.  Bayard,  Del..  CD. 
1801  R.  R.  Livingston,  N.  Y.  co 
1804  John  Armstrong,  do.  QO. 

1811  Joel   Barlow,   Conn.  Jo. 

1813  Wm.  H.  Crawford,  Geo.        do. 
1615  Albert  Gallatin,   Pa.  do. 

1823  James  Brown,  La.  io. 

1830  Wm.  C.  Rives,  Va.  do. 

1833  Edward  Livinzston,  La.         do. 
1836  I,ewis  Cass,  Midi.  co. 

1844  Wm.  R.  King,  Ala.  do. 

1819  W.  C.  Rives,  Va  da 


DIV  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  351 

DIRECTORY,  THE  CHURCH.  The  book  so  called  was  published  in  England 
at  the  period  of  the  civil  war.  It  was  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of  the  par- 
liament, by  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  with  the  object  that  the 
ministers  might  not  be  wholly  at  a  loss  in  their  devotions  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  There  were  some  general  hints  given, 
which  were  to  be  managed  at  discretion,  for  the  Directory  prescribed  no 
form  of  prayer,  nor  manner  of  external  worship,  nor  enjoined  the  people  to 
make  any  responses,  except  Amen.  The  Directory  was  established  by  an 
ordinance  of  the  parliament  in  1644. — Bishop  Taylor. 

DIRECTORY,  FRENCH.  The  French  Directory  was  installed  at  the  little  Lux- 
embourg, at  Paris,  under  a  new  constitution  of  the  government,  November 
1,  1795,  and  held  the  executive  power  four  years.  It  was  composed  of  five 
members,  and  ruled  in  connection  with  two  chambers,  the  Council  of  An- 
cients and  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  which  see.  Deposed  by  Bonaparte,  who, 
with  C'ambace'res  and  Sie"yes,  became  the  ruling  power  of  France,  the  three 
governing  as  consuls,  the  first  as  chief.  Nov.  9,  1799. 

DISSENTERS.  The  "  Dissenters  "  from  the  Church  of  England  arose  early  in 
the  Reformation,  contending  for  a  more  complete  departure  from  the  Romish 
model*!  of  church  government  and  discipline.  They  were  reproached  with 
the  name  of  Puritans,  on  account  of  the  purity  they  proposed  in  religious 
worship  and  conduct ;  and  the  rigorous  treatment  they  endured  under  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  led  multitudes  of  them  to  emigrate  to  this  country  in 
those  reigns.  The  first  place  of  worship  for  Dissenters  in  England  was 
established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London.  Nov.  20,  1572;  and  now,  in  Lon- 
don alone,  the  number  of  chapels,  meeting-houses,  &c.,  for  all  classes  of  Dis- 
senters, amounts  to  near  200.  The  great  act  for  the  relief  of  Dissenters 
from  civil  and  religious  disabilities,  was  the  statute  passed  9  George  IV. 
c.  17.  By  this  act.  called  the  Corporation  and  Test  Repeal  Act.  so  much  of 
the  several  acts  of  parliament  of  the  preceding  reigns  as  imposed  the  neces- 
sity of  receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for 
certain  offices,  &c.  was  repealed,  May  9,  1828.  Several  other  acts  of  ameli- 
orating effect  have  been  since  passed. 

DIVINATION.  In  the  Scriptures  we  find  mention  made  of  different  kinds  of 
divination  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  most  of  the  ancient  authors.  It  was  re- 
tained in  the  hands  of  the  priests  and  priestesses,  the  magi,  soothsayers, 
augurs,  and  other  like  professors,  till  the  coming  of  Christ,  when  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  and  the  spirit  of  philosophy  banished  such  visionary 
opinions.  The  oracles  of  Delphi  began  1263  B.  c.  Augurs  were  instituted 
by  Numa  at  Rome,  710  B.  c.  See  Augury,  Witchcraft,  fyc. 

DIVING-BELL.  First  mentioned,  though  obscurely,  by  Aristotle,  325,  B.  c. 
The  diving-bell  was  first  used  in  Europe,  A.  D.  1509.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
used  on  the  coast  of  Mull,  in  searching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  before  A.  D.  1669.  Halley  greatly  improved  this  machine,  and  was, 
it  is  said,  the  first  who,  by  means  of  a  diving-bell,  set  his  foot  on  dry  ground 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton  applied  the  condensing-pump  to  force 
down  air.  Mr.  Spalding  and  his  assistants  going  down  in  a  diving-bell  in 
Ireland,  were  drowned,  June  1.  1783.  The  Royal  George  man-of-nar,  which 
was  sunk  off  Portsmouth  in  1782,  was  first  surveyed  by  means  of  a  diving- 
bell,  in  May  1817.  Lately,  and  particularly  in  1840,  it  has  been  employed 
in  sub-marine  surveys.  The  first  diving-bdie  was  the  wife  of  Captain  Mor- 
ris, at  Plymouth,  who  descended  in  one  a  few  years  ago. 

DIVORCES  FOR  ADULTERY.  Of  the  earliest  institution,  both  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  civil  law,  among  the  ancients.  First  put  in  practice  by  Spurius  Car- 
vilius  at  Rome,  231  B.  c. — Blair.  At  this  time  morals  were  so  debased, 
that  3000  prosecutions  for  adultery  were  enrolled.  Divorces  were  attempted 


352  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

to  be  neade  of  more  easy  obtainment  in  England,  in  A.  D.  1539.  The  bill  to 
prevent  women  marrying  their  seducers  was  brought  into  parliament  in 
1801. 

DOCKS  OP  LONDON.  They  are  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  and  finest  con- 
structions of  the  kind,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  in  the  world.  In  Lon- 
don there  are  a  number  of  these  docks,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
principal: — The  West  India  docks,  the  act  for  whose  formation  passed  in 
July  1799;  they  were  commenced  February  3,  1800,  and  were  opened  Aug. 
27,  1802,  when  the  Henry  Addington  West  Indiaman  first  entered  them, 
decorated  with  the  colors  of  the  different  nations  of  Europe.  The  London 
docks  were  commenced  June  26,  1802,  and  were  opened  January  31.  1805. 
The  East  India  docks  were  commenced  under  an  act  passed  July  27,  1803, 
and  were  opened  August  4,  1806.  The  first  stone  of  the  St.  Katherine  docks 
was  laid  May  3,  1827  ;  and  2,500  men  were  daily  employed  upon  them  until 
they  were  opened,  Oct.  25,  1828. 

DOCTOR.  This  rank  was  known  in  the  earliest  times.  Doctor  of  the  church 
was  a  title  given  to  SS.  Athanasius,  Basil.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysos- 
tom,  in  the  Greek  church  ;  and  to  SS.  Jerome,  Augustin,  and  Gregory  the 
Great,  in  the  Romish  church,  A.  D.  373,  et  seq.  Doctor  of  the  law  was  a  title 
of  honor  among  the  Jews.  The  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England, 
8  John,  1207. — Spelman.  Some  give  it  an  earlier  date,  referring  it  to  the 
time  of  the  Venerable  Bede  and  John  de  Beverley.  the  former  of  whom,  it 
is  said,  was  the  first  that  obtained  the  degree  at  Cambridge,  about  A.  D.  725. 
See  Collegiate  Degrees. 

DOCTORS'  COMMONS.  The  college  for  the  professors  of  civil  and  canon  law 
residing  in  the  city  of  London  ;  the  name  of  Commons  is  given  to  this  col- 
lege from  the  civilians  commoning  together  as  in  other  colleges.  Doctors' 
Commons  was  founded  by  Dr.  Henry  Harvey,  whose  original  college  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  great  fire  of  1666,  but  after  some  years  it  was  rebuilt  on  the 
old  site.  The  causes  taken  cognizance  of  here  are,  blasphemy,  divorces, 
bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes,  mortuaries,  probate  of  wills,  &c.  See 
article  Civil  Law. 

DOG.  The  chien  de  berger,  or  the  shepherd's  dog,  is  the  origin  of  the  whole 
race. — Buffon.  Buffon  describes  this  dog  as  being  "  the  root  of  the  tree," 
assigning  as  his  reason  that  it  possesses  from1  nature  the  greatest  share  o/ 
instinct.  The  Irish  wolf-dog  is  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  dog  known  in 
Europe,  if  Irish  writers  be  correct.  Dr.  Gall  mentions  that  a  dog  was  taken 
from  Vienna  to  England ;  that  it  escaped  to  Dover,  got  on  board  a  vessel, 
landed  at  Calais,  and  after  accompanying  a  gentleman  to  Mentz,  returned 
to  Vienna. 

DOG-DAYS.  The  canicular  or  dog-days,  commence  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  end 
on  the  llth  of  August.  Common  opinion  has  been  accustomed  to  regard 
the  rising  and  setting  of  Sirius,  or  the  dog-star,*  with  the  stm,  as  the  cause 
of  excessive  heat,  and  of  consequent  calamities,  instead  of  its  being  viewed 
as  the  sign  when  such  effects  might  be  expected.  The  star  not  only  varie* 
in  its  rising,  in  every  one  year  as  the  latitude  varies,  but  is  always  later  and 
later  every  year  in  all  latitudes,  so  that  in  time  the  star  may.  by  the  same 
rule,  come  to  be  charged  with  bringing  frost  and  snow. — Dr.  Hutton. 

DOGK.    The  title  of  the  duke  of  Venice,  which  state  was  first  governed  by  • 

'  Mathematicians  assert  that  Sirius,  or  the  Dog  Star,  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  fixed  stars; 
and  they  compute  its  distance  from  our  earth  at  2,200,000  millions  of  miles.  They  maintain  that 
a  sound  woulA  net  reach  our  earth  from  Sirius  in  !)0,000  years,  and  that  a  cannon  ball,  flying  with 
it»  usual  velocity  of  480  miles  an  hour,  would  consume  523,211  years  in  its  passage  thesce  *o  our 
globe 


DOR  }  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  353 

prince  so  named.  Anafesto  Paululio,  A.  D.  697.  The  Genoese  revolted  against 
their  count,  and  chose  a  doge  from  among  their  nobility,  and  became  an 
aristocratic  republic,  1030-4.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  marrying 
the  sea,  "the  Adriatic  wedded  to  our  duke,"  was  instituted  in  1173.  and  was 
observed  annually  on  Ascension-day,  until  1797,  when  the  custom  was  dis- 
pensed with.  See  Adriatic. 

DOMINGO,  ST.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  The 
city  was  founded  in  1494.  The  town  of  Port-au-Prince  was  burnt  down,  and 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  revolted  negroes,  in  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec..  1791. 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture  governed  the  island,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
colonists,  after  this  till  1802,  when  he  was  entrapped  by  Bonaparte,  and  died 
in  prison.  His  successor,  Dessalines,  recommended  the  blacks,  by  proclama- 
tion, to  make  a  general  massacre  of  the  whites,  which  was  accordingly  ex- 
ecuted with  horrid  cruelty,  and  2500  were  butchered  in  one  day,  March  20, 
1804.  Dessalines  proclaimed  himself  emperor,  Oct.  8,  1804.  See  Hayti.  in 
which  article  particulars  will  be  found  up  to  the  independence  of  St.  Do- 
mingo;  acknowledged  by  France,  in  April,  1825. 

DOMINICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  This 
island  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
peace  of  1763.  The  French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it  at  the 
subsequent  peace  in  1783.  It  suffered  great  damage  by  a  tremendous  hur- 
i  icane  in  1806 ;  and  several  devastating  hurricanes  have  more  recently 
occurred. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER.  Noting  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days 
of  the  week,  reckoned  as  beginning  on  the  1st  of  January,  are  designated  as 
by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  A.  B,  C.  D,  E;  F,  G;  and  the  one 
of  these  which  denotes  Sunday  is  the  Dominical  letter.  If  the  year  begin 
on  Sunday,  A  is  the  dominical  letter ;  if  it  begin  on  Monday,  that  letter  is 
G ;  if  on  Tuesday,  it  is  F,  and  so  on.  Generally  to  find  the  dominical  letter 
call  New  Year's  day  A,  the  next  day  B,  and  go  on  thus  till  you  come  to  the 
first  Sunday,  and  the  letter  that  answers  to  it  is  the  dominical  letter ;  in  leap 
years  count  two  letters. 

DOMINICANS.  A  religious  order  whose  power  and  influence  were  almost  uni- 
versal. They  were  called  in  France  Jacobins,  and  in  England  Blackfriars, 
and  were  founded  by  St.  Dominick  approved  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215  ;  and 
the  order  was  6onfirmed  by  a  bull  of  Honorius  III.  in  1216.  under  St.  Austin's 
rules,  and  the  founder's  particular  constitutions.  In  1276  the  corporation 
of  London  gave  them  two  whole  streets  by  the  river  Thames,  where  they 
erected  a  large  and  elegant  convent,  and  whence  that  part  is  still  called 
Blackfriars. 

DOOM'S-DAY  OR  DOME'S-DAY  BOOK.  Liber  Judiciarius  vel  Censualu 
Anslite.  A  book  of  the  general  survey  of  England,  commenced  in  the  reign 
of  William  I.  A.  D.  1080.  The  intent  of  this  book  was,  to  be  a  register 
whereby  to  determine  the  right  in  the  tenure  of  estates  ;  and  from  this  book 
the  question  whether  lands  be  ancient  demesne  or  not,  is  sometimes  still 
decided.  The  book  is  still  preserved  in  the  Exchequer,  fair  and  legiblo. 
consisting  of  two  volumes,  a  greater  and  lesser,  wherein  all  the  counties  oi 
England,  except  Northumberland  and  Durham,  are  surveyed.  It  was  fin- 
ished in  A.  D.  1086,  having  been  completed  by  five  justices.  "  This  dome's- 
day  book  was  the  tax-book  of  kinge  William." — Camden.  The  taxes  were 
levied  according  to  this  survey  till  13  Henry  VIII.  1522.  when  a  more  accu- 
rate survey  was  taken,  and  was  called  by  the  people  the  new  Dooni's-day 
book. 

DORIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE.  The  most  ancient  of  the  five,  the  invention 
of  the  Dorians,  a  people  of  Greece.  The  Dorians  also  gave  the  name  to 


354  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

the  Doric  muse.  The  migration  of  this  people  to  the  Peloponnesus  took 
place  1104  B.  c.  They  sent,  in  their  vast  spirit  of  enterprise,  many  colonies 
into  different  places,  which  afterwards  bore  the  same  name  as  their  native 
country. 

DOR1 .  Here  happened  an  awful  inundation  of  the  sea,  A.  D.  1446.  It  arose  in 
the  breaking  down  of  the  dykes ;  and  in  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000 
persons  were  overwhelmed  and  perished ;  and  more  than  100,000  round  Dul- 
lart,  in  Friesland  and  in  Zealand.  In  the  last  two  provinces  upwards  of  800 
villages  were  overflowed,  and  the  tops  of  their  towers  and  steeples  were  for 
ages  after  to  be  seen  rising  out  of  the  water.  Dort  is  famous  for  the  Prot- 
estant synod  held  in  1618 ;  a  general  assembly,  to  which  deputies  were  sent 
from  England,  and  from  all  the  Reformed  churches  in  Europe,  to  settle  the 
differences  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and  Arminius,  princi- 
pally upon  points  '..(  justification  and  grace.  The  synod  condemned  the 
tenets  of  Arni'iius. — Aitzema. 

DOUAY.  IN  FRANCE.  Erected  into  a  university  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who 
founded  here  the  celebrated  college  of  Roman  Catholics,  A.  D.  1569.  Douay 
was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Louis  XIV.  in  person,  in  1667.  It  was 
taken  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1710 ;  and  retaken  by  the  Drench 
next  year.  This  town  gives  its  name  to  the  Catholic  edition  of  th>  Bible, 
which  continues  in  almost  universal  use  by  the  consent  of  the  sucv.essive 
popes  among  the  members  of  that  communion,  as  the  only  English  version 
authorized  by  Catholics  ;  its  text  being  copiously  explained  by  the  notes 
of  Catholic  divines. 

DRACO,  Liws  OF.  Draco,  when  he  exercised  the  office  of  archon,  made  a 
code  of  laws,  which,  on  account  of  their  severity,  were  said  to  be  written 
in  letters  of  blood  :  by  them  idleness  was  punished  with  as  much  severity  as 
murder ;  the  smallest  transgression,  he  said,  deserved  death,  and  he  could 
not  find  any  punishment  more  rigorous  for  more  atrocious  crimes,  623  B.  c.— 
Sigonius  de  Repub.  At/ien. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Plymouth, 
No.  13,  1577.  and  sailing  round  the  globe,  returned  to  England,  after  many 
perilous  adventures.  Nov.  3,  1580.  This  illustrious  seaman  was  vioe-admiral 
under  lord  Howard,  high-admiral  of  England,  in  the  memorable  conflict 
with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July  19,  1688.  His  expeditions'  and  victories  over 
the  Spaniards  have  been  equalled  by  modern  admirals,  but  not  his  gene- 
rosity; for  he  divided  the  booty  he  took  in  proportional  shares  with  the 
common  sailors,  even  to  wedges  of  gold  given  him  in  return  for  his  presents 
to  Indian  chiefs. — Stowe.  Rapin. 

DRAMA.  We  owe  both  forms  of  composition,  tragedy  and  comedy,  to  the 
Greeks.  The  first  comedy  was  performed  at  Athens,  by  Susarion  and  Dolon. 
on  a  movable  scaffold,  562  B.  B.  See  Comedy.  The  chorus  was  introduced 
656  B.  c.  See  Chorus.  Tragedy  was  first  represented  at  Athens,  by  Thcspis, 
on  a  wagon,  536  B.  c.  Arund.  Marb.  Thespis  of  Icaria,  the  inventor  of  tra- 
gedy, performed  at  Athens  Alccstis,  this  year,  and  was  rewarded  with  a 
goat.  536  B.  c. — Pliny.  Anaxandrides  was  the  first  dramatic  poet  who  in- 
troduced intrigues  and  rapes  upon  the  stage.  He  composed  about  a  hun- 
dred plays,  of  which  ten  obtained  the  prixe ;  he  died  340  B.  c. 

DRAMA  iv  ROME.  The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  on  occasion 
of  a  plague  which  raged  during  the  consulate  of  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  and 
C.  Lncinius  Stolo.  The  magistrates  to  appease  the  incensed  deities  insti- 
tuted the  games  called  Sccnici,  which  were  amusements  entirely  new. 
Actors  from  Etruria  danced,  after  the  Tuscan  manner,  to  the  flute  364  B;  c. 
^subsequently  came  satires  accompanied  with  music  set  to  the  flute;  and 


DBO  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  355 

afterwards  plays  were  represented  by  Livius  Andronicus,  who,  abandoning 
satires,  wrote  plays  with  a  regular  and  connected  plot,  240  B.  c. — Lwy. 
Andronicus  was  the  first  person  who  gave  singing  and  dancing  to  two  differ- 
ent performers ;  he  danced  himself,  and  gave  the  singing  -  to  a  younger 
exhibitor. — Livy. 

DHAMA,  MODERN.  The  modern  drama  arose  early  in  the  rude  attempts  of 
minstrels  and  buffoons  at  fairs  in  France,  Italy,  and  England. —  Warton. 
Stories  from  the  Bible  were  represented  by  the  priests,  and  were  the  origin 
of  sacred  comedy. — Idem.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  an  early  father  of  tlie 
church,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a  drama  about  A.  D.  364,  on  the  Passion 
of  Christ,  to  counteract  the  profanities  of  the  heathen  stage,  and  thus  to 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  romantic  drama ,  but  this  is  not 
clearly  proved.  Fitzstephen,  in  his  Life  of  Thomas  it  Becket,  asserts  that 
"  London  had  for  its  theatrical  exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representa- 
tion of  miracles  wrought  by  holy  confessors."  The  Chester  Mysteries 
were  performed  about  1270.  Plays  were  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the 
parish  clerks  in  1397,  and  miracles  were  represented  in  the  fields.  Allego- 
rical characters  were  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  Individual 
characters  were  introduced  in  Henry  VII.'s  reign.  The  first  regular  drama 
acted  in  Europe  was  the  "  Sophonisba"  of  Trissino.  at  Rome,  in  the  pre-. 
sence  of  pope  Leo  X.,  1515. —  Voltaire.  The  English  drama  became  perfect 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  first  royal  license  for  the  drama  in  England 
was  to  master  Burbage,  and  four  others,  servants  to  the  earl  of  Leicester, 
to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside,  1574.  A  license  was  granted  to  Shak- 
speare,  and  his  associates  in  1603.  Plays  were  opposed  by  the  Puritans  in 
1633,  and  were  afterwards  suspended  until  the  Restoration  in  1660.  Two 
companies  of  regular  performers  were  licensed  by  Charles  II.,  Killegrew's 
and  Davenant's.  in  1662.  Till  this  time  boys  performed  women's  parts. 
DRESDEN,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  allied  army  under  the  prince  of  Schwar 
zenberg,  and  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon,  Aug.  26  and  27, 
1813.  The  allies,  who  were  200.000  strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  his  posi- 
tion at  Dresden,  and  the  event  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  them,  but  for  an 
error  in  the  conduct  of  general  Vandamme.  They  were  defeated  with 
dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  into  Bohemia ;  but  Vandamme 
pursuing  them  too  far,  his  division  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  and  all 
his  staff'  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle  general  Moreau  received  his  mortal 
wound  while  in  conversation  with  the  emperor  of  Russia. 

DRESS.  Excess  in  dress  was  restrained  by  a  law  in  England,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  1465.  And  again  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1574. — Slowe. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  we  are  told,  wore  a  white  satin-pinked  vest,  close 
sleeved  to  the  wrist,  and  over  the  body  a  brown  doublet  finely  flowered, 
and  embroidered  with  pearis>.  In  the  feather  of  his  hat,  a  large  ruby  and 
pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of  the  sprig,  in  place  of  a  button.  His  breeches, 
with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the  end,  all  white ;  and 
buff  shoes,  which  on  great  court  days,  were  so  gorgeously  covered  with 
precious  stones,  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  6600/, ;  and  he  had  a  suit 
of  armor  of  solid  silver,  with  sword  and  belt  blazing  with  diamonds, 
rulues,  and  pearls.  King  James's  favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham  could 
afford  to  have  his  diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to 
shake  a  few  off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained  all  the  fame  he  desired  from  the 
pickers-up,  who  were  generally  les  Dames  de  la  Cnur. 

DROWNING  PERSONS.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drowning  persons 
were  first  instituted  in  Holland.  A.  n.  1767.  The  second  society  is  sail  to 
have  been  formed  at  Milan,  in  1768;  the  third  in  Hamburg,  in  1771;  the 
fovrth  at  Paris,  in  1772;  and  the  fifth  in  London,  in  1771.  Similar  societies 


356  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  DUK 

have  been  instituted  in  other  countries.  The  motto  of  Ine  Royal  Humane 
Society  in  England  is  very  appropriate : — Lateat  scintillula  forsan — a  small 
spark  may  lurk  unseen. 

DRUIDS.  A  celebrated  order  among  the  ancient  Germans,  Gauls,  and  Britons, 
who  from  their  veneration  for  the  oak  (Drys)  were  so  called.  They  acted 
as  priests  and  magistrates ;  one  of  them  was  invested  occasionally  with 
supreme  authority"  In  England  they  were  chosen  out  of  the  best  families, 
that  the  dignity  of  their  station,  added  to  that  of  their  birth,  might  pro- 
cure them  the  greater  respect.  They  were  versed  in  sciences ;  had  the 
administration  of  all  sacred  things ;  were  the  interpreters  of  the  gods ;  and 
supreme  .judges  in  all  causes.  The  Druids  headed  the  Britons  who  opposed 
Caesar's  first  landing,  55  B.  c.  They  were  cruelly  put  to  death,  defending 
the  freedom  of  their  country  against  the  Roman  governor,  Suetonius  Pau- 
linus,  who  totally  destroyed  every  mark  of  Druidism,  A.D.  59. — Rowland'} 
Muna  A/Uiqua. 

DRUNKARDS.  The  phrase  "  Drunk  as  a  lord,"  arose  out  of  an  older  proverb, 
"  Drunk  as  a  beggar;"  and  we  are  told  that  it  was  altered  owing  to  the  vice 
of  drunkenness  prevailing  more  among  the  great  of  late  years.  Drunken- 
ness was  punished  in  many  of  the  early  nations  with  exemplary  severity. 
In  England,  a  canon  law  restrained  it  in  the  clergy  so  early  as  A.  D.  747. 
Constantino,  king  of  Scots,  punished  this  offence  against  society  with  death. 
He  used  to  say,  that  a  drunkard  was  but  the  mimic  of  a  man,  and  differed 
from  the  beast  only  in  shape,  A.  D.  870.  Drunkenness  was  restrained  in  the 
commonalty  in  England  in  975 ;  and  by  several  later  laws. 

DUBLIN.    This  city,  anciently  called  Aschcled,  built  A.  D.  140. 

DUCAT.  First  coined  by  Longinus,  governor  of  Italy. — Procopius.  First 
struck  in  the  duchy  of  Apulia. — Du  Gauge.  Coined  by  Robert,  king  of 
Sicily,  in  A.  D.  1240.  The  ducat  is  so  called  because  struck  by  dukes. — John- 
son. It  is  of  silver  and  gold,  the  value  of  the  first  being  4s.  6d.,  and  that  o/ 
the  gold  9s.  &d. — Pardon. 

DUELLING  AND  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,  took  their  rise  from  the  judicial  com- 
bats of  the  Celtic  nations.  The  first  duel  in  England,  not  of  this  character, 
took  place  A.  D.  1096.  Duelling  in  civil  matters  was  forbidden  in  France. 
1305.  The  present  practice  of  duelling  arose  in  the  challenge  of  Francis  I 
to  the  emperor  Charles  V..  1527.  The  fight  with  small  swords  was  intro- 
duced into  England.  29  Elizabeth  1587.  Proclamation  that  no  person  should 
be  pardoned  who  killed  another  in  a  duel,  30  Charles  II.,  1679.  Duelling 
was  checked  in  the  army,  1792.— See  Battle,  Wager  of;  Combat,  fyc.  As 
many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  were  fought  during  my  grand  cli- 
macteric.— Sir  J.  Harrington.  A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in 
which  63  individuals  were  killed  and  96  wounded :  in  three  of  these  cases 
both  the  combatants  were  killed,  and  18  of  the  survivors  suffered  the  sen- 
tence of  the  law. — Hamilton. 

DUKE  originally  a  Roman  dignity,  first  given  to  the  generals  of  armies.  In 
England,  during  Saxon  times,  the  commanders  of  armies  were  called  dukes, 
duce*. — Camden.  The  title  lay  dormant  from  the  Conquest  till  the  reign  of 
Edward  HI.,  who  conferred  the  title  on  his  eldest  son,  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  by  the  style  of  duke  of  Cornwall,  A.  D.  1336.  Robert  de  Vere  was 
created  marquis  of  Dublin  and  duke  of  Ireland,  9  Richard  II.,  1385.  The 
first  duke  created  in  Scotland  was  by  king  Robert  III.,  who  created  David, 
pi  ince  of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothsay,  a  title  which  afterwards  belonged  to 
the  king's  eldest  son,  A.  D.  1398.  . 

DUKE  GRAND.  The  Medici  family  was  one  of  extraordinary  greatness  and 
immense  wealth.  Of  this  family,  Alexander  de  Medicis  was  acknowledged 


EAR  J  BICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  357 

the  chief  of  the  republic  of  Tuscany  in  1531 ;  he  was  stabbed  in  the  night, 
and  his  svn.  Cosmo,  was  created  grand  duke,  the  first  of  that  rank,  by  pop*: 
Pius  V.  in  1569. 

DUNBAR.  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  Scottish  and  English  armies,  in  which  John 
Baliol  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warrenne,  and  Scotland  subdued,  by  Ed- 
ward I.,  fought  April  27,  1296.  Battle  between  the  Scots  and  English  undo* 
Cromwell,  who  obtained  a  signal  victory,  September  3,  1650. 

DUNKIRK.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  English  and 
Frent  h.  and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  June  24. 1658,  the  last  year 
of  Cromwell's  administration.  It  was  sold  by  Charles  II.  for  500,0007.  t< 
Louis  XIV..  in  1662.  The  French  king  made  Dunkirk  one  of  the  best  for 
tifled  ports  in  the  kingdom ;  but  all  the  works  were  demolished,  and  the 
basins  filled  up,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713. 

DUNSINANE,  BATTLE  OF.  Celebrated  in  dramatic  story  by  the  immortal 
Shakspeare.  On  the  hill  of  Dunsinane  was  fought  the  renowned  battle 
between  Macbeth,  the  thane  of  Glammis,  and  Seward,  earl  of  Northumber- 
land. Edward  the  Confessor  had  sent  Seward  on  behalf  of  Malcolm  III., 
whose  father,  Duncan,  the  thane  and  usurper  had  murdered.  Macbeth,  who 

i  was  signally  defeated,  fled,  and  was  pursued,  it  is  said,  to  Lumphanan,  in 
Aberdeenshire,  and  there  slain,  1057.  The  history  of  Macbeth  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Shakspeare's  incomparable  drama. 

DURHAM,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  and  Scottish  armies,  fought  at 
Nevill's-cross,  near  Durham.  The  former  army  was  commanded  by  queen 
Philippa  and  lord  Piercey,  and  the  latter  by  David  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland, 
who  was  vanquished.  Fifteen  thousand  of  Bruce's  soldiers  were  cut  to 
pieces,  and  himself,  with  many  of  his  nobles  and  knights,  and  many  thou- 
sand men,  were  taken  prisoners,  Oct.  17,  1346. 

DYEING,  ART  OF.  The  discovery  of  it  attributed  to  the  Tyrians.  In  dyeing 
and  dipping  their  own  cloths,  the  English  were  so  little  skilled,  that  their 
manufactures  were  usually  sent  white  to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England 
for  sale.  The  art  of  dyeing  woollens  was  brought  from  the  Low  Countries 
in  1608.  "  Two  dyers  of  Exeter  were  flogged  for  teaching  their  art  in  tke 
north,''  (of  England)  1628. 

E. 

EAGLE.  The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  first  borne  by  the  Persians ;  and  the 
Romans  carried  figures  of  the  eagle,  as  ensigns,  in  silver  and  gold,  and 
sometimes  represented  with  a  thunderbolt  in  its  talons,  on  the  point  of  a 
spear;  they  adopted  the  eagle  in  the  consulate  of  Marius,  102  B.  c.  When 
Charlemagne  became  master  of  the  whole  of  the  German  empire,  he  added 
the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms,  to  denote  that  the  empires  of 
Rome  and  Germany  were  united  in  him,  A.  D.  802.  The  eagle  was  the  im- 
perial standard  of  Napoleon ;  and  is  that  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia, 
It  is  also  the  national  emblem  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

EARL.  An  honor  which  came  from  the  Saxons,  and  continued  for  many  ages 
the  hia-hest  rank  in  England,  until  Edward  III.  created  dukes,  and  Richard 
II.  created  marquesses,  both  having  precedency  assigned  above  earls.  They 
had.  anciently,  for  the  support  of  their  state,  the  third  penny  out  of  the 
sheriff's  court,  issuing  out  of  the  pleas  of  the  shire  whereof  they  had  their 
title,  as  in  ancient  times  there  were  no  counts  or  earls  but  had  a  county  or 
shire  for  his  earldom.  Upon  the  increase  of  earls  their  revenue  ceased,  and 
their  powers  were  abridged.  Alfred  used  the  title  of  earl  as  a  substitute  foi 
king. 


358 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EAK 


EARTH.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of 
Miletus  about  640  B.  c.  Its  magnitude  was  calculated  from  measuring  &n 
arc  of  the  meridian  by  Eratosthenes,  240  B.  c.  The  Greeks  taught  the 
sphericity  of  the  earth,  and  the  popes  believed  it  to  be  a  plane,  and  gave  all 
towards  the  west  to  the  kings  of  Spain.  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round 
the  earth,  and  thence  demonstrated  that  its  form  was  globular,  was  Magel- 
lan's, in  1519.  The  notion  of  its  magnetism  was  started  by  Gilbert  in  1676. 
The  experiments  of  M.  Richer,  in  1672,  led  Newton  to  prove  the  earth  to 
be  in  the  shape  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  variation  of  its  axis  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Bradley  in  1737.  See  Globe. 

EARTHENWARE.  Vessels  of  this  ware  were  in  use  among  the  most  ancient; 
nations.  Various  domestic  articles  were  made  by  the  Romans.  716  B.  c. 
The  art  was  revived  and  improved  in  Italy,  A.  D.  1310.  Wedgewood's  patent 
ware  was  first  made  in  1762.  His  pottery  in  Staffordshire  was  extended  to 
a  variety  of  curious  compositions,  subservient  not  only  to  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  life,  but  to  the  arts,  antiquity,  history,  &c.,  and  thereby  rendered  a 
very  important  branch  of  commerce,  both  foreign  and  domestic.  See 
China. — Porcelain. 

EARTHQUAKES.  The  theory  of  earthquakes  has  not  yet  been  formed  with 
any  degree  of  certainty.  Anaxagoras  supposed  that  earthquakes  were  pro- 
duced by  subterraneous  clouds  bursting  out  into  lightning,  which  shook  the 
vaults  that  confined  them,  B.  c.  435. — Diog.  Laert.  Kircher,  Des  Cartes, 
and  others,  supposed  that  there  were  many  vast  cavities  under  ground  which 
have  a  communication  with  each  other,  some  of  which  abound  with  waters, 
others  with  exhalations,  arising  from  inflammable  substances,  as  nitre,  bitu- 
men, sulphur,  &c.  These  opinions  continued  to  be  supported  till  1749-50, 
when  an  earthquake  was  felt  at  London,  and  several  parts  of  Britain.  Dr. 
Stukeley,  who  had  been  engaged  in  electrical  experiments,  then  began  to 
suspect  that  a  phenomenon  of  this  kind  ought  to  be  attributed  not  to  vapors 
or  fermentations  generated  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  but  to  electricity. 
These  principles  at  the  same  time  were  advanced  by  Signer  Beccaria,  with- 
out knowing  any  thing  of  Dr.  Stukeley's  discoveries,  and  the  hypothesis  has 
been  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Priestley.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, it  appears  probable  that  the  immense  power  of  water  converted  into 
steam  by  subterraneous  fires  must  contribute  to  augment  the  force  which 
occasions  earthquakes.  Among  those  which  are  recorded  as  having  been  the 
most  destructive  and  memorable,  are  the  following,  which  are  quoted  froni 
the  best  sources :  it  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  in  this  volume  all 
that  have  occurred : — 


One  which  made  the  peninsula  of 
Eubaa  an  island  -  -  B.  c.  425 

Ellice  and  Bula  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
swallowed  up  ...  373 

One  at  Rome,  when,  in  obedience  to 
an  oracle,  M.  Curtius,  armed  and 
m<  unted  on  a  stately  horse,  leaped 
into  the  dreadful  chasm  it  occasion- 
ed (Livy)  •  .  .  -358 

Duras.  in  Greece,  buried  with  all  its 
inhabitants;  and  twelve  cities  in 
Campania  also  buried  -  -  345 

Lysimaohia  totally  buried,  with  all  its 
inhabitants  ....  283 

Awful  one  in  Asia,  which  overturned 
twelve  cities  -  -  -  A.  D.  17 

One  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius ;  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  buried  79 

Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  a  .id 
two  in  Galatia,  overturned  -  -107 


Antioch  destroyed         •          -    A.  D.    114 
Nicpmedia,  Csesarea,  and  Nicea  in 

Bithynia,  overturned  -  -    126 

In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia,  150 

cities  and  towns  damaged.    •          -    357 
Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its 

inhabitants  buried  in  its  ruins          •    356 
One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world     •    543 
At  Constantinople :  its  edifices  destroy- 
ed, and  thousands  perished  -  -    568 
In  Africa;  many  cities  overturned      •    660 
Awful  one  in   Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Asia ;  more  than  500  cities  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  loss  of  life  surpass- 
ed all  calculation        -           •  742 
In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy            -    301 
Constantinople    overturned,    and   til 

Greece  shaken  -  •  •    SU 

One  felt  throughout  England   -  -  1081 

One  at  Antioch ;  many  towns  destroy- 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


EARTHQUAKES,  continued. 

ed :  among  them,  Marissum  and  Ma- 
mistria  -  -  -     A.  D.  1114 

Caiania  in  Sicily  overturned,  and 
15,000  persons  buried  in  the  ruins  -  1137 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln     -  -1142 

At  Calabria,  when  one  of  its  cities  and 
all  its  inhabitants  were  overwhelm- 
ed in  the  Adriatic  Sea  -  -  1 186 

One  again  Celt  throughout  England     -  J274 

At  Naples,  when  40,000  of  its  inhabit- 
ants perished  ....  1456 

One  left  in  London  :  part  of  St.  Paul's 
and  the  Temple  churches  fell  •  1580 

In  Japan,  several  cities  made  ruins, 
and  thousands  perished  •  •  1596 

Awful  one  at  Calabria  •  -  -  1638 

One  in  China,  when  300,000  persons 
were  buried  in  Pekin  alone  •  -  1(>62 

One  severely  felt  in  Ireland      -  -  1690 

One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroy- 
ed Port  Royal,  whose  houses  were 
ingulfed  forty  fathoms  deep,  and  300 
persons  perished  -  -  -  1692 

One  in  Sicily,  which  overturned  54 
cities  and  towns,  and  300  villages. 
Of  Caiania  and  its  18.000  inhabit- 
ants, not  a  trace  remained;  more 
than  100,000  lives  were  lost  -  -  1693 

Palermo  nearly  destroyed,  and  6000 
persons  perished  -  -  1726 

Again  in  China;  and  100,000  people 
swallowed  up  at  Pekin  -  -  1731 

One  in  Hungary,  which  turned  a 
mountain  round  -  -  -  1736 

Lima  and  Callao  demolished;  18,000 
persons  buried  in  the  ruins  Oct.  28,  1746 

One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up 
a  convent :  but  the  monks  escaped  1740 

In  London,  the  inhabitants  terrified  by 
a  slight  shock  .  Feb.  a,  1750 

Another,  but  severer  shock,    March  8,  1750 

Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed  1752 

At  Grand  Cairo,  half  of  the  houses,  and 
40,000  persons  swallowed  up  •  1754 

Quito  destroyed  -  -  April,  1755 

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.  In  about 
eight  minutes  most  of  the  nouses, 
and  upwards  of  50,000  inhabitants, 
were  swallowed  up,and  whole  streets 
buried.  The  cities  of  Coimbra, 
Oporto,  and  Braga,  suffered  dread- 
fully, and  St.  Ubes  was  wholly  over- 
turned. In  Spain,  a  large  pan  of 
Malaga  became  ruins.  One  naif  of 
Fez,  in  Morocco,  was  destroyed,  and 
more  than  12,000  Arabs  perished 
there.  Above  half  of  the  island  of 
Madeira  became  waste;  and  2,000 
houses  in  the  island  of  Meteline,  in 
the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown  : 
this  awful  earthquake  extended  5000 


miles,  even  to  Scotland          Nov.  1,  1755 

One  in  Syria  extended  over  10,000 
square  miles :  Balbec  destroyed  -  1751 

One  at  Martinico,  when  1600  persons 
lost  their  lives  -  -  Aug.  1767 

At  Guatemala,  which,  with  80,000  in- 
habitants, was  swallowed  up  Dec.  1773 

EASTER  So  called  in  England  from  the  Saxon  goddess  East  re.  The  festival 
of  Easter  was  instituted  about  A.  D.  68 ;  the  day  for  the  observance  of  it 
was  fixed  in  England  by  St.  Austin,  in  597.  It  was  orda:ned  by  the  council 


A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna    -    A.  D    1771 
AtTauris:  15,000  houses  thrown  down, 

and  multitudes  buried  -  -  1780 

One  which  overthrew  Messina  and  a 
number  of  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily : 
40,000  persons  perished  -  -  1783 

Archindschan  wholly  destroyed,  and 

12,000  persons  buried  in  its  ruins    -  1784 
At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro,  an  opening 
of  the  earth  swallowed  up  many 
houses  and  1000  persons       -    Sept.  1789 
Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily        •  •  1791 

One  in  Naples,  when  Vesuvius  issuing 
forth  its  names  overwhelmed  the  city 
of  Torre  del  Greco  -  -  -1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in    three    towns, 

10,000  persons  lost  their  lives  •  1794 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Fe 
and  Panama  destroyed,  including  the 
cities  of  Cusco  and  Quito,  40,000  of 
whose  people  were,  in  one  second, 
hurled  into  eternity  -  -  -  1790 

One  at  Constantinople,  which  destroy- 
ed the  royal  palace  and  an  immen- 
sity of  buildings,  and  extended  into 
Romania  and  Wallachia.  -  -  1800 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland    -     Jan.  1804 
In  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  20,000 

persons  lost  their  lives          -  -  1805 

At  the  Azores:   a  village  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's sunk,  and  a  lake  of  boiling 
water  appeared  in  its  place  -    Aug.  1810 
Awful  one  at  Caraccas  (which  see)    •  1812 
Several  felt   throughout  India.    The 
district  of  Kutch  sunk ;  2000  persons 
were  buried  with  it    -  -    June  1819 

In  Genoa,  Palermo,  Rome,  and  many 
other  towns ;  great  damage  sustain- 
ed, and  thousa'nds  perished  -  -1819 
One  fatal,  at  Messina     -           -     Oct.  1826 
One  in  Spain,  which  devastated  Mur- 
cia,  and  numerous  villages;    6000 
persons  perished        -        March  21,  1829 
In  the  duchy  of  Parma ;  no  less  than 
40  shocks  were  experienced  at  Bor- 
gotaro ;    and  at   Pontremoli    many 
nouses  were  thrown  down,  and  not  a 
chimney  was  left  standing    Feb.  14,  1834 
In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by 
which    hundreds    of    houses   were 
thrown  down,  and  thousands  of  the 
inhabitants  perished              Jan.  22,  1837 
At  Martinique,  by  which  nearly  half 
of  Port  Royal  is  destroyed,  nearly 
700  persons  killed,  and  the  whole 
island  damaged          -           Jan.  II,  1839 
At  Ternate :  the  island  made  a  waste, 
almost  every  house  destroyed,  and 
thousands  of  the    inhabitants  lose 
their  lives       -           -           Feb.  14,  1810 
Awful  and  -iestructive  earthquake  at 
Mount  Ararat ;  in  one  of  the  districts 
of  Armenia  3137  houses  were  over- 
thrown, and  several  hundred  persons 
perished          -           -            July  2,  1840 
Great   earthquake    at    Zante,    where 
many  persons  perished         Oct.  30,  1840 


360 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EUL 


of  Nice  to  be  observed  on  the  same  day  throughout  the  whole  Christian 
world.  Easter  is  the  first  Sunday  after  the  first  full  m.on  that  occurs  aftei 
the  21st  of  March. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Commenced  under  Valens,  A.  D.  364,  and  ended  in  the, 
defeat  and  death  of  Constantine  XIII.,  the  last  Christian  emperor,  in  1453. 
Mahomet  II.  resolved  to  dethrone  him,  and  possess  himself  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  he  laid  seige  to  that  city  both  by  sea  and  laud,  and  took  it  by 
assault  after  it  had  held  out  fifty-eight  days.  The  unfortunate  emperor, 
seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  off  he 
enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  Imperial  house  were 
massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  thu 
conqueror;  and  thus  terminated  the  dynasty  of  the  Constantines,  and  com- 
menced the  present  empire  of  Turkey,  May  29,  1453.  See  Tabular  Views, 
in  this  vol.  from  page  61.  See  also  Turkey. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.  There  existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and 
ecclesiastical  courts  in  England  until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  A.  D.  1066. 
The  following  are  the  causes  cognizable  in  ecclesiastical  courts :  blasphemy, 
apostasy  from  Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordinations,  institutions  to  be- 
nefices, matrimony,  divorces,  bastardy,  tithes,  incests,  fornication,  adi.ltery, 
probate  of  wills,  administrations,  &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE  OR  STATES  OF  THK  CHURCH.  See  Rome.  In 
A.  D.  1798,  this  state  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  who  erected  it 
into  the  "  Roman  Republic."  They  obliged  the  pope,  Pius  VI.,  to  remove 
into  Tuscany,  and  afterwards  into  France,  where  he  died  in  1799.  In  the 
same  year  a  conclave  was  permitted  to  be  held  atVeniee;  and,  in  1800, 
cardinal  Chiaramonti,  who  was  elected  to  the  papal  chair,  took  the  title  of 
Pius  VII.,  and  resumed  the  dominion  of  the  Ecclesiastical  State.  This 
power  was  held  until  1809,  when  he  was  deprived  by  Bonaparte  of  his 
temporal  soverejgnty,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  bishop  of  Rome ; 
but  in  1814  the  pope  was  restored.  For  succession  of  popes,  see  p.  50  et  seq. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers,  also  called  Analogelici,  and  Philalethes. 
or  the  lovers  of  truth.  Without  attaching  themselves  to  any  sect,  they 
chose  what  they  judged  good  from  each :  founded  by  Polemon  of  Alex- 
andria, about  A.  D.  1. — Dry  den.  Also  a  sect,  so  called  in  the  Christian 
church,  who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato  conformable  to  the  spirit  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Christian. 

ECLIPSES.  The  theo-y  of  eclipses  was  known  to  the  Chinese  at  least  120 
B.C. —  Gaubil.  An  eclipse  was  supposed  by  most  of  the  eastern  nations  to 
be  the  effect  of  magic ;  hence  the  custom  among  them  of  drumming  during 
its  continuance.  The  first  eclipse  recorded,  happened  March  19.  721  B.  c. 
at  8'  40"  P.  M.  according  to  Ptolemy  ;  it  was  lunar,  and  was  observed  with 
accuracy  at  Babylon. — See  Astronomy.  The  following  were  extraordinary 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon : — 


OF   THE   SUN. 

That  predicted  by  Thales;  observed  at 
Sardis  (P/my, /»6.  ii.)  -  B.C.  585 

One  at  Athens  (Thucydides.  lilt,  iv.)  -    424 

Total  one ;  three  days'  supplication  de- 
creed at  Rome  (Livy)  •  •  188 

One  (leneral  at  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ 
(.Josnphus)  •  •  -  A  D.  33 

One  at  Rome,  causing  a  total  darkness 
at  noon-day  (Liry)  -  •  291 

One  observed  at  Constantinople  •    968 

In  France,  when  it  was  dark  at  noon- 
day (Du  f/esnoy)  -  June  29,  1033 


In  England,  where  it  occasioned  a  total 
darkness  (Win  Malmsb.)  -  -  114C 

Again ;  the  stars  visible  at  ten  in  the 
morning  (Cnmdcn)  •  June  23,  1191 

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of 
another,  so  that  astronomers  alone 
could  distinguish  the  difference  bj 
their  glasses  (Comp.  Hist.  Eng.)  u!*» 

Again  :  total  darkness  ensued  (idem)   •  1331 

A  total  one ;  the  darkness  so  great  that 
the  stars  shone,  and  ilie  hinls  went  to 
roost  at  noon ( Olcf  mVon's  Annals  of 
Geo,  I.)  .  .  April  2-5,  1711 


£D«J  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  36  I 

ECLIPSES,  continued. 


Remarkable  one,  central  and  annular 
in  the  interior  of  Europe    -    Sept.  7   1820 

OP   THE    MOON. 

The  first,  observed  by  the  Chaldeans  at 
Babylon  (Plolvmy,  lib.  iv.)     -    B.  c.   721 


Apain,  in  Asia  Minor  (.Polybius)  •  211 
One  at  Rome,  predicted  by  Q,.  Sulpitius 

Callus  (Livy,  lib.  xliv.)  -  -  188 

One  terrified  the  Roman  troops  and 

quelled  their  revolt  (Tacitus)    A.  D.      14 


A  total  one,  observed  at  Sardis  (  Thu- 
cydides,lib.  vii.)  ...   413 

The  revolution  of  eclipses  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus,  the  Athenian, 
336  B.  c.  The  Egyptians  say  they  had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of 
the  sun.  and  832  of  the  moon,  up  to  the  period  from  Vulcan  to  Alexander, 
who  died  323  B.  c. 

EDEN  GARDEN  OF.  The  question  about  the  site  of  Eden  has  greatly  agi- 
tated theologians ;  some  place  it  near  Damascus,  others  in  Armenia,  some 
in  Caucasus,  others  at  Hillah,  near  Babylon,  others  in  Arabia,  and  some  in 
Abyssinia.  The  Hindoos  refer  it  to  Ceylon :  and  a  learned  Swede  asserts 
that  it  was  in  Sudermania !  Several  authorities  concur  in  placing  it  in  a 
peninsula  formed  by  the  main  river  of  Eden,  on  the  east  side  of  it,  below 
the  confluence  of  the  lesser  rivers,  which  emptied  themselves  into  it,  about 
27°  N.  iat.,  now  swallowed  up  b*y  the  Persian  Gulf,  an  event  which  may 
have  happened  at  the  Universal  Deluge,  2348  B.  c.  The  country  of  Eden 
extended  into  Armenia. — Calmet.  The  Almighty  constructed  Eden  with  a 
view  to  beauty,  as  well  as  usefulness  ;  not  only  every  plant  there  was  good 
for  food,  but  such  also  as  were  pleasant  to  the  eye,  were  planted  there. — 
Genesis  ii.  8,  9. 

EDGEH1LL,  BATTLE  or,  also  called  Edgehill  Fight,  between  the  Royalists  and 
the  Parliament  army,  the  first  engagement  of  importance  in  the  civil  war ; 
Charles  I.  was  personally  present  in  this  battle.  Prince  Rupert  commanded 
the  royalists,  and  the  earl  of  Essex  the  parliamentarians.  Oct.  23,  1642. 

•CDICT  OF  NANTES.  This  was  the  celebrated  edict  by  whfch  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  toleration  to  his  Protestant  subjects,  in  1598.  It  was  re- 
voked by  Louis  XIV.,  Oct.  24,  1685.  This  bad  and  unjust  policy  lost  to 
France  800000  Protestants,  and  gave  to  England  (part  of  these)  50000 
industrious  artisans.  Some  thousands,  who  brought  with  them  the  art  of 
manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalfields,  where  their  descendants  yet 
remain :  others  planted  themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's,  and  pursued 
the  art  of  making  crystal  glasses,  and  various  fine  works  in  which  they 
excelled ;  among  these,  jewelry,  then  little  understood  in  England. — An- 
der xon's  Orig.  of  English  Commerce. 

EDILES.  These  were  Roman  magistrates,  like  our  mayors,  and  there  were 
two  ediles  at  a  time.  They  had  the  superintendence  and  care  of  public 
and  private  works  and  buildings,  baths,  aqueducts,  bridges,  roads,  &c. ; 
they  also  took  cognizance  of  weights  and  measures,  and  regulated  the  mar- 
kets for  provisions ;  they  examined  comedies  before  they  were  acted,  and 
treated  the  people  with  games  and  shows  at  their  own  expense.  The  duties 
of  ediles  have  suggested  similar  offices  in  our  own  polity,  and  served  iu 
many  instances  as  models  for  our  magistracy. — Pardjm. 

EDINBURGH.  The  metropolis  of  Scotland,  and  one  of  the  first  and  flnesi 
cities  of  the  empire.  It  derives  its  name — in  ancient  records,  Dun  Edin, 
signifying  the  "  hill  of  Edin" — from  its  castle,  founded  or  rebuilt  by  Edwin, 
king  of  Northumbria  who,  having  greatly  extended  his  dominions,  erected 
it  for  the  protection  of  his  newly-acquired  territories  from  the  incursions  of 
the  Scots  and  Picts,  A.  D.  626.  But  it  is  said  the  castle  was  first  built  by 
Ca  nelon.  king  of  the  Picts.  330  B.  c.  It  makes  a  conspicuous  appearance, 
standing  at  the  west  end  of  the  town,  on  a  rock  300  feet  high,  and  befor* 
the  use  of  great  guns,  was  a  fortification  of  considerable  strength. 
16 


362 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[EOT 


EDUCATION  IN  U.  S.  See  Colleges  and  Schools.  American  Institute  of  Ii> 
struction  organized  at  Boston,  Aug.  19,  1830.  Literary  Convention  at  New 
York,  Oct.  20,  1830. 

EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND.  A  grant  of  30,0002.  for  national  education,  pro- 
posed in  parliament  by  Lord  John  Kussell  and  passed,  275  to  273,  July  9, 
and  the  House  of  Lords  went  in  a  body  to  ask  the  Queen  to  rescind  the 
grant,  July  11,  1839. 

E<}  ALI'ffi.  Equality.  The  surname  assumed  by  Philip  Bourbon  Capet,  the 
infamous  duke  of  Orleans,  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  republicans,  on  the 
abolition  of  monarchy  in  France,  Sept.  11,  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI  his  relative;  but  this  did  not  save  him  from  a  like  doom.  Ho 
was  guillotined  Nov.  6,  1793.  i 

EfiYPT.  The  dynasty  of  its  Pharaohs  or  kings  commenced  with  Mizraim,  the 
son  of  Ham,  second  son  of  Noah,  2188  B.  c.  The  kingdom  lasted  1663  years ; 
it  was  conquered  by  Cambyses  525  B.  c.  In  A.  D.  639,  this  country  was  wrest- 
ed from  the  eastern  emperor  Heraclius.  by  Omar,  calif  of  the  Saracens.  Tht> 
famous  Saladin  established  the  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes,  hi  1171.  Selim 
I.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  took  Egypt  in  1517,  and  it  was  governed  by  Beys 
till  1799.  when  a  great  part  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the  French, 
under  Bonaparte.  In  1801.  the  invaders  were  dispossessed  by  the  British, 
and  the  government  was  restored  to  the  Turks. — See  Turkey,  for  modern 
events.  See  Tabular  Views,  in  this  vol.  page  5  et  seq. 


Mizraim  builds  Memphis  (Blair)  B.  c.  2188 
Egypt  made  four  kingdoms,  viz. :  Up- 
per Egypt,  Lower  Egypt,  This,  and 
Memphis  (Abb'.  Lenglet,  Blair)      •  2126 
Attunes  invents  hieroglyphics  -  -  2122 

Busiris  builds  Thebes  (.Usher)  •  2111 

Osymandyas,  the  first  warlike  king, 
passes  into  Asia,  conquers  Bactria, 
and  causes  his  exploits  to  be  repre- 
sented in  sculpture  and  painting 
(.Usher,  Lenglet)  •  •  -2100 

The  Phoenicians  invade  Lower  Egypt 

and  hold  it  260  ^ears  (  Usher)          •  2080 
The  lake  of  Moeris  constructed  -  1938 

The  patriarch  Abraham  visits  Egypt 

to  avoid  the  famine  in  Canaan         -  1921 
Syphoas  introduces  the  use  of  the  com- 
mon letters  (  Usher)  •  .  .  1891 
Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  letters 

(Blair,  Lenglet)        •  •  .  1822 

Amenophis    I.  is    acknowledged    the 

king  of  all  Egypt  {Lenglet)  -  -  1821 

Joseph  the  Israelite  is  sold  into  Egypt 

as  a  slave  (Lenglet)  •           -           -  1728 
He  interprets  the  king's  dreams          -  1715 
His  father  and  brethren  settle  here      •  1706 
Sesostris  reigns ;    he  extends  hte  do- 
minion  by  conquest  over    Arabia, 
Persia,  luuia,  anil  Asia  Minor  (Lens- 
let)'      1618 

Settlement  of  the  Ethiopians  (Blair)  1616 
Rarnpses,  who  imposed  on  his  sub- 
jects the  building  of  wajls  and  pyra- 
inii  Is.  ami  other  labors,  dies  ( Lenglet)  1492 
Amenophis  I.  is  overwhelmed  in  the 
Keil  Sea,  with  all  his  army  (Lenglet, 

Bk:ir) 1492 

Reign  of  Egyptus,  from  whom  the 


country,  hitherto  called  Mizraim,  is 
now  called  Egypt  (Blair)  •  B.  c.  1486 

Reign  of  Thuoris  (the  Proteus  of  the 
Greeks)  who  had  the  faculty  of  as- 
suming whatever  form  he  pleased, 
as  of  a  lion,  a  dragon,  a  tree,  water, 
fire 1189 

[These  fictions  were  probably  intend- 
ed to  mark  the  profound  policy  of 
this  king,  who  was  eminent  for  his 
wisdom,  by  which  his  dominion 
flourished. — Blair.] 

Pseusennes  enters  Palestine,  ravages 
Judea,  and  carries  off"  the  sacred  ves- 
sels of  the  Temple  -  •  -971 

The  dynasty  of  kings  called  Tanites 
begins  with  Petubastes  (Blair)  •  825 

The  'dynasty  of  Suites  (Blair)  •    781 

Sebacon  invades  Egypt,  subdues  the 
king,  Bocchoris,  whom  he  orders  to 
be  roasted  alive  ( Usher)  •  •  737 

Psammetichus  the  Powerful  reigns    -    660 

He  invests  Azoth,  which  holds  out  for 
19  years,  the  longest  siege  in  the  an- 
nals of  antiquity  ( Usher)  •  •  647 

Necho  begins  the  famous  canal  be- 
tween the  Arabic  gulf  and  the  Medi- 
terranean sea  (Blair)  •  •  610 

This  canal  abandoned,  after  costing 
the  lives  of  120,000  men  (Herodotua)  609 

Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon  deposes 
Apries(C/sAer)  -  -  -  581 

Apries  taken  pnsom  "  am)  strangled  in 
nis  palace  (Diod.  ^lieu/us)  -  -  571 

The  philosopher  F/thagoraa  comes 
from  Santos  intr  Egypt,  and  is  in- 
structed in  the  i.  /steries  of  Egyp- 
tian theology  ( Usher)  •  •  SM 


*  The  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Sesostris  is  very  uncertain  ;  Blair  makes  it  to  fall  133  years  later. 
Ai  to  the  achiet  ements  of  this  monarch,  '.hey  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  labors  of  several  king% 
tonbuied  by  tlu  Egyptian  priests  to  Sea>stris  alone,  whose  very  existence,  indeed,  is  doubted. 


KLi.  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


363 


EGYPT,  continued. 

The  line  of  the  Fharaohs  end?  n  the 

murder  of  Psammenuus  by  Camby- 
ses (Blair)      •  -     B.C. 
Dread:  a!  excesses  of  Cambyses ;    he 

put.-,   the  children  of  the  grandees, 

male  and  It-male,  lo death,  and  makes 

the  com  try  a  waste  (Herodotus) 
He  sends  an  army  of  50.000  men  across 

the  desert  to  destroy  the  temple  of 

Jupiter  Ammon,  but  they  all  perish 

in  the  burning  sands  (Justin) 
Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians ;  again 

subdued  by  Xerxes  (Blair)  • 
A  revolt  under  Inarus  (Blair)  • 
Successful  revolt  under  Amyrtreus, 

who  is  proclaimed  kins  (Lenglet)  • 
Egypt  again  reduced  by  Persia,  and  its 

temples  pillaged  ( Usher)  • 
Alexander  the  Great  enters  Egypt, 

wrests  it  from    the    Persians,  and 

builds  Alexandria  (Blair) 
Philadelphia  completes  the  Pharos  of 

Alexandria  (Blair)    • 
The  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament made  about  this  time 
The  famous  library  of  Alexandria  also 

d^tes  about  this  period  (Blair) 
Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome 
Ptolemy   Euergetes    overruns    Syria, 

and  returns  laden  with  rich  spoils, 

and  2500  statues  and  vessels  ol  gold 

and    silver,   which    Cambyses   had 

taken   from   the  Egyptian  temples 

(.Blair)  .... 

Reign  of  Philometer  and  Physcon 
At  the  death  of  Philometer,  his  brother 

Physcon  marries  his  queen,  and  on 

the  day  of  his  nuptials  murders  the 

infant  son  of  Philometer  in  its  moth- 
er's arms         .... 
He  repudiates  his  wife,  and  marries 

her  daughter  by  his  brother  (  Blair) 

ELECTORS.  Those  for  members  of  parliament  for  counties  were  obliged  to 
have  forty  shillings  a  year  in  land,  39  Henry  VI.,  1460. — Ru/kead's  Statutes. 
Among  the  recent  acts  relating  to  elections  are  the  following:  act  depriving 
excise  and  custom-house  officers,  and  contractors  with  government,  of  their 
votes.  17S2.  In  the  U.  S.,  the  qualifications  vary  in  the  different  states. 

ELECTORS  OP  GERMANY.  Originally,  all  the  members  of  the  Germanic 
body  mad«  choice  of  their  head ;  but  amidst  the  violence  and  anarchy  which 
prevailed  for  several  centuries  in  the  empire,  seven  princes  who  possessed 
the  greatest  power  assumed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  em- 
peror.— Dr.  Robertson.  An  eighth  elector  was  made,  in  1618;  and  a  ninth 
in  favor  of  the  duke  of  Hanover,  in  1692.  The  number  was  reduced  to 
eight,  in  1777 ;  and  was  increased  to  ten  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801. 
The  electorship  ceased  on  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  and  when 
the  crown  of  Austria  was  made  hereditary,  1804,  1806. — See  Germany. 

ELECTRICITY.  That  of  amber  was  known  to  Thales,  600  i».  c.  Electricity 
was  imperfectly  discovered  A.  D.  1467.  It  was  found  in  various  substances 
by  Dr.  Gilbert,  of  Colchester,  in  1600 ;  he  first  obtained  the  knowledge  of  its 
power,  of  tonductors  and  non-conductors,  in  1606.  Ottoguerick  found  that 
two  globes  of  brimstone  contained  electric  matter,  1647.  The  electric  shock 
was  discovered  at  Leyden,  1745,  and  hence  the  operation  is  termed  tha 
"Leyden  phial."  Electric  matter  was  first  found  to  contain  caloric,  or  fire, 
and  that  it  would  fire  spirits,  1756.  The  identity  of  electricity  and  lightninj 


526 


524 


624 

487 
463 

414 
350 

332 

283 
283 

283 

269 


His  subjects,  wearied  with  his  cruel- 
ties and  crimes,  demolish  his  stat- 
ues, set  tire  to  his  palace,  and  he 
Hies  from  their  fury  (Blair)  m.  o. 

He  murders  his  son  by  his  new  queen  ; 
also  his  son  by  her  mother,  sending 
the  head  and  limbs  of  the  latter  as  a 
present  to  the  parent  on  a  feast  day 

Yet,  defeating  the  Egyptian  army,  he 
recovers  liis  throne  ;  and  dies  • 

Pestilence  from  the  putrelaction  of 
vast  swarms  of  locusts  ;  800,000  per- 
sons perish  in  Egypt  -  -  • 

Revolt  in  Upper  Egypt;  the  famoui 
city  of  Thelxjs  destroyed  after  a  siege 
of  three  years  (Diod.  Siculus)  • 

Auletes  dying,  leaves  his  kingdom  to 
his  eldest  son,  Ptolemy,  and  the  fa- 
mous Cleopatra  (Blair)  -  - 

During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy 
and  Cleopatra,  Alexandria  is  be- 
sieged by  Ca?sar,  and  the  famous 
library  nearly  destroyed  by  fire 
(Blair)  -  •  -  - 

Csesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  cross- 
ing the  Nile,  is  drowned;  and  the 
younger  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra 
reign  -  -  -  -  - 

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother  (only  14 
years  of  age)  and  reigns  alone  • 

She  appears  before  Mark  Antony,  to 
answer  for  this  crime.  Fascinated 
by  her  beauty,  he  follows  her  into 
Egypt  ..... 

Antony  defeated  by  Octavius  Ca?sar 
at  the  battle  of  Actium  (Blair)  • 

Octavius  enters  Egypt;  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  kill  themselves;  and  the 
kingdom  becomes  a  Roman  prov- 
ince -  -  -  . 


129 

128 

138 
82 
A 

47 

45 
43 

40 
31 

30 


364  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  EM* 

was  proved  by  Dr.  Franklin,  about  this  period.    The  electricity  of  the  Au- 
rora Borealis  was  discovered  by  means  of  the  electric  kite,  in  1709. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  L.  Gal- 
vani,  an  eminent  Italian  philosopher,  in  1789.  Volta  pursued  the  inquiries 
of  this  good  man  (for  he  was  alike  distinguished  by  his  virtues  and  genius). 
and  discovered  the  mode  of  combining  the  metals ;  constructed  what  is 
very  properly  called  the  Voltaic  pile;  and  extended  the  whole  science  into  a 
system  which  should  rather  be  called  Voltaism  than  Galvanism. 

ELECTRO-M AGN  ETISM.  Analogies  between  electricity  and  magnetism  were 
discovered  by  Oersted  of  Copenhagen,  .n  1807.  This  analogy  was  established 
in  1819,  and  was  confirmed  by  subsequent  experiments  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  the  United  States  and  other  countries 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  Experiments  in  electricity,  ^aving  more  or  less 
bearing  upon  its  practical  use  in  telegraphic  communication,  were  made  by 
Winckler,  at  Leipsic,  1746;  La  Monnier,  in  Paris ;  Watson,  in  London,  1747; 
Lomond,  in  1784;  Betancour,  at  Madrid,  1798.  Galvani's  discovery  oi 
"Galvanism,"  at  Bolonga,  1791.  Prof.  Volta's  "Voltaic  Battery,"  at  Pavia, 
1801 ;  Soemmerring,  at  Munich,  1807.  The  practical  use  of  Galvanism  in 
telegraphs,  as  prophesied  by  John  Redman  Coxe,  of  Phila.,  in  1816.  Great 
advance  made  by  Prof.  Oersted  at  Copenhagen,  in  1819.  The  electro-mag- 
netic agency  first  fully  developed  and  applied  by  Prof.  Morse,  1832,  patented 
1840.  The  first  telegraph  by  this  agency  in  the  United  States,  was  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore,  in  1844.  Cooke  &  Wheatsone's  patent  in  En- 
gland, 1840.  Bain's  patent  in  England,  first,  1842;  applied  in  United  States 
in  1849.  House's  in  1848.  The  telegraphic  lines  in  the  United  States,  in 
Jan.  1850  extended  6,679  miles.— See  Supplement. 

ELEPHANT.  This  animal,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  trained  to  war.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Maccabees  informs  us,  that  "  to  every  elephant  they  appointed 
1000  men,  armed  with  coats  of  mail,  and  500  horse ;  and  upon  the  elephants 
were  strong  towers  of  wood,"  (fee.  The  elephants  in  the  army  of  Antiochus 
were  provoked  to  fight  by  showing  them  the  "  blood  of  grapes  and  mulber- 
ries." The  first  elephant  said  to  have  been  seen  in  England,  was  one  of 
enormous  size,  presented  by  the  king  of  France  to  our  Henry  III.,  in  1238.— 
Baker's  C/iron, 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.  A  great  festival  under  this  name  was  observed 
by  the  Athenians  and  other  nations :  these  mysteries  were  the  most  celebra- 
ted of  all  the  religious  ceremonies  of  Greece,  and  were  instituted  by  Eumol- 
pus,  1356  B.  c.  They  were  so  superstitiously  observed,  that  if  any  one 
revealed  them,  it  was  supposed  that  he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon 
him,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  The  mysteries  were  introduced  from  Eleusis 
into  Rome,  and  lasted  about  1800  years,  and  were  at  last  abolished  by  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great,  A.  D.  389. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.  These  admirable  works  of  ancient  art  were  derived 
chieflr  from  the  Parthenon,  a  temple  of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
of  which  temple  they  formed  part  of  the  frieze  and  pediment,  built  by  Phi- 
dias about  500  B.  c.  Lord  Elgin  began  the  collection  of  these  marbles  during 
his  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  1802;  they  were  purchased  of  him  by 
the  British  government  for  36,OOW.,  and  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  in 
1816. 

EMBALMING.  The  ancient  Egyptians  believed  that  their  souls,  after  many 
thousand  years,  would  come  to  reinhabit  their  bodies,  in  case  these  latter 
were  preserved  entire.  Hence  arose  their  practice  of  embalming  the  lead. 
The  Egyptian  manner  of  preserving  the  dead  has  been  the  admiration  and 
wonder  of  modern  times.  They  rendered  the  body  not  only  incorruptible. 


BMP  J  DICTIONARY   OP    DATES.  365' 

but  it  retained  its  full  proportion  of  size,  symmetry  of  features,  and  personal 
likeness.  They  called  the  embalmed  bodies  mummies,  some  of  which,  buried 
3000  years  ago,  are  perfect  to  this  day.  The  art  of  such  embalming  is  now 
lost.  When  Nicodemus  came  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  to  pay  the  last 
duties  to  our  Saviour  after  his  crucifixion,  he  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh 
and  aloes  to  embalm  his  body. — John  xix.  38. 

EMBARGO  IN  ENGLAND,  This  power  is  invested  in  the  crown,  but  it  ia 
rarely  exercised  except  in  extreme  cases,  and  sometimes  as  a  prelude  to 
war.  The  most  memorable  instances  of  embargo  were  those  for  the  preven- 
tion of  corn  going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766;  and  for  the  detention  of  all 
Russian.  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships  in  the  several  ports  of  the  kingdom, 
owing  to  the  armed  neutrality,  Jan.  14,  1801.  See  Armed  Neutrality. 

EMBARGO  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Embargo  on  all  -easels  in  the  ports 
of  the  United  States,  passed  by  Congress  with  reference  to  the  quarrel  with 
Great  Britain  after  the  attack  on  the  U.  S.  frigate  Chesapeake,  1807.  Re- 
pealed and  non-intercourse  act  passed,  1809.  Embargo  again  laid  for  90 
days,  April,  1812.  War  declared  June  19,  1812. 

EMBER  WEEKS.  Observed  in  the  Christian  church  in  the  third  century,  to 
implore  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and 
fasting.  EMBER  DAYS,  three  of  which  fall  in  these  weeks,  and  in  which 
penitents  sprinkle  the  ashes  (embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  Four 
times  in  each  year  were  appointed  for  these  acts  of  devotion,  so  as  to  answer 
to  the  four  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter. 

EMBROIDERY.  Its  invention  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Phrygians;  but  we 
learn  from  Homer,  and  other  ancient  authors,  that  the  Sidonians  particu- 
larly excelled  in  this  decorative  species  of  needle- work.  Of  this  art  very 
early  mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures. — Exodus  xxxv.  35,  and  xxxviii.  23. 
An  ancient  existing  specimen  of  beautiful  embroidery  is  the  Bayeux  tapes- 
try, worked  by  Matilda,  the  queen  of  William  I.  of  England.  See  Bayeuf, 
Tapestry. 

EMERALD.  The  precious  stone  of  a  green  color  is  found  in  the  East  and  in 
Peru;  inferior  ones  in  other  places.  It  has  been  alleged  that  there  were  no 
true  emeralds  in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of  Peru;  but  there  is  a  gen- 
uine emerald  in  the  Paris  Museum,  taken  from  the  mitre  of  pope  Julius  II., 
who  died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was  not  conquered  till  1545 ;  hence  it  is  inferred 
that  this  emerald  was  brought  from  Africa,  or  the  East. 

EMIGRATION.  Of  late  years  emigrations  from  Britain  have  been  considera- 
ble. In  the  ten  years  ending  1830,  the  emigrations  to  the  North  American 
colonies  West  Indies,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New  South  Wales.  Swan  River, 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  &c.  were,  according  to  official  returns,  154  291.  In  tho 
decennial  period  to  1840,  the  emigrations  advanced  to  277,696,  exclusively 
of  the  vast  numbers  settling  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  num- 
ber of  emigrants  to  the  United  States  in  one  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1848,  were 
registered  as  born  in 


Great  Britai land  Ireland        •        -148,212 
Germany  »    58,018 


Denmark  ....    210 

Switzerland  -  -  »  •      •    319 

Other  countries  or  unknown    •          •  3,013 


France      -  ....      7,749 

Sweden  and  Norway  .  .903 

EMIR.  A  title  of  dignity  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  first  given  to  caliphs!. 
This  rank  was  first  awarded  to  the  descendants  of  Mahomet  by  his  daughter 
Fatima.  about  A.  D.  650. — Ricaut.  To  the  emirs  only  was  originally  given 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  green  turban.  It  is  also  given  to  high  officers 
(another  title  being  joined). 

EMPALEMENT.    This  barbarous  and  dreadful  mode  uf  putting  criminals  tf 


366  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

death  is  mentioned  by  Juvenal,  and  was  often  inflicted  in  Rome,  paiticularly 
by  the  monster  Nero.  The  victim  doomed  to  empalement  is  spitted  through 
the  body  on  a  stake  fixed  upright ;  and  this  punishment  is  still  used  in 
Turkey  and  Arabia.  The  dead  bodies  of  murderers  were  sometimes  staked 
in  this  manner,  previously  to  being  buried,  in  England. — Southern.  Wil- 
liams (who  committed  suicide)  the  murderer  of  the  Marr  faaiily,  in  Rat- 
clitfe  Highway,  London.  Dec.  8.  1811,  was  staked  in  his  ignominious  grave. 
This  practice  has  since  been  abolished  there.  See  Burying  Alive. 

EMPEROR.  Originally  a  title  of  honor  at  Rome,  conferred  on  victorious  ge- 
nerals, who  were  first  saluted  by  the  soldiers  by  that  name.  Augustnj 
Caesar  was  the  first  Roman  emperor,  27  B.  c.  Valens  was  the  first  emperor 
of  the  Eastern  empire,  A.  n.  364.  Charlemagne  was  the  first  emperor  of 
Germany,  crowned  by  Leo  III.  A.  D.  800.  Ottoman  I.,  founder  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire,  was  the  first  emperor  of  Turkey,  1296.  The  Czar  of  Russia 
was  the  first  emperor  of  that  country,  1722.  Don  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal 
was  the  first  emperor  of  Brazil,  in  1826. 

EMPIRICS.  They  were  a  set  of  early  physicians  who  contended  that  all  hy- 
pothetical reasoning  respecting  the  operations  of  the  animal  economy  was 
useless,  and  that  experience  and  observation  alone  were  the  foundation  of 
the  art  of  medicine.  The  sect  of  Empirics  was  instituted  by  Acron  of 
Agrigentum.  about  473  B.  c. 

ENAMELLING.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  enamelling  is  doubtful.  It  was 
practised  by  the  Egyptians  and  other  early  nations ;  and  was  known  in 
England  in  the  times  of  the  Saxons.  At  Oxford  is  an  enamelled  jewel 
which  belonged  to  Alfred,  and  which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was 
made  by  his  order,  in  his  reign,  about  A.  D.  887. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING,  known  to  the  ancients.  This  very  beautiful  art, 
after  having  been  lost,  was  restored  by  Count  Caylus  and  M.  Bachelier, 
A.  D.  1749. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA.  The  first  work  to  which  this  designation  was  expressly 
given,  was  that  of  Abulfarius,  an  Arabian  writer,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Many  were  published  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century,  but  none  alphabet- 
ically. Chambers'  Dictionary  was  the  first  of  the  circle  of  arts  and  sciences, 
in  England,  first  published  in  1728.  The  great  French  work,  Encyclopedia 
Methoilique,  to  which  Voltaire,  Diderot.  D'Alembert.  and  other  savans  contri- 
buted was  published  in  Il82etseq.,  in  200  quarto  volumes.  The  British  En- 
cyclopedia printed  in  Philadelphia  in  1798,  by  Thomas  Dobson,  was  the 
first  in  the  United  States.  The  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,,  edited  by  Sir  David 
Brewster.  was  published,  1810  et  scq.,  and  republished  in  the  United  States. 
Rees'  Cyclopedia  republished  in  the  United  States  in  1822.  The  cost  of 
the  7th  edition  of  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  edited  by  Professor  Napier,  and 
published  by  A.  &C.  Black  Edinburgh  in  1840  etc..  was  stated  to  have  been 
£126,000  of  which  £23000  were  pa '.d  to  the  contributors.  This  was  pro- 
bably the  most  costly  undertaking  of  the  kind  ever  achieved  by  private  enter- 
prise. The  Encyclopedia  Metrttpolitana  was  commenced  in  1815  and  finished 
in  1845.  Both  of  these  works  comprised  articles  by  the  most  distinguished 
writers  in  Great  Britain.  The  German,  Conversations  Lcxium,  published 
1796-1830  and  ujxm  the  basis  of  this  the  Encyclopedia  Americana  was  com- 
menced in  Philadelphia  in  1829-30.  Penny  Cycl.  (Knight's)  finished  1844. 

ENGINEERS.  This  name  is  of  modern  date,  as  engineers  were  formerly  called 
Trench-masters.  Sir  William  Pelham  officiated  as  trench-master  in  1622. 
The  chief  engineer  was  called  camp- master-general  in  1634.  Captain 
Thomas  Rudd  had  the  rank  of  chief  engineer  to  the  king,  about  1650.  Th» 
corps  of  engineers  was  formerly  a  civil  corps,  but  was  made  a  military 
force,  and  directed  to  rank  with  the  artillery,  April  25,  1787.  It  has  • 


•NO]  .DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  367 

colonel- in-chief,  and  a  second,  and  five  colonel-commandants,  and  twenty 
colonels.  The  Association  of  civil  engineers  was  established  in  1828.  The 
Bureau  of  Topographical  Engineers  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  established  at 
Washington. 

EXGLAND.  See  Britain.  So  named  by  order  of  Egbert,  first  king  of  Eng- 
land, in  a  general  council  held  at  Winchester,  A.  D.  829.  This  appellative 
had  been  used  as  far  back  as  A.  D.  688,  but  had  never  been,  until  then,  rati- 
fied by  any  assembly  of  the  nation.  It  came  from  Angles,  a  tribe  of  Saxons 
and  land,  the  Saxon  for  country.  For  English  history  and  succession  of 
Sovereigns,  see  Tabular  Views,  beginning  on  p.  75  in  this  volume.  England 
and  Wales  were  united  A.  D.  1283,  and  Scotland  was  united  to  both  in  1707, 
and  the  three  were  then  styled  Great  Britain.  Ireland  was  incorporated 
with  these  countries  by  the  Act  of  Legislative  Union,  January  1,  1801,  and 
the  whole  called  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

ENGLAND,  NEW.     See  New  England. 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  See  article  Languages.  From  the  High  Dutch  or 
Teutonic  sprung  (among  others)  the  English  language,  now  one  of  tho 
most  copious  and  beautiful  of  Europe.  Law  pleadings  were  made  in  En- 
glish by  order  of  Edward  III.  instead  of  the  French  language,  which  had 
been  continued  from  the  time  of  the  Conqueror,  A.  D.  1362.  The  English 
tongue  and  English  apparel  were  ordered  to  be  used  in  Ireland,  28  Henry 
VIII.  1536.  The  English  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all  lawsuits,  and  the 
Latin  disused,  May  1731. 

ENGRAVING.  The  engraving  of  gems  is  a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  an- 
tiquity. The  earliest  writers  make  mention  of  engraved  seals  and  seal 
rings,  and  there  still  exist  many  antique  engravings  equal  to  later  produc- 
tions of  similar  artists.  Engraving  from  plates  and  wood  is  chiefly  of  mo- 
dern invention,  having  its  origin  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  to  an  art  by  Boudier  of  Paris,  1799.  The 
art  of  engraving,  in  various  styles,  has  made  great  progress  in  the  United 
States  during  the  last  ten  years. 

ENGRAVING  ON  COPPER.  Prints  from  engraved  copper-plates  made  their 
appearance  about  A.  D.  1450,  and  were  first  produced  in  Germany.  Masso, 
surnamed  Finiguerra,  was  the  first  Italian  artist  in  this  way,  1450.  The 
earliest  date  known  of  a  copper-plate  engraving  is  1461.  Rolling  presses 
for  working  the  plates  were  invented  in  1545,  and  many  improvements  of  it 
followed.  Of  the  art  of  etching  on  copper  by  means  of  aquafortis,  Francis 
Mazzouli,  or  Parmagiano,  is  the  reputed  inventor,  about  A.  D.  1632. — 
De  Piles. 

ENGRAVING,  LITHOGRAPHIC.  This  is  a  new  branch  of  the  art,  and  Alois 
Sennefelder  may  be  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it.  It  was  first  announced 
on  the  Continent  in  1798,  and  became  more  known  as  polyautography  in 
1808.  It  was  introduced  into  general  use  in  England  by  Mr.  Ackermann  of 
London  in  1817. 

ENGRAVING,  MEZZOTINTO.  The  art  was  discovered  by  Siegen.  and  was  im- 
proved by  prince  Rupert  in  1648;  Sir  Christopher  Wren  further  impuved 
it  in  1662.  Aquatinta,  by  which  a  soft  and  beautiful  effect  is  produced, 
was  invented  by  the  celebrated  French  artist,  St.  Non  about  1662 ;  he  com- 
municated his  invention  to  Le  Prince.  Barrabe  of  Paris  was  distinguished 
for  his  improvements  in  this  kind  of  engraving.  1763.  Chiaro-oscuro  en- 
graving originated  with  the  Germans,  and  was  first  practised  by  Mair,  OM 
of  whose  prints  bears  date  1491.  See  Zincography,  fyc. 

ENGRAVING  ON  STEEL.  The  mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel,  which,  aftcf 
it  has  been  hardened,  will  multiply  copper  plates  and  fine  impressions,  in- 


368  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  '[  EFI 

•  definitely,  was  introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Heath,  ti 
Philadelphia,  in  1819. 

ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD,  took  its  rise  from  the  brief  mahlers,  or  manufacture:  s 
of  playing-cards,  about  A.  D.  1400 ;  and  from  this  sprung  the  invention  of 
printing,  first  attempted  by  means  of  wooden  types  not  movable.  See 
Printing.  The  art  is  referred  by  some  to  a  Florentine,  and  by  others  to 
Reuss,  a  German ;  it  was  greatly  improved  by  Durer  and  Lucas  Van  Leyden 
in  1497  ;  and  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England  by  Bewick,  his  brother, 
and  pupils,  Nesbett,  Anderson,  &c.,  1789.  et.  seq.  The  earliest  wood  en- 
graving which  has  reached  our  times  is  one  representing  St.  Christopher 
carrying  the  infant  Jesus  over  the  sea  ;  it  bears  date  A.  D.  1423. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  cannot  be  regarded  as  rank- 
ing as  a  science  until  the  arrangement  of  Linnaeus,  A.  D.  1739.  The  London 
Entomological  Society  was  instituted  in  1806 ;  it  is  directed  chiefly  to  the 
study  of  insects  found  in  Great  Britain ;  and  inquires  into  the  best  methods 
of  destroying  noxious  insects,  and  making  known  such  as  are  useful. 

ENVOYS.  They  enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the  ceremonies  of  ambassadors. 
Envoys  Extraordinary  are  of  modern  date. —  Wicquefort.  The  court  of 
France  denied  to  them  the  ceremony  of  being  conducted  to  court  in  the 
royal  carriages,  A.  D.  1639. 

EPHESUS.  Famous  for  the  temple  of  Diana,  which  magnificent  structure  wa? 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world;  it  was  425  feet  long  and  200  broad, 
and  cost  220  years  of  labor.  Ctesiphon  was  the  chief  architect,  and  127  kings 
contributed  to  its  grandeur.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  Erostratus,  solely  to 
perpetuate  his  memory,  356  B.  c. — Pliny.  It  rose  from  its  ruins,  and  was 
richer  and  more  splendid  than  before ;  but  it  was  again  burnt  A.  D.  260. — 
Univ.  Hist. 

EPHORI.  Powerful  magistrates  of  Sparta,  first  created  by  Theopompus  to  con- 
trol the  royal  power,  760  B.  o.  They  were  five  in  number,  and  acting  as 
censors  in  the  state,  they  could  check  and  restrain  the  authority  of  the 
kings,  and  even  imprison  them,  if  they  were  guilty  of  irregularities. 

EPIC  POETRY.  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey  the  first  epic  poems.  See 
HOMER. 

EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Epicurus  of  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  was  the 
founder  of  it,  about  300  B.  c.  and  taught  that  the  greatest  good  consists  in  a 
happiness,  springing  not  from  sensual  gratifications  or  vicious  pleasures,  but 
from  virtue,  and  consisting  in  the  peace  and  harmony  of  the  soul  with 
itself.  His  disciples  had  all  things  in  common ;  and  the  pleasantness  of  his 
system,  and  its  ease  and  luxury,  made  him  many  followers. 

EPIGRAMS.  They  derive  their  origin  from  the  inscriptions  placed  by  the 
ancients  on  their  tombs.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  the  celebrated  Latin 
epigrammatist,  who  flourished  about  A.  D.  83,  is  allowed  to  have  excelled  all 
others,  ancient  or  modern  in  the  tasteful  and  pointed  epigram.  The  follow- 
ing Latin  epigram  on  the  miracle  of  our  Saviour  in  turning  water  into  wine 
at  Cana  (John  iii.)  is  a  beautiful  example : — 

"  Videt  et  erubuit  lympha  puclica  Deum." 

And  Dr.  Johnson  has  declared  that  the  subjoined  English  epigram,  by  Di 
Doddridge,  on  the  words  Dum  vivimus  vivamus,  is  the  finest  specimen  IB 
«*ur  language: — 

"  Live  while  we  live !"  the  epicure  will  say, 
"  Anil  taste  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day." 
"  Live  while  we  live !"  ihe  hoary  preacher  cries, 
"  And  give  to  GOD  each  moment  as  it  flies." 
Lord !  in  my  view  let  both  united  be, 
We  live  in  pleasure  when  we  live  to  thee.— Doddridj* 


E1U  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  369 

EP1RUS.  Known  by  the  great  warlike  achievements  of  Pyrrhus.  Its  early 
histor  y  is  very  obscure,  and  it  is  only  during  the  reign  of  this  sovereign, 
who  was  the  last,  that  it  becomes  interesting.  The  first  Pyrrhus  (Neopto- 
lenms)  settled  in  Epirus  after  the  Trojan  war,  1170  B.  c.  He  was  killed  in 
the  temple  of  Delphi,  about  1165  B.  c. 


Reign  of  the  great  Pyrrhus        -    B.  c.    306 
He  enters  into  a  league  against  Deme- 
trius ;  the  battle  of  Beraea      -  -    294 
Expedition  into  Italy ;  he  gains  his  firs 
battle  against  the  Romans 
ie  gains  another  great  battle    - 


is  conquest  of  Sicily 
«is  last  battle  with  the  Romans 
He  takes  Maeedon  from  Antigonus 


2RO 
279 

273 


Expedition  against  Sparta  -  t.  u 

He  enters  Argos,  and  is  killed  by  a  tile 
thrown  at  him  from  a  house-top  by  a 


woman 


Philip  unites  Epirus  to  Maeedon 
Its  conquest  by  the  Romans 


273 


27.!. 

*aa 

167 


274  I  Annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire    A  D.  1466 

97d   ! 


274 


EPISCOPACY.  The  government,  by  its  bishops,  of  the  Christian  church.  It 
may  be  said  to  have  been  instituted  A.  D.  33.  when  Peter  sat  in  the  bishop's 
chair  at  Rome. — Butler.  Episcopacy  commenced  in  England  in  the  second 
century ;  in  Ireland  about  the  same  time ;  and  in  Scotland  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  but  historians  dispute  with  theologians  upon  this  point.  See  Bis)u>pt. 
In  Scotland,  episcopacy  was  finally  abolished  at  the  period  of  the  revolution, 
1688-9.  The  sect  called  Episcopalians  first  appeared  about  the  year  600  — 
Burnet. 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Episcopacy  established  in  New- 
York  by  law,  1693 ;  introduced  into  Connecticut,  1706.  The  first  bishops  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America  were  bishop  White  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Provost  of  New-York,  consecrated  in  London.  1787.  First 
Episcopal  convention,  1789.  Bishops  of  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  Kentucky,  and 
Ohio  consecrated  at  New- York,  Nov.  2, 1832. 

EPITAPHS.  They  were  used  by  the  ancient  Jews,  by  the  Athenians,  the  Ro- 
mans, and  most  of  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  their  date  is  referred  in  Eng- 
land to  the  earliest  times.  In  the  epitaphs  of  the  ancients  arose  the 
epigram. — Boileau. 

EPITHALAMIUM.  Tisias,  the  lyric  poet,  was  the  first  writer  of  a  nuptial 
complimentary  song,  or  epithalamium.  He  received  the  name  of  Stesicho- 
rus  from  the  alterations  made  by  him  in  music  and  dancing,  536  B.  c. — 
Bossuet. 

EPOCHAS.  These  are  periods  in  history  which  are  agreed  upon  and  acknow- 
ledged by  the  respective  historians  and  chronologers,  and  which  serve  to 
regulate  the  date  of  events.  The  following  are  the  epochas  thus  particu- 
larly adopted. — See  Eras. 


Creation     -  -  -  -  B.  c  4001 

Deluge      ....  2348 

Calling  of  Abraham  •  •        1921 

Argonautic  expedition   -  •  1225 

Destruction  of  Troy       '••*.'  1181 

1st  Olympiad       ...  776 


Building  of  Rome  • 
Nabonassar 
The  Seleucidae 
The  battle  of  Actium 
The  Christian  era    • 
Diocletian 


753 
747 
312 
38 
1 
281 


EQUINOX.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was  confirmed,  and  the  places 
and  distances  of  the  planets  were  discovered  by  Ptolemy,  A.  D.  130.  When 
the  sun  in  his  progress  through  the  ecliptic  comes  to  the  equinoctial  circle, 
the  day  and  night  are  equal  all  over  the  globe :  this  occurs  twice  in  the  year; 
once  in  the  first  point  of  Aries,  which  is  called  the  vernal  equinox ;  ntxt  in 
the  first  point  of  Libra,  which  is  the  autumnal  equinox. — Blair. 

EQUITY.  COURTS  OF.  To  determine  causes  according  to  the  rule  of  equity 
and  conscience,  rather  than  acccrding  to  strict  law,  A.  D.  1067. — See  Gum- 
eery. 

ERAS.  Notices  of  the  principal  eras  will  be  found  in  their  alphabetical  order, 
a  few  only  need  be  mentioned  here.  The  era  of  Nabonasser.  after  which 
16* 


370  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  ran 

the  astronomical  observations  made  at  Babylon  were  reckoned,  began  Feb 
26.  747.  The  era  of  the  Seleucidae  (used  by  the  Maccabees)  commenced 
312  E.  c.  The  Olympiads  belong  to  the  Grecians,  and  date  from  the  year 
776  B.  c. ;  but  they  subsequently  reckoned  by  Indictions,  the  first  beginning 
A.  D.  313 :  these,  among  chronologers,  are  still  used. — See  Indictions.  The  Ro- 
mans reckoned  from  the  building  of  their  city,  753  B.  c. ;  and  afterwards 
from  the  16th  year  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  which  reckoning  was  adopted 
among  the  Spaniards  until  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  The  disci- 
ples of  Mahomet  began  their  ffegira  from  the  flight  of  their  prophet  from 
Mecca,  which  occurred  A.  D.  622. 

ERAS  OF  THE  CREATION  AND  REDEMPTION.  The  Jews  and  Christian* 
have  had  divers  epochas ;  but  in  historical  computation  of  time  are  chiefly 
used  the  most  extraordinary  epochs,  which  are  two,  the  Creation  of  tte 
World,  and  the  appearance  of  our  REDEEMER,  which  last  the  Christians  ha  vo 
made  their  era.  They  did  not  adopt  it,  however,  until  the  sixth  century, 
when  it  was  introduced  by  Denys  the  Little,  a  Scythian,  who  became  abbot 
of  a  monastery  near  Rome :  he  was  the  first  who  computed  time  from  the 
birth  of  Christ,  and  fixed  that  great  event  according  to  the  vulgar  era. — 
Cassiodorus  Chron.  This  computation  began  in  Italy,  A.  D.  525,  and  in  Eng- 
land in  816.  It  is  the  only  one  now  in  general  use,  and  is  that  observed  in 
this  work. — See  Crealwn,  and  Christian  Era. 

ESCURIAL.  The  palace  of  the  kings  of  Spain,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
magnificent  in  the  world.  It  was  commenced  by  Philip  II.  in  the  year  1562 ; 
and  the  first  expenditure  of  its  erection  was  6  000.000  of  ducats.  It  forms 
a  vast  square  of  polished  stone,  and  paved  with  marble.  It  may  give  some 
notion  of  the  surprising  grandeur  of  this  palace  to  observe,  that,  according 
to  the  computation  of  Francisco  de  los  Santos  it  would  take  up  more  than 
four  days  to  go  through  all  its  rooms  and  apartments,  the  length  of  the  way 
being  reckoned  thirty-three  Spanish  leagues,  which  is  above  120  English 
miles.  Alvarez  de  Colmenar  also  asserts,  that  there  are  14,000  doors,  and 
11  000  windows  belonging  to  this  edifice. 

ESQUIRES.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  esquires  were  armor-bearers  to, 
or  attendants  on  a  knight. — BbwnL  In  England  the  king  created  esquires 
by  putting  about  their  necks  the  collar  of  S  S,  and  bestowing  upon  them  a 
.pair  of  silver  spurs.  A  British  queen  is  recorded  as  having  married  the 
armiyerum,  or  esquire,  of  her  deceased  husband.  The  distinction  of  esquire 
was  first  given  to  persons  of  fortune  not  attendant  upon  knights,  A.  D.  1345. 
— Stowe.  Mciji-ick's  Ancient  Armor. 

ETHER.  It  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  Nitric  ether  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Kunkel.  in  1681 ;  and  muriatic  ether  was  first  made  from  the 
chloride  of  tin,  by  Courtanvaux,  in  1759.  Acetic  ether  was  discovered  by 
count  Lauraguais,  same  year;  and  hydriodic  ether  was  first  prepared  by 
Gay-Lussac.  The  phosphoric  was  obtained  by  M.  Boullay.  Ether  is  said 
to  have  been  first  applied  to  the  purpose  of  causing  insensibility  to  pain  by 
Dr.  Horace  Wells,  of  Connecticut,  in  1846.  This,  however  is  disputed  for 
about  the  same  time  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson  of  Boston  well  known  as  a  geologist 
and  chemist,  suggested  the  use  of  ether  in  surgery;  but  to  Dr.  Morton,  of 
Boston  probably  belongs  the  credit  of  first  demonstrating  by  actual  experi- 
ment the  use  of  ether  in  dentistry  and  surgery,  as  an  annihilator  of  pain. 
It  was  used  in  surgical  cases,  in  that  year,  by  Drs.  J.  C.  Warren  Charming, 
and  Morton,  of  Boston,  who  afterwards  published  the  results  of  their  experi- 
ments. The  practice  was  first  copied  in  Europe  by  Dr.  Robertson,  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dr.  Booth  of  London,  the  same  year.  The  sulphuric  ether  is 
inhaled  from  an  apparatus  with  flexible  tube  &c.  Etheri/ation  was  first 
used  in  operative  midwifery,  in  the  United  States,  May,  1847.  The  hubstance 


«VE]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  371 

calLd  chloroform,  originally  discovered  bjr  Soubeiran,  in  1831,  was  also  first 
employed  for  similar  purposes  in  1847,  by  professor  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh. 

RTH1CS.  The  doctrine  and  system  of  morality ;  a  science  which  is  scarcely 
more  inculcated  by  religion  and  virtue,  than  it  is  influenced  by  manners  and 
government:  the  Chinese,  who  are  said  "to  have  been  acquainted  with 
astronomy  at  least  3000  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  were  so  refined  in 
the  earliest  ages,  that  they  studied  ethics,  we  are  told,  a  thousand  years 
before  that  event ;  and  hence  they  must  have  lived  at  that  time  under  not 
only  civilized  and  enlightened,  but  refined  and  moral  governments. 

ETNA,  MOUNT.  Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops  ;  and  it  is  called 
by  Pindar  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Eruptions  are  mentioned  by  Diodorm 
Siculus  as  happening  1693  B.  c.,  and  Tlmcydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions 
as  occurring,  734.  477,  and  425  B.  c.  There  were  e-uptions,  125,  121,  and  43 
B.  c. — Lii-y.  Eruptions  A.  D.  40.  253,  and  420. —  Carrera.  One  in  1012. — 
Geoffrey  de  Viterbo.  Awful  one  which  overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15  OOC 
inhabitants  perished  in  the  burning  ruins.  1169.  Eruptions  eaually  awful 
and  destructive,  1329,  1408,  1444.  1536  1537,  1564:  and  in  1669,  -vhen  tena 
of  thousands  of  persons  perished  in  the  streams  of  lava  which  rolled  over 
the  whole  country  for  forty  days.  Eruptions  in  1766.  1787,  1809.  1811,  and 
in  May  1830.  when  several  villages  were  destroyed,  and  showers  of  lava 
reached  even  to  Rome.  Another  violent  eruption,  and  the  town  of  Bronte 
destroyed,  Nov.  18,  1832. 

EUCLID,  ELF.MKNTS  OP.  Euclid  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  flourished 
there  about  300  B.  c.  The  Elements  are  not  wholly  his,  for  many  of  the  invalu- 
able truths  and  demonstrations  they  contain  were  discovered  and  invented 
by  Thales,  Pythagoras.  Eudoxus.  and  others ;  but  Euclid  was  the  first  who 
reduced  them  to  regular  order,  and  who  probably  interwove  many  theo- 
rems of  his  own.  to  render  the  whole  a  complete  and  connected  system  of 
geometry.  The  Elements  were  first  printed  at  Basil,  by  Simon  Grynaeus, 
in  A.  D.  1533. 

EUNUCHS.  This  species  of  mutilation  is  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  nations;  and  eunuchs  in  the  earliest  times  were  attendants  in 
courts.  The  first  princess  who  was  waited  upon  by  eunuchs  in  her  cham- 
ber, was  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  about  2007  B.  c. — Leng- 
let.  Numbers  of  this  class  of  persons  are  in  the  quality  of  attendants  on 
the  ladies  of  the  Seraglio  in  Turkey. 

BUST  ATI  A,  ST.  This  island  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1632 :  it  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1689  ;  by  the  English  in  1690;  and  again  by  the  British 
forces,  under  admiral  Rodney  and  general  Vaughan,  February  3  1781.  It 
was  recovered  by  th*  French  under  the  marquis  de  Bouille",  Nov.  26.  same 
year;  and  was  again  captured  by  the  British  in  1801,  and  1810;  but  re- 
stored in  1814. 

EVANGELISTS.  Mark  and  Matthew  wrote  their  Gospels  in  A.  D.  44 ;  Luke  in 
65 ;  and  John  in  97.  In  95  John  was  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil 
at  Rome,  whence,  being  taken  out  unhurt,  he  was  banished  to  the  Isle  of 
Patmos.  and  there,  in  the  year  96  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  and  died  in  100, 
— Butler.  At  the  council  of  Nice  in  325,  there  were  200  varied  versions  of 
the  adopted  Evangelists. 

EVESHAM,  BATTLE  OF,  between  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  and 
Simon  de  Montfort.  earl  of  Leicester,  in  which  the  barons  were  defeated, 
and  the  earl,  his  son,  and  most  of  his  adherents  slain.  Henry  III.  af  one 
period  of  the  battle  was  on  the  point  of  being  cleft  down  by  a  soldier  who 
did  not  know  his  rank,  but  was  saved  by  his  timely  exclamation,  "  Do  not 


372  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [B» 

kill  me,  soldier,  I  nm  Henry  of  Winchester,  thy  king  !"  This  victory  broke 
up  the  treasonable  conspiracy  of  the  barons;  fought  August  4,  1265*. 

EXCHANGE.  One  called  Collegium  Mercatorum,  existed  at  Rome,  493  B.  o. 
The  Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reckoned  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind 
in  the  world.  Many  edifices  of  this  name  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  mag- 
nificent. The  exchange  of  London  was  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham, 
June  7,  1566,  and  was  called  Royal,  by  Elizabeth,  on  her  paying  it  a  visit  in 
Jaii.  1571.  Destroyed  by  fire  in  1666  and  in  1838 :  rebuilt  and  v  pened  in  1 S44, 

EXCHANGE  (MERCHANTS')  IN  NEW  YORK.  The  present  building,  on  the  site 
of  the  one  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1836,  was  commenced  in  1836,  and 
finished  in  1840.  It  is  of  blue  granite,  and  cost  $1,800,000.  That  of  Boston, 
nlso  of  Quincy  granite,  finished  in  1846. 

EXCHEQUER.  An  institution  of  great  antiquity,  consisting  vif  officers  whose 
functions  are  financial  or  judicial :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  the 
first  of  these,  and  he  formerly  sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above  the 

;  barons.  The  first  chancellor  was  Eustace  de  Faucon bridge,  bishop  of  Lon- 
don, in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  about  1221.  The  exchequer  stopped  pay- 
ment from  Jan.  to  May  the  24th.  Charles  II.  1673.— Stmce.  The  English 

;      and  Irish  exchequers  were  consolidated  in  1816. 

EXCISE.  The  excise  system  was  established  in  England  by  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment ;  was  continued  under  Cromwell  and  Charles  II. ;  and  was  organized 
as  at  present  in  the  Walpole  administration.  It  was  first  collected  and  an 
office  opened  in  1643.  and  was  arbitrarily  levied  upon  liquors  and  provisions 
to  support  the  parliament  forces  against  Charles  I.  The  excise  office  was 
built  on  the  site  of  Gresham  College,  in  1774.  The  officers  of  excise  and 
customs  were  deprived  of  their  votes  for.  members  of  parliament  in  1782 
See  Revenue. 

AMOUNT   OF   THE   EXCISE   REVENUE   OP  GREAT    BRITAIN   IN   THE   FOLLOWING   TEARS. 


1744  Great  Britain  -           -        JE3,7S4,072 

1786       Ditto         -  -           -    5,510,114 

1808       Ditto  •           .      -  19,867,914 

1820       Ditto         -  .           -  26,364,702 


1830  United  Kingdom  -        .£18,644,385 

1834         Ditto              .  -      16,877,292 

1837         Ditto       -  -  -  14,518.142 

1840         Ditto            .  .      .  12,607,766 

1845         Ditto       •  -  -  13.585,593 


1827  United  Kingdom  -      -  20,995,324 

EXCOMMUNICATION.  An  ecclesiastical  anathema,  or  interdict  from  Chris- 
tian communion.  It  was  originally  instituted  for  preserving  the  purity  of 
the  church ;  but  ambitious  ecclesiastics  converted  it  by  degrees  into  an  en- 

fine  for  promoting  their  own  power.  Some  suppose  excommunication  to 
e  of  Hindoo  origin  in  the  Pariah  caste,  and  that  it  was  adopted  by  the 
Jews  (who  had  three  degrees  of  it),  and  from  these  latter  by  the  Christian 
churches.  The  Greek  and  Roman  priests  and  even  the  Druids  had  similar 
punishments  in  aid  of  their  respective  religions. — Phillips. 
EXCOMMUNICATION  BY  THE  POPES.  The  Catholic  church  excommuni- 
cates by  bell,  book,  and  candle. — See  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle.  The  popes 
have  carried  their  authority  to  such  excess  as  to  excommunicate  and  depose 
sovereigns.  Gregory  VII.  was  the  first  pope  who  assumed  this  extravagant 
power.  He  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  in  1077,  ab- 
solving his  subjects  from  their  allegiance ;  and  on  the  emperor's  death, 
"  his  excommunicated  body"  was  five  years  above  ground,  no  one  daring  to 
bury  it.  In  England  were  many  excommunications  in  Henry  II.'s  reign ; 
and  king  John  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1208.  when  all 
England  lay  under  an  interdict  for  six  years.  The  citizens  of  Dublin  wera 
excommunicated  by  Clement  IV.  in  1206.  Bulls  denouncing  hell-fire  to 
queen  Elizabeth  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  plenary  indul- 
gences were  offered  to  all  who  should  assist  in  deposing  her. 

EXECUTIONS.    See  Crime.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (thirty-eight  year/) 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


it  Is  shown  that  no  less  a  number  than  72.000  criminals  were  executed.— 
Stoiee.  In  the  ten  years  between  1820  and  1830,  there  were  executed  in  Eng- 
land alone  797  criminals  ;  but  as  our  laws  became  less  bloody,  the  numbef 
of  executions  proportionally  decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  1820, 
the  executions  in  England  and  Wales  amounted  to  312  ;  in  the  three  years 
ending  1830,  they  were  reduced  to  178 ;  and  in  the  three  years  ending  1840 
they  had  decreased  to  62. — Parl.  Returns. 


EXECUTIOKS   IN   LONDON   IN   THE   FOLLOWING   TEARS. 


In  the  year  1820  -  43 
In  the  year  1825  -  17 


In  the  year  1835  -  nil 
In  the  year  1836  -  nil 


In  the  year  1830  -  6  In  the  year  1837  •  2 


In  the  year  1838  -  nil 


In  the  year  1839 
In  the  year  1840 


In  the  year  1841  -  1 
In  the  year  1842  -  i 
In  the  year  1843  •  1 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITION  (U.  S.),  consisting  of  the  Vincennes,  sloop  of 
war ;  Peacock,  ditto ;  Porpoise,  brig ;  Relief  Flying  Fish,  and  Sea  GulJ 
smaller  vessels,  under  Lieut.  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.,  sailed  from  Hampton  Roads. 
Va.,  Aug.  19th,  1838.  Antarctic  continent  discovered,  July  19,  1839.  At^ 
tack  on  the  Fejees  for  murdering  two  of  the  officers,  July  25,  1846.  The 
Peacock  lost  on  the  bar  of  Columbia  river,  July  1841.  The  Vincennes 
(flag-ship)  returned  to  New  York,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  four  years, 
June  11, 1842.  Captain  Wilkes's  Narrative  of  the  Expedition,  in  6  vols.  Imp. 
8vo.  and  quarto,  was  published  in  1845.  The  scientific  reports  of  the  ex- 
pedition form  about  20  quarto  and  folio  volumes. 

EXPORTS,  AND  IMPORTS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM  1791. 


fears. 
1791 

Imports. 
$52.58)0.000 

Exports. 
•  $19,012,041 

years. 
1820  • 

Imports. 
74,450.000  - 

Exports. 
69,691.669 

1702  - 

31,500,000 

20,753,098 

1821 

•  62,585,724 

•  64,974;3Si! 

1793 

•  31,100,000 

•  26,109,572 

1822  • 

83,241,541  - 

72,160.281 

1794  - 

34,600,000 

33,026.233 

1823 

•  77.579.267 

-  74,699,030 

1795 

-  69,756,268 

-  47,989,472 

1824  - 

80,549,007  - 

75,986,657 

1796  - 

81,436,164 

67,064.097 

1825 

-  96.340,075 

-  99,535,388 

1797 

-  75,379,406 

-  56,850,206 

1826  - 

84,974,477  • 

77,595,322 

1793  - 

68,551,700 

61,527,097 

1827 

-  79,484,068 

-  82,3;-4,827 

1799 

-  79,'«8,148 

•  78,665,522 

1828  • 

88.509,824  - 

72,264,686' 

1800  - 

91,252,768 

70,971,780 

1829 

•  74,492,527 

-  72,358,671 

1801 

•  111,363,511 

-  94.115,925 

1830  . 

70.876,920  • 

73,849,508 

1802  - 

76.333,333 

72,483,160 

1831 

-  103,191,134 

-  81,310,583 

1803 

-  64,666,666 

.  55,800,033 

1832  - 

101,029.266  - 

87,176,943 

1804  - 

85,000,000 

77,699,074 

1833 

-  108.118,311 

•  90,140,433 

1805 

-  120,000,000 

•  95,566,021 

1834  - 

126,521,332  - 

104,aJ6,97:: 

1806  . 

129,000,000 

301,536.963 

1835 

-  149,895,742 

-  121,693.577 

1807 

-  138,500,000 

-  108,343,150 

1836  - 

189,980,035  . 

128,663,040 

1808  • 

56,990,000 

22,439,900 

1837 

-  140,989,217 

-  117,419,376. 

1809 

•  59,400,000 

-  52.203,231 

1838  - 

108,486,616  - 

113,717,404 

1810  • 

85,400,000 

66,757,974 

1839 

-  121,028,416 

.  162,092.132 

1811 

•  53,400,000 

-  61,316,831 

1840  - 

131,571,950  • 

104,805,891 

18  L2  • 

77,030,000 

38,527,236 

1841 

-  127,946,177 

-  121,851,803 

1813 

.  22,005,000 

-  27,855,997 

1842  - 

100,162,087  - 

104,691,534 

1814  - 

12,965,000 

6,927,441 

1843 

-  64,753,799* 

-  84,346,480* 

1815 

-  113.041,274 

•  52,557,753 

1844  - 

108,435,035t  - 

111,200  046t 

1816  - 

147,103,000 

81,920,452 

1845 

-  117,254,564t 

-  114,646  ,606t 

1817 

.  99,250,000 

•  87,67  U569 

1846  - 

121,691,797t  - 

1  13,488  5l6t 

1818  - 

121,750,000 

93,281,133 

1847 

•  146.545,638t 

•  158,64f,6221 

1819 

.  87,125,000 

•  70,142,521 

1848  - 

154,977,876t  - 

154,032  .131* 

EXPORTS,  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Edward  III.,  by  his  encouragement  of  trade, 
turned  the  scale  so  much  in  favor  of  English  merchandise,  that  by  a  balance 
of  trade  taken  in  his  time,  the  exported  commodities  amounted  to  294,000.'., 
and  the  imported  to  only  38,OOOZ. 

VALUE   OF  EXPORTS   PROM   GREAT   BRITAIN   TO   ALL  PARTS   OP  THB   WORLD,   VIZ: — 


In  1700    - 

JE6,097,120 

In  1820    - 

£51,733,113 

In  1842     - 

£102,180,517 

In  1750 
In  1775    . 

10,130,991 
16,326,363 

In  1830 
In  1835    - 

66,735,445 
78.376,732 

In  1843 
In  1844      - 

100,260,101 
117,877,278 

In  1800 

38,120,120 

In  1840 

97,402,726 

In  1845 

131,564,503 

In  1810    • 

45,869,839 

In  1841    . 

102,705,372 

In  1846      - 

134,509,114 

*  Only  nine  months  of  1843. 


t  For  the  year  ending  June  30. 


374  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  FAI* 

The  amounts  above  given  relate  to  the  exports  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  British  and  Irish  produce  only.  The  total  exports,  including  foreign  and 
colonial  produce,  were,  according  to  official  returns,  as  follows : 

In  1311  •    -.£116,479,678  I  In  1843   -   -JE1 13,844,259  I  In  1845   -  -  jE145,961,749 
In  1842   -  -  116,903,668  |  In  1844  -     -  131,833,391  |  In  1846  -   -  100,879,986 

In  the  year  ending  5th  January  1846,  the  amount  of  imports  into  the 
United  Kingdom  was  85,281, 958Z;  and  the  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  Eng- 
land, deducting  this  sum  from  her  exports,  was  65  598  028Z.  But  even  this 
great  balance  has  been  exceeded  in  recent  years,  as,  for  instance,  the  year 
immediately  preceding,  when  it  mounted  to  upwards  of  seventy  millions.— 
Brit.  Revenue  Returns. 

EYLAU,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most 
bloody  of  Napoleon's  wars  :  it  terminated  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  who  com- 
manded in  person ;  but  both  armies  by  this  and  other  recent  battles  were 
so  much  reduced,  that  the  French  retired  to  the  Vistula,  and  the  Russians 
on  the  Pregel :  the  loss  to  the  victor  was  15,000  men,  and  the  Russian  loss 
in  slain  alone  was  20,000.  Feb.  8,  1807. 

F. 

FABII.  A  noble  and  powerful  family  at  Rome,  who  derived  their  name  from 
faba,  a  bean,  because  some  of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  pulse :  they 
were  said  to  be  descended  from  Fabius,  a  supposed  son  of  Hercules,  and 
were  once  so  numerous  that  they  took  upon  themselves  to  wage  war  against 
the  Veientes.  They  came  to  a  general  engagement  near  the  Cremera,  in 
which  all  the  family,  consisting  of  306  men,  were  slain,  B.  c.  477.  There 
only  remained  one,  whose  tender  age  had  detained  him  at  Rome,  and  from 
him  arose  the  noble  Fabii  in  the  following  ages. 

FABLES.  "  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  is  the  oldest  extant,  and  as  beautiful 
as  any  made  since." — Addison.  Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man  (2  Sam. 
xii.)  is  next  in  antiquity.  The  earliest  collectionof  fables  extant  is  of  east- 
ern origin,  and  preserved  in  the  Sanscrit.  The  fables  of  Vishnoo  Sarma, 
called  Pilpay,  are  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  ancient,  in  the  world. 
— Sir  William  Jones.  The  well-known  ^Esop's  fables  (which  see),  were 
written  about  540  years  B.  c. — Plutarch. 

FACTIONS.  A.mong  the  Romans,  factions  were  parties  that  fought  on  cha- 
riots in  the  cirque,  and  who  were  distinguished  by  their  different  colors, 
a  green,  blue,  red,  and  white,  to  which  Domitian  added  two  others,  one  in 
coats  embroidered  with  gold,  a  second  wearing  scarlet,  about  A.  D.  90  Both 
the  emperors  and  people  had  generally  greater  inclination  for  some  parti- 
cular color  than  the  rest;  but  upon  a  quarrel  happening  in  Justinian's  reign, 
between  the  blue  and  green,  when  40.000  were  killed  on  both  sides,  the 
name  of  faction  was  abolished.  With  us,  faction  means  a  party  or  sect  in 
religious  or  civil  matters,  and  is  always  taken  in  an  ill  sense. 

FAIRS  AND  WAKES.  They  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  were  first  instituted  in 
England  by  Alfred.  A.  D.  886. — Spelman.  They  were  established  by  order  of 
Gregory  VII.  in  1708,  and  termed  Feriee,  at  which  the  monks  celebrated  Ihs 
festival  of  their  patron  saint ;  the  vast  resort  of  people  occasioned  a  great  de- 
mand for  goods,  wares  &c.  They  were  called  wakes  from  the  people  making 
merry  during  the  vigil,  or  eve.  Fairs  were  established  in  France  and  Eng- 
land by  Charlemagne  and  William  the  Conqueror,  about  A.  D.  800  in  the 
first,  and  1071  in  the  latter  kingdom.  The  fairs  of  Beaucaire,  Falaise,  and 
Leipsic,  are  the  most  famous  in  Europe. 

FALKIRK,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  under  Edward  I.  and  the  Scots, 
commanded  by  the  heroic  Wallace,  in  which  40, 000  of  the  latter  were  slaih 


rSV  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  375 

the  whole  Scotch  army  was  broken  up,  and  was  chased  off  the  field  with 

dreadful  slaughter,  July  22,  1298. 
FAMINES,  AND  SEASONS  OF  REMARKABLE  SCARCITY,    The  famine  of 

the  seven  years  in  Egypt  began  1708  B.  c. —  Usher ;  Blair.     In  a  famine  that 

raged  at  Rome  thousands  of  the  people  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber, 

436  B.  c.  Liry. 

Awful  famine  in  Egypt          -        A.  D.     42  i       voured  the  flesh  of  horses,  dogs,  cats, 

A;  Rome,  attended  by  plague    -  -    262  j       and  vermin         -  -  -  A.D.  1315 

In  Britain,  so  grievous  that  people  ate          i   One  in  England  and  France  (.Rapin)  •  1353 

the  hark  of  trees          ...   272  !   Again,  one  so  great,  that  bread  waa 
In  Scotland,  and  thousands  die       -      -   306;       made  from  fern  roots  (Sloice)  1438 


In  Eng\atid.  where  40,000  perish  •  310  '  Awful  one  in  France  (  Voltaire) 

Awlul  one  in  Phrygia    -           -  -  370  One  general  in  Great  Britain 

go  dreadful  in  Italy,  that  parents  ate          i  One  which  devastates  Bengal   - 

their  children  (Dufresnoy)         •  •  4501  At  the  Cape  de  Verds,  whrre  16,000  per 

In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland  -  739  •       sons  perish 

Again,  when  thousands  starve       -  -  823  (  One  grievously  felt  in  France 

Again,  which  lasts  four  years   -  -  954  i  One  severely  felt  in  England     - 

Awful  one  throughout  Europe       -  -  1016  Again,  throughout  the  kingdom 


In  England  and  France ;  this  famine 
leads  to  a  pestilential  fever,  which 
lasts  from  1193  to  -  -  -1195 

Another  famine  in  England  -      -  1251 


At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Sweden   flier 

cepting  the  supplies    - 
Scarcity  of  food,  severely  felt  by  the 

Irish  poor,  1814,  1816,  1822,  and    -  1845-6 


1693 
1743 
1771 

1775 
1789 
1795 
1801 

1813 


Again,  so  dreadful,  that  the  people  de- 

FAN,  The  use  of  the  fan  was  known  to  the  ancients:  Cape  hoc  flabellum  ct 
ventulnm  huic  sic  facito. — TERENCE.  The  modern  custom  among  the  ladies 
was  borrowed  from  the  East.  Fans,  together  with  muffs,  masks,  and  false 
hair,  were  first  devised  by  the  harlots  in  Italy,  and  were  brought  to  England 
from  France. — Stmoe.  The  fan  was  used  by  females  to  hide  their  faces  in 
church. — Pardon. 

FARCE.  This  species  of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll  shows 
which  were  exhibited  by  charlatans  and  their  buffoons  in  the  open  street. 
These  were  introduced  into  our  theatres  in  a  ludicrous  and  more  refined 
form ;  and  they  are  now  only  shorter,  but  often  superior  to  the  pieces  called 
comedies.  See  article  Drama. 

FASTING,  AND  FASTS.  They  were  practised  and  observed  by  most  nations 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  Annual  fasts,  as  that  of  Lent,  and  at  other 
stated  times,  and  on  particular  occasions,  begun  in  the  Christian  church, 
to  appease  the  anger  of  God,  in  the  second  century,  A.  D.  138.  Retained  aa 
a  pious  practice  by  the  reformed  churches. — Eusebius. 

FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  The  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  was  instituted  by 
Moses  in  the  wilderness,  1490  B.  c.,  but  was  celebrated  with  the  greatest 
magnificence  for  fourteen  days,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, 1005  B.  c. — Josep/ius.  In  the  Christian  church,  those  of  Christmas, 
Easter,  Ascension,  and  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  were  first  ordered  to  be 
observed  by  all  Christians.  A.  D.  68.  Rogation  days  were  appointed  in  469. 
Jubilees  in  the  Romish  church  were  instituted  by  Boniface  VIII.  in  1300. 
See  Jubilees.  For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  church  of  England,  as  set- 
tled at  the  Reformation,  ct  seq.,  see  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

FEBRUARY.  The  second  month  of  the  year,  so  called  from  Februa.  a  feast 
which  was  held  therein  in  behalf  of  the  manes  of  diseased  persons,  when 
sacrifices  were  performed,  and  the  last  offices  were  paid  to  the  shades  of  the 
dead.  This  month,  with  January,  was  added  to  the  year,  which  had  pre- 
viously but  ten  months,  by  Numa.  713  B.  c.  See  Calendar,  and  Year. 

FERRARA.  A  city  in  the  papal  dominions,  evacuated  by  the  Austrians,  ex- 
cept the  citadel,  Dec.  23, 1847. 

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land,  by  suit  or  service  to  the  lord  or  owner 
of  it,  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons,'  about  A.  D.  600.  The 


376  THE  AVORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  r» 

slavery  of  this  tenure  was  increased  under  William  I.  in  1008.  This  was 
done  by  dividing  the  kingdom  into  baronies,  and  giving  them  to  certain 
persons,  requiring  them  to  furnish  the  king  with  money,  and  a  stated  num- 
ber of  soldiers.  These  laws  were  discountenanced  in  France  by  Louis  XL 
in  1470.  The  vassalage  was  restored,  but  limited  by  Henry  VII.  1495.  Abol- 
ished by  statute  12  Charles  II.  1663.  The  feudal  system  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  Malcolm  II.  in  1008 ;  and  was  finally  abolished  in  that  kingdom 
20  George  II.  1746.— Littleton;  Ru/kead;  Blackstone. 

FKUILLANS.  Members  of  a  society  formed  in  Paris  to  counteract  the  intrigues 
and  operations  of  the  Jacobins,  named  from  the  Feuillan  convent,  where 
their  meetings  were  held,  early  in  the  revolution.  A  body  of  Jacobins 
invested  the  building,  burst  into  their  hall,  and  obliged  them  to  separate, 
Dec.  25,  1791. 

FEZ.  The  ancient  Mauritania,  founded  by  Edrus,  a  Barbary  farmer,  about 
A.  D.  696.  It  soon  afterwards  became  the  capital  of  all  the  western  M  rocco 
States.  Leo  Africanus  describes  the  Mauritani  as  containing  more  than 

-  seven  hundred  temples,  mosques,  and  other  public  edifices,  in  the  twelfth 
century. 

FICTION  LAW.  Invented  by  the  lawyers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  as  a  means 
of  carrying  cases  from  one  court  to  another,  whereby  the  courts  became 
checks  to  each  other. — Hume.  Memorable  declaration  of  Lord  Mansfield, 
in  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  emphatically  uttered,  tl"  at  "  NO  FICTION  OF  LAW 

SHALL  EVER  SO  FAR  PREVAIL  AGAINST  THE  REAL  TRUTH  OF  THE  FACT.  AS  TO 

PREVENT  THE  EXECUTION  OF  JUSTICE,"  May  21,  1784.     This  constitutional 
maxim  is  now  a  rule  of  law. 

FIEF.  In  France  we  find  fiefs-men  mentioned  as  early  as  the  age  of  Childebert 
I..  A.  D.  511.  They  were  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Lombards.  Into  Spain, 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Moors,  A.  D.  710.  Into  England  by  the  Saxons 
(see  Feudal  Laws).  Into  Scotland  directly  from  England,  by  Malcolm  II.,  1008. 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.  Henry  VIII.  embarked  at  Dover  to  meet 
Francis  I.  of  France,  at  Ardres,  a  small  town  near  Calais  in  France,  May  31, 
1520.  The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  here  displayed  their  magnificence  with 
such  emulation  and  profuse  expense,  as  procured  to  the  place  of  interview 
(an  open  plain)  the  name  of  The  field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Many  of  the 
king's  attendants  involved  themselves  in  great  debts  on  this  occasion,  and 
were  not  able,  by  the  penury  of  the  rest  of  their  lives,  to  repair  the  vain 
splendor  of  a  few  days.  A  painting  of  the  embarkation,  and  another  of  the 
interview,  are  at  Windsor  Castle. — Butler. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY-MEN.  Fanatical  levellers  who  arose  in  the  time  of 
Cromwell,  and  who  supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be  just  at 
hand,  when  JESUS  should  descend  from  heaven  and  erect  the  fifth  universal 
monarchy.  They  actually  proceeded  to  elect  JEP us  CHRIST  king  at  London ! 
Cromwell  dispersed  them,  1663. 

FIGURES.  Arithmetical  figures  (nine  digits  and  zero),  and  the  method  of 
computing  by  them,  were  brought  into  Europe  from  Arabia  about  A.  D.  900. 
They  were  first  known  in  England  about  the  year  1253  previously  to  which 
time  the  numbering  by  letters  was  in  use  there.  See  Arithmetic. 

FIRE.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  produced  by  striking  flints  together.  The 
poets  suppose  that  fire  was  stolen  from  heaven  by  Prometheus.  Zoroaster, 
king  of  Bactria,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi  or  worshippers  of 
Fire,  since  known  by  the  appellation  of  Gnebres.  still  numerous  in  the  coun- 
tries of  the  East.  2115  B.C. — Justin;  Pliny.  Heraclitus  maintained  that  the 
world  was  created  from  fire,  and  he  deemed  it  to  be  a  god  omnipotent,  and 


FIR]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  377 

taught  this  theory  about  506  B.  c. — Nouv.  Diet.  In  the  Scriptures  God  is 
said  often  to  have  appeared  in,  or  encompassed  with  fire— as  to  Moses  in  the 
burning  bush,  on  mount  Sinai ;  and  to  the  prophets  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  St. 
John.  The  wrath  of  God  is  described  by  a  consuming  fire,  and  the  angels, 
as  his  ministers,  are  compared  to  it.  See  the  Bible. 

FIRE-ARMS.  Small  arms  were  contrived  by  Schwartz,  A.  D.  1378;  they  were 
brought  to  England  about  1388.  Fire-arms  were  a  prodigious  rarity  in  Ire- 
land in  1489.  when  six  muskets  were  sent  from  Germany  as  a  present  to  the 
earl  of  Kildare,  who  was  then  chief  governor.  Muskets  were  first  used  at 
the  siege  of  Rhegen,  in  1525.  The  Spaniards  were  the  first  nation  who 
armed  the  foot  soldier  with  these  weapons. — Uttoa.  Voltaire  states,  that  the 
Venetians  were  the  first  to  use  guns,  in  an  engagement  at  sea  against  tho 
Genoese,  in  1377;  but  our  historians  affirm,  that  the  English  had  guns  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346 ;  and  the  year  following  at  the  siege  of  Calais.  See 
Artillery. 

FIRE-ENGINES.  The  fire-engine  is  of  modern  invention,  although  the  forcing 
pump,  of  which  it  is  an  application,  is  more  than  two  centuries  old.  The 
fire-engine,  to  force  water,  was  constructed  by  John  Vander  Heyden,  about 
the  year  1663 ;  it  was  improved  materially  in  1752,  and  from  that  time  to  the 
present.  The  fire-watch,  or  fire-guard  of  London,  was  instituted  November 
1791.  The  fire  brigade  was  established  in  London  in  1833. 

FIRE-SHIPS.  They  were  first  used  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  most 
formidable  contrivances  of  this  kind  ever  used,  was  an  explosion  vessel  to 
destroy  a  bridge  of  boats  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585.  The  first  use  of 
them  in  the  English  navy  was  by  Charles,  lord  Howard  of  Efflngham.  after- 
wards earl  of  Nottingham,  lord  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the  engagement 
with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July,  1588. — Rapin. 

f'IRE- WORKS.  Are  said  to  have  been  familiar  to  the  Chinese  in  remote  ages : 
they  were  invented  in  Europe  at  Florence,  about  A.D.  1360;  and  were  first 
exhibited  as  a  spectacle  in  1588.  At  an  exhibition  of  fire-works  in  Paris, 
in  honor  of  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XVI.,  the  pas- 
sages being  stopped  up  occasioned  such  a  crowd,  that  the  people,  seized  with 
a  panic,  trampled  upon  one  another  till  they  lay  in  heaps ;  a  scaffold  erected 
over  the  river  also  broke  down,  and  hundreds  were  drowned ;  more  than 
1000  persons  perished  on  this  occasion.  June  21,  1770.  Madame  Blanchard 
ascending  from  Tivoli  Gardens,  Paris,  at  night,  in  a  balloon  surrounded  by 
fire-works,  the  balloon  took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the  ground,  and 
dashed  to  pieces,  July  6,  1819.  See  Ballonn. 

PJRES.     Some  of  the  most  noted  and  destructive  in  North  America. 


In  New  York,  destroying  600  warehou- 
ses and  r  roperty  to  amount  of  $20,- 
000,000  -  -  -  Dec.  16. 1835 

At  Washington,  destroying  the  General 
Post  Oflice  and  Patent  Office,  with 
10,000  valuable  models,  drawings, 
&c.  Dec.  15,  1836 


New  York,  destroying  302  stores  and 
dwelling-houses,  and  property  worth 
$6.000,000—4  lives  lost  -  July  19, 1845 

St.  John's,  Newfoundland  ;  nearly  the 
whole  town  destroyed — 6,000  people 
made  houseless  -  -  June  12,  1846 


Quebec  Theatre  Royal  ;  47  persons 
At  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  145  acres  and  burned  to  death  -  -  June  14,  1840 

1, 158  buildings  destroyed  -  April  27,  1833  Nantucket  ;  300  buildings,  valued 
New  York  ;  46  buildings ;  loss.  $10,-  «800,000  .  -  -  July  13,  1S46 

000.000       -  -  -      Sept.  6,  1839     Dupont's  powder  mills,  Md.,  exploded, 


Philadelplua ;  52  buildings ;  loss, 
$500.000  -  -  -  Oct.  4,  1839 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.  1,000  buildings,  and 
property  valued  about  $6.000,000 

April  10, 1845 

Quebec,  Canada ;  1,500  houses  burnt, 
immense  loss  of  property,  and  se- 
veial  lives.  May  28,  1845.  Another, 
burmnp  1.300  dwellings;  in  all,  two- 
thi-dsofthe  city  -  June  28,  1845 


18  persons  killed  -        April  14,  1847 

At  Albany  ;  GOO  buildings,  besides 
steamboats  &c.,  24  acres  burned  over, 
loss,  $3.000,000  -  Aug.  17.  .849 

At  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  200  houses,  value, 
$750,000  -  -  Sept.  9,  1848 

At  St  Louis;  23  steamboats  and  15 
blocks  of  houses  destroyed,  loss  about 
$3.000.000  -  -  May  17,  1849 

At  Philadelphia,  300  houses       July  *,  1860 


378  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [p»o 

FIRE  OF  LONDON,  THE  GREAT.  Destroyed  in  the  space  of  four  days  eighty- 
nine  churches,  including  St.  Paul's ;  the  city  gates,  the  Royal  Exchange,  the 
Custom  House  Guildhall  Sion  College,  and  many  other  public  buildings, 
besides  13  200  houses,  laying  waste  400  streets.  This  conflagration  happened 
(not  without  strong  suspicion  of  treason),  Sept.  2.  1666,  and  continued  three 
days  and  nights,  and  was  at  last  only  extinguished  by  the  blowing  up  of 
houses. — Hume;  Rapin;  Carte. 

FI RST  FRUITS.  Primitive  among  the  Hebrews.  They  were  offerings  which 
made  a  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew  priesthood.  First  fruits 
were  instituted  by  pope  Clement  V.,  in  A.  D.  1306;  and  were  collected  in 
England  in  1316.  The  first  year's  income  of  every  church  benefice  in  Eng- 
land was  given  to  the  popes  till  the  27th  of  Henry  VIII.,  1535,  when  the 
first  fi  uits  were  assigned,  by  act  of  parliament,  to  the  king  and  his  succes- 
sors.— Carte.  Granted,  together  with  the  tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  ol 
the  poor  clergy,  by  queen  Anne,  Feb.  1704.  Consolidation  of  the  offices  of 
First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  queen  Anne's  Bounty,  by  Statute  1  Viet.,  April 
1838. 

FLAGELLANTS,  SECT  OF.  They  established  themselves  at  Perouse,  A.  D. 
1260.  They  maintained  that  there  was  no  remission  of  sins  without  flagel- 
lation, and  publicly  lashed  themselves,  while  in  procession,  preceded  by  the 
cross,  until  the  blood  flowed  from  their  naked  backs.  Their  leader,  Conrad 
Schmidt,  was  burnt.  1414. 

FLANDERS.  The  country  of  the  ancient  Belgae ;  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar, 
47  B.  c.  It  passed  into  the  hands  of  France,  A.  n.  412.  It  was  governed  by 
its  earls  subject  to  that  crown,  from  864  to  1369.  It  then  came  into  the 
house  of  Austria  by  marriage ;  but  was  yielded  to  Spain  in  1556.  Flanders 
shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1572;  and  in  1725.  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  it 
was  annexed  to  the  German  empire. — Priestley,  Flanders  was  overrun  by 
the  French  in  1792  and  1794.  and  was  declared  part  of  their  Republic.  It 
was  made  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  was  erected 
into  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  in  1831. — See  Belgium. 

FLAX.  The  flax  seed  was  first  planted  in  England  in  A.  D.  1533.  For  many 
ages  the  core  was  separated  from  the  flax,  the  bark  of  the  plant,  by  the  hand. 
A  mallet  was  next  used ;  but  the  old  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the 
flax  yielded  to  a  water-mill  which  was  invented  in  Scotland  about  1750. 
See  article  Hemp. 

FLODDEN  FIELD,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  and  Scots.  James  IV.  ol 
Scotland  having  taken  part  with  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  this  battle  was  one  of  the  consequences  of  his  unfortunate  policy; 
and  James,  and  most  of  his  chief  nobles,  and  upwards  of  10  000  of  his  army 
were  slain,  while  the  English,  who  were  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Surry, 
lost  only  persons  of  small  note.  Henry  VIII.  was  at  the  time  besieging 
Terouenne,  near  St.  Omer ;  fought  Sept.  9,  1513. 

FLORENCE.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  soldiers  of  Sylla.  and  en- 
larged  by  the  Roman  Triumviri.  It  was  destroyed  by  Totila,  and  was  re- 
built by  Charlemagne.  This  city  is  truly  the  seat  of  the  arts.  In  its  pal- 
aces university,  academies,  churches,  and  libraries,  are  to  be  fourd  the 
rarest  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  the  world.  The  Florentine  acad- 
emy, and  the  Accatlemia  detta  Crnsca.  were  instituted  to  enrich  the  literature 
and  improve  the  language  of  Tuscany ;  the  latter  is  so  named  because  it 
rejects  like  bran  all  words  not  purely  Tuscan.  Florence  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  July  1796,  and  again  in  March,  1799;  and  was  restored  in  1814. 

FLORIDA,  now  one  of  the  United  States,  was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot 
sailing  under  the  English  flag,  in  1 197.  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spanish  adven- 


FLO] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


379 


turer  from  Hispaniola,  explored  the  country  in  1512  and  1516.  In  1539. 
Hernando  de  Soto,  who  had  been  an  officer  under  Pizarro.  overran  the  penin- 
sula with  an  armed  force,  but  most  of  his  followers  were  cut  oft"  a  few  years 
after.  In  1763  Florida  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  Spain  in  exchange  foi 
Havana.  The  Spanish  reconquered  it  in  1781,  and  coded  it  to  the  United 
States  in  1819.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845.  First  war  with  the 
Seminoles  in  Florida  in  1818,  when  general  Jackson  subdued  them.'  Another 
protracted  and  expensive  warfare  there  commenced  and  continued  until 
1842.  General  Jessup  general  Taylor,  and  others  were  engaged  in  it.  The 
Seminole  chief  Osceola.  was  captured,  1837.  Population  in  1830,  34,723; 
in  1S40,  54,477  including  25,717  slaves. 

FLORIN.  A  coin  first  made  by  the  Florentines.  A  floren  was  issued  by  Ed- 
ward III.  which  was  current  in  England  at  the  value  of  6s.,  in  1337. — Cam~ 
den.  This  English  coin  was  called  floren  after  the  Florentine  coin,  because 
the  latter  was  of  the  best  gold. — As/te.  The  florin  ;  f  Germany  is  in  value 
2s.  4d.  •  that  of  Spain  4s.  4%d. ;  that  of  Palermo  and  Sicily  2s.  6d. ;  that  of 
Holland  2s.—Aylife. 

FLOWERS.  The  most  delightful  and  fragrant  among  the  ornaments  of  our 
gardens  are  of  foreign  production.  The  modern  taste  for  flowers  came,  it  is 
said,  from  Persia  to  Constantinople,  and  was  imported  thence  to  Europe  for 
the  first  time  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  at  least  many  of  the  productions  of 
our  gardens  were  conveyed  by  that  channel. — Beckmann.  With  what  good- 
ness does  GOD  provide  for  our  happiness  and  enjoyments,  by  making  even 
the  most  remote  countries  contribute  towards  them  ! — Sturm.  From  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  to  that  of  Elizabeth,  our  present  common  flowers  were, 
for  the  most  part,  introduced  into  England.  The  art  of  preserving  flowers 
in  sand  was  discovered  in  1633.  A  mode  of  preserving  them  from  the  effects 
of  frost  in  winter,  and  hastening  their  vegetation  in  summer,  was  invented 
in  America,  by  George  Morris,  in  1792.  Among  the  flowers  the  periods  of 
whose  introduction  to  English  gardens  have  been  traced,  Haydn  gives  the 
following : — 

FLOWERS,  PLANTS,  &C. 

Acacia,  N.  America,  before      -    A.  D. 
Allspice  shrub,  Carolina  -     - 

Anmseed  tree,  Florida,  about  - 
Arbor  Vitse,  Canada,  before 
Arctopus,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Auricula,  Switzerland 
Azarole,  S.  Europe,  before       • 
Bay,  royal,  Madeira 
Bay,  sweet.  Italy,  before 
Camellia,  China       -  -  • 

Chaste  tree,  Sicily,  before 
Christ's  thorn.  Africa,  before 
Canary  bell-flower,  Canaries   • 
Carnation.  Flanders  -  «     • 

Ceanothus,  blue,  New  Spain    • 
Canary  convolvulus.  Canaries       •     • 
Convolvulus,  many-flowered   • 
Coral  tree,  Cape      •  -  .     • 

Coral  tree,  bell-flowered,  Cape 
Coral  tree,  tremulous,  Cape 
Creeper,  Virginian,  N.  America 
Dahlia,  China          •  -  . 

Dryandra,  New  Holland 
Evergreen  thorn,  Italy 
Everlasting,  great- flowered.  Cape 
Everlasting,  giant,  Cape     • 
Fernbush,  sweet,  N.  America  • 
Fox-glove,  Canaries  -  .     - 

Geranium.  Flnnders 
Gillyflower.  Flanders         -          •     • 


Gold  plant,  Japan 

1783 

1640 

Golden  bell-flower,  Madeira 

1777 

172« 

Hawthorn,  American,  from  N.  Amer 

17b6 

ica.  before             ... 

1683 

1596 

Heath,  ardent,  Cape 

1800 

1774 

Heath,  beautiful,  Cape 

1795 

1567 

Heath,  fragrant,  Cape  • 

1803 

1640 

Heath,  garland,  Cape 

1774 

1665 

Heath,  perfumed,  Cape 

1803 

1548 
1811 

Honeynower,  great,  Cape  - 
Honeysuckle,  Chinese,  China  • 

1683 
1806 

1570 

Honeysuckle,  fly,  Cape 

1752 

1596 

Honeysuckle,  trumpet,  N.  America 

1656 

1696 

Hyssop,  south  of  Europe,  before   - 

1548 

1567 

Jasmine,  Circassia,  before 

1548 

1818 

Jasmine,  Catalonian,  East  Indies  - 

1629 

1690 

Judas-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before 

1596 

1779 

Laburnum,  Hungary 

1576 

1816 

Laurel.  Alexandrian,  Portugal,  before 

1713 

1791 

Laurestine,  south  of  Europe,  before 

1596 

1789 

Lavender,  south  of  Europe,  before 

1568 

1603 

Lily,  Italy,  before 

1460 

1803 

Lily,  gigantic,  N.  South  Wales 

1800 

1803 

Lily,  red-colored,  South  America  - 

1623 

1629 

Loblolly-bay,  N.  America,  before 

1739 

1781 

Lupine  tree,  Cape,  about    - 

1793 

1793 

Magnolia  (see  Magnolia),  N.  America 

1688 

1714 

Magnolia,  dwarf,  China 

1786 

1698 
1534 

Magnolia,  laurel-leaved,  N.  America 
Maiden  hair.  Japan  - 

1734 

1567 

Mignionelte,  Italy 

1528 

380 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[FOB 


FLOWERS,  continued. 

Milk-won,  great-flowered,  Cape    -  1713 

Milk-wort,  showy.  Cape           •  1814 

Mountain  tea,  N.  America,  before  -  1758 

Mock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before  1596 

My i  tie,  candleberry,  N.  America  -  1699 

Myrtle,  woolly-leaved,  China  •  1776 

Nettle-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before  1596 

Olive,  Cape,  Cape         •           -  1730 

Olive,  sweet-scented,  China           -  1771 

Oleander,  red,  south  of  Europe  1596 

Paraguay  tea,  Carolina,  before      •  1724 

Passion-flower,  Brazil  •           -  1692 

Passion-flower,  orange,  Carolina   •  1792 

Pigeon-berry,  N.  America       -  1736 

Pink,  from  Italy       -           -           -  1567 

Ranunculus,  Alps          -           -  1528 

Roses,  Netherlands ...  1522 

Rose,  the  China,  China             -  1789 
Rose,    the    damask,    Marseilles,    an 

south  of  Europe,  about         •  1543 

Rose,  the  Japan,  China       -           -  1793 

Rose,  the  moss,  before  -           •  1724 

Rose,  the  musk,  Italy          -           •  1522 

Rose,  the  Provence,  Flanders  •  1567 
Rose,    sweet-scented    guelder,    from 

China 1821 


Rose,  tube,  from  Java  and  Ceylon  -  1621 
Rose  without  thorns,  N.  America,  be- 
fore •  -  -  -  1726 
Rosemary,  south  of  Europe  •  1548 
St.  Peter's  wort,  North  America  -  1730 
Sage,  African,  Cape  -  -  1731 
Sage,  Mexican,  Mexico  •  •  1724 
Sassafras  tree,  N.  America,  befort  1663 
Savin,  south  of  Europe,  before  -  1584 
Snowdrop,  Carolina  -  -  1756 
Sorrel  tree,  N.  America,  before  -  1752 
Sweet  bay,  south  of  Europe,  before  1548 
Tamarisk  plant,  Germany  •  •  1560 
Tea  tree,  China,  about  -  -  1768 
Tooth-ache  tree,  Carolina,  before  -  1739 
Trumpet-flower,  N.  America  -  1640 
Trumpet-flower,  Cape  •  •  1823 
Tulip,  Vienna  •  -  -  1578 
Virginia  creeper,  N.  America,  befor  1629 
Virgin's-bower,  Japan  -  -  1776 
Weeping  willow,  Levant,  before  -  1692 
Wax  tree,  China  -  -  1794 , 
Winter  berry,  Virginia  •  •  1736 
Youlan,  China  ...  1789 


FLUTE.  Invented  by  Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian,  the  father  of  Marsyas. — Plutarch. 
The  flute,  harp,  lyre,  and  other  instruments  were  known  to  the  Romans ; 
and  the  flute  was  so  prized  in  antiquity,  that  several  female  deities  lay 
claim  to  its  invention.  It  was  in  far  more  general  use  as  a  concert  instru- 
ment than  the  violin,  until  early  in  the  last  century,  when  the  works  of  Co- 
relli  came  over. — See  Music. 

FLUXIONS.  Invented  by  Newton,  1669.  The  differential  calculus  by  Leib- 
nitz, 1684.  The  finest  applications  of  the  calculus  are  by  Newton,  Euler, 
La  Grange,  and  La  Place. 

FLYING.  ARTIFICIAL.  It  has  been  attempted  in  all  ages.  Friar  Bacon  main- 
tained the  possibility  of  the  art  and  predicted  it  would  be  of  general  prac- 
tice,.A.  D.  1273.  Bishop  Wilkins  says,  it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man 
call  for  his  wings  when  he  is  going  on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear  him 
call  for  his  boots,  1651.  We  apprehend  that  many  ages  will  pass  away  pre- 
viously to  the  accomplishment  of  these  predictions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  PEACE  OP,  concluded  between  France  and  Denmark  in 
1679.  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and 
Holland,  signed  November  8,  1785.  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  Na- 
poleon and  the  royal  family  of  Spain.  Oct.  27,  1807.  Concordat  of  Fon- 
tainebleau between  Napoleon  and  pope  Pius  VII.  January  25,  1813.  Fon- 
tainebleau was  entered  by  the  Austrians,  Feb.  17,  1814.  And  here 
Napoleon  resigned  his  imperial  dignity,  and  bade  a  farewell  to  his  army, 
April  6,  1814. 

FONTENOY.  BATTLE  OF,  near  Tournay,  between  the  French  under  count  Saxe, 
and  the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and  Austrians.  commanded  by  the 
duke  of  Cumberland.  The  battle  was  fought  with  great  obstinacy,  and  the 
carnage  on  both  sides  was  considerable,  the  allies  losing  12  000  men,  and 
the  French  nearly  an  equal  number  of  lives ;  but  the  allies  were  in  the  end 
defeated.  Count  Saxe,  who  was  at  the  time  ill  of  the  disorder  of  which 
he  afterwards  died,  was  carried  about  to  all  the  posts  in  a  litter,  assuring 
his  troops  that  the  day  would  be  their  own;  April  30,  1745. 

FONTS.  Formerly  the  baptistry  was  a  small  room,  or  place  partitioned  off  in 
a  church,  where  the  persons  to  be  baptized  (many  of  whom  in  the  early 


W)U  J  DICTI3NARY    OF    DATES.  381 

ages  were  adults),  were  submerged.  Previously  to  these  artificial  reser 
voirs,  lakes  and  rivers  were  resorted  to  for  immersion.  Fonts  for  the  initia- 
tion into  Christianity  were  instituted  in  A.  D.  167. 

POOLS,  FESTIVALS  or,  at  Paris.  They  were  held  on  the  first  of  January,  and 
were  continued  for  240  years.  In  their  celebration,  we  are  told,  all  sorts  of 
absurdities  and  indecencies  were  committed,  A.  D.  1198.  Fools  or  licensed 
jesters  were  kept  at  court  in  England  (as  they  were  at  other  courts  of  Eu- 
roj.0),  and  were  tolerated  up  to  the  time  of  Charles  I.  1625. 

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in  the  last  century,  as  many  a?  38 
forests,  18  chases,  and  upwards  of  780  parks.  The  New  Forest  in  Hamp- 
shire was  made  by  William  I.,  who  for  that  purpose  destroyed  36  parishes, 
pulled  down  36  churches,  and  dispeopled  the  country  for  30  miles  round, 
A.  D.  1079-85.— Stmce. 

FORGERY  IN  ENGLAND.  The  forging  of,  or  giving  in  evidence  forged  deeds,  &c., 
made  punishable  by  fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut 
off,  the  nostrils  slit  up  and  seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land,  and  perpetual 
imprisonment,  5  Elizabeth,  1562.  Forgery  was  first  punished  by  death  in 
1634. 

FORGERY",  REMARKABLE  EXECUTIONS  FOR.  The  unfortunate  Daniel  and  Ro- 
bert Perreau,  brothers  and  wine-merchants,  were  hanged  at  Tyburn.  Jan- 
uary 17,  1776.  The  rev.  Dr.  Dodd  was  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond,  in 
the  name  of  Lord  Chesterfield,  for  4  200/. :  the  greatest  interest  was  made, 
and  the  highest  influence  was  exerted  to  save  him,  but  when  the  case  came 
before  the  council,  the  minister  of  the  day  said  to  George  III.,  "  if  your 
majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will  have  murdered  the  Perreaus  ;"  and  he 
was  hanged  accordingly,  June  27,  1777.  Mr.  Henry  Fauntleroy,  a  London 
banker,  was  hanged,  November  30,  1824.  Joseph  Hunton,  a  quaker  mer- 
chant, suffered  death,  December  8,  1828.  The  last  criminal  hanged  for 
forgery  at  the  Old  Bailey,  was  Thomas  Maynard,  December  31,  1829. 

FORKS.  They  were  in  use  on  the  Continent  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. — 
Voltaire.  This  is  reasonably  disputed,  as  being  too  early.  In  Fynes  Mory- 
son's  Itinerary,  reign  of  Elizabeth,  he  says,  "  At  Venice  each  person  was 
served  (besides  his  knife  and  spoon)  with  a  fork  to  hold  the  meat  while  he 
cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it  ill  manners  that  one  should  touch  it  with  his 
hand."  Thomas  Coryate  describes,  with  much  solemnity,  the  manner  ol 
using  forks  in  Italy,  and  adds,  "I  myself  have  thought  it  good  to  imitate 
the  Italian  fashion  since  I  came  home  to  England,"  A.  D.  1608. 

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  who  had  fortified 
cities.  Apollodorus  says  that  Perseus  fortified  Mycenae,  where  statues 
were  afterwards  erected  to  him.  The  modern  system  was  introduced  about 
A.  D.  1500.  Albert  Durer  first  wrote  on  the  science  in  1527  ;  and  improve- 
ments were  made  by  Vauban,  towards  1700. 

FO  THER1NGAY  CASTLE.  Northamptonshire.  Built  A.  D.  1408.  Here  Richard 
III.  of  England  was  born  in  1443  ;  and  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  whose  death 
is  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  reign  of  our  great  Elizabeth,  was  beheaded 
in  this  castle,  in  which  she  had  been  long  previously  confined,  February  8. 
1587,  after  an  unjust  and  cruel  captivity  of  almost  nineteen  years  in  Eng- 
land. It  was  ordered  to  be  demolished  by  her  son  James  I.  of  England. 
FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL.  Even  in  ancient  times  the  state  made  provision 
for  the  preservation  of  exposed  children ;  but  foundling  hospitals  are  a 
modern  institution.  That  of  Paris  was  established  in  1640,  and  up  to  1807 
had  received  464,628  children.  In  France,  the  number  of  foundlings  in 
1784,  was  40,000  •  in  1798,  over  51,000 ;  in  1822,  138,500.  The  increase 
in  Europe  during  the  last  fifty  years  has  been  very  great.  In  England 
these  hospitals  are  of  comparatively  recent  date.  Catherine  H.  built  • 
tostly  one  near  Moscow,  where  8000  infants  were  succored. 


382 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[TRA 


FRANCE.  This  country  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Gaul,  in 
the  decline  of  their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Ger- 
many, then  inhabiting  what  is  still  called  Francouia.  These  invaders  gave 
the  name  to  the  kingdom  ;  but  the  Gauls,  being  by  far  the  most  numerous, 
are  the  real  ancestors  of  the  modern  French.  Previous  to  the  revolution, 
France  was  divided  into  32  provinces ;  and  after  that  era  it  was  divided, 
lirst  into  84.  and  subsequently  into  103,  departments,  including  Corsica 
Geneva,  Savoy,  and  other  places,  chiefly  conquests.  Tab.  Views,  65  et  seq. 


The  Franks,  under  their  leader  Phara- 
niorul,  ssttle  in  lhal  part  of  Gaul  till 
late  calli  d  Flanders  -  -  A.  D.  420 

Reign  ol  Clovis  the  Great         -  -   481 

[The  Events  in  I- rench  History  and  the 
succession  of  sovereigns  will  be  found 
in  the  Tabular  Views  in  this  volume, 
commencing  p.  65.] 
72(1.  CLilcleric  II. 
737.  Charles  Mattel  ruled  with   despotic 

sway  during  an  interregnum. 
742.  Childeric    III.,    the    Stupid ;    turned 
monk. 


THE  CARLO  VINGIANS, 

Pepin  the  Short,  son  of  Charles  Mar- 
tel ;  this  race  called  Carlo  vingians. 

Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great; 
also  emperor  of  Germany. 

Louis  I.,  the  Gentle,  surnamed,  also, 
the  Debonn'iire ;  dethroned,  and  im- 


752. 
768. 
S14. 


877. 
879. 


887. 
898. 


923. 
936 


954. 
986. 


987. 

996. 
1031. 
1060. 
1108 
1137 
1180 
1223 
1226 

1270 
1285 
1314. 
1316. 
1316. 
1323. 


£risoned  in  a  monastery. 
irl 


irles  11.,  surnamed  the  Bald;  poi- 

soned by  his  physician  Henault. 
Louis  the  Stammerer. 
Carloman  and  Louis  III.    The  latter 

died,  832.     Carloman  reigned  alone. 
Charles  the  Fat  ;  an  usurper. 
Eudes  er  Hugh. 
Chanes  III.,  the  Simple  ;  -leposed  and 

died  in  prison. 
Rudolph. 
Louis  IV.,  d'Outremer  ;  died  by  a  fall 

from  his  horse. 
Lothaire  III.  poisoned;   it  is  said  b> 

his  wife  Emma. 
Louis  V.  the  Indolent  ;    poisoned  by 

his  wife  Blanche,  and  in  him  ended 

the  <"ice  of  Charlemagne. 

THE   CAPETS. 

Hugh  Capet,  from  whom  this  race  of 
kings  are  called  Capevingians. 

Robert  the  Sage. 

Henry  I. 

Philip  I.,  the  Fair. 

Louis  VI.,  the  Lusty 

Louis  VII.,  the  Young. 

Philip  II  ,  Augustus. 

Louis  VIII.,  the  Lion. 

Louis  IX.,  called  St.  Louis  ;  died  in 
his  camp  before  Tunis  ;  canonized. 

Philip  III.,  the  Hardy. 

Philip  IV.,  the  Handsome. 

Ixiuis  X.,  Ilium. 

John,  who  reigned  only  eight  days. 

Philip  V.,  the'Lonsr. 

Charles  IV.,  the  Handsome  ;  king  of 
Navarre. 


HOUSE   OV  VALOI» 

1323.  Philip  de  Valois. 


1350.  John  II. ;  died  suddenly  in  the  Savoy 
in  London. 

1364.  Charles  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise;  thl 
first  prince  who  had  the  title  of  dau- 
phin. (See  article  Dauphin.) 

1380.  Charles  VI.,  the  Beloved. 

1422.  Charles  VII.,  the  Viet  xioug. 

1461.  Louis  XL,  detested  for  his  atrocious 
cruelties. 

14a3.  Charles  VIII.,  the  Affable. 

1498.  Louis  XII.,  duke  of  Orleans,  surnamed 
the  Father  of  his  People. 

1515.  Francis  I. 

1547.  Henry  II. :  died  of  a  wound  received 
at  a  tournament. 

1559.  Francis  11.  ;    married    Mary   Stuart. 

afterwards  queen  of  Scots ;  died 
the  year  after  his  accession. 

1560.  Charles  IX.    Catherine  of  Medicis,  hia 

mother,  obtained  the  regency,  which 
trust  she  abused. 

1574.  Henry  III.,  elected  king  of  Poland  ; 
murdered  Aug.  1,  1589,  by  Jacques 
Clement,  a  Dominican  friar.  In  this 
prince  was  extinguished  the  houso 
of  Valois. 

1589.  Henry  IV.,  the  Great,  of  Bourbon, 
king  of  Navarre ;  murdered  by  Fran- 
cis Ravillac.  (See  Jtavillac.) 

1610.  Louis  XIII.,  the  Just. 

1643.  Louis  XIV.,  the  Great,  also  styled 
Dieu-Donne. 

1715.  Louis  XV'.,  the  Well-Beloved;  bu". 
which  surname  he  lost. 

1774  Louis  XVI..  his  grandson  ;  guillo- 
tined, Jan.  21,  1793;  and  his  queen 
Maria-Antoinette,  Oct.  16,  following. 

1789.  The  Revolution  commences  with  the 
destruction  of  the  Bastile,  July  14. 

1795.  Louis  XVII.,  dies  in  prison. 

FRENCH   EMPIRE. 

1804.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  declared  Empe- 
ror, May  18,  1804 ;  crowned  by  the 
pope,  Dec.  2,  following  ;  assumes 
the  iron  crown,  May  26,  1805.  Re- 
nounces the  thrones  of  France  and 
Italy,  Apr.  5.  1814. 

BOURBONS   RESTORED. 

1814.  Louis  XVIII. ;  ascends  the  thron* 
May  3,  1814  ;  dies.  Sept.  16.  1824. 

1824.  Charles  X.  ;  deposed,  July  30,  1830; 
retires  to  Rambouillet  same  dajr, 
and  subsequently  seeks  protection 
in  England. 

HOUSE  OF  ORLEANS. 

1830.  Louis-Philippe;  u'urlartt!  "king  of 
the  French,"  August  OL 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  383 

FRANCHISE.  A  privilege,  or  exemption  from  ordinary  jurisdiction ;  and  an- 
ciently an  asylum  or  sanctuary  where  the  person  was  secure  In  Spain, 
churches  and  monasteries  were,  until  lately,  franchises  for  criminals,  as  they 
were  formerly  in  England.  The  elective  franchise  was  conferred  for  coun- 
ties on  persons  having  40s.  a  year  in  land,  39  Henry  VI.,  1460. — Ruff  head'* 
Statutes.  See  Electors. 

FRANCISCANS.  An  order  of  friars,  called  also  Gray  Friars,  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  founded  by  Francis  de  Assise  in  A.  D.  1209,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  about  1220.  Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and 
very  austere  regimen  of  life.  In  1224  they  are  said  to  have  appeared  in 
England,  where,  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  Monasteries  by  Henry  VIII., 
they  had  fifty-five  abbeys  or  other  houses,  A.  E  1536-38. 

FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN.  Many  ages  a  free  city  ;  it  was  taken  and  retaken 
several  times  during  the  wars  of  the  late  and  present  centuries,  and  felt  the 
iron  rule  of  Bonaparte  from  1803  to  1813,  when  its  independence  was  guar- 
anteed by  the  allied  sovereigns.  The  diet  of  the  princes  of  Germany  was 
established  here  by  the  Rhenish  confederation  in  1806. 

FREDERIC KSH ALL,  SIKGE  OF.  Rendered  memorable  bv  the  death  of 
Charles  XIL,  of  Sweden,  who  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  before  its  walls, 
and  while  in  the  trenches,  leaning  against  the  parapet,  examining  the  works. 
He  was  found  in  that  position,  with  his  hand  upon  his  sword,  and  a  prayer- 
book  in  his  pocket,  Dec.  11,  1718.  It  is  now  generally  supposed  that  a  pis- 
tol fired  by  some  near  and  traitorous  hand  closed  the  career  of  this  cele- 
brated monarch,  who  was  too  aptly  styled  the  "  Madman  of  the  North." 

FREEMASONRY.  It  is  of  great  antiquity.  Writers  on  masonry,  themselves 
masons,  affirm  that  it  has  had  a  being  "  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and 
httrmony  displayed  her  charms."  Masonry  is  traced  by  some  to  the  build- 
ing of  Solomon's  temple  ;  and  it  is  said  the  architects  from  the  African  coast, 
Mahometans,  brought  it  into  Spain,  about  the  sixth  century,  as  a  protec- 
tion against  Christian  fanatics.  Its  introduction  into  Great  Britain  has  been 
fixed  at  the  year  A.  D.  674 ;  although  by  other  authorities  it  is  assigned  ^ 
much  earlier  date.  The  grand  lodge  at  York  was  founded  A.  D.  926.  Free- 
masonry was  interdicted  in  England,  A.  D.  1424;  but  it  afterwards  rose  into 
great  repute.  In  1717,  the  grand  lodge  of  England  was  established  ;  that 
of  Ireland  was  established  in  1730 ;  and  that  of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freema- 
sons were  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  in  1738. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  The  language  of  France  and  many  of  the  French 
laws  and  customs  were  first  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066. 
The  language,  and  fashions  in  dress  and  diet  were  then  very  general  in  Eng- 
land. Law  pleadings  were  changed  from  French  to  English,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  1362—Stowe. 

FRENCHTOWN,  CANADA.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  British  by  the 
American  general.  Winchester,  January  22,  1813.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
British  forces  under  general  Proctor,  immediately  afterwards,  and  the  Ameri- 
can commander  and  his  troops  were  made  prisoners. 

FRENCH  WAR.  in  North  America.  The  first  war  between  Franco  and  Eng- 
land, which  was  carried  on  also  by  the  American  colonies;  1689  The 
French  destroyed  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Casco.  Me..  &c.,  1690 ;  but  were  d  ifeated 
by  Schuyler  at  La  Prairie.  1691.  Peace  of  Ryswyck.  1697.  "Queen  Anne's 
war,"  1702.  French  and  Indians  ravaged  Maine  1703.  French  and  Spanish 
invade  Carolina.  1706.  Expedition  from  New  Eng.and  against  the  French 
in  Part  Royal,  1707 ;  and  against  Canada  1710 ;  both  failed.  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  1713.  Another  war  declared  by  England,  1744;  Louisbourg'  and 
Cape  Breton  taken  bj  English  colonists,  1745.  Peace,  1749.  French  en- 


384  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  (^  FRC 

croachment  on  English  colonies,  1750,  leads  to  the  noted  French  war,  1752-3 
Washington's  mission,  1754.  Braddock's  defeat,  1755.  Oswego,  &e.  taken 
by  French,  1756,  and  fort  William  Henry,  1757.  Louisbourg  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish general  Amherst,  and  fort  Du  Quesne  by  general  Forbes.  1758.  Ticon- 
deroga.  Crown  Point,  Niagara,  and  Quebec  taken  by  the  English  (sir  W. 
Johnson  and  General  Wolfe),  1759.  Canada  surrendered  to  Great  Britain, 
Sept.  8,  1760,  and  secured  to  her  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763. 
French  alliance  with  the  United  States  in  the  war  of  the  revolution,  Feb.  6, 
1778.  French  revolution  and  politics  caused  serious  dissensions  in  the 
United  States,  1793-6.  French  spoliations  on  American  commerce,  1797. 

FRIDAY.  The  sixth  day  of  the  week;  so  called  from  Friga.  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped by  our  forefathers  on  this  day,  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  Venus.  Friga  was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility, 
and  riches.  Good-Friday  is  a  fast  in  the  church  of  England  in  memory  oi 
our  Saviour's  crucifixion,  April  3,  33.  See  Good  Friday. 

FRIEDLAND,  BATTLE  OF.  between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person,  who  com- 
pletely vanquished  the  allies,  with-  the  loss  of  eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
60,000  men,  June  14,  1807.  This  victory  led  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  by  which 
Russia  lost  no  territory,  but  Prussia  was  obliged  to  surrender  nea-ly  half  hei 
dominions. 

FRIENDLY  ISLES.  These  islands  were  discovered  by  Tasman,  .,.  D.  1642. 
Visited  by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel  Isles,  1767 ;  and  by  capt.  Cook, 
who  called  them  by  their  present  name  on  account  of  the  friendly  disposi- 
tion of  the  natives,  1773. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES,  ENGLAND.  These  useful  institutions  originated  in 
the  clubs  of  the  industrious  classes ;  and  since  they  began  to  spring  into 
importance  they  have  been  regulated  and  protected  by  various  legislative 
enactments.  They  have  now,  with  other  similar  institutions,  more  than 
twenty  millions  sterling  in  the  public  funds.  Laws  regarding  Friendly 
Societies  consolidated  by  statute,  June,  1829.  See  ClmrUies. 

FRIESLAND.  Formerly  governed  by  its  own  counts.  On  the  death  of  prince 
Charles  Edward,  in  1744,  it  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Prussia;  Han- 
over disputed  its  possession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.  It  was  annexed  to  Hol- 
land by  Bonaparte,  in  1806,  and  afterwards  to  the  French  empire ;  but 
Prussia  regained  the  country  in  1814.  The  term  Chevaux  de  Prise  (some- 
times, though  rarely,  written  Cheval  de  Prise,  a  Friesland  Horse}  is  derived 
from  Friesland,  where  it  was  invented. 

PROBISHER'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  sir  Martin  Frobisher,  the  first  Eng- 
lishman who  attempted  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  China,  in  1576. 
After  exploring  the  coast  of  New  Greenland,  he  entered  this  strait,  which 
has  ever  since  been  called  by  his  name.  Frobisher  returned  to  England, 
bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  black  ore,  which  was  supposed  to  contain 
gold,  and  which  induced  queen  Elizabeth  to  patronize  a  second  voyage,  and 
lend  a  sloop  of  war  for  the  purpose.  The  delusion  was  even  kept  up  1  o  a 
third  expedition ;  but  all  of  them  proved  fruitless. 

FROSTS  The  Euxine  Sea  frozen  over  for  twenty  days,  A.  D.  401.—  Univ.  Hist. 
A  frost  at  Constantinople  which  commenced  in  October,  763,  and  continued 
until  February  of  the  next  year ;  the  two  seas  there  were  frozen  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  shore. —  Univ.  Hist.  A  frost  in  England  on  Midsummer-day 
was  so  violent  that  it  destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  1035. — Speed.  The 
frost  in  Russia  in  1812  surpassed  in  intenseness  that  of  any  winter  in  that 
country  for  many  preceding  years,  and  caused  the  total  destruction  of  the 
French  army  in  its  retreat  from  Moscow,  at  the  close  of  that  memorable 


rUN  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  385 

year.  Napoleon  commenced  his  retreat  on  the  9th  November,  when  the 
frost  covered  the  ground,  and  the  men  perished  in  battalions,  and  the  horses 
fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads.  What  with  her  loss  in  battle,  and  the  effectg 
of  this  awful  and  calamitous  frost,  France  lost  in  the  campaign  of  this  year 
more  than  400,000  men. 

FRUITS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  Several  varieties  of  fruit  are  mentioned 
as  having  been  introduced  into  Italy,  70  B.  c.  et  seq.  Exotic  fruits  and 
flowers  of  various  kinds,  previously  unknown  in  England,  were  brought 
thither  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII.,  and  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth, 
between  the  years  1500  and  1578.  See  Gardening,  and  Flowers.  Among 
others  of  less  note,  were  musk-melons  plum-trees,  and  currant-plants  of  sun- 
dry sorts,  the  musk  and  damask  roses,  tulips.  &c. ;  also  saffron,  woad,  and 
other  drugs  for  dyeing,  but  these  last  were  attempted  to  be  cultivated  with- 
out success. — Hacklmjt;  Lord  Kaimes.  The  following  are  among  the  fruits 
whose  introduction  into  England  has  been  traced : — 


FRUITS,  ETC.  Mulberry,  the  red,  from  North  Ame 

Almond-tree,  Barbary    -  -    A.  D.  1548         rica,  before       -  -  -     A..D 


Apples,  Syria          -          -          -     -1522     Mulberry,  the  paper,  from. h  pan, before  1754 
Apple,  the  custard,  North  America     -  1736     Nectarine,  Persia     - 
Apple,  the  Osage,  ditto  -  -  1818     Olive,  the  Cape,  Cape   - 


Apricots,  Epirus      -  •  •        1540  Olive,  the  sweet-scented,  China 

Cnerry-trees,  Pontus      ...    JOO  Oranges 

Cornelian  cherry,  Austria  •  •        1596  Peaches,  Persia  ... 

Currants,  Zante  ....  1533  Pears,  from  various  climes 

Currant,  the  hawthorn,  Canada  - 1705  Pine-apple,  Brazils 

Fig-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before         •  1548  Pippins,  Netherlands 

Fig,  the  Botany-bay,  New  South  Wales  1789  Plums,  Italy 

Gooseberries,  Flanders,  before  -  1540  Plum,  the  date,  Barbary 

Grapes,  Portugal  ...  1528  Pomegranate,  Spain,  before 

Lemons.  Spain         •  -  -      -  1554  Quince,  Austria 

Limes,  Portugal  ....  1554  Quince,  the  Japan 

Lime,  the  American,  before  -      -  175£  Raspberry,  the  flowering,  N.  America 

Melons,  before     ....  1540  Raspberry,  the  Virginian,  ditto,  before 

Mock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before-  1596  ,  Strawberry,  Flanders 


1629 


1562 
1730 
1771 
1595 
1562 

1568 
1525 
1522 
1596 
1548 
1573 
1796 
1700 
1696 

Mulberry,  Italy         -  -  1520     Strawberry!  the  Oriental  Levant  1724 

M  ilberry.  white,  China,  about  -  -  15%     Walnut,  the  black,  N.  America,  before  1629 

FUNDS  To  the  Venetians  is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  funding  system,  in 
A.  D.  1171.  Public  funds  were  raised  by  the  Medici  family  at  Florence,  in 
1340.  The  English  funding  system,  or  the  method  of  raising  the  supplies 
for  the  public  service  in  England,  by  anticipations  of  the  public  revenues 
(the  origin  of  the  national  debt),  introduced  at  the  Revolution,  1689. — Mif- 
timer's  Broker.  The  funding  system  is  coeval  with  the  commencement  of 
the  Bank  of  England. — Anderson.  The  Three  per  cent,  annuities  were  crea- 
ted in  1726.  The  Three  per  cent,  consols  were  created  in  1731.  The  Three 
per  cent,  reduced,  1746.  Three  per  cent,  annuities,  payable  at  the  South  Sea- 
house.  1751.  Three  and  a-half  per  cent,  annuities  created,  1758.  Long  annui- 
ties 1761.  Four  per  cent,  consols,  1762.  Five  per  cent,  annuities.  1797,  and 
1802.  Five  per  cents,  reduced  to  four,  1822.  See  National  Debt. 

FUNERAL  GAMES  are  mentioned  by  most  early  writers.  Among  the  Greeks 
they  were  chiefly  horse  races;  and  among  the  Romans,  processions  and  tne 
mortal  combats  of  gladiators  around  the  funeral  pile.  These  games  were 
abolished  by  the  emperor  Claudius,  A.  D.  47.  Funeral  orations  have  a  hea- 
then origin.  Solon  was  the  first  who  spoke  one,  580  B.  c.  They  were  in- 
dispensable among  the  Romans ;  the  custom  of  led  horses  took  place  A.  D 
1268.  A  tax  laid  on  funerals  in  England,  1793. 

FUNERAL  ORATIONS.    The  Romans  pronounced  harangues  over  their  dead, 
when  people  of  quality,  and  great  deeds,  and  virtues.    Theopompus  obtain- 
ed a  prize  for  the  best  funeral  oration  in  praise  of  Mausolus  353  B.  u.     Po- 
pilia  was  the  first  Roman  lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her  funeral 
17 


386  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  on 

which  was  done  by  her  son  Crassus ;  and  it  is  observed  by  Cicero  that  Juliua 
Caesar  did  the  like  for  his  aunt  Julia,  and  his  wife  Cornelia.  In  Greece, 
Solon  was  the  first  who  pronounced  a  funeral  oration,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, 580  B.  c. 

FUR.  The  refined  nations  of  antiquity  never  used  furs :  in  later  times,  as  lux- 
ury advanced,  they  were  used  by  princes  as  linings  for  their  tents.  They 
were  worn  by  our  first  Henry,  about  A.  D.  1125.  Edward  III.  enacted  that 
all  such  persons  as  could  not  spend  100Z.  a  year,  should  be  prohibited  thii 
species  of  finery,  1337. 

G. 

GALLEYS.  The  ancient  galleys  with  three  rows  of  rowers,  tri-remes,  were 
invented  by  the  Corinthians,  786  B.  c. — Blair.  They  were  built  at  Athens, 
786  B.  c.  For  an  account  of  their  construction  and  the  method  of  fighting 
in  them,  see  Pulybius. 

GALVANISM.  The  discovery  of  it  is  recent ;  it  was  first  noticed  in  1767,  by 
Saltzer;  but  it  was  not  till  about  1789  that  Mrs.  Galvani.  wife  of  Dr.  Galvani 
of  Bologna,  accidentally  discovered  its  extraordinary  effects  on  animals ;  and 
from  the  name  of  the  discoverer  it  was  called  galvanism.  Mrs.  Galvani 
having  observed  the  convulsions  produced  in  the  muscles  of  frogs  by  the 
contact  of  metals,  directed  her  husband's  attention  to  the  phenomenon :  and 
in  1791.  Galvani  announced  the  result  of  his  observations  on  this  subject. 
Since  that  period  a  great  many  experiments  have  been  made,  and  many  cu- 
rious facts  observed,  which  have  excited  much  attention  among  philosophers. 
See  Electro-Galvanism.  Bonaparte,  after  the  discovery  of  the  true  principles 
of  galvanic  electricity  by  Volta.  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal,  and  3000 
livres.  in  1808. — Phillips.  See  Mesmerism. 

GAME  LAWS.  The  laws  restricting  the  killing  of  game  are  peculiar  to  the 
north  of  Europe,  and  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  forest  laws  imposed  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  who,  to  preserve  his  game,  made  it  forfeiture  of 
property  to  disable  a  wild  beast,  and  loss  of  eyes  for  a  stag,  buck,  or  boar. 
Of  these  laws  the  clergy  were  zealous  promoters :  and  they  protested  against 
ameliorations  under  Henry  III.  The  first  game  act  in  England  passed  in 
1496.  Game  certificates  were  first  granted  with  a  duty  in  1784-5.  Nume- 
rous" statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time 

GAMING,  EXCESSIVE.  Introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons;  the  loser  was 
often  made  slave  to  the  winner,  and  sold  in  traffic  like  other  merchandise. — 
Camden;  Stowe.  Act.  prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and  interdicting 
tennis,  cards,  dice,  bowls,  &c.,  to  inferior  people,  except  at  Christmas  time), 
33  Henry  VIII.  1541.  Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  London  in  1620.  Act 
to  prevent  excessive  and  fraudulent  gaming,  when  all  private  lotteries,  and 
the  games  of  Faro.  Basset,  and  Hazard  were  suppressed,  13  George  II.  1739. 
— Ruff/ieads  Statutes.  The  profits  of  a  well-known  gaming  house  in  London 
for  one  season  have  been  estimated  at  150  OCKM.  In  one  night  a  million  of 
mouey  is  said  to  have  changed  hands  at  this  place. — Leigh. 

(JAMES.  Those  of  Greece  and  Rome  will  be  found  under  Iheir  'espectiv« 
heads.  The  candidates  for  athletic  games  in  Greece  used  to  be  dieted  ou 
new  cheese,  dried  figs,  and  boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat.  The 
game.s  were  leaping,  foot-races,  darting,  quoits,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  See 

the  Capitoline,  Isthmian,  Olympic,  Pythian,  Secular,  and  other  Games. 

GARDENING.  Gardening  was  one  of  the  first  arts  that  succeeded  the  art  ol 
building  houses. —  Walpolc.  Noah  planted  a  vineyard,  and  drank  of  the  wine. 
Of  fruit,  flower,  and  kitcho  i  gardens,  the  garden  of  Eden  was,  no  doubt, 


SAR   I 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


387 


the  prototype. — Idem.  There  wants  nothing  but  the  embroidery  of  a  par- 
terre to  make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  serve  for  n  description  of  one 
in  that  of  our  William  III. — Idem.  The  art  of  gardening  became  better 
understood  in  England  about  A.  D  1500,  before  which  time  many  of  our 
vegetables  were  imported  from  Brabant.  The  era  of  the  art  was  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth ;  but  the  modern  mode  of  gardening  was  introduced  about 
1700.  The  following  came  from  the  countries  respectively  named : — 


ROOTS  AND  VEGETABLES. 

Carrots 
Brocoli 

Flanders 
Cyprus 

Plums  • 
Oranges   • 

Damaseut 
Spain 

Rice,  from          Ethiopia 

Beans   - 

Greece 

Lemons 

Spain 

Buckwheat  • 

Asia 

Peas  - 

Spain 

Pink 

Italy 

Borage     • 

Syria 

Provence-rose 

Marsc  illM 

Cresses 

Crete 

FRUITS  AND 

FLOWERS 

Convolvulus 

Canaries 

Cauliflower 

Cyprus 

' 

Arctopus 

Cape 

Asparagus    - 

Asia 

Jasmine 

Circassia 

Bell-Power 

Canaries 

Lettuce     - 

Brabant 

Elder-tree 

Persia 

Cherr.^s 

Pontus 

Artichokes  - 

Holland 

Tulip    - 

Cappadocia 

Figs  • 

Italy 

Garlic 

The  East 

Daffodil    • 

Italy 

Date-plum   • 

Barbary 

Shallots 

Siberia 

Lily      - 

Syria 

Mulberry  - 

Italy 

Horse-radish 

China 

Tuberose  - 

Java,  &c. 

Nectarine     • 

Persia 

Kulney-btins 

East  Indies 

Carnation    • 

Italy,  &c. 

Passion-flower 

Brazil 

Gourds     - 

Astracan 

Ranunculus 

Alps 

Pomegranate 

Spain 

Lentils  • 

France 

Apples         • 

Syria 

Rosemary 

Italy 

Chervil     . 

Italy 

Apricots  • 

Epirus 

Laburnum    - 

Hungary 

Celery  - 

Flanders 

Currants 

Zante 

Laurel 

Levant  " 

Potatoes   • 

Brazil 

Damask-rose 

Damascus 

Lavender 

Italy 

Tobacco 

America 

Hops    - 

Artois 

Peaches    • 

Persia 

Cabbage  - 

Holland 

Gooseberries 

Flanders 

Quince 

Austria 

Anise    - 

Egypt 

Gilly-flowers 

Toulouse 

Weep.  Willow  Levant 

Parsley     • 

Egypt             Musk-rose 

Damascus       Fennel  -        -    -  Canaries 

Musk-melons  and  other  rich  fruits  that  are  now  cultivated  in  England,  and 
the  pale  gooseberry,  together  with  salads,  garden-roots,  cabbages,  &c. 
were  brought  from  Flanders,  and  hops  from  Artois,  in  1520.  The  damask- 
rose  was  brought  hither  by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about 
1540.  Pippins  were  brought  to  England  by  Leonard  Mascal.  of  Plumstead, 
in  Sussex  1525.  Currants  or  Corinthian  grapes  were  first  planted  in  Eng- 
land in  1533.  brought  from  the  Isle  of  Zante.  The  musk-rose  and  several 
sorts  of  plums  were  brought  from  Italy  by  lord  Cromwell.  Apricots  came 
from  Epirus,  1540.  The  tamarisk  plant  was  brought  from  Germany,  by 
archbishop  Grindal,  about  1570 ;  and  about  Norwich,  the  Flemings  planted 
flowers  unknown  in  England,  as  gilly-flowers,  carnations,  the  Provence  rose, 
&c.,  1567.  Woad  came  originally  from  Toulouse,  in  France.  Tulip  roots 
from  Vienna.  1578 ;  also,  beans,  peas  and  lettuce,  now  in  common  use, 
1600.  See  Flowers;  Frutts. 

G  ARTER,  ORDKR  OF  THE.  This  institution  outvies  all  other  similar  institu- 
tions in  the  world.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  who  conquered  France 
and  Scotland,  and  brought  their  kings  prisoners  to  England.  Edward, 
with  a  view  of  recovering  France,  which  descended  to  him  by  right  of  his 
mother,  was  eager  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and 
thereupon  projecting  the  revival  of  king  Arthur's  round  table,  he  proclaimed 
a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  and  others  of  quality  and  courage  to 
the  exercise.  The  king,  upon  New  Year's  day,  1344,  published  royal 
letters  of  protection  for  the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign 
knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  the  jousts  and  tour- 
naments about  to  be  held.  The  place  of  the  solemnity  was  Windsor ,  it 
was  begun  by  a  feast,  and  a  table  was  erected  in  the  castle  of  200  feet  dia- 
meter, in  imitation  of  king  Arthur's  at  Winchester,  and  the  knights  were 
entertained  at  the  king's  own  expense  of  100^.  a  week.  In  1346,  Edward 
gave  his  garter  for  the  signal  of  a  battle  that  had  been  crowned  with  suc- 
cess (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  and  being  victorious  on  sea  and  land,  and 
having  David,  king  of  Scotland,  a  prisoner;  and  Edward  the  Black  Prince 


388  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [GEH 

his  son,  having  expelled  the  rebels  in  Castile,  and  enthroned  the  lawful  so- 
vereign, Don  Pedro,  he,  in  memory  of  these  exploits,  instituted  this  order, 
A.  D.  April  23,  1349-50.  Edward  gave  the  garter  pre-eminence  among  the 
ensigns  of  the  order ;  it  is  of  blue  velvet  bordered  with  gold,  with  the  in- 
scription in  old  French — "  Honi  soit  gui  mal  y  pense  " — evil  to  him  who  evil 
thinks.  The  knights  are  always  installed  at  Windsor;  and  were  styled 
Equites  aurece  Periscelidis.  knights  of  the  golden  garter. — Beatson. 

GAS.  The  inflammable  aeriform  fluid  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr. 
Clayton,  in  1739. — Phil.  Trans.  Its  application  to  the  purposes  of  illumi- 
nation was  first  tried  by  Mr.  Murdock,  in  Cornwall,  in  1792.  The  first  dis- 
play of  gas-lights  was  made  at  Boulton  and  Watt's  foundry,  in  Birmingham, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  for  peace  in  1802.  Gas  was  permanently 
used  to  the  exclusion  of  lamps  and  candles  at  the  cotton  mills  of  Phillips 
and  Lee,  Manchester,  where  1000  burners  were  lighted,  1805.  Gas-lights 
were  first  introduced  in  London,  at  Golden-lane,  August  16,  1807.  They 
were  used  in  lighting  Pall  Mall,  in  1809 ;  and  were  general  through  London 
in  1814.  They  were  first  used  in  Dublin  in  1816,  and  the  streets  there  ge- 
nerally lighted  in  October,  1825.  The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  ex- 
tend to  1100  miles.  The  streets  in  New  York  (the  first  in  the  United  States) 
first  lighted  with  gas,  1823-4. 

GAZETTE.  A  paper  of  public  intelligence  and  news  of  divers  countries,  first 
printed  at  Venice  about  the  year  1620,  and  so  called  (some  say)  because 
una  gazetta,  a  small  piece  of  Venetian  coin,  was  given  to  buy  or  read  it. 
Others  derive  the  name  from  gaza,  Italian  for  magpie,  i.  e.  chatterer. — 
Trusler.  A  gazette  was  printed  in  France  in  1631 ;  and  one  in  Germany  in 
1715.— Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 

GAZETTE,  THE  LONDON.  See  Newspapers.  The  first  English  gazette  was  pub- 
lished at  Oxford,  the  court  being  then  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov. 
7,  1665.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  the  capital,  the  title  was  changed 
to  the  London  Gazette,  Feb.  5,  1666.  London  Gazettes  Extraordinary  arc 
used  for  the  publication  of  extraordinary  official  news.  One  of  these  latter 
was  forged  with  a  view  of  affecting  the  funds,  May  22,  1787.  The  fraud 
succeeded,  but  the  planners  of  it  were  never  discovered. — Phillips.  The 
Dublin  Gazette  was  first  published  in  an  official  form  about  1767. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  SCOTLAND.  The  first  General  Assembly  of  the 
church  was  held  December  20,  1560.  The  General  Assembly  constitutes 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  meets  annually  in  Edin- 
burgh in  May,  and  sits  about  ten  days.  It  consists  of  a  grand  commis- 
sioner, appointed  by  the  king,  who  represents  his  majesty,  and  delegates 
from  presbyteries,  royal  boroughs,  and  universities,  some  being  laymen. 
To  this  court  all  appeals  from  the  inferior  ecclesiastical  courts  lie,  and  its 
decision  is  final.  See  Church  of  Scotland. 

GENERALS.  This  rank  has  been  given  to  commanders  from  very  remote 
times.  Matthew  de  Montmorency  was  the  first  officer  honored  with  the 
title  of  General  of  the  French  armies,  A.  D.  1203. — Henaidt.  It  is  observed 
by  M.  Balzac  that  cardinal  Richelieu  first  coined  the  word  Generalissimo^ 
upon  his  taking  the  supreme  command  of  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  hi 
1629. 

GENEVA.  Part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  about  A.  D.  800.  The  Repub- 
lic was  founded  in  1512.  It  became  allied  to  the  Swiss  Cantons  in  1584. 
Memorable  insurrection  here,  February  1781 :  about  1000  Genevans,  in 
consequence  of  it,  applied,  in  1782,  to  earl  Temple,  lord  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land for  permission  to  settle  in  that  country :  the  Irish  parliament  voted 
60  OOO/.  to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  journey,  and  t  >  purchase  then? 
lands  near  Waterford,  called  New  Geneva.  Many  of  the  fugitives  came  tr 


OEO  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  389 

Ireland  in  July  1783,  but  they  soon  after  abandoned  it :  at  this  period  many 
Genevan  families  settled  in  England.  Another  revolution,  July  1794.  Ge- 
neva was  admitted  by  the  diet  into  the  Swiss  Confederation,  in  1813. 

GENOA.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the  Ro- 
mans. 115s.  c.,  and  underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till 
A.  D.  950.  The  Genoese  revolt  against  their  count,  choose  a  doge  and  other 
magistrates  from  among  their  nobility,  and  become  an  aristocratic  Republic, 
1030  to  1034.  Several  revolutions  occurred  up  to  1528,  when  the  celebrated 
Andrew  Doria  rescued  his  country  from  the  dominion  of  foreign  powers 
Bombarded  by  the  French  in  1684,  and  by  the  British  in  1688  and  1715. 
Genoa  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Dec.  8,  1746 ;  but  their  oppression  of 
the  people  was  such,  that  the  latter  suddenly  rose,  and  expelled  their  con- 
querors, who  again  besieged  the  city  the  next  year,  August  17,  without 
effect.  Genoa  lost  Corsica  1730.  The  celebrated  bank  failed  1750.  The 
city  sustained  a  siege  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian  army,  until  literally 
starved,  and  was  evacuated  by  capitulation,  May  1800  ;  but  it  was  surren- 
dered to  the  French  soon  after  their  victory  at  Marengo.  The  T.igurian 
Republic  was  founded  upon  that  of  Genoa,  in  1801,  and  the  doge  solemnly 
invested,  August  10,  1802.  Genoa  annexed  to  the  French  empire,  May  25, 
1805.  It  surrendered  to  the  combined  English  and  Sicilian  army,  April  18, 
1814 ;  and  was  transferred  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  in  1816.  Insurrection 
against  Victor  Emmanuel,  April  1 ;  subdued  April  11,  1849. 

GENTLEMEN.  The  Gauls  observing  that,  during  the  empire  of  the  Romans, 
the  Scutarii  and  Gentiles  had  the  best  appointments  of  all  the  soldiers,  ap- 
plied to  them  the  terms  ecuyers  and  gentilshommes.  This  distinction  of  gen- 
tleman was  much  in  use  in  England,  and  was  given  to  the  well  descended, 
about  A.  D.  1430. — Sidney. 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  first  correct  record  we  have  of  geographical  knowledge 
is  from  Homer.  He  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing 
the  earth,  surrounded  by  the  sea. — Iliad.  He  accurately  describes  the 
countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  site  of  Troy.  The 
priests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphos  was  the  centre  of  the 
world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  maps, 
about  568  B.  c.  Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to  mathemati- 
cal bases,  about  135  B.  c.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  'Moors  of 
Barbary  and  Spain,  about  A.  D.  1201. — Lenglet.  The  invention  of  the  mari- 
ner's compass  is  the  important  connecting  link  between  ancient  and  modern 
geography.  The  modern  maps  and  charts  were  introduced  into  England 
by  Bartholomew  Columbus  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a 
western  continent,  A.  D.  1489. 

GEOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  earth  has  been  the  subject  of  philosophical 
speculation  from  the  time  of  Homer ;  and  this  science  is  said  to  have  been 
cultivated  in  China  many  ages  before  the  Christian  era.  When  the  theories 
and  discoveries  of  geologists  were  first  propounded,  they  were  condemned  as 
being  opposed  to  the  statements  of  the  Bible ;  but  in  this  enlightened  age  the 
astronomer  and  geologist,  in  proportion  as  their  minds  are  expanded  by 
scientific  investigation,  see  that  there  is  no  collision  between  the  discoveries 
in  the  natural  world,  and  the  inspired  record.  We  are  not  called  upon  by 
Scripture  to  admit,  neither  are  we  required  to  deny,  the  supposition  that 
the  matter  without  form  and  void,  out  of  which  this  globe  of  earth  was 
framed,  may  have  consisted  of  the  wrecks  and  relics  of  more  ancient  worlds, 
created  and  destroyed  by  the  same  Almighty  power  which  called  our  world 
into  being,  and  will  one  day  cause  it  to  pass  away.  Thus  while  the  Bible 
reveals  to  us  the  moral  history  and  destiny  of  our  race,  and  teaches  us  that 
man  and  other  living  things  have  been  placed  but  a  few  thousand  yoars 


390  IHE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  GE* 

upon  the  earth,  the  physical  monuments  of  our  globe  bear  witness  to  the 
same  truth ;  and  as  astronomy  unfolds  to  us  myriads  of  worl  ds,  not  spoken 
of  in  the  sacred  records,  geology  in  like  manner  proves,  not,  by  arguments 
drawn  from  analogy,  but  by  the  incontrovertible  evidence  of  physical  phe- 
nomena, that  there  were  former  conditions  of  our  planet,  separated  from 
each  other  by  vast  intervals  of  time,  during  which  this  world  was  teemiDg 
with  life,  ere  man,  and  the  animals  which  are  his  contemporaries,  had  been 
called  into  being. — Dr.  Mantell  and  Bishop  Blomfield. 

GEOMETRY.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians ;  the  annual  inucdations 
of  the  Nile  having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away  the  landmarks,  and  the 
boundaries  of  farms.  Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece  about  600 
B.  c.  Euclid's  Elements  were  compiled  about  280  B.  c.  The  doctrine  of 
curves  originally  attracted  the  attention  of  geometricians  from  the  conic 
sections,  which  were  introduced  by  Plato  about  390  B  c.  The  conchoid 
curve  was  invented  by  Nicomedes,  220  B.  c.  The  science  of  geometry  was 
taught  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Books  on  the  subject  of  geo- 
metry and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in  England,  being  regarded  as  infected 
with  magic,  7  Edward  VI.,  1552. — Stowe. 

GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable  conspiracy  in  France ;  general 
Moreau,  general  Pichegru,  Georges  Cadoudal,  who  was  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Georges,  and  others,  arrested  at  Paris,  charged  with  a  conspi- 
racy against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII., 
Feb.  23, 1804.  The  conspirators  were  tried  June  9,  when  seventeen  were 
sentenced  to  death,  and  many  to  imprisonment.  Moreau  was  suffered  to  leave 
France,  and  was  escorted  from  the  temple  to  embark  for  America,  June  22. 
In  1813  he  received  his  mortal  wound  before  Dresden,  which,  see. 

GEORGIA,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  granted  by  George  II.  to  Gen.  Ogle- 
thorpe,  who,  with  forty  followers,  founded  Savannah,  Feb.  1,  1733.  Savan- 
nah taken  by  the  British  in  the  revolutionary  war,  Dec.  29,  1778 ;  the  town 
and  State  evacuated  by  them  in  July  1782.  The  State  unanimously  adopted 
the  Federal  Constitution,  Jan.  2, 1788.  Population  in  1790,  82:584 ;  in  1840, 
691,392,  including  280.944  slaves.  Staple  commodities,  cotton  and  rice. 

GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION.  Napoleon  had  determined  that  the  German, 
or  Holy  Roman  Empire,  as  it  was  called,  should  no  longer  exist ;  but  that 
instead  thereof,  a  confederation  of  states  should  be  formed ;  and  this  ar- 
rangement was  adopted  in  1815.  by  the  allied  sovereigns ;  and  Germany  is 
now  governed  by  a  diet,  consisting  of  seventeen  voices,  and  in  case  any 
alteration  be  requisite  in  the  constitution,  they  are  then  to  take  a  new  divi- 
sion, and  the  general  assembly  then  to  be  formed  is  to  contain  sixty-five, 
divided  according  to  the  relative  consequence  of  the  states.  See  Addenda. 

GERMANY.  From  Germanni,  warlike  men.  First  mentioned  by  the  Roman 
historians  about  211  B.  c. :  it  was  anciently  divided  into  several  independent 
states  until  25  B.  c.,  when  the  Germans  withstood  the  attempt  of  the  Romans 
to  subdue  them,  although  they  conquered  some  parts;  but  by  the  repeated 
efforts  of  the  Germans  they  were  entirely  expelled,  about  A.  D.  290.  In  432, 
the  Huns,  driven  from  China,  conquered  the  greatest  part  of  this  extensive 
country;  but  it  was  not  totally  subdued  till  Charlemange,  the  first  emperor, 
became  master  of  the  whole,  A.  D.  802. 

Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the          I  Charles  III.  was  the  first  sovc  reign  who 


West  at  Rome  -  -  A.  D.  800 

He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle,  to 

denote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and 

Germany  are  united  in  him  -  •  802 

Ix>ui3  (De.uonnaire)  separates  Germany 

from  Franca     •          -          •          -814 


added  "  in  the  year  of  oui  Lord"  U 

his  reign  ....  871 

The  German  princes  assert  their  inde- 
pendence, and  Conrad  reigns  -  9iS 

[The  electoral  character  assumed  about 
this  lime.  See  £ieclurt.\  •  913 


ttER  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


391 


GERMANY,  continued. 

Reign  of  Henry  1.  (king)  surnamed  the 
Fowler ;  he  vanquishes  the  Huns, 
Danes,  Vandals,  and  Bohemians  -  919 

Otho  I.  extends  his  dominions,  and  is 
crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  •  962 

Henry  III.  ronquers  Bohemia,  wasting 
it  with  fire  and  sword  •  -  1042 

Peter  the  Hermit  leads  the  crusaders 
through  Germany,  where  they  mas- 
sacre the  Jews ...  1095 

Henry  IV.  excommunicated  by  pope 
Pascal  I.  (Hildebrand)  about  -  1106 

Disputes  relating  to  ecclesiastical  in- 
vestitures, with  the  pope  -  1122 

The  Guelph  and  Ghibeline  feuds  begin  1140 

Conrad  111.  leads  a  large  army  to  the 
holy  wars,  where  it  is  destroyed  by 
the  treachery  of  the  Greeks  -  -  1147 

Teutonic  order  of  knighthood         -      -  1190 

Reign  of  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburgh, 
chosen  by  the  electors  -  -  1273 

The  famous  edict,  called  the  Golden 
Bull,  by  Charles  IV.  -  -  -  1356 

Sigismond,  king  of  Bohemia,  elected 
emperor.  He  betrays  John  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  who  are  burned 
alive  (see  Bohemia)  -  -  -  1414 

Sisismond  being  driven  from  the  throne, 
Albert  II.,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds. 
(In  his  family  the  crown  resides  for 
three  centuries)  -  -  - 1438 

The  Pragmatic  sanction  (which  see)    - 1439 

The  empire  divided  into  circles  •  1512 

Era  of  the  Reformation  (Luther)         •  1517 

Abdication  of  Charles  V.  -  -  1556 

War  of  the  two  parties,  the  Evangelic 
union  under  Frederick,  elector  pala- 
tine, and  the  Catholic  league,  under 
the  duke  of  Bavaria  •  -  -1618 

Battle  of  Prague,  which  lost  the  elector 
palatine  the  crown  -  -  -  1620 

Treaty  of  Westphalia          •  -      -1648 

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  defeats 
the  Turks  in  many  battles,  and  obliges 
them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna  •  1683 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  -  -  1699 

The  Pragmatic  sanction  (which  see)    •  1722 

The  reign  of  Charles  VI.  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  wars  against  the  Turks,  and 
in  establishing  the  Pragmatic  sanc- 
tion, in  favor  of  the  succession  of  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  married  to 
the  duke  of  Lorraine  -  1711  to  1742 

Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  marries 
the  heiress  of  Austria,  the  celebrated 
Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary ; 
ana  is  elected  emperor  -  -  1745 

Joseph  II.  extends  his  dom.nicns  by  the 
dismemberment  of  Poland  -  -1772 

Again,  by  the  final  partition  of  that  de- 
voted kingdom  -  -  -  1795 

[In  the  ruinous  wars  between  Germany 
and  France,  the  emperor  loses  the 
Netherlands,  all  his  territories  west 
of  the  Rhine,  and  his  estates  in  Italy, 
1793,  et  seq.] 

Francis  I.  assumes  the  title  of  empe- 
ror of  Austria  -  -  Aug.  11,  1804 

Dissolution  of  the  German  empire ;  for- 
mation of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  -  -  -  July  12,  180! 

General  agitation  among  the  people, 


and  demands  for  reforin  granted  in 
various  degrees  by  sovereigns  of 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  &c. ;  and  by  those 
of  the  smaller  principalities  of  Ger- 
many -  -  Feb.  and  March,  1848 

A  federal  union  of  the  German  States 
demanded  by  Prussia  March,  1848 

Congress  of  deputies  at  Frankfort — Mil- 
ter-Meyer, President  March  31,  1843 

German  Parliament  meets  at  Frank- 
fort -  -  -  May  18.  1810 

The  archduke,  John  of  Austria,  elected 
by  the  parliament  as  lord-lieutenant 
of  the  Empire  -  -  June  29,  1848 

He  is  installed  at  Frankfort,  and  names 
his  ministers  -  -  July  15,  1848 

Great  excitement  in  Germany  on  ac- 
count of  the  execution  iit  Vienna  of 
Robert  Blum,  a  Leipsic  publisher, 
for  aiding  the  insurrection  Nov.  C  1848 

A.  D.          EMPERORS   C  P   GE   J4ANY. 

800.  Charlemagne  the  Great. 

814.  Louis  the  Debonnaire. 

840.  Lothaire. 

855.  Louis  II. 

875.  Charles  II.,  the  Bald  ;  poisoned. 

878.  Louis  III.,  the  Stammerer. 

879.  Charles  HI.,  the  Gross. 
887.  Arnould. 

899.  Louis  IV. 

912.  Otho,  duke  of  Saxony ;  he  refused  the 
dignity  on  account  of  his  age. 

912.  Conrad,  duke  of  Franconia. 

919.  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler. 

936.  Otho  I.,  the  Great. 

973.  Otho  II.,  the  Bloody. 

983.  Otho  III.,  the  Red  ;  poisoned. 
1002.  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Bavaria;  the  Holy 

and  Lame. 

1024.  Conrad  II.,  the  Salique. 
1039.  Henry  III.,  the  Black. 
1055.  Henry  IV. ;  deposed. 
1077.  Rodolphus ;  killed  in  battle. 
1080.  Henry  IV. ;  re-instated. 
1105.  Henry  V. 
1125.  Lothaire  II. 
1138.  Conrad  III. 

1152.  Frederick  Barbarossa ;  drowned  in  Bo- 
hemia. 

1191.  Henry  VI.,  the  Sharp. 
1198.  Philip ;  killed  at  Bamberg. 
1208.  Otho  IV;  deposed. 
1211.  Frederic  II. ;  deposed. 

1245.  Henry  VII  ;  killed. 

1246.  William  ;  killed  in  battle. 

1273.  Rodolphus,  count  of  Hapsburg,   tft« 

first  of  the  Austrian  family. 
1291.  Adolphus;  deposed. 
1298.  Albert  I. ;  killed  by  his  nephew. 
1308.  Henry  VIII. ;  poisoned  by  a  priest,  IB 

the  consecrated  wafer. 
1314.  Louis  IV.,  cf  Bavaria;  killed  by  a  fall 

from  his  1  jrse. 

1347.  Charles  IV.,  of  Luxembourg. 
1378   Wenceslaus.  king  of  Bohemia. 
1399   Frederick.  Duke  of  Brunswick. 
1400.  Rupert,  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 
1410.  Sigismond.  king  of  Hungary. 
1437.  Albert  II.,  duke  of  iustna  and  kiaj  of 

Bohemia. 
1440.  Frederick  III.,  archduke  of  Austria. 


392 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[Gift 


GERMANY,  continued. 

1493.  Maximilian  I. ;  he  married  the  heiress 

of  Burgundy. 

1519.  Charles  V.,  king  of  Spain. 
1558.  Ferdinand  I.,  king  of  Hungary. 
1564.  Maximilian  II. 
1576.  Rodolphus  II. 
1612.  Matthias  I. 

1619.  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  Hungary. 
J637.  Ferdinand  III.,  ditto. 
1658.  Leopold  I.,  ditto 
1705.  Joseph  II.,  ditto,  and  of  Bohemia. 
1711.  Charles  VI. 
1742.  Charles  VII. 


1745.  Francis  I. ;  husband  of  Maria  There** 

queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
1765.  Joseph  II. 
1790.  Leopold  II. 
1792.  Francis  II. ;  he  takes  the  title  of  em 

peror  of  Austria  only,  in  1806. 
1806.  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (which  tee). 
1815.  Germanic  Confederation. 
1835.  Ferdinand  I.,  of  Austria. 
(See  Tabular  Views  in  this  vol.,  beginning 

p.    76 ;    see.  also,  Austria,  Bavaria. 

Prussia,  Wurlemburg.  &c.) 


There  are  about  20  German  principalities  with  territories  equal  to  English 
counties.  The  free  towns  are  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort  on  the  Ma.ne 
(one  of  the  greatest  trading  places  in  Europe),  and  Lubeck.  which  was  the 
head  of  the  famous  Hanseatic  League,  formed  in  that  city  in  1164. 

GHENT.  Anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nervii.  Prince  John,  third  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.  of  England,  was  born  here,  and  hence  named  John  of  Gaunt. 
Pacification  of  Ghent,  November  8,  1576.  Ghent  was  taken  by  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  in  A.  D.  1706,  and  several  times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  con- 
tending armies  during  the  late  wars.  The  peace  of  Ghent  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  was  signed  here,  December  24,  1814. 

GIANTS.  The  emperor  Maximus  was  eight  feet  and  a  half  in  height;  he  was 
also  of  great  bulk,  and  used  the  bracelet  of  his  wife  as  a  ring  for  his  thumb, 
and  his  shoe  was  longer  by  a  foot  than  that  of  an  ordinary  man. — Zuinglius. 
:'The  tallest  man  that  hath  been  seen  in  our  age  was  one  named  Gabara. 
who  in  the  days  of  Claudius  the  late  emperor  was  brought  out  of  Arabia. 
He  was  nine  feet  nine  inches  high." — Pliny.  John  Middleton,  of  Hale,  in 
Lancashire,  born  in  1578,  was  nine  feet  three  inches  high.  Patrick  Cotter, 
the  celebrated  Irish  giant,  born  in  1761,  was  eight  feet  seven  inches  in 
height ;  his  hand,  from  the  commencement  of  the  palm  to  the  extremity  of 
the  middle  finger,  measured  twelve  inches,  and  his  shoe  was  seventeen  inch- 
es long ;  he  died  in  September  1806  in  his  46th  year.  Giants'  bones  17,  18, 
20,  and  30  feet  high,  were  once  reported  to  have  been  found  ;  but  there  is 
now  no  doubt  that  they  were  organic  remains  of  colossal  quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR.  A  fortress,  whose  immense  strength  excites  wonder  and  admi- 
ration, and  renders  it  impregnable :  it  is  the  ancient  Calpe,  which,  with 
Abyla  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules.  The  height  of  the  rock,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1437  English 
feet :  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Tarik  (  Gibel-  Tarik,  Mountain  of 
Tarik,  whence  its  present  name)  in  A.  D.  712.  In  the  year  1462  the  king  of 
Castile  took  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors;  and  the  English,  under  sir  George 
Rooke,  the  prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  sir  John  Leake.  and  admiral  Byng. 
bravely  won  it,  July  24,  1704.  It  was  surrendered,  after  a  dreadful  cannon- 
ade, to  the  British,  by  the  governor,  the  marquis  de  Salines ;  and  it  has  since 
continued  an  appendage  to  the  British  crown. 


Gibraltar  attacked  by  the  British  on  the 
21st  July,  and  taken  on  the  24th.  A.  D.  1704 

Besieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French ; 
they  lose  10,000  men,  and  the  victori- 
ous English  but  400  -  Oct.  11-,  1704 

The  Spaniards  again  attack  Gibraltar, 
and  are  repulsed  with  great  loss  -  1720 

They  again  attack  it  with  a  force  of 


20,000  men,  and  lose  5000,  while  the 
loss  of  the  English  is  only  300  •  I7!B 

Memorable  siege  of  the  Spaniards  and 
French,  whose  prodigious  arma- 
ments" (the  greatest  ever  brought 
against  a  fortress)  were  wholly  over- 
thrown. The  siege  continued  from 
July  1779,  to  Feb.  -  -  1783 


*  The  army  amounted  to  40,000  men.    The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded  12.000  of  the  best  tnopi 
of  France.     1UOO  pieces  of  artillery  were  brought  to  bear  against  the  fortress,  besides  which,  *her« 


SLE  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  393 

QTLDING.  First  practised  at  Rome,  about  145  B.  c.  The  capitol  was  the  first 
building  on  which  this  enrichment  was  bestowed. — Pliny.  Of  gold  leaf  for 
gilding  the  Romans  made  but  750  leaves,  four  fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole 
ounce. — Pliny.  It  consequently  was  more  like  our  plating. —  Trusler.  A 
single  grain  of  gold  may  now  be  stretched  out  under  the  hammer  into  a  leaf 
that  will  cover  a  house. — Dr.  Hcdley.  Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  bole  am/ma- 
niac was  first  introduced  by  Margaritorie.  in  1273.  The  art  of  gilding  on 
wood,  previously  known,  was  improved  in  1680. 

G1SORS,  BATTLE  OF,  in  France,  between  the  armies  of  France  and  England,  iu 
which  the  former  was  signally  defeated  by  Richard  I.,  whose  parole  for  the 
day  was  "  Dieuet  man  droit" — "God  and  my  right;"  and  from  this  time  it 
was  made  the  motto  to  the  royal  arms  of  England.  A.  D.  1198. 

GLADIATORS.  They  were  originally  malefactors  who  fought  for  their  lives, 
or  captives  who  fought  for  their  freedom.  They  exhibited  at  the  funeral 
ceremonies  of  the  Romans.  263  B.  c.,  probably  following  the  Greek  custom 
of  sacrificing  to  the  manes  of  deceased  warriors  the  prisoners  taken  in  battle. 
Gladiator  fights  afterwards  exhibited  at  festivals,  about  215  B.  c.  When 
Pacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000  gladiators  fought  at  Rome  in  celebra- 
tion of  his  triumph  for  123  days.  A.  D.  103.  Their  combats  on  public  thea- 
tres were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantine  the  Great,  A.  D.  325.  Fi- 
nally suppressed  by  Theodorick,  in  the  year  500. — Lenglet. 

GLASGOW.  Erected  into  a  burgh  in  A.  D.  1180.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from 
James  II.,  in  1451,  at  which  period  the  university  was  founded.  Its  earliest 
commerce  was  in  salmon,  about  1420. 

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass 
by  Hermes.  The  discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria. — Pliny.  Glass- 
houses were  erected  in  Tyre,  where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture  for 
many  ages.  This  article  is  mentioned  among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of 
Tiberius;  and  we  know,  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows  were 
formed  of  glass  before  A.  D.  79.  Italy  had  the  first  glass  windows,  next 
France,  whence  they  came  to  England.  Used  for  windows  in  private  houses 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  1177,  but  imported. — Anderson.  The  manufacture 
was  established  in  England  at  Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy,  in  1557. — 
St-owe.  It  was  improved  in  1635,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in  the 
reign  of  William  III.  The  duties  on  glass  in  England  were  entirely  remit- 
ted, 1845. 

GLASS,  PAINTING  ON.  This  was  a  very  early  art.  It  was  practised  at  Marseilles 
in  a  beautiful  style,  about  A.  D.  1500.  It  is  said  the  art  existed  in  England 
towards  the  12th  century.  It  reached  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  about 
1530. 

6I.ENCOE.  MASSACRE  OF.  This  was  the  horrible  massacre  of  the  unoffending 
and  unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Macdonalds,  merely  for  not  surrendering 
in  time  to  king  William's  proclamation.  About  38  men  were  brutally  slain ; 
and  women  and  children,  their  wives  and  offspring,  were  turned  out  naked 


were  47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three-deckers ;  10  great  floating  batteries,  esteemed  invincible,  carryin? 
212  guns;  innumerable  frigates,  xebeques,  bomb-ketches,  cutters,  and  gun  and  mortar  boats; 
while  small  craft  for  disembarking  the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For  weeks  together,  6000  shells 
were  daily  thrown  into  the  town .  and  on  a  single  occasion,  8000  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  ex- 
pended hy  the  enemy.  Yet  in  one  night,  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyed  with  red  hot  balls, 
and  their  whole  line  of  works  annihilated  by  a  sortie  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  general 
Elliot.  Nov.  27,  1781.  The  enemy' 3  loss  in  munitions  of  war,  on  this  night  alone,  was  estimated  at 
upwards  of  2,GOO,OOOt  sterling  B  it  their  srand  defeat  by  a  garrison  of  only  7000  British,  occurred 
Sept.  13,  1732. 

17* 


394  THE  ^WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  GOB 

in  a  dark  and  freezing  night,  and  perished  by  cold  and  hunger :   this  black 
deed  was  perpetrated  by  the  earl  of  Argyle's  regiment,  May  9,  1691. 

GLOBE.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  zones,  some  of  the  principa. 
circles  of  the  sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar 
eclipses,  were  taught,  and  an  eclipse  predicted,  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about 
640  B.  c.  Pythagoras  demonstrated  from  the  varying  altitudes  of  the  stars 
by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth  must  be  round ;  that  there  might  be  an- 
tipodes on  the  opposite  part  of  the  globe ;  that  Venus  was  the  morning  and 
evening  star;  that  the  universe  consisted  of  twelve  spheres — the  sphere  ol 
the  earth,  the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the  air,  the  sphere  of  tire, 
the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  the  sphere  of  the  stars,  about  506  B.  c.  Aristarchus,  of  Samos.  main- 
tained that  the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved  about  the  sun; 
which  doctrine  was  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  phi- 
losopher had  nearly  lost  his  life  to  his  theory,  280  B.  c.  The  first  voyage 
round  the  globe  was  performed  by  Picaro,  commanding  a  ship  of  Magel- 
lan's squadron.  1520-4.'  The  first  English  navigator  who  performed  the  same 
enterprise  was  sir  Francis  Drake,  1577. — See  Circumnavigation,  and  Earth. 

GLORY.  The  glory  or  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round  the  heads  of  saints, 
angels,  and  holy  men,  and  the  circle  of  rays  on  images,  were  adopted  from 
the  Caesars  and  their  flatterers,  by  whom  they  were  used  in  the  first  century. 
The  doxology  of  the  prayer  Gloria  Patri  was  ordained  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  was  called  doxology  because  it  began  with  8<5{o,  glory,  A.  D. 
382. 

GLOVES.  They  were  in  use  in  very  early  times.  In  the  middle  ages,  the  giving 
of  a  glove  was  a  ceremony  of  investiture  in  bestowing  lands  and  dignities ;  and 
two  bishops  were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  by  each  receiving  a  glove, 
A  D.  1002.  In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves 
was  a  ceremony  of  degradation.  The  Glovers'  company  of  London  was  in- 
corporated in  1556.  Embroidered  gloves  were  introduced  into  England  in 
1580,  and  are  presented  to  judges  at  maiden  assizes  to  this  day. 

GNOSTICS.  Ancient  heretics,  who  were  famous  from  the  first  rise  of  Christianity. 
The  tenets  of  this  sect  were  revived  in  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  the 
Priscillianists ;  but  the  name,  which  was  once  glorious,  at  length  became  in- 
famous. The  Gnostics  were  not  so  much  a  particular  sect  of  heretics,  as  a 
complication  of  many  sects ;  and  were  so  called,  because  they  pretended  to 
extraordinary  illuminations  and  knowledge,  one  main  branch  of  which  con- 
sisted in  their  pretended  genealogies  or  attributes  of  the  Deity,  in  which 
they  differed  among  themselves  as  much  as  they  did  from  others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY.  Tapestry  so  called  from  a  noted  house  at  Paris,  in  the 
suburb  of  St.  Marcel,  formerly  possessed  by  famous  wool-dyers,  whereof  the 
chief,  called  Giles  Gobelin,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  is  said  to 
have  found  the  secret  of  dyeing  scarlet,  which  was  from  him  called  the 
scarlet  of  the  Gobelins ;  the  house  and  river  that  runs  by  it  also  took  the 
same  name.  This  house  was  purchased  by  Louis  XIV.  for  a  manufactory  of 
all  manner  of  curious  works  for  adorning  the  royal  palaces,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mons.  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs  for  which  were  drawn  by 
the  celebrated  Le  Brun.  by  appointment  of  the  king,  A.  D.  1666. — Du  Fret- 
twy. 

GODFATHERS  AND  GODMOTHERS.  The  Jews  had  godfathers  in  the  cir- 
cumcision of  their  sons.  In  the  Christian  church  sponsion  in  baptism  arose 
in  the  desire  of  assuring  that  the  child  should  be  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 
It  was  first  ordained  to  be  used,  according  to  some,  by  pope  Alexander; 
according  to  others,  by  Sixtus,  and  others  refer  it  to  Telesphorus,  about  A.  D 


QUO   I  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  395 

130.  In  Catholic  countries  they  haro  godfathers  and  godmothers  in  the 
baptism  of  their  bells. 

UOLD.  The  purest  and  most  ductile  of  all  the  metals,  for  which  reason  it  has, 
from  the  earliest  ages,  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the  most 
valuable.  It  is  too  soft  to  be  used  pure,  and  to  harden  it  it  is  alloyed  with 
copper  or  silver :  in  its  pure  state  it  is  twenty-four  carats ;  that  used  in  our 
coin  is  twenty-two  carats,  and  two  parts  of  copper.  In  the  early  ages  no 
metals  were  used  but  those  found  pure,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The 
smelting  of  ores  was  a  comparatively  late  invention,  and  ascribed  both  to 
observations  on  volcanoes  and  to  the  burning  of  forests. 

GOLD  MINES.  Gold  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  Africa,  Japan,  and  South  America,  in  which  Lst  gold  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  1492,  from  which  time  to  1731,  they  imported 
into  Europe  6000  millions  of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold  and  silver,  ex- 
clusively of  what  were  unregistered.  In  1730,  a  piece  of  gold  weighing 
ninety  marks,  equal  to  sixty  pounds  troy  (the  mark  being  eight  ounces), 
was  found  near  La  Paz,  a  town  of  Peru.  Gold  was  discovered  in  Malacca, 
in  1731 ;  in  New  Andulasia  in  1785  ;  in  Ceylon  in  1800  ;  in  Virginia  1829 ; 
in  North  Carolina  1824 ;  South  Carolina  1829 ;  in  Georgia  1830 :  in  Cali- 
fernia,  April  1848. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER.  Quantity  produced  in  forty  years  from  1790  to  1830,  as 
stated  in  the  Mining  Journal : 

Gold.  Silver. 

Mexico £6,436,453  -  JE139,818,032 

Chili 2,768,488  -         1,822,92* 

Buenos  Ayrea 4,024,895  -       27,182,673 

Russia 3,703,743  -         1,502,981 

£17,003,579  _  £170,326,610 

The  mines  of  North  and  South  America  had,  in  1840,  sent  to  Europe  3$ 
times  more  gold,  and  12  times  more  silver,  than  those  of  the  other  hemis- 
phere. The  gold  mines  in  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia, 
discovered  1824-30,  had  produced  altogether  up  to  1835,  $4,"377.50Q.  Those 
of  California,  discovered  in  the  spring  of  1848,  had  produced  up  to  Feb. 
1850,  at  least  25  millions  of  dollars  in  value,  a  considerable  part  of  which 
was  sent  to  Europe.  The  amount  of  California  gold  coined  at  the  U.  S. 
mint  in  1849  was  about  $6,000,000.  The  total  annual  production  of  gold  in 
the  world  was  estimated  in  1840  at  about  36  tons,  proportioned  thus  :  North 
and  South  America  11,  Europe  and  Asiatic  Russia  6£,  Indian  Archipelago, 
4|,  Africa  14.  See  Coin. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.  Jason,  the  Argonaut,  sailed  with  his  companions  from 
lolchos  to  Colchis  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and  to  re- 
cover his  treasures,  which  the  perfidious  ^Eetes,  king  of  Colchis,  had  seized, 
after  murdering  their  owner.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to 
Colchis,  was  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram  on  the  poop ;  which  gave 
occasion  to  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason  was  for  the  re- 
covery of  the  golden  fleece,  1263  B.  c. 

JOLDEN  NUMBER.  The  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  or  number  which  shows 
the  years  of  the  moon's  cycle  ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of  Athens, 
about  432  B.  c. — Pliny.  To  find  the  golden  number  or  year  of  the  Lunar 
cycle,  add  one  to  the  date  and  divide  "by  nineteen,  then  the  quotient  is  the 
number  of  cycles  since  Christ,  and  the  remainder  is  the  Golden  number. 

GOOD  FRIDAY.  From  the  earliest  records  of  Christianity,  this  day  has  been 
held  as  a  solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour  on 
Friday,  April  3,  A.  D.  33.  Its  appellation  of  good  appears  to  be  peculiar  to 
the  Church  of  England  :  our  Saxon  forefathers  denominated  it  Long  Fri* 


396  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [oov 

day,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the  offices  observed,  and  fastings  en- 
joined  on  this  day. 

GORDIAN  KNOT.  The  knot  made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to 
the  wagon  of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  who  was  afterwards  king  of  Phrygia. 
Whosoever  loosed  this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  discoverable,  the 
oracle  declared  should  be  emperor  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut 
away  the  knot  with  his  sword  until  he  found  the  ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a 
military  sense  at  least,  this  "conqueror  of  the  world"  interpreted  the  ora- 
cle, 330  v.  c. 

GORDON  S  "  NO  POPERY "  MOB :  occasioned  by  the  zeal  of  lord  George 
Gordon.  It  consisted  of  40.000  persons  who  assembled  in  St.  George's 
Fields,  under  the  name  of  the  Protestant  Association,  to  carry  up  a  petition 
to  parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the  act  which  granted  certain  indulgences 
to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  mob  once  raised,  could  not  be  dispersed,  but 
proceeded  to  the  most  daring  outrages,  pillaging,,  burning,  and  pulling  down 
the  chapels  and  private  houses  of  the  Catholics  first,  but  afterwards  of  several 
other  persons ;  breaking  open  prisons,  setting  the  prisoners  free,  even  at- 
tempting the  Bank  of  England,  and  in  a  word  totally  overct  rning  the  civil 
power  for  nearly  six  days.  At  length,  by  the  aid  of  armed  associations  of 
the  citizens,  the  horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  militia  of  several  counties, 
then  embodied  and  marched  to  London,  the  riot  was  quelled.  It  com- 
menced June  2 ;  and  on  the  3d,  the  Catholic  chapels,  and  numerous  private 
mansions,  were  destroyed,  the  bank  attempted,  and  the  jails  opened; 
among  these  were  the  King's  Bench,  Fleet,  and  Bridewell  prisons ;  on  the 
6th,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen  blazing  at  one  time.  In  the  end,  210  of  the 
rioters  were  killed,  and  248  were  wounded,  of  whom  75  died  afterwards  in 
the  hospitals.  Many  were  tried,  convicted,  and  executed.  Lord  George 
was  tried  the  year  after  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted,  June  2  to  7,  1780. 
— Annual  Register. 

GOSPELS.  St.  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  A.  D.  44  ;  St.  Matthew  in  the  same  year ; 
St.  Luke  in  55  ;  and  St.  John  in  96-7.  The  gospel  of  Matthew  was  found 
buried  in  the  tomb  of  St.  Barbus,  and  was  conveyed  to  Constantinople  in 
485. — Butler.  John  wrote  his  gospel  at  Ephesus  two  years  after  he  was 
thrown  into  a  caldron  of  burning  oil,  from  which  he  was  taken  out  unhurt, 
and  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos. — Idem.  The  gospel  is  the  glad  tidings 
of  the  actual  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  hence  the  evangelical  history  of 
Christ. — Hammond.  Dr.  Robert  Bray  was  the  author  of  the  first  plan  for 
propagating  the  gospel  in  foreign  parts.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Countries,  incorporated  in  1701. 

GOSPELLERS.  The  name  which  was  given  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  who 
first  attempted  the  reformation  of  the  Church  from  the  errors  of  popery  : 
it  was  affixed  to  them  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  derision,  on  account  of 
their  professing  to  follow  and  preach  only  the  gospel,  A.  D.  1377. — Bishop 
Burnet. 

GOTHS.  A  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the  space  between  the  Caspian. 
Pontus.  Euxine,  and  Baltic  seas.  They  attacked  the  Roman  empire  A.  r> 
251.  They  were  defeated  by  Claudius,  and  320,000  slain,  A.  D.  269.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  under 
Theodoric.  became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  where  they  retained 
their  dominion  till  A.  D.  653,  when  they  were  finally  conquered  by  Narses, 
Justinian's  general.  The  Visigoths  settled  in  Spain,  and  founded  a  king- 
dom, which  continued  until  the  country  was  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 

GOVERNMENT,  COST  OP,  IN  EUROPE  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In  an 
elaborate  article  in  the  American  Almanac,  1847,  this  result  is  reached,  viz. ; 


CUtAi  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  397 


in  the  United  States :  aggregate  of 
national  expenditure,  for  each  in 
habitant  ...  80  97 

Aggregate  of  State  expenditure,  fo 
each  inhabitant      -  -  0  50 

Aggregate  of  town  or  city  expendi 
ture,  for  each  inhabitant  -  0  92 

Total  cost  of  Government  in  the       

United  States,  per  head     -  -     $2  39 

or  847,800,000  if  the  population  is 


loch,  the  average  is  equal,  per 

head,  to  -  -  -  •  «1233 

In  France,  according  to  Chevalier, 
in  1833,  the  cost  was  about  1,250 
millions  of  francs,  or  40  francs  per 
head— say  -  -  -  •  $7  M 

Thus,  France  pays  about  three 
times,  and  Great  Britain  five  times 
as  much  for  Government  as  the 
United  States.  (See  Adminiatra- 


20  millions.  I      lions  of  the  United  States.) 


In  England,  according  to  Maccul- 


GRACE  AT  MEAT.  The  table  was  considered  by  the  ancient  Crocks  as  the 
altar  of  friendship,  and  held  sacred  upon  that  Account.  They  would  not 
partake  of  any  meat  until  they  had  first  offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits, 
to  their  gods ;  and  hence  came  the  short  prayer  said  before  and  after  meat 
in  all  Christian  countries  from  the  earliest  times. — Lenglet. 

GRAMMARIANS,  OR  CRITICS.  Anciently,  the  most  eminent  men  in  litera- 
ture were  denominated  grammarians.  A  society  of  grammarians  was  formed 
at  Rome  so  early  as  276  B.  c. — Blair.  Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Varro,  Ci- 
cero, Messala,  Julius  Caesar,  Nicias,  ^Elius  Donatus,  Remmius  Palemon, 
Tyrannion  of  Pontus,  Athenaeus.  and  other  distinguished  men,  were  of 
this  class.  Cobbett  declared  Mr.  Canning  to  be  the  only  purely  grammati- 
cal orator  of  his  time ;  and  Dr.  Parr,  speaking  of  a  speech  of  Mr.  Pitt's 
said,  "  We  threw  our  whole  grammatical  mind  upon  it  and  could  not  dis- 
cover one  error." 

GRANARIES.  The  Romans  formed  granaries  in  seasons  of  plenty,  to  secure 
food  for  the  poorer  citizens  ;  and  all  who  wanted  it  were  provided  with  corn 
from  these  reservoirs,  in  necessitous  times,  at  the  cost  of  the  public  trea- 
sury. There  were  three  hundred  and  twenty-seven  granaries  at  Rome. — 
Univ.  Hist.  Twelve  new  granaries  were  built  at  Bridewell  to  hold  6000 
quarters  of  corn,  and  two  store-houses  for  sea-coal  to  hold  4000  loads, 
thereby  to  prevent  the  sudden  dearness  of  these  articles  by  the  great  in- 
crease of  inhabitants,  7  James  I.,  1610. — Stowe. 

GRANICUS,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  signally  defeated  the 
Persians.  The  Macedonian  troops  crossed  the  Granicus  in  the  face  of  the 
Persian  army,  although  the  former  did  not  exceed  30,000  foot  and  5000 
horse,  while  the  Persian  army  amounted  to  600,000  foot,  and  20.000  horse. 
— Justin.  Yet  the  victors  lost  in  this  great  battle  but  fifty-five  foot  soldiers, 
and  sixty  horse.  Sardis  capitulated,  Miletus  and  Halicarnassus  were  taken 
by  storm,  and  numerous  other  great  towns  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  334 
B.  c. — Bossuet. 

GRATES.  The  hearths  of  the  early  Britons  were  fixed  in  the  centre  of  their 
halls.  The  fire-place  originally  was  perhaps  nothing  more  than  a  large 
stone  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  ground  to  receive  the  ashes.  There 
were  arched  hearths  among  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  and  chafing  dishes  were 
most  in  use  until  the  general  introduction  of  chimneys,  about  A.  D.  1200. 
See  Chimneys. 

GRAVITATION.  This,  as  a  supposed  innate  power,  was  noticed  by  the 
Greeks,  and  also  by  Seneca,  who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters, 
about  A.  D.  38.  Kepler  enlarged  upon  it,  about  A.  D.  1615;  and  Hook  pub- 
lished it  as  a  system.  The  principles  of  gravity  were  proved  by  Galileo,  at 
Florence,  about  1633 ;  and  they  were  subsequently  adopted  by  Newton, 
about  1687. 

URjECIA  MAGNA.    That  part  of  Italy  where  the  Greeks  planted  colonies 


398 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[ORB 


but  its  boundaries  are  very  uncertain.  Some  say  tlat  it  extended  to  the 
southern  parts  of  Italy ;  and  others  suppose  that  Magna  Graecia  compre- 
hended only  Campania  and  Lucania.  To  these  is  added  Sicily,  which  was 
likewise  peopled  by  the  Greek  colonists. — Lempriere. 

GREECE.  The  first  inhabitants  of  this  justly  celebrated  country  of  the  an- 
cient world,  were  the  progeny  of  Javan,  fourth  son  of  Japheth.  Greece 
was  so  called  from  a  very  ancient  king  named  Grsecus  ;  and  another  king 
named  Hellen,  gave  his  subjects  the  appellation  of  Hellenists.  Homer  calls 
the  inhabitants,  indifferently.  Myrmidions,  Hellenists,  and  Achains.  For 
ancient  Grecian  history,  see  Tabular  Views,  p.  5  el  seq. 


Sicyon  founded  (Eusebius)      •      B.  c.  2089 
Uranus  arrives  in  Greece  (Lenglet)    •  2042 
Revolt  of  the  Titans 
War  of  the  Giants          -  -  -  * 

Kingdom  of  Argos  begun  (Eusebius)  •  1856 
Reign  of  Ogyges  in  Boeotia  (idem)  -  1796 
Sacrifices  to  ihe  gods  first  introduced  in 

Greece  by  Phoroneus  -  -  -  1773 

According  to  some  authors,  Sicyon  was 

now  begun  (Lenglet)  -  -  •  1773 

Deluge  of  Ogyges  (which  see)  •  •  1764 

A  colony  of  Arcadians  emigrate  to  Italy 

under  CEnotrus  :    the   country  first 

called  (Enortria,  afterwards  Magna 

Grchcia  (Eitsebius)    •  •  •  1710 

Chronology  of  the  Arundelian  marbles 

commences  (Eusebius)         •  •  1582 

Cecrops  comes  into  Attica  (idem)  •  1556 
The  Areopagus  instituted  -  •  1506 

Deluge  of  Deucalion  (Eusebius)  -  1503 
Reign  of  Hellen  (idem)  •  •  -1459 

Cadmus,  with  the  Phoenician  letters, 

settles  in  Bceotia  ...  1493 
Lelex,  first  king  of  Laconia,  afterwards 

called  Sparta  ....  1490 
Arrival  of  Danaus,  with  the  first  ship 

ever  seen  in  Greece     -  -  •  1485 

He  gets  possession  of  Argos.    His  fifty 

daughters       -  ...  1475 

First  Olympic  games  celebrated  at  Elis, 

by  the  latui  Dactyli  (Eusebius)  -  1453 
Iron  discovered  by  the  Idtei  Daetyli  -  1406 
Corinth  rebuilt,  and  so  named  -  -  1384 

Ceres  arrives  in  Greece,  and  teaches 

the  art  of  making  bread          -  -  1383 

The  Isthmu.i  games  instituted  -  -  1326 

Mycenae  created  out  of  Argos    •  -  1313 

Argonautic  expedition  (which  see)  -  1263 
The  Pythian  games  by  Adrastus  -  1263 
War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains  -  1225 
The  Amazonian  war ;  these  martial  fe- 
males penetrate  into  Greece  -  -  1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus  -  -1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris  '  >  -  1198 
Commencement  of  the  Trojan  war  - 1193 
Troy  taken  and  destroyed  on  the  night 

of  the  7th  of  the  month  Thargelion 

(27th  May,  or  llth  June)       -  -  1184 

^Bneas  sets  sail,  winters  in  Thrace,  and 

arrives  in  Italy  -  -  -  1181 

Migration  of  the  /Eolian  colonies,  who 

build  Smyrna,  <kc.  -  -1124 

Sett'ement  of  (he  Ionian*  from  Greece 

in  Asia  Minor  ....  1044 
The  first  laws  of  navigation  originate 

with  the  Rhodians       •  •  -916 

Homer     flourishes    about    this    time 

(Arundelian  Marbles)  •  •   907 

Olympic  games  revived  at  Elia  -   881 


The  first  Messenian  war  -     B.  o.   743 

The  second  Messenian  war       •  •    Gd& 

The  capture  of  Ira          -  -  -    670 

The  Messenians  emigrate  to  Sicily,  and 
give  their  own  name  Messene  to  Zan- 
cle  (now  called  Messina)  -  -  668 

Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between 
the  Corinthians  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Cqrcyra       ....   664 
Byzantium  built  by  the  Argives  -    658 

Sybaris,  in  Magna  Graecia,  destroyed, 
100,000  Crotonians  under  Milo  defeat 
300,000  Sybarians  -  .  .508 

Sardis  taken  tnd  burnt,  which  occa- 
sions the  Persian  invasion      -  -   504 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  conquered       -   496 
Battle  of  Marathon  (which  see)  -  -   490 
Xerxes  invades  Greece,  but  is  checked   480 

at  Thermopylae  by  I.eonidas  • 
Battle  of  Salamis  (which  see)  -  -   480 

Mardonius  defea'ed  at  Plataea   -  -   479 

Battle  of  Eurymedon      ...   476 
The  third  Messenian  war  -  -   465 

Athens  begins  to  tyrannize  over  the 

other  states  of  Greece  -  -    459 

Peloponnesus  overrun  by  Pericles       -   455 
The  first  sacred  war  -  -   448 

Herodotus   reads   his   history  ir    '.he 

Council  at  Athens       ...   445 
The  sea-fight  at  Cnidus  •  -  -    394 

Battle  of  Mantinea          -  -   633 

Sacred  war  ended  by  Philip,  vrho  takes 

all  the  cities  of  the  Phoceans       '     -    348 
Battle  of  Chaeronea        -  -  -    338 

Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  enters 
Greece ;  subdues  the  Athenians,  and 
destroys  the  city  of  Thebes    - 
Commencement  of  the  Macedonian  or 


Grecian  Monarchy       ... 
Alexander  goes  to  Susa,  and  sits  on  the 
throne  of  Darius 


335 
331 
33(1 


Alaric  invades  Greece    -           -     A.  D.    395 
The  empire  under  Nicephorus  com- 
menced            -           -           -           -   811 
Greece  mastered  by  the  Latir  s  -           -  1201 
Re-conquered      ....  1201 
Invaded  by  the  Turks     -           -           -  1350 
Its  final  overthrow.    See  Eastern  Em- 
pire        1353 

[This  country,  so  long  illustrious  for  the 
military  exploits,  the  learning,  and 
arts  of  its  people,  became  of  late 
years  the  scene  of  desperate  con- 
flicts with  the  Turks,  in  order  to  re- 
gain its  independence,  and  the  coun- 
cils of  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
were  friendly  to  the  design.] 
Great  struggle  for  independence  .  1770 


OHE] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


399 


GREECE,  continued. 

The  first  decided  movement  in  these  lat- 
ter times,  by  the  Servians  -  A.  D.  1800 

The  Servians  defeat  th«j  Turks  at  Nyssa 

April  2,  1807 

100,000  Turks,  under  Chourshid  Pasha, 
overrun  the  country,  committing  the 
most  dreadlal  excesses  -  -  1813 

Insurrection  in  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia,  in  which  the  Greeks  join  -1821 

Proclamation  of  prince  Alexander  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke  March,  1821 

The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople  -  April  23,  1821 

10,000  Christians  perish  in  Cyprus,  al- 
though not  engaged  in  the  revolt  •  1821 

Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bucha- 
rest ;  even  the  women  and  children 
not  spared  ....  1821 

Independence  of  Greece  formally  pro- 
claimed •  •  Jan.  27,  1822 

Siege  of  Corinth  -  -  -     Feb.  182-2 

Bombardment  of  Scio ;  its  capture  ; 
most  horrible  massacre  recorded  in 
modern  history*  -  April  23,  1822 

Victories  of  the  Greeks  at  Larissa, 
Thermopylae,  and  Salonica,  -  July  8,  1822 

National  Congress  at  Argos  •  April  10,  18*3 

Victories  of  Marco  Botzans      -    June,  1823 

Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece,  to  devote 
himself  to  its  cause!  -  August.  1823 

Lamented  death  of  Lord  Byron,  at  Mis- 
solonghi -  -  April  19,  1824 

Signal  deteat  of  the  Capitan  Pacha,  at 
Samos  -  -  August  16,  1824 

The  Provisional  Government  ol  Greece 


instituted 


Oct.  12,  1824 


The  Greek  fleet  defeats  that  of  the  Ca- 
pitan Pacha  -  -      June  2,  1825 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Greece 
invites  the  protection  of  England 

July  24, 1825 

Siege  of  Missolonghi :    the  besieging 
Turks  are  defeated  in  a  formidable 


attack  upon  it 


August  1,  1826 


The  Greeks  disperse  the  Ottoman  fleet 


Jan.  28, 1826 


Ibrahim  Pacha  takes  Mistolonghi  by 
assault  •  -  April  23,  1824 

The  Greeks  land  near  Salonica ;  battle 
with  Ora*r  Pacha  -  June  1,  1828 

Ibrahim  Pacha  signally  defeated  by  the 
Mainotes  -  August  8  and  9,  1826 

Redschid  Pacha  takes  Athens,  Aug.  15,  1828 

Tir.aty  of  London,  between  Great  Bri- 
tain, Russia,  and  France,  on  behalf 
of  Greece,  signed  -  July  6,  1827 

Battle  of  Navarino  'johick  see);  the 
Turkish  fleet  destroyed  -  Oct.  20,  1827 

Count  Capo  d'Istria  arrives  as  Presi- 
dent ol  Greece  -  -  Jan.  18,  1828 

The  Panhellenion  or  Grand  Council  of 
Siate  established  -  Feb.  2,  1828 

National  Bank  founded       -     Feb.  14,  1828 

Greece  divided  into  departments,  viz. 
Argolis,  Achaia,  Elis,  Uppet  Messe- 
nia,  Lower  Messenia,  Laconia,  and 
Arcadia,  and  the  islands  formed  also 
_into  departments  April  26.  .828 

Final  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  the 
Turks  -  -  -  Oct.  30,  1828 

Missolonghi  surrenders    -         May  17,  1829 

Greek  National  Assembly  commences 
its  sittings  at  Argos  -  July  23, 1829 

The  Porte  acknowledges  the  indepeiic- 
ence  of  Greece  •  April  25, 1830 

Prince  Leopold  finally  declines  the  so- 
vereignty -  -  May  21,  1830 

Count  Capo  d'Istria,  President  of 
Greece,  assassinated  by  the  brother 
and  son  of  Mavromichaelis,  a  Mainote 
chief,  whom  he  had  imprisoned  Oct.  9, 1831 

The  assassins  put  to  death        Oct  29, 1881 

Otho  I.  elected  king  of  Greece,  Jan.  25, 1833 
Colocotroni's  conspiracy      -     Oct.  27,  1833 
A  bloodless  revolution  at  Athens,  to  en- 
force  ministerial  responsibility  and 
national  representation,  is  consum- 
mated •  •  -  Sept.  14, 1843 
The  king  accepts  the  new  constitution 

March  16,  1844 
[See  Athens,  Macedon,  Sparta,  Thrace,  and 


•  other  states  of  Greece.] 

GREEK  CHURCH.  A  difference  arose  in  the  eighth  century  between  the 
eastern  and  western  churches,  which  in  the  course  of  two  centuries  and  a 
half  terminated  in  a  separation :  this  church  is  called  Greek  in  contradis- 
tinction from  the  latter,  or  Roman  church.  The  Greek  church  claims  prior- 
ity as  using  the  language  in  which  the  Gospel  was  first  promulgated,  and 
many  of  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics ;  but  it  disowns  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  It  is  the  established  reli- 
gion of  Russia. 

GREEK  FIRE.  A  composition  of  combustible  matter  invented  by  one  Calli- 
nicus,  an  ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria,  in  the  seventh  century, 


*  The  slaughter  lasted  10  days ;  40,000  of  both  sexes  falling  victims  to  the  sword,  or  to  the  fire 
which  raged  until  every  house,  save  those  of  the  foreign  consuls,  was  burned  to  the  grmind.  7000 
Greeks,  who  had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  of  amnesty,  truar- 
mnteed  by  the  consuls  of  England,  France  and  Austria,  yet  even  they  were,  every  man  of  them, 
butchered !  The  only  exception  made  during  the  massacre  was  in  favor  of  the  young  and  more 
beautiful  women  and  boys,  30,000  of  whom  were  reserved  for  the  markets.  The  narrative  of  plun- 
der, violation,  and  crime,  while  the  infidel  army  was  1ft  loose  upon  the  captured  citv.  is  too  long 
and  too  shocking  for  transcription  here. 


400  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  oiu 

in  order  tc  destroy  the  Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general 
of  the  emperor  Pogonat's  fleet,  and  30,000  men  were  killed.  The  property 
of  this  fire  was  to  burn  briskest  in  water,  to  diffuse  itself  on  all  sides,  ac- 
cording to  the  impression  given  it.  Nothing  but  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  vine- 
gar, urine,  and  sand,  could  quench  it.  It  was  blown  out  of  long  tubes  of 
copper,  and  shot  out  of  cross-bows,  and  other  spring  instruments.  The  in- 
vention was  kept  a  secret  for  many  years  by  the  court  of  Constantinople ; 
but  it  is  now  lost. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  The  Greek  language  was  first  studied  in  Europe 
about  A.  D.  1450 — in  France,  1473.  William  Grocyn,  or  Grokeyu,  a  learned 
English  professor  of  this  language,  travelled  to  acquire  its  true  pronuncia- 
tion, and  introduced  it  at  Oxford,  where  he  had  the  honor  to  teach  Erasmus, 
1490.—  Wood's  Athen.  Oxon. 

GREENLAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegians  from  Iceland,  about  A  r>.  980, 
and  thus  named  on  account  of  its  superior  verdure  compared  with  the  latter 
country.  It  was  visited  by  Frobisher,  in  1576.  The  first  ship  from  England 
to  Greenland  was  sent  for  the  whale  fishery  by  the  Muscovy  Company.  2 
James  I.  1604.  In  a  voyage  performed  in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind 
by  accident,  and  suffered  incredible  hardships  till  the  following  year,  when 
the  company's  ships  brought  them  home. —  Tindal.  The  Greenland  Fishing 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1693. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.  Built  at  the  solicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore 
and  sir  Christopher  Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flarnstead-hill, 
so  called  from  the  great  astronomer  of  that  name,  who  was  the  first  astro- 
nomer-royal here.  The  English  began  to  compute  the  longitude  from  the 
meridian  of  this  place,  1675 ;  some  make  the  date  1679.  This  observatory 
contains  a  transept  circle  by  Troughton ;  a  transit  instrument  of  eight  feet 
by  Bird  ;  two  mural  quadrants  of  eight  feet,  and  Bradley's  zenith  sector 
The  telescopes  are  forty  and  sixty  inch  achromatics,  and  a  six-feet  re- 
flector ;  and  among  other  tine  instruments  and  objects  is  a  famous  camera 
obscura. 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR.  Ordained  to  be  adopted  by  pope  Gregor,  XIII., 
from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  A.  D.  1582  ;  and  introduced  into  the  Catholic 
states  of  Europe  in  that  year ;  into  most  other  states  in  1710;  and  adopted 
by  England  in  1752.  To  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  deficiency  in  the  Julian  ca- 
lendar had  amounted  to  ten  days  ;  and  in  the  year  1752  it  had  amounted  to 
eleven  days.  See  Calendar,  and  New  Style. 

GRENADA.  Conquered  by  the  Moors,  A.  D.  715 ;  it  was  the  last  kingdom  pos- 
sessed by  them,  and  was  not  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Castile  until  1491 ; 
the  capital  of  this  province  is  magnificent.  New  Grenada  was  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1536.  Grenada,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  settled  by  the 
French,  1650 ;  it  was  taken  from  them  by  the  English  in  1762,  and  was 
ceded  to  England  in  1763.  The  French  possessed  themselves  of  it  again, in 
1779  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  English  at  the  peace  of  1783.  In  1795  the 
French  landed  some  troops  and  caused  an  insurrection  in  this  island,  which 
was  not  finally  quelled  till  June,  1796. 

GROCERS.  One  of  the  oldest  trades  in  England.  The  word  anciently  meant 
"  ingrossers  or  monopolizers,"  as  appears  by  a  statute.  37  Edward  III.  The 
Grocers'  Company  is  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, incorporated  in  1429. 

tSUADALOUPE.  Discovered  by  Columbus.  A.  D.  1493.  It  was  colonized  by 
the  French  in  1635.  Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and  restored  in  1763. 
Again  taken  by  the  English  in  1779,  1794,  and  1810 ;  and  in  order  to  allure 


»nr  J  DICTIONAHY    OF    DATES.  401 

the  Swedes  into  the  coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.    It  was. 
however,  by  the  consent  of  Sweden,  restored  to  France  in  1814. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINES.  These  were  party  names,  and  are  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  Hiewelf  and  Hiegiblin,  the  names  of  towns.  The  desig- 
nation began  in  Italy,  A.  D.  1139,  and  distinguished  the  contending  armiea 
during  the  civil  wars  in  Germany;  the  Guelphs  were  for  the  pope,  and  the 
Ghibelines  were  for  the  emperor.  Guelph  is  the  name  of  the  present  royal 
family  of  England. — See  Brunswick.  The  Guelphic  order  of  knighthood 
was  instituted  for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  by  the  prince  regent,  afterwards 
(JeorgelV.,  in  1816. 

GUILLOTINE.  An  engine  for  decapitation,  which  has  made  an  otherwise 
obscure  name  immortal.  A  similar  instrument,  but  of  ruder  form,  may  be 
seen  in  an  engraving  accompanying  the  Symbolic^  Que.tiiones  of  Achilles 
Bocchius,  4to.  1555  (see  the  Travels  of  Father  Labat  in  Italy) ;  it  is  there 
called  the  Mounaia.  In  Scotland,  also  at  Halifax.  England  (see  Halifax ; 
Maiden),  soon  after  it  was  in  use,  and  served  to  behead  its  introducer,  the 
regent  Morton.  Dr.  Guillotin,  about  1785,  recommended  its  use  in  France, 
from  motives  of  humanity,  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  cruel  gibbet,  and  his 
name  was  applied  to  it,  at  first  from  mere  waggishness.  Its  unwilling  god- 
father was  imprisoned  during  the  revolutionary  troubles,  and  ran  some 
hazard  of  being  subjected  to  its  deadly  operation ;  but  he  (contrary  to  a 
prevailing  opinion)  escaped,  and  lived  to  become  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Medicine  at  Paris.  He  died  May  26,  1814,  aged  seventy-six, 
enjoying  to  the  last  the  esteem  of  all  who  knew  him,  for  his  mild  virtues. 

GUINEAS.  An  English  gold  coin,  so  named  from  their  having  been  first 
coined  of  gold  brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea.  A.  D.  1673.  They  were 
then  valued  at  30s.  and  were  worth  that  sum  in  1696.  They  were  reduced 
in  currency  from  22s.  to  21s.  by  parliament  in  1717.  Broad  pieces  were 
coined  into  guineas  in  1732.  The  original  guineas  bore  the  impression  of 
an  elephant,  on  account  of  their  having  been  coined  of  this  African  gold. 

GUNPOWDER.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  generally  ascribed  to  Ber- 
tholdus  or  Michael  Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of  Bruns- 
wick, in  Germany,  about  A.  D.  1320.  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  wa?, 
known  much  earlier  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Some  say  that  the  Chi- 
nese possessed  the  art  a  number  of  centuries  before.  •  Its  composition, 
moreover,  is  expressly  mentioned  by  our  own  famous  Roger  Bacon,  in  his 
treatise  De  Nullitate  Magia,  which  was  published  at  Oxford,  in  1216. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT  IN  ENGLAND.  The  memorable  conspiracy  known  by 
this  name,  for  springing  a  mine  under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  des- 
troying the  three  estates  of  the  realm — king,  lords,  and  commons — there 
assembled,  was  discovered  on  Nov.  5,  1605.  This  diabolical  scheme  was 
projected  by  Robert  Catesby,  and  many  high  persons  were  leagued  in  the 
enterprise  Guy  Faux  was  detected  in  the  vaults  under  the  House  of  Lords, 
preparing  the  train  for  being  fired  on  the  next  day.  Catesby  and  Percy  (of 
the  famify  of  Northumberland)  were  killed  ;  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rockwood, 
Winter.  Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  and  others,  died  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner, 
as  did  Guy  Faux,  January  31.  1606.  The  vault  called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in 
which  the  conspirators  lodged  the  barrels  of  gunpowder,  remained  in  tho 
late  houses  of  parliament  till  1825,  when  it  was  converted  into  offices. 

GUY'S  HOSPITAL.  This  celebrated  London  hospital  is  indebted  for  its  origin 
to  Thomas  Guy,  an  eminent  and  wealthy  bookseller,  who.  after  having  be- 
stowed immense  sums  on  St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  be  the  sole  founder 
of  another  hospital.  At  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced  the 
erection  of  the  present  building,  and  lived  to  see  it  nearly  completed.  It 


402  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [HAD 

cost  him  18793J.,  in  addition  to  which  he  left  to  endow  it,  the  immense  SUBU 
of  219,499^,  A  splendid  bequest,  amounting  to  200,OOOZ.  was  made  to  this 
hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to  provide  additional  accommodation  for  100  patients ; 
his  will  was  proved  Sept.  24,  1829. 

GYMNASIUM,  a  place  among  the  Greeks,  where  all  the  public  exercises  were 
performed,  and  where  not  only  wrestlers  and  dancers  exhibited,  but  also 
philosophers,  poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.  In  wrest- 
ling and  boxing,  the  athletes  were  often  naked,  whence  the  word  Gymna- 
sium— gumnos,  nudus.  They  anointed  themselves  with  oil  to  brace  their 
limbs,  and  to  render  their  bodies  slippery,  and  more  difficult  to  be  grasped. 
The  first  modern  treatise  on  the  subject  of  Gymnastics  was  published  in 
Germany  in  1793.  London  society  formed,  1826.  .  , 

GYPSIES,  OR  EGYPTIANS.  A  strange  commonwealth  of  wanderers  and  pecu- 
liar race  of  people,  who  made  their  appearance  first  in  Germany,  about  A.  D. 
1517,  having  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by  the  Turks.  They  are  the  des- 
cendants of  a  great  body  of  Egyptians  who  re\olted  from  the  Turkish  yoke, 
and  being  defeated,  dispersed  in  small  parties  all  over  the  world,  while  their 
supposed  skill  in  the  black  art  gave  them  an  universal  rece^  tion  in  'hat  age 
of  credulity  and  superstition.  Although  expelled  from  France  in  1560,  and 
from  most  countries  soon  after,  they  are  yet  found  in  every  part  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Having  recovered  their  footing,  they  have  con- 
trived to  maintain  it  to  this  day.  In  England  an  act  was  made  against  theii 
itinerancy,  in  1530;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  thirteen  persons  were  ex- 
ecuted at  one  assizes  for  haying  associated  with  gypsies  for  about  a  month 
contrary  to  the  statute.  The  gypsey  settlement  at  Norwood,  near  London, 
was  broken  up,  and  they  were  treated  as  vagrants,  May  1797.  There  were 
in  Spain  alone,  previously  to  the  year  1800,  more  than  120.000  gypsies,  and 
many  communities  of  them  yet  exist  in  England ;  and  notwithstanding  their 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  they  are  still,  like  the  Jews,  in  their  manners, 
customs,  visage,  and  appearance,  wholly  unchanged. 

H. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects'  Writ  of  Right,  passed  for  the  security  and 
liberty  of  individuals,  May  27,  1679.  This  act  is  next  in  importance  to 
Magna  Charta,  for  so  long  as  the  statute  remains  in  force,  no  subject  of  En- 
gland can  be  detained  in  prison,  except  in  cases  wherein  the  detention  is 
shown  to  be  justified  by  the  law.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  can  alone  be  sus- 
pended by  the  authority  of  parliament,  and  then  for  a  short  time  only,  and 
when  the  emergency  is  extreme.  In  such  a  case,  the  nation  parts  with  a 
portion  of  its  liberty  to  secure  its  own  permanent  welfare,  and  suspected 
persons  may  then  be  arrested  without  cause  or  purpose  being  assigned. — 
Blackstone. 

HACKNEY  COACHES  are  of  French  origin.  In  France,  a  strong  kind  of  cob- 
horse  (haqueiiee)  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  journeys:  these  were  latterly 
harnessed  (to  accommodate  several  wayfarers  at  once)  to  a  plain  vehicle 
called  coche-h-haquenee :  hence  the  name.  The  legend  that  traces  their  ori- 
gin to  Hackney,  near  London,  is  a  vulgar  error.  They  were  first  licensed  in 
1662,  and  subjected  to  regulations,  6  William  and  Mary.  1694. — Surrey  of 
Ijondon.  The  number  plying  in  London  fixed  at  1000,  and  their  fares  raised, 
1771.  The  cabriolets  are  of  Parisian  origin;  but  the  aristocratic  taste  of 
Englishmen  suggested  the  propriety  of  obliging  the  driver  to  be  seated  on 
the  outside  of  the  vehicle. 

HAGUE.  Once  called  the  finest  vitta.ge  in  Europe :  the  place  of  meeting  of  the 
States-General,  and  residence  of  the  former  earls  of  H'/lland,  the  r^in^es  of 


RAM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  403 

Holland,  &c.  Here  the  States,  in  1586,  abrogated  the  authority  of  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  and  held  a  conference  in  1610,  upon -the  five  articles  of  the  re- 
monstrants, which  occasioned  the  synod  of  Dort.  Treaty  of  the  Hague, 
entered  into  with  a  view  to  preserve  the  equilibrium  of  the  North,  signed 
by  England,  France,  and  Holland,  May  21,  1659.  De  Witt  was  torn  in  pieces 
here.  August  20,  1672.  The  French  took  possession  of  the  Hague  in  Janu- 
ary, 1795;  favoreo.  by  a  hard  frost,  they  marched  into  Holland,  where  the 
inhabitants  and  troops  declared  in  their  favor,  a  general  revolution  ensued 
and  the  stadtholder  and  his  family  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  and 
escape  to  England.  The  Hague  was  evacuated  in  November  1813,  shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  the  stadtholder  returned  to  his  dominions 
and  arrived  here  in  December,  that  year.  Treaty  of  Commerce  between 
England  and  Holland,  December  16,  1837. 

HAIR.  By  the  northern  nations,  and  in  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,  and 
hence  the  appellation  Gallia  comata ;  and  cutting  off  the  hair  was  inflicted 
as  a  punishment  among  them.  The  royal  family  of  France  had  it  as  a  par- 
ticular mark  and  privilege  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood,  to  wear 
long  hair,  artfully  dressed  and  curled.  The  clerical  tonsure  is  of  apostolic 
institution. — Isidorus  ffispalensis.  Pope  Anicetus  forbade  the  clergy  to  wear 
long  hair,  A.  D.  155.  Long  hair  was  out  of  fashion  during  the  Protectorate 
of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Round-heads.  It  was  again  out  of  fashion 
in  1795;  and  very  short  hair  was  the  mode  in  1801.  Hair-powder  came  into 
use  in  1590;  and  in  1795  a  tax  was  laid  upon  persons  using  it  in  England, 
which  yielded  20.0002.  per  annum. 

HALCYON  DAYS,  in  antiquity,  implied  seven  days  before  and  as  many  after 
the  winter  solstice,  because  the  halcyon  laid  her  eggs  at  this  time  of  the 
year,  and  the  weather  during  her  incubation  was  always  calm.  The  phrase 
was  afterwards  employed  to  express  any  season  of  transient  prosperity,  or 
of  brief  tranquillity,  the  septem  placidi  dies  of  human  life. — Butler. 

HALLIDON  HILL.  BATTLE  OK,  near  Berwick,  between  the  English  and  Scots, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  13.000  slain,  while  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  the  English  suffered,  reign  of  Edward  III.,  July 
19,  1333.  After  this  victory,  Edward  placed  Edward  Baliol  on  the  throne  of 
Scotland. — Robertson. 

HALIFAX,  YORKSHIRE.  Here  prevailed  a  remarkable  law.  The  woollen  ma- 
nufacture being  very  great,  and  prodigious  quantities  of  cloths,  kerseys, 
shalloons,  &c.  being  continually  on  the  tenters  and  liable  to  be  stolen,  the 
town,  at  its  first  incorporation,  was  empowered  to  punish  capitally  any  crim- 
inal convicted  of  stealing  to  the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen  pence  halfpenny, 
by  a  peculiar  engine,  which  beheaded  the  offender  in  a  moment ;  but  king 
James  I.  in  the  year  1620.  took  this  power  away:  and  the  town  is  now  under 
the  ordinary  course  of  justice.  See  Maiden. 

HALLELUJAH  AND  AMEN.  Hebrew  expressions  frequently  used  in  the 
Jewish  hymns :  from  the  Jewish  they  came  into  the  Christian  church.  The 
meaning  of  the  first  is  Praise  the  Lord,  and  of  the  second  So  be  it.  They  were 
first  introduced  by  Haggai,  the  prophet,  about  584  B.  c. ;  and  their  intro- 
duction f-om  the  Jewish  into  the  Christian  church  is  ascribed  to  St.  Jerome, 
one  of  the  primitive  Latin  fathers,  about  A.  D.  390. — Cave's  Hist.  Lit. 

HAMBURGH.  The  company  of  Hambro'  merchants  was  incorporated  in  1296. 
France  declared  war  upon  Hamburgh  for  its  treachery  in  giving  up  Napper 
Tandy,  (see  Napper  Tandy.)  October  1799.  British  property  sequestrated, 
March  1801.  Hamburgh' taken  by  the  French  after  the  battle  of  Jena  in 
1806.  Incorporated  with  France.  January  1810.  Evacuated  by  the  French 
on  the  advance  of  the  Russians  into  Germany  in  1813 ;  and  -estored  to  its 


404  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [IIA? 

independence  by  the  allied  sovereigns,  May  1814.  Awful  fire  here,  which 
destroyed  numerous  churches  and  public  buildings,  and  2000  houses;  it  con- 
tinued for  three  days,  May  4,  1842. 

HAMPTON-COURT  PALACE.  Built  by  cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the 
manor-house  of  the  knights-hospitallers.  In  1526,  the  cardinal  presented  it 
to  his  royal  master,  Henry  VIII.  Here  Edward  VI.  was  born,  and  his 
mother,  Jane  Seymour,  died;  and  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Charles,  and  others  of 
our  sovereigns,  resided.  Most  of  the  old  apartments  were  pulled  down,  and 
the  grand  inner  court  built,  by  William  III.  in  1694.  In  this  palace  was 
held,  in  1604,  the  celebrated  conference  between  the  Presbyterians  and  the 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  which  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible.  See  Conference. 

HANGED,  DRAWN,  AND  QUARTERED.  The  first  infliction  of  this  barbar- 
ous punishment  took  place  upon  a  pirate,  named  William  Marise,  a  noble- 
man's son,  25  Henry  III.,  1241.  Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the  duke  of 
Gloucester  were  arraigned  and  condemned  for  treason,  and  at  the  place  of 
execution  were  hanged,  cut  down  alive  instantly,  then  stripped  naked,  and 
their  bodies  marked  for  quartering,  and  then  pardoned,  25  Henry  VI.  1447. 
— Stowe.  The  punishment  of  death  by  hanging  has  been  abolished  in  nu- 
merous cases  by  various  statutes.  See  Death,  punishment  of.  Hanging  in 
chains  was  abolished  4  William  IV.,  1834. 

HANOVER.  This  country  had  no  great  rank,  although  a  duchy,  until  George 
I.  got  possession  of  Zell,  Saxe,  Bremen.  Verden,  and  other  duchies  and 
principalities.  Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate,  A.  D.  1692.  It  was 
seized  by  Prussia,  April  3,  1801 ;  was  occupied  by  the  French,  June  5,  1803 ; 
and  annexed  to  Westphalia,  March  1,  1810.  Regained  to  England  by  the 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  November  6,  1813.  and  erected  into  a  kingdom, 
Oct.  13,  1814.  The  duke  of  Cambridge  appointed  lieutenant  governor,  in 
November,  1816.  Visited  by  George  IV.  in  October,  1821.  Ernest,  duke 
of  Cumberland,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  June  20, 1837 ;  he  granted  freedom 
of  the  press  and  other  concessions,  March  17,  1848. 

HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION,  established  by  law,  June  12,  1701,  when  an 
act  passed  limiting  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England,  after  the  demise 
of  William  III.  and  of  queen  Anne  (without  issue),  to  the  princess  Sophia, 
of  Hanover  and  the  heirs  of  her  body,  being  protestants,  she  being  the 
granddaughter  of  James  I.  George  I.  the  son  of  Ernest  Augustus  duke  of 
Brunswick  Luneburgh  elector  of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  ascended  the 
throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  exiled  family  of  the  Stuarts,  August  1,  1714. 

HANSE  TOWNS.  A  commercial  union  called  the  Hanseatic  league,  was 
formed  by  a  number  of  port  towns  in  Germany,  in  support  of  each  other 
against  the  piracies  of  the  Swedes  and  Danes :  this  association  began  in 
1164,  and  the  league  was  signed  in  1241.  At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns 
situate  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  but  its  strength  and  reputation  in- 
creasing, there  was  scarce  any  trading  city  in  Europe  but  desired  to  be 
admitted  into  it.  and  in  process  of  time  it  consisted  of  sixty-six  cities.  They 
grew  so  formidable  as  to  proclaim  war  on  Waldemar,  king  of  Denmark, 
about  the  year  1348,  and  against  Erick  in  1428:  with  forty  ships,  and  12  000 
regular  troops  besides  seamen.  This  gave  umbrage  to  several  princes,  who 
ordered  the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  withdraw  their 
effects,  and  so  broke  up  the  greatest  part  and  strength  of  the  association. 
In  1630  the  only  towns  of  note  of  this  once  powerful  league  retaining  the 
name  were  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen. 

HAPSRURGH  HOUSE  OP.  One  of  the  most  illustrious  families  in  Europe. 
Hapsburgh  was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a  lofty  eminence,  near 
Schintznach.  This  castle  was  the  cradle,  as  it  were,  of  the  house  of  Austria, 


HAS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  405 

whose  ancestors  may  be  traced  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century, 
when  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburgh,  was  elevated  to  the  empire  of  Germany 
and  archduchy  of  Austria,  A.  D.  1273.  See  Germany. 

HARLEQUIN".  This  term  is  derived  from  a  famous  and  droll  comedian,  who 
so  much  frequented  Mr.  Harley's  house,  that  his  friends  and  acquaintance 
used  to  call  him  Harlequino,  little  Harley. — Menage.  Originally  the  name 
implied  a  merry  andrew,  or  buffoon ;  but  it  now  means  an  expert  dancer  at 
a  play-house. 

H  ARLOTS.  Women  who  were  called  by  synonyma  conveying  the  meaning  of 
harlot,  were  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  The  celebra- 
ted Lais  of  Corinth,  a  beautiful  courtesan,  but  remarkable  for  her  vicious 
amours,  was  assassinated  in  the  temple  of  Venus,  by  the  women  of  Thes- 
saly,  in  order  to  prevent  her  corrupting  the  fidelity  of  their  husbands,  about 
350  B.  c.  It  is  affirmed  that  the  mother  of  William  I.,  of  England,  a  fur- 
rier's daughter  of  Falaise,  whose  name  was  Arlotta,  was  of  so  infamous  a 
character,  that  our  odious  term  harlot  is  derived  from  her  name. — Dr.  John- 
son. In  England,  harlots  were  obliged  to  wear  striped  hoods  of  party  -olors, 
and  their  garments  the  wrong  side  outwards,  by  statute  27  Edward  III., 
1352. 

HARMONIC  STRINGS.  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  invented  harmonic  strings. 
in  consequence  of  hearing  four  blacksmiths  working  with  hammers  in  har- 
mony, whose  weights  he  found  to  be  six,  eight,  nine,  and  twelve ;  or  rather 
by  squares,  as  thirty-six,  sixty-four,  eighty-one,  and  one  hundred  and  forty- 
four.  The  harmonica,  or  musical  glasses,  airs  from  the  tones  of  them  were 
first  formed  by  an  Irish  gentleman  named  Puckeridge. — Franklin.  The  in- 
vention was  improved  by  Dr.  Franklin  in  1760. 

HARP.  It  is  traced  to  the  earliest  nations.  David  played  on  the  harp 
before  Saul. — 1  Sam.  xvi.  23.  The  lyre  of  the  Greeks  is  the  harp  of  the 
moderns.  The  Romans  had  their  harp  ;  so  had  the  Jews,  but  it  had  very 
few  strings.  The  Cimbri  or  English  Saxons  had  this  instrument.  The  cele- 
brated Welch  harp  was  strung  with  gut ;  and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the  more 
ancient  harps,  with  wire. 

HARRISON'S  TIME-PIECE.  Mr.  Harrison's  first  instrument  was  invented  in 
1735 ;  his  second  in  1739  ;  his  third  in  1749  ;  and  his  fourth,  which  procured 
him  the  reward  of  20.000Z.,  advertised  13th  Anne  by  the  Board  of  Longi- 
tude, was  produced  a  few  years  after.  His  celebrated  time-piece  was  per- 
fected in  1772. 

HARTFORD  CONVENTION.  The  celebrated  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  New  England  States  opposed  to  the  war  and  to  the  administration  ol 
Madison,  met  Dec.  15,  1814. 

H  ASTINGS,  BATTLE  OF.  one  of  the  most  memorable  and  bloody,  and  in  which 
more  than  thirty  thousand  were  slain,  fought  between  Harold  II.  of  Eng- 
land, and  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  in  which  the  former  lost  his  life  and 
kingdom.  William,  hence  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  was  soon  after  crowned 
king  of  England,  and  introduced  a  memorable  epoch,  known  as  the  Con- 
quest, in  the  annals  of  the  country,  Oct.  14,  1066. 

HASTINGS.  WARREN,  TRIAL  OP.  Mr.  Hastings,  governor-general  of  India, 
tried  by  the  peers  of  Great  Britain  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  but 
acquitted,  although  he  had  committed  many  acts  during  his  government 
which,  it  was  thought,  ought  to  have  led  to  a  different  result.  Among  other 
charges  against  him,  was  his  acceptance  of  a  present  of  100,OOOZ.  from  the 
nabob  of  Oude.  and  this  was  not  a  solitary  instance  of  his  irregular  means 
of  accumulating  wealth.  The  trial  lasted  seven  years  and  three  months, 


406  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  |~HEa 

1788-95,    Sheridan's  celebrated  speech,  on  the  impeachment  of  Mr.  Has- 
tings, attracted  universal  admiration. 

HATS.  See  article  Caps.  First  made  by  a  Swiss  at  Paris,  A.  D.  1404.  They 
are  mentioned  in  history  at  the  period  when  Charles  VII.  made  his  trium- 
phal entry  into  Rouen,  in  1449.  He  wore  a  hat  lined  with  red  velvet,  and 
surmounted  with  a  rich  plume  of  feathers.  It  is  from  this  reign  that  the 
use  of  hats  and  caps  is  to  be  dated,  which  henceforward  began  to  take  place 
of  the  chaperoons  and  hoods  that  had  been  worn  before  in  France.  Hats 
were  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Spaniards,  in  1510:  before  this  time 
both  men  and  women  wore  close-knit  woollen  caps. — Stmce.  Very  high 
crowned  hats  were  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth's  courtiers ;  and  high  crowns 
were  again  introduced  in  1783.  A  stamp-duty  was  laid  upon  hats  in  Eng- 
land in  1784.  and  again  in  1796 ;  it  was  repealed  in  1811. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE.  This  place  was  defended  for  the  Huguenots  by  the 
English,  in  1562.  It  has  been  bombarded  several  times  by  the  British  navy, 
in  1759,  in  1794.  in  1795  and  in  1798.  Declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
Sept.  6,  1803.  The  attempts  to  burn  the  shipping  here  failed,  August  7, 
1804. 

HAYTI,  OR  HAITI,  the  Indian  name  of  St.  Domingo,  discovered  by  Columbus  .n 
1492.  Before  the  Spaniards  finally  conquered  it.  they  are  said  to  have  de- 
stroyed in  battle  or  cold  blood,  3;000.000  of  its  inhabitants,  including 
women  and  children.  Toussaint  established  an  independent  republic  in  St. 
Domingo,  July  22,  1801.  He  surrendered  to  the  French,  May  7,  1802.  Des- 
salines  made  a  proclamation  for  the  massacre  of  all  the  whites,  March  29, 
1804.  See  St.  Domingo.  Dessalines  was  crowned  king,  by  the  title  of  Jac- 
ques I.,  Oct.  8,  1804.  He  died  Sept.  21,  1805.  Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of 
color,  became  president  in  Feb.  1807,  and  was  crowned  emperor  by  the  title 
of  Henry  I.,  in  March  1811 ;  while  Petion  ruled  as  president  at  Port-au-Prince. 
Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  were  created  same  year.  Petion  died, 
and  Boyer  was  elected  in  his  room,  in  May  1818.  Christophe  committed 
suicide  in  Oct.  1820.  Independence  declared  at  St.  Domingo,  in  Dec.  1821. 
Decree  of  the  king  of  France  confirming  it,  April  1825.  Souloque  elected 
president,  March  2,  1847 ;  proclaimed  emperor  of  Hayti,  August  24,  1849. 

HEBRIDES,  NEW,  discovered  by  the  navigator  Quiros,  A.  D.  1606.  Bourgain- 
ville  visited  them  in  1768,  and  found  that  the  land  was  not  connected,  but 
composed  of  islands,  which  he  called  the  Great  Cyclades.  Cook,  in  1774, 
ascertained  the  extent  and  situation  of  the  whole  group,  and  gave  them  the 
name  they  now  bear. 

HECATOMB.  This  was  a  sacrifice  among  the  ancients  of  a  hundred  oxen; 
but  it  was  more  particularly  observed  by  the  Lacedemonians  when  they 
possessed  a  hundred  capital  cities.  In  the  course  of  time  this  sac- 
rifice was  reduced  to  twenty-three  oxen ;  and  in  the  end,  to  lessen  the 
expense,  goats  and  lambs  were  substituted  for  oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA.  Its  first  eruption  is  recorded  as  having  occurred  A.  D.  1004.  Abont 
twenty-two  eruptions  have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and  Paulson. 
The  most  dreadful  and  multiplied  convulsions  of  this  great  volcanic 
mountain  occurred  in  1783.  See  Iceland. 

ffEGIRA,  ERA  OF  THE,  dates  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
which  event  took  place  in  the  night  of  Thursday  the  15th  July,  A.  D.  622 ; 
the  era  commences  on  the  following  day,  viz : — the  16th  of  July.  Many 
chronologists  have  computed  this  era  from  the  15th  July ;  but  Cantemir 
has  given  examples  proving  that,  in  most  ancient  times,  the  16th  was  the 
first  day  of  the  era ;  and  there  is  now  no  doubt  it  is  so.  See  Mahometism 
and  Medina. 


DOR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  407 

HEIDELBERG,  AND  HEIDELBERG  TUN.  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  on  the 
river  Neckar,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Palatinate :  the  protestant 
electoral  house  becoming  extinct  in  1693,  a  bloody  war  ensued,  in  which  the 
famous  castle  was  ruined,  and  the  elector  removed  his  residence  to  Mann- 
heim. Here  was  the  celebrated  HeildelbergTun,  which  held  800  hogsheads, 
and  was  formerly  kept  full  of  the  best  Rhenish  wine.  The  University  of 
Heidelberg,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1346, 
contained  in  1840,  622  students. 

HELEN.  RAPE  OP,  which  caused  the  Trojan  war,  1204  B.  c.  Helen  was  the 
most  beautiful  woman  in  the  world,  and  even  in  her  childhood  was  so  very 
lovely,  that  Theseus  stole  her  away  in  her  tenth  year.  From  him.  however, 
she  was  released  yet  innocent,  by  her  brothers;  and  after  her  return  to  thd 
court  of  Sparta  she  was  eagerly  sought  in  marriage  by  the  princes  of  Greece, 
and  Ulysses  persuaded  the  suitors  to  bind  themselves  on  oath  to  abide  by 
the  uninfluenced  choice  of  Helen,  and  to  defend  her  person  and  character 
from  that  time.  The  princes  took  the  oath,  and  Helen  then  made  choice  ol 
Menelaus.  Paris  coming  soon  after  to  the  court  of  this  king,  abused  his 
hospitality  by  corrupting  the  fidelity  of  Helen :  carrying  her  away,  though 
not  an  unwilling  captive,  to  Asia  Minor.  At  Troy,  the  father  of  Paris.  Priam, 
received  her  in  his  palace  without  difficulty;  and  Menelaus,  assembling  the 
princes  of  Greece,  reminded  them  of  their  oath :  and  the  siege  and  destruc- 
tion of  Troy  followed,  1184  B.  c.  Paris  was  previously  married,  his  wife 
being  (Enone,  who  lived  with  him  in  happiness  on  Mount  Ida ;  and  at  his 
d^ath  by  one  of  the  arrows  of  Hercules,  then  in  the  possession  of  Philoc- 
tetes,  he  desired  in  his  dying  moments  to  be  carried  to  (Enone,  whom  he 
had  so  basely  deserted;  but  he  expired  on  the  way.  The  nymph,  however, 
still  mindful  of  their  former  happiness,  threw  herself  upon  the  body,  bathed 
it  with  her  tears,  and  then  plunged  a  dagger  in  her  heart. 

HELENA.  ST.  This  island  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  on  the  festival 
of  St.  Helena,  A.  D.  1502.  The  Dutch  were  afterwards  in  possession  of  it 
until  1600,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East  India 
company  settled  here  in  1651 ;  and  the  island  was  alternately  possessed  by 
the  English  and  Dutch,  until  1673,  when  Charles  II.  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it 
to  the  company  once  more.  St.  Helena  was  made  the  place  of  Napoleon's 
captivity,  Oct.  16,  1815,  and  it  became  the  scene  of  his  death,  May  6, 
1821. 

HELIGOLAND.  This  island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Danes,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  the  British,  Sept.  5,  1807,  and  formed  a  depftt  for  British  mer- 
chandise intended  for  the  Continent  during  the  war.  Confirmed  to  England 
by  the  treaty  of  Kiel.  Jan.  14,  1814,  the  same  treaty  by  which  Norway  was 
ceded  to  Sweden.  Though  a  mere  rock,  this  is  an  important  possession  of 
the  British  crown. 

HELIOMETER.  A  valuable  scientific  instrument  for  measuring  the  stars,  in- 
vented by  M.  Bouguer,  in  1774.  The  helioscope  was  invented  by  Christo- 
pher Scheiner  in  1625. 

HELMETS.  They  were  worn,  it  is  said,  by  the  most  savage  tribes.  Among 
the  Romans  the  helmet  was  provided  with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise 
above  the  eyes,  and  a  bever  to  lower  for  eating;  the  helmet  of  the  Greeks 
was  round,  and  that  of  the  Romans  square.  Richard  I.  of  England  wore  a 
plain  round  helmet;  and  after  this  monarch's  reign  most  of  the  English 
king?  had  crowns  above  their  helmets.  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had 
a  flat  helmet,  with  a  square  grated  vizor,  and  the  helmet  of  Robert  I.  was 
surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306. — Gwillim. 

HELOTS.    The  people  of  Helos,  against  whom  the  Spartans  bore  despeT  te 


\i 


408  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  HEK 

resentment  for  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  883  B.  c.  The  Spartans,  not  satisfied 
with  the  ruin  of  their  city,  reduced  the  Helots  to  the  most  debasing  slavery; 
and  to  complete  their  infamy,  they  called  all  the  slaves  of  the  state,  and  the 
prisoners  of  war,  by  the  degrading  name  of  ffclotce,  and  further  exposed 
them  to  every  species  of  contempt  and  ridicule,  669  B.  c.  But  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war  the  Helots  behaved  with  uncommon  bravery,  and  were  reward 
ed  with  their  liberty,  431  B.  c.  But  this  act  of  justice  did  not  last  long;  ami 
the  sudden  disappearance  of  2000  manumitted  slaves  was  attributed  to  the 
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 

HEMP  AND  FLAX.  Flax  was  first  planted  in  England,  when  it  was  dire<  ted 
to  be  sown  for  fishing-nets,  A.  n.  1538.  Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage  its 
cultivation  in  1783 ;  and  every  exertion  should  be  made  by  the  government 
and  legislature  to  accomplish  such  a  national  good.  In  1785  there  were  im- 
ported from  Russia  in  British  ships,  17  695  tons  of  hemp  and  flax. — Sir  John 
Sinclair.  The  annual  importations  of  these  articles  now  amount  to  about 
100,000  tons.  More  than  180,000  Ibs.  of  rough  hemp  are  used  in  the  cordage 
of  a  first-rate  man-of-war,  including  rigging  and  sails. 

HEPTARCHY.  The  Heptarchy  (or  government  of  seven  kings',  in  England 
was  gradually  formed  from  A.  D.  455,  when  Hengist  became  the  king  of  Kent. 
and  that  kingdom  was  erected.  The  Heptarchy  terminated  in  A.  D.  828, 
when  Egbert  reduced  the  other  kingdoms,  and  became  sole  monarch  of 
England.  For  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  see  Britain. 

HERACLID^E,  THE,  or  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae  into  the  Peloponnesus :  a 
famous  epoch  in  chronology  that  constitutes  the  beginning  of  profane  his- 
tory, all  the  time  preceding  that  period  being  accounted  fabulous.  This 
return  happened  100  years  after  they  were  expelled,  and  eighty  years  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  1104  B.  c. 

HERALDRY.  Signs  and  marks  of  honor  were  made  use  of  in  the  first  ages  of 
the  world. — Nisbet.  The  Phrygians  had  a  sow ;  the  Thracians,  Mars ;  the 
Romans,  an  eagle :  the  Goths,  a  bear ;  the  Flemings,  a  bull ;  the  Saxons,  a 
horse ;  and  the  ancient  French  a  lion,  and  afterwards  the  fleur-de-lis,  which 
see.  Heraldry,  as  digested  into  an  art.  and  subjected  to  rules,  may  be  ascribed 
in  the  first  instance  to  Charlemagne,  about  the  year  800;  and  in  the  next, 
iiO  Frederick  Barbarossa,  about  the  year  1152;  it  began  and  grew  with  the 
feudal  law — Sir  George  Mackenzie.  It  was  at  length  methodized  and 
perfected  by  the  crusades  and  tournaments,  the  former  commencing  in 
1096. 

HERCULANEUM.  An  ancient  city  of  Campania,  overwhelmed,  together  with 
Pompeii,  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Aug.  24,  A.  D.  79.  Herculaneum  was 
buried  under  streams  of  lava,  and  successive  eruptions  laid  it  still  deeper 
under  the  surface.  All  traces  of  them  were  lost  until  A.  D.  1711.  from  which 
year  many  curiosities  works  of  art,  and  monuments  and  memorials  of  civil- 
ized life  have  been  discovered  to  the  present  time.  150  volumes  of  MSS 
were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754 ;  and  many  antiquities  were  purchased  by  sh 
William  Hamilton,  and  re-purchased  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  museum, 
where  they  are  deposited ;  but  the  principal  antiquities  are  preserved  in  tho 
museum  of  Portici. 

HERETICS.  Formerly  the  term  heresy  denoted  a  particular  sect ;  now  here 
tics  arc  those  who  propagate  their  private  opinions  in  opposition  to  the  Ca- 
tholic church. — Baron.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  have  suffered  death  by 
torture  in  Roman  Catholic  countries. — Bttrnet.  See  Inquisition.  Simon 
Magus  was  the  first  heretic;  he  came  to  Rome  A.  D.  41.  Thirty  heretic* 
came  from  Germany  to  England  to  propagate  their  opinions,  and  were 


H1G  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  408 

branded  in  the  forehead,  whipped,  and  thrust  naked  into  the  streets  in  • 
the  depth  of  winter,  where,  none  daring  to  relieve  them,  they  died  of  him-  (^ 
ger  and  cold,  1160. — Speed.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  be  in  possession.'' 
of  Tindal's  Bible  constituted  heresy.    The  laws  against  heretics  were  re- 
pealed, 25  Henry  VIII.,  1534-6. 

HERMITS.  The  name  first  given  to  those  that  retired  to  desert  places,  to 
avoid  persecution,  where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  prayers,  fasting,  and 
meditation.  They  were  also  called  anchorets ;  and  commonly  lodged  in 
dark  caves,  where  their  food  was  such  roots  as  nature  bestowed  freely  with- 
out culture.  From  these  came  the  monks,  and  almost  all  the  sorts  of  reli- 
gious assemblies  that  live  in  monasteries.  In  the  seventh  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  one  Paul,  to  avoid  the  enemies  of  his  faith,  retired  into  Thebaij, 
and  became  the  first  example  of  a  monastic  life,  about  A.  D.  250. 

HERO  AND  LEANDER:  their  amour.  The  fidelity  of  these  lovers  was  so 
great,  and  their  attachment  to  each  other  so  strong,  that  Leander  in  the 
night  frequently  swam  across  the  Hellespont,  from  Abydos  to  Sestos,  to 
have  secret  interviews  with  Hero,  a  beautiful  priestess  of  Venus,  she  *li- 
recting  his  course  by  a  burning  flambeaux.  After  many  stolen  interviews, 
Leander  was  drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night,  and  Hero  threw  herself  from 
her.  tower,  and  perished  in  the  sea,  627  B.  c. — Livy,  Herodctus. 

HERRING-FISHERY.  It  was  largely  encouraged  by  the  Scotch  so  early  as 
the  ninth  century.  The  herring  statute  was  passed  in  1357.  The  mode  of 
preserving  herrings  by  pickling  was  discovered  about  1390,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  herring  fishery  as  a  branch  of  commerce. — Anderson.  The  British 
Herring  Fishery  Company  was  instituted  Sept.  2,  1750. 

HERSCHEL  TELESCOPE,  THE.  Herchel's  seven,  ten.  and  twenty-feet  re- 
flectors were  made  about  1779.  He  discovers  the  Georgium  Sidus  (which, 
see),  March  21,  1781.  He  discovers  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in 
17?3  ;  and  about  this  time  laid  the  plan  of  his  great  forty-feet  telescope, 
which  he  completed  in  1787,  when  he  discovered  two  other  volcanic  moun- 
tains, emitting  tire  from  their  summits.  In  1802,  he  by  means  of  his  teles- 
copes, was  enabled  to  lay  before  the  Royal  Society  a  catalogue  of  5000  new 
nebulas,  nebulous  stars,  planetary  nebulae,  and  clusters  of  stars  which  he 
had  discovered. 

HESSE,  HOUSE  OP.  Its  various  branches  derive  their  origin  from  Gerberge, 
daughter  of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  uncle  of  Louis  V.  of  France,  who  was 
descended  from  Louis  the  Courteous.  She  was  married  to  Lambert  II.  earl 
of  Louvain,  from  whom  the  present  landgraves  of  Hesse-Cassel,  by  Henry 
V.,  first  of  the  family  who  bore  the  title  of  landgrave,  are  descended. 
There  is  no  family  in  Germany  more  noble  by  their  alliances  than  this ;  and 
it  gives  place  to  none  for  the  heroes  and  statesmen  it  has  produced.  Six 
thousand  Hessian  troops  arrived  in  England,  in  consequence  of  an  invasion 
being  expected,  in  1756.  The  sum  of  471,0002.  three  per  cent,  stock,  was  v 
transferred  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian  auxiliaries  lost  in  the 
American  war,  at  302.  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The  Hessian  soldiers  were  again 
hired  by  England,  and  served  in  Ireland  during  the  memorable  rebellion 
there  in  1798. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  The  first  writing  men  used  was  only  the  single  picture*  \^ 
and  engravings  of  the  things  they  would  represent. —  Woodward.  Hiero- 
glyphic characters  were  invented  by  Athothes,  2112  B.  c. —  Usher.  The 
earliest  records  of  them  were  the  Egyptian,  the  first  step  towards  letters, 
and  some  monuments  whose  objects  were  described  by  exaggerated  tradi- 
tion,  or  when  forgotten,  imagined.— Phillips.  ^  &^^/  VAtA  I UvA. 

[UGH  CHURCH  AND  LOW  CHURCH  PARTIES.    These  were  occasioned 
18 


410  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  HOI 

the  prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverel,  preacher  at  St.  Saviour's  Southwark,  for 
two  seditious  sermons,  the  object  of  which  was  to  rouse  the  apprehensions 
of  the  people  for  the  safety  of  the  Church,  and  to  excite  hostility  against 
the  dissenters.  His  friends  were  called  High  Church,  and  his  opponents 
Low  Church,  or  moderate  men.  8  Anne,  1710.  The  queen,  who  favored  Sa- 
cheverel, presented  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn. 
He  died  in  1724. 

HIGH  TREASON.  The  highest  offence  known  to  the  law,  and  in  regulating 
the  trials  for  which  was  enacted  the  memorable  statute,  so  favorable  to 
British  liberty,  the  25th  of  Edward  III.  1-552.  By  this  statute  two  living 
witnesses  are  required  in  cases  of  high  treason  ;  and  it  arose  in  the  refusal 
of  parliament  to  sanction  the  sentence  of  death  against  the  duke  of  Somer- 
set— it  is  that  which  regulates  indictments  for  treason  at  the  present  day. 
By  the  40th  George  III.  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  where  there  was  a  trial 
for  high  treason  in  which  the  overt  act  was  a  direct  attempt  upon  the  life 
of  the  sovereign,  such  trial  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
case  of  an  indictment  for  murder.  See  Trials. 

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highness  was  given  to  Henry  VII. ;  and  this,  and 
sometimes  your  Grax,  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  VIII. ;  but 
about  the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  latter  mentioned  king,  the  title  of  High- 
ness and  "  Your  Grace  "  were  absorbed  in  that  of  Majesty. 

HINDOO  ERA.  or  Era  of  the  Caliyug,  began  3101  B.  c.  or  756  before  the  De- 
luge, in  2348  :  and  the  Hindoos  count  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the 
sun  through  the  zodiac.  The  Samoat  era  begins  57  B.  c. :  and  the  Saca  era, 
A.  D.  77  :  they  are  all  used  by  the  Hindoo  nations. 

HISTORY.  Previously  to  the  invention  of  letters  the  records  of  history  are 
vague,  traditionary,  and  erroneous.  The  chronicles  of  the  Jews,  the  Parian 
Chronicle,  the  histories  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  and  the  poems  of  Homer, 
are  the  foundations  of  early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient  history  is  con- 
sidered as  ending  with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  A.  D. 
476  ;  and  modern  history  dates  from  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  A.  D. 
800.  There  was  not  a  professorship  of  modern  history  in  either  of  the 
English  universities  until  the  years  1724  and  1736.  when  Regius  professor- 
ships were  established  by  George  I.  and  George  II.  A  professorship  of 
history  founded  at  Harvard  College,  was  filled  by  Jared  Sparks,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Francis  Bowen,  1850. 

HOHENLINDEN,  BATTLE  or,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  the 
latter  commanded  by  general  Moreau.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated 
with  great  loss,  their  killed  and  wounded  amounting  to  10,000  men,  and 
their  loss  in  prisoners  to  10.000  more,  November  3,  1800. 

HOLLAND.  The  original  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  the  Batavians,  who 
derived  their  origin  from  the  Catti,  a  people  of  Germany.  Having  been 
obliged  to  abandon  their  country  on  account  of  civil  wars,  they  came  and 
established  themselves  in  a  morass,  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Waal,  which  they  named  Bettuive,  or  Batavia,  from  Batton,  the  son  of 
their  chieftain.  To  these  have  since  been  added  a  pretty  large  proportion 
of  Francs  and  Frisians. 


Sovereignty  founded  by  Thierry,  first 

count  of  Holland  •  •  A.  D.  868 

The  county  of  Holland  devolves  to  the 

counts  of  Hainault  -  -  -1299 

It  falls  to  the  crown  of  Philip  the  Good, 

duke  of  Burgundy  -  .  -  1436 

100,000  persons  are  drowned  by  the  sea 

breaking  in  at  Uort          •          •     •  1446 


Burgundy  and  its  dependencies  become 
a  circle  of  the  empire  -  -  -  1521 

They  fall  to  Spain,  whose  tyranny  and 
religious  persecution  cause  a  revolt 
in  Batavin  -  -  -  -  l-V« 

The  revolted  states  with  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  at  their  head,  en- 
ter into  a  treaty  at  Utrecht  •  •  1671 


HOL.] 

HOLLAND,  continued. 


DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


411 


They  elect  William  as  Stadtholder     - 

The  Siadtholder,  William,  is  assassi- 
nated -  -  -  - 

The  Dutch  East  India  company  found- 
ed -  -  -  -  - 

After  a  struggle  of  thirty  years,  the  king 
of  Spain  is  obliged  to  declare  the  Ba- 
tavians  free  -  -  - 

The  republic  wars  against  Spain  in  the 
East,  and  in  America ;  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, Peter  Hen,  takes  several  Spa- 
nish galleons,  value  20,000,000/.  ster- 
ling - 

Cromwell  declares  war  against  Hol- 
land, and  many  naval  battles  are 
fought ;  Blake  signally  defeats  Van 
Troinp  - 

William,  prince  of  Orange,  having 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II., 
is  called  to  the  British  throne 

The  office  of  Stadtholder  is  made  here- 
ditary in  the  Orange  family 

Era  of  the  civil  war      -  - 

The  French  Republican  army  march 
into  Holland;  the  people  declare  in 
their  favor  •  -  - 

The  Stadtholder  expelled          Jan.  15, 

He  arrives  in  England       -       Jan.  21, 

Battle  of  Camperdown,  Duncan  sig- 
nally defeats  the  Dutch  •  Oct.  11, 

The  Texel  fleet,  of  twelve  ships  of  the 
line,  with  thirteen  Indiamen,  surren- 
dered to  the  British  admiral  Duncan, 
without  firing  a  gun  -  Aug.  28, 

A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Ba- 
tavian  republic;  the  chief  officer  (R, 
J.  Schimmelpennick)  takes  the  title 
of  Grand  Pensionary  -  April  26, 


1579 
1584 
1602 

1609 


1635 


1653 


1688 


1747 
1787  ' 


1793 
1795 
1795 

1797 


1799 


1805 


Holland  erected  into  a  Kingdom,  and 

Louis  Bonapaite  declared  king 

June  5,  1806 

Louis  abdicates    -  •  July  1,  1810 

Holland  united  to  Franco      •     July  9.  1810 
Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and 

Belgium  annexed  to  its  dominions 

Nov.  18,  1813 
The  prince  of  Orange  is  proclaimed  so- 

vereign prince  of  (he  United  Nether- 

lands -  -  -      Dec.  6,  1813 

He    receives  the  oath   of   allegiance 

from  his  subjects        •         March  30,  1814 
And  takes  the  title  of  king  as  William 

I.  ---       March  16,  1815 

The  revolution  in  Belgium  (which  see) 

commenced    -  -  Aug.  25,  1830 

The  Belgians  take  the  city  of  Antwerp 

(u>Aic«.  .ee)      -  -  Oc    27,  1830 

Belgium   is  sepai-ated  from  HoLiJid. 

and  Leopold  of  Cobourg  is  elected 

king  -  -  •      July  12,  1831 

Holland  renews  the  war  against  Bel- 

gium      -  -  -  Aug  ?.  1831 

Conference  in  London  on  the  affairs  of 

Holland  and  the  Netherlands  termi- 

nates, see  Belgium       •        Nov.  15,  1831 
Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 

signed  in  London  •       April  19,  1839 

Abdication  of  William  I.  in  favor  of 

his  son  Oct.  8,  1840 

Death  of  the  ex-king        -        Dec.  12,  1844 
The  king  promises  his  assent  to  all  re- 

forms passed  by  the  chambers 

March  14,  1848 

New  constitution  appears,      April  17,  1348 
IL 


Death  of  William  IL 


March  17,  U49 


STADTHOLDERS.  ETC. 


A.D  1554  William  the  Great  succeeds  his  cou- 
sin Rene,  to  whom  the  United  Pro- 
vinces owe  their  foundation  and  glo- 
ry :  killed  by  an  assassin,  hired  by 
Philip  of  Spain. 

1584  Henry  Philip  William. 

1618  Maurice,  a  consummate  general. 

1625  Frederick  Henry. 

1&47  William  II. 

1650  William  III.  made  Stadtholder  in  1672, 
and  king  of  England  in  1689. 


1702  John  William  Frizo,  drowned  in  pass 

ing  a  ferry  in  Holland. 
1711  Charles  Henry  Frizo. 
1747  William   IV.,  first   hereditary  stadl- 

holder. 
1751  William  V. 

KINGS. 

1813  William  I. 
1840  William  II 

1849  William  III.,  present  king,  (1852.) 
See  Belgium. 


HOLLAND,  NEW.  It  is  not  clearly  ascertained  when  this  country  was  first 
discovered.  In  1605,  et  seq.,  various  parts  of  the  coast  were  traced  by  the 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  English.  What  was  deemed  till  lately  the 
south  extremity,  was  discovered  by  Tasruan,  in  1642.  The  eastern  coast, 
called  New  South  Wales,  was  taken  possession  of.  in  his  Britannic  majesty's 
name,  by  captain  Cook,  in  1770.  See  Botany  Bay,  New  Smith,  Woks,  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land. 

HOLY/  ALLIANCE.  A  league  so  called  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  which  they  ostensibly  bound  them- 
selves, among  other  things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles  in  all 
their  political  transactions.  This  alliance  was  ratified  at  Paris,  Septem- 
ber 26,  1815. 

HOLY  WATER  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  churches  as  early  as  A.  D.  120.-« 

Ashe. 


412  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  ["  HOI 

HOMER'S  ILIAD  AND  ODYSSEY.  The  misfortunes  uf  Tioy  furnish  tee  two 
most  pei  feet  EPIC*  poems  in  the  world,  written  by  the  greatest  poet  that 
has  ever  lived ;  about  915  B.  c.  The  subject  of  the  first  is  the  wrath  of 
Achilles ;  the  second  recounts  the  voyages  and  adventures  of  Ulysses  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy.  Among  the  thousands  of  volumes  burnt  at  Con- 
stantinople, A.  D.  477,  were  the  works  of  Homer,  said  to  have  been  written 
in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a  dragon,  120  feet  long. —  Univ.  Hist. 
The  works  of  Homer  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  done  great  injury  tc 
mankind,  by  inspiring  the  love  of  military  glory.  Alexander  was  said  to 
sleep  with  them  always  on  his  pillow. — Darwin. 

HOMICIDE.  This  crime  was  tried  at  Athens  by  the  Areopagites,  1507  B  c, 
He  that  killed  another  at  any  public  exercise  of  skill,  or  who  killed  another 
that  lay  perdue  to  do  a  person  mischief  of  a  grievous  nature,  was  not 
deemed  guilty.  He  who  killed  a  man  taken  with  another's  wife,  sister, 
daughter,  or  concubine,  or  he  who  killed  a  man  who,  without  just  grounds, 
assaulted  another  violently,  was  not  deemed  a  homicide.  Among  the  Jews, 
wilful  murder  was  capital ;  but  for  chance-medley,  the  offender  should  fly 
to  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and  there  continue  till  the  death  of  the  high 
priest.  In  the  primitive  church,  before  the  Christians  had  the  civil  power, 
wilful  homicide  was  punished  with  a  twenty  years'  penance.  Our  laws  dis- 
tinguish between  justifiable  homicide  and  homicide  in  its  various  degrees 
of  guilt,  and  circumstances  of  provocation  and  wilfulness.  See  Murder. 

MONEY-MOON.  Among  the  ancients,  a  beverage  prepared  with  honey,  such 
as  that  known  as  mead,  and  as  metheglin,  in  England,  was  a  luxurious 
drink.  It  was  a  custom  to  drink  of  diluted  honey  for  thirty  days  or  a 
moon's  age,  after  a  wedding-feast,  and  hence  arose  the  term  honey-moon,  of 
Teutonic  origin.  Attila,  the  devastating  Hun,  who  ravaged  nearly  all  Eu- 
rope, drank,  it  is  said,  so  freely  of  hydromel  on  his  marriage-day,  that  he 
died  in  the  night  from  suffocation,  453  A.  D.  His  death  is,  however,  ascribed 
to  another  cause.  See  Attila. 

•'  HONI  SOIT  QUI  MAL  Y  PENSE."  It  is  said  that  the  countess  of  Salis- 
bury, at  a  ball  at  court,  happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king,  Edward 
III.,  took  it  up,  and  presented  it  to  her  with  these  words :  "  Honi  soit  qui  mal 
y  pense,"  "  evil  be  to  him  who  evil  thinks."  They  afterwards  became  the 
motto  of  the  Garter ;  but  this  statement  of  the  origin  of  the  motto  is  un- 
supported by  sufficient  authority. —  Goldsmith.. 

HONOR.  Honor  was  a  virtue  highly  venerated  by  the  ancients,  particularly 
among  the  Romans,  and  temples  were  ultimately  erected  to  Honor  by  that 
people  as  a  divinity.  The  first  temple  was  built  by  Scipio  Africanus,  about 
B.  c.  197  ;  and  others  were  raised  to  her  worship  by  C.  Marius.  about  102 
B.  c.  These  temples  were  so  constructed  that  it  was  impossible  to  enter 
that  to  Honor  without  going  through  the  temple  of  Virtue ;  and  Marius 
ordered  his  edifices  not  to  be  built  too  much  elevated  or  too  lofty,  thereby 
to  intimate  to  the  worshippers  that  humility  was  the  true  way  to  honor. 

HOPS.  Introduced  from  the  Netherlands  into  England,  A.  D.  1524,  and  weiv» 
used  in  brewing ;  but  the  physicians  having  represented  that  they  were  un- 
wholesome, parliament  was  petitioned  against  them  as  being  a  wicked  weed 
nnd  their  use  was  prohibited  in  1528. — Anderson.  At  present  the  re  .in- 
between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand  acres,  on  an  average,  annually  under  the 


*  The  epic  poems  of  HOMER  and  VIROIL,  the  Gierusalemme  of  TASSO.  the  Paradise  Lot!  ol 
MII.TON.  and  the  Henriade  of  VOLTAIRE,  are  the  noblest  that  exist  j  and  MILTON'S  JH  coneiderec 
10  rank  next  to  HOMER'S.  "  Paradise  Lost  is  lot  the  greatest  of  epic  poems,"  observes  Dr  J«HJ» 
•ox,  "  only  because  ii  is  not  the  first."— Butler 


HUD]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  413 

culture  of  nops  in  England.  They  are  grown  chiefly  in  Herefor  1,  Kent,  and 
Worcestershire. 

HORATII  AND  CURATII,  THE  COMBAT  OP  THE,  669  B.  c.  The  Romans  and  the 
Albans  contesting  for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on 
each  side  to  determine  to  which  it  belonged ;  and  the  three  Horatii,  Roman 
knights,  and  the  three  Curatii,  Albans,  being  elected  by  their  respective 
countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  combat  which,  by  the  victory  of  the 
Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome. 

HORSE.  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excellent  equestrians,  and  probably 
were  the  first,  among  the  Greeks  at  least,  who  rode  upon  horses,  and  broke 
them  in  for  service  in  war ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was  ori- 
ginally inhabited  by  centaurs.  And  Solomon  had  40.000  stalls  of  horses  for 
his  chariots,  and  12.000  horsemen. — 1  Kings,  iv.  26.  The  power  of  the 
horse  is  equal  to  that  of  five  men. — Smeaton.  A  horse  can  perform  the 
work  of  six  men. — Bossuet.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  some  covering 
to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  from  injury.  In  the  ninth  century,  horses  were 
only  shod  in  the  time  of  frost.  The  practice  of  shoeing  was  introduced 
into  England  by  William  I.,  1066.  In  England  there  are  two  millions 
of  draught  and  pleasure  horses,  and  one  hundred  thousand  agricultural 
\  horses,  which  consume  the  produce  of  seven  millions  of  acres.  The  horse- 
tax  was  imposed  in  1784,  and  was  then  levied  on  all  saddle  and  coach  horses 
in  England.  The  existing  duty  upon  "  horses  for  riding  "  only  in  England, 
amounts  to  about  350.000/.  per  year.  See  Race  Horses. 

HOSPITALLERS.  Military  knights  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  of  Jerusalem, 
who  were  under  religious  vows ;  instituted  by  opening  a  hospital  for  the 
reception  of  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem,  in  A.  D.  1048.  They  became  a  monastic 
order  in  1092  ;  and  a  military  order  in  1118.  See  Malta. 

HOSPITALS  OF  LONDON.  Several  of  these  most  valuable  and  merciful  in- 
stitutions are  of  ancient  date,  and  richly  endowed.  One  of  the  most  muni- 
ficent erections  by  a  single  individual  is  that  of  Guy's  Hospital.  Southvvark. 
a  London  bookseller  of  that  name  having  built  it  at  the  cost  of  18,793£.,  and 
endowed  it,  in  1724,  by  a  bequest  of  219,499/.  See  Infirmaries. 

HOST,  ELEVATION  OF  THE.  Introduced  in  Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  pros- 
tration enjoined,  in  A.  D.  1201.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  was  the  first  pontiff  who 
decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung  as  a  signal  for  the  people  to  betake  themselves  to 
the  adoration  of  the  host,  which  is  done  to  this  day. — Dr.  A.  Rees. 

HOURS.  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into  hours  from  the  year  293  B.  c.,  when 
L.  Papirius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Rome. 
Previously  to  the  invention  of  water-clocks  (which  see),  158  B.  c.,  the  time 
was  called  at  Rome  by  public  criers.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into 
twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  The  Italians  reckon  twenty-four  hours  round, 
instead  of  two  divisions  of  twelve  hours  each,  as  we  do.  In  England,  the 
measurement  of  time  was  alike  uncertain  and  difficult:  one  expedient  was 
by  wax  candles,  three  inches  burning  an  hour,  and  six  wax-candles  burning 
twenty-four  hours :  these  candles  were  invented  by  Alfred,  clocks  and  hour- 
glasses not  being  then  known  in  England,  A.  D.  886. 

HUDSON'S  BAY.  Discovered  by  captain  Henry  Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a 
North- West  passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A.  D.  1610;  but  in  fact,  this  part 
of  North  America  may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Frobisher  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  although  Hudson  ventured  further 
north.  The  latter,  passing  the  winter  in  this  bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  was, 
with  four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a  boat,  and  left  to  perish.  The 
Hudson-Bay  Company  obtained  chartered  possessions  here,  in  1670.  Th« 
forts  were  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1686  and  1782. 


414 


HE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


HUE  AND  CRY.  The  old  common-law  process  of  pursuing  "with  horn  and 
with  voice,"  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  county  to  county,  all  robbers 
and  felons.  Formerly  the  hundred  was  bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occa- 
sioned by  the  robberies  therein  committed,  unless  the  felon  were  taken ; 
but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made  answerable  only  for  damage  committed 
by  riotous  assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS.  This  word  is  of  uncertain  derivation.  It  was  used,  as  a  term 
of  reproach,  by  the  French  Catholics,  to  nickname  their  countrymen  of  th« 
reformed  churches,  or  Protestants  of  France,  and  had  its  rise  in  1560.  Tha 
memorable  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  on  the  festival  of  St, 
Bartholomew,  took  place  on  Aug.  24,  1572.— See  Bartholomew,  St.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  Huguenots  emigrated  after  that  event  to  North  Ame- 
rica, and  settled  on  the  Delaware,  and  in  the  Carolinas. 

HUMILIATI.  A  congregation  of  religious  in  the  church  of  Rome,  which  was 
formed  by  some  Milanese  who  had  been  imprisoned  under  Frederick  I., 
1162.  This  order  had  ninety  monasteries ;  but  it  was  abolished  for  luxury 
and  cruelty  by  pope  Pius  V.,  and  their  houses  were  given  to  the  Domini- 
cans and  Cordeliers,  in  1570. 

HUNGARY.  The  Pannonia  of  the  ancients,  and  subject  to  the  Romans,  11 
B.  c.,  and  kept  possession  of  by  them  until,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the 
Christ  iar  era,  the  Vandals  drove  them  out  of  it.  About  forty  years  after- 
wards, the  Vandals  migrated  towards  Gaul,  and  their  deserted  settlements 
were  occupied  by  the  Goths,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  were 
expelled  by  the  Huns,  a  ferocious  tribe  of  Scythians,  neaded  by  Attila, 
whose  dreadful  ravages  obtained  him  the  appellation  of  "  The  Scourge  of 
God." — In  more  recent  times,  the  Hungarians  have  been  much  intermixed 
with  Sclavonic  nations,  as  Bohemians.  Croats,  Russians,  and  Vandals ;  be- 
sides German  settlers,  as  Austrians,  Styrians,  Bavarians,  Franks,  Svvabians 
Saxons.  &c.  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Germany  under  Char- 
lemagne, but  it  became  an  independent  kingdom  in  920. 


Stephen  receives  the  title  of  Apostolic 
king  from  the  pope  -  -  A.  D.  997 

The  Poles  overrun  Hungary     -  -  1061 

Dreadful  ravages  of  the  Tartars  under 
the  sons  of  Jenghis  Khan,  throughout 
Hungary,Bohemia,and  Russia,  1226  et  seq. 

Victories  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulga- 
ria, Servia,  and  Da  1m  alia  -  - 1342 

Louis  carries  his  arms  into  Italy          -  1342 

He  dies,  and  the  history  of  Hungary 
now  presents  a  frightful  catalogue  of 
crimes  .....  1378 

Charles  Duras  is  murdered ;  Elizabeth, 
queen  of  Louis,  is  drowned,  and  king" 
Mary,  their  daughter,  marries  Sigis- 
mond,  marquis  of  Brandenburg,  and 
causes  ihe  rivers  of  Hungary  to  flow 
with  blood  -  -  -  -  1378 

The  unhappy  Hungarians  call  the 
Turks  to  their  assistance  -  -  1380 

Sultan  Bajazet  vanquishes  Sigismond 
in  battle  ....  1389 

Sigismond  recovers  from  this  blow, 
and  makes  Wallachia  and  Moldavia 
tributary  to  him  •  •  - 1390 


He  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 

is  elected  emperor  of  Germany         -  141C 
Albert  of  Austria  succeeds  to  the  throne 
of  Hungary,  thus  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  subsequent  power  and 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Austria      - 1437 
It  passes  to  the  king  of  Poland  -  1439 

Solyman  II.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  in- 
vades Hungary,  and  takes  Buda; 
battle  of  Mohatz  (.which  see)  -  -  1526 

Buda  sacked  a    second    time  by  the 
Turks,  and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to 
the  sword         ....  1540 
Sclavonia  taken  by  the  Turks  -  -  1540 

Temeswar  taken  by  them         -  -  1552 

Transylvania  seized  by  Solyman          -  1556 
The  duke  of  Lorraine  loses  30,000  n.ea 
in  a  fruitless  attempt  to  take  Buda 
from  the  Turks  -  -  1631 

He  at  length  carries  Buda  by  storrn, 
and  delivers  up  the  Mahometans  to 
the  fury  of  the  soldiers  -  -  1698 

Temeswar  wrested  from  the  Turks  by 
prince  Eugene  •  •  .'  <•  .  •  1711 


"  l"he  Hungarian  people  have  an  irreconcilable  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen ;  and  consa 

3uenliy,  whenever  a  female  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  she  reigns  with  the  title  of  king 
"bus.  m  1383,  when  Mary,  the  daughtei  of  Charlis  Duras,  came  to  the  crown,  she  was  styleJ 
It'ing  Mary. 


EUN  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


413 


HUNGARY,  continued. 

Servia  and  Wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey 
at  the  peace  of  Belgrade  -  -  1739 

Temeswar  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Hungary  -  -  -1778 

The  struggle  for  independence  com- 
menced in  1848 

Count  Lomburg,  Austrian  commission- 
er, murdered  at  Pesth  Sept.  27, 

The  Hungarian  Diet  dissolved  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria  ;  martial  law 
proclaimed;  Jellachich,  Ban  of  Cro- 
atia, appointed  to  the  supreme  gov- 
ernment, -  Oct.  3,  184S  | 

Kossuth  appointed  by  the  Diet  presi- 
dent of  the  defence  committee  and 
dictator ....  Oct.  1848 

[Insurrection  of  Vienna,  Oct.  6.] 

Hungarian  army  advances  within  six          I 


miles  of  Vienna ;  .'ellachich  also  ad- 
vances there,  Ocuber  11;  Kossuth 
retreats  to  Hungarian  territory,  17th, 

Hungary  declares  itsdf  an  independent 
republic  •  -  -  Dec.  184J 

Raab  (Dec.)  and  Buda  Pesth,  entered 
by  Windisgratz  -  -  Jan.  5, 184$ 

Ukase  of  Russiar.  emperor  Nicholas, 
declaring  his  purpose  of  aiding  A-us- 
tria  against  Hungary  -  April  26, 

Gorgey,  commander-in-chief,  surren- 
ders the  Hungarian  army  to  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Villargos  -  Aug.  11,  1SW 

The  war  ended  by  the  complete  subju- 
gation of  Hungary,  and  the  flight  or 
execution  of  her  leaders. 
See  Germany. 


KINGS   OF   HUNGARY. 


A.  D.  997  Stephen,  duke,  assumes  the  title  of  king. 
1038  Peter  I.,  deposed. 
1041  Otto,  killed  in  battle. 
1044  Peter  again    ascends    the  throne  ;    is 

again  deposed,  and  has  his  eyes  put 

out. 
1047  Andrew,  assassinated  by  his  brother 

Bela. 
1059  Bela,  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous 

tower. 

1063  Solomon,  deposed  by  his  son. 
1073  Geisa  I. 
1076  Si.  Ladislaus. 
1095  Ooloman. 

1114  Stephen  II.,  surnamed  Thunder;  turn- 
ed monk. 
1131  Beta  II. ;  he  had  his  eyes  put  out  by 

his  uncle  Coloman,  so  that  his  queen 

ruled  the  kingdom. 
1141  Geisa  II. 
1161  Stephen  III. 
1173  Bela  HI. 
1191  Emeric. 

1200  Ladislaus  II. 

1201  Andrew  II. 
1235  Bela  IV. 
1275  Stephen  IV. 

1278  Ladislaus  III.,  murdered. 
1291  Andrew  III. 
1301  Wenceslaus. 
1304  Otho. 


1309  Charles  Robert. 

1342  Louis  I.  the  Great. 

1J583  Mary. 

1389  Mary,  and  her  husband  Sieisnvfld. 

1437  Albert ;  he  died  of  a  surfeit  of  melons. 

1440  Ladislaus  IV.,  killed  in  battle  with  the 
Turks. 

1444  Ladislaus  V.,  poisoned  while  an  infant. 

1458  Matthias  L,  son  of  Huniades,  late  re- 
gent. 

1490  Ladislaus  VL 

1516  Louis  II.  drowned  whilst  fighting  the 
Turks. 

1526  John  Sepusius,  deposed. 

1527  Ferdinand,  king  of  Bohemia. 
1534  John  Sepusius,  again. 

1539  John  II. 

1561   Maximilian,  afterwards  emperor  o/ 

Germany. 
1573  Rodolphus. 
1609  Matthias  II. 

1618  Ferdinand  II.,  emperor  of  Germany 
1625  Ferdinand  III.,  ditto. 
1647  Ferdinand  IV. 
1656  Leopold,  emperor  of  Germany. 
1687  Joseph,  ditto 
1711  Charles  VI    ditto. 
1740  Maria  Theresa. 

1780  Joseph,  her  son,  emperor  of  Germany. 
See  Germany. 


On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  in  1740.  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  who  had 
married  into  the  house  of  Lorraine,  was  in  danger  of  being  deprived  of  her 
father's  hereditary  dominions  by  France,  and  also  by  Bavaria  ;  but  at  length 
overcoming  all  difficulties,  her  husband  was  elected  emperor,  and  Hungary, 
Austria,  and  Bohemia  are  at  this  time  governed  by  their  descendants.  See 
Germany. 

HtlKS.  A  fierce  and  warlike  nation,  occupying  eastern  Tartary  nearly  1200 
years ;  they  were  almost  wholly  exterminated  by  the  Chinese,  in  A.  D.  93,  and 
the  remnants  settled  on  the  Volga,  and  attacked  the  Roman  allies  on  the 
Danube,  in  376 ;  but  having  been  subsidized  under  Attila,  they  turned  their 
arms  towards  Germany.  The  latter  country  and  Scythia  were  conquered  by 
them,  about  A.  D.  433.  100  000  of  them  were  slain  on  the  plains  of  Cham- 
pagne in  447.  They  were  defeated  by  Charles  the  Great  in  several  battles 
during  eight  years,  and  were  almost  extirpated,  and  soon  ceased  to  appear  as 


4-16  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  PIAJI 

a  distinct  nation  after  780.    When  they  settled  in  Pannonia,  they  gave  it  the 
name  of  Hungary,  which  see ;  see  also  Attila. 

HUSS,  JOHN;  His  MARTYRDOM.  The  clergy  having  instigated  the  pope  to 
issue  a  bull  against  heretics,  Huss,  who  had  been  zealous  to  promote  a  refor- 
mation, was  cited  to  appear  before  a  council  of  divines  at  Constance  to  give 
an  account  of  his  doctrines.  To  encourage  him  to  do  so,  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mund  sent  him  a  safe  conduct,  and  engaged  for  his  security.  On  the 
strength  of  this  pledge  he  presented  himself  accordingly,  but  was  sooa 
thrown  into  prison,  and  after  some  months'  confinement  was  adjudged  to  be 
burned  alive.  He  endured  this  dreadful  death  with  magnanimity  and  resig- 
nation, July  6,  1415.  The  same  unhappy  fate  was  borne  with  the  sanu 
fortitude  and  constancy  of  mind  by  JEROME  OF  PRAGUE,  the  intimate  com- 
panion of  Huss,  who  came  to  this  council  with  the  generous  design  of  sup- 
porting and  seconding  his  persecuted  friend :  he,  too,  suffered,  May  30,  1410. 
See  Cranmer,  and  Martyrs. 

HUSSARS.  This  species  of  force  originated  in  Poland  and  Hungary ;  and  as 
they  were  more  fitted  for  a  hasty  enterprise  than  a  set  battle,  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  taken  their  names  from  the  huzzas  or  shout  they  made  at  their 
tirst  onset.  They  were  generally  opposed  to  the  Turkish  horse,  "and  were 
oddly  clothed,  having  the  skins  of  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts  hanging  on 
their  backs,  against  bad  weather,  and  wore  fur  caps,  with  a  cock's  feather,'' 
— Pardon. 

HYDROMETER.  The  oldest  mention  of  the  Hydrometer  occurs  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  may  be  found  in  the  letters  of  Synesius  to  Hypatia ;  but  it  is 
not  improbable  that  Archimedes  was  the  inventor  of  it,  though  no  proofs 
of  it  are  to  be  found. — Beckmann.  Hypatia  was  torn  to  pieces,  415  A.  D., 
and  Archimedes  was  killed  212  B.  c.  Hydraulic  chemistry  became  a  science 
in  1746. 

HYDROSTATICS  were  probably  first  studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  about 
300  B.  c.  The  pressure  of  fluids  was  discovered  by  Archimedes,  about  250 
B.  c.  The  forcing-pump  and  air-fountain  were  invented  by  Hero,  about  12(7 
B.  c.  Water-mills  were  known  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  The 
science  was  revived  by  Galileo,  about  A.  D.  1600.  The  theory  of  rivers  was 
scientifically  understood  in  1697.  The  correct  theory  of  fluids  and  oscilla- 
tion of  waves,  explained  by  Newton,  in  1714.  A  scientific  form  was  given 
to  hydrodynamics,  by  Bernoulli,  1738. 

HYMNS.  Religious  songs,  or  odes,  were  at  first  used  by  the  heathens  in  praise 
of  their  false  deities,  and  afterwards  introduced  both  into  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  churches.  St.  Hilary,  the  bishop  of  Aries,  in  France,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  composed  hymns  to  be  sung  in  Christian  churches, 
about  A.  D.  431.  The  hymns  of  the  Jews  are  usually  accompanied  with 
trumpets,  drums,  and  cymbals. 

I. 

F  i  MBIC  VERSE.  lambe,  an  attendant  of  Metanira.  wife  of  Celeus,  king  of 
Sparta,  when  trying  to  exhilarate  Ceres,  while  the  latter  was  travelling  over 
Attica  in  quest  of  her  daughter  Proserpine,  entertained  her  with  jokes, 
stories,  and  poetical  effusions ;  and  from  her  free  and  satirical  verses  have 
been  called  Iambics. — Apollodorus.  Iambic  verses  were  first  written,  about 
700  B.  c.,  by  Archilochus,  who  had  courted  Neobule,  the  daughter  of  Lycam- 
bes ;  but  after  a  promise  of  marriage,  the  father  preferred  another  suitor, 
richer  than  the  poet;  whereupon  Archilochus  wrote  so  bitter  a  satire  on  lh< 
old  man's  avarice,  that  he  hanged  himself.— Herodotus. 


;DO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  417 

ICE.  Galileo  was  the  first  who  observed  ice  to  be  lighter  than  th<  water  which 
composed  it,  and  hence  ice  floats,  about  1597.  Ice  produced  in  summer  by 
means  of  chemical  mixtures,  prepared  by  Mr.  Walker  and  others,  in  1782. 
Leslie  froze  water  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  by  placing  under  it  a 
vessel  full  of  oil  of  vitriol.  One  part  of  sal-ammonia  and  two  of  common 
salt,  with  five  of  snow,  produce  a  degree  of  cold  twelve  degrees  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Five  parts  of  muriate  of  lime  and  four  of  snow  freeze 
mercury ;  and  mercury  can  be  solidified  by  preparations  of  sulphuric  acid, 
so  as  to  bear  the  stroke  of  a  hammer.  See  Cotd. 

ICE  TRADE,  THE,  in  the  United  States,  was  commenced  by  Frederick  Tudor, 
of  Boston,  in  1805,  who  shipped  the  first  cargo  to  Martinique  and  the  first  to 
Calcutta,  1833.  The  ice-houses  of  the  dealers  near  Boston  at  present  are 
capable  of  containing  141,332  tons. 

ICELAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegian  chiefs  who  were  compelled  to 
leave  their  native  country,  A.  D.  871 :  according  to  some  accounts,  it  had 
been  previously  visited  by  a  Scandinavian  pirate.  It  was  peopled  by  the 
Norwegians,  in  874.  In  1783,  there  occurred  here  the  most  tremendous  vol- 
canic eruption  on  record ;  it  was  accompanied  by  violent  wind  and  rain,  and 
a  darkness  of  the  heavens ;  and  it  was  feared  that  the  island  would  fall  to 
pieces.  Three  fire  spouts  broke  out  of  Mount  Skapta,  which,  after  rising 
to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  formed  a  torrent  of  red-hot  lava  that 
flowed  for  six  weeks,  and  ran  a  distance  of  60  miles  to  the  sea,  in  a  broken 
breadth  of  nearly  12  miles:  12  rivers  were  dried  up;  21  villages  totally 
overwhelmed  by  fire  or  water;  and  34  others  were  materially  injured. 

ICELANDIC  LITERATURE,  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF,  in  Copenhagen.  Their 
library,  containing  2000  Icelandic  MSS.  and  many  books,  burnt,  September 
26,  1847. 

ICONOLOGY.  The  science  that  describes  men  and  deities,  distinguished  by 
some  peculiar  characteristic,  and  the  doctrine  of  picture  or  image  represen- 
tation. Thus,  Saturn  is  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a  scythe ;  Jupiter 
with  a  thunderbolt,  and  an  eagle  by  his  side ;  Neptune  with  a  trident,  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  sea-horses ;  Mercury,  with  wings  on  his  hat  and  at  his 
heels ;  Bacchus,  crowned  with  ivy ;  Pallas,  leaning  on  her  aegis ;  Venus, 
drawn  by  Swans  or  pigeons;  Juno,  riding  in  a  cloud,  &c.  Heathen  mytho- 
logy gave  rise  to  the  later  worship  of  the  sun.  moon,  stars,  and  other  objects ; 
and  to  the  representation  of  the  true  God  in  various  forms ;  and  to  images. 
The  Iconoclastic  schism  rent  asunder  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighth  century.  See  Idols. 

IDES.  In  the  Roman  calendar,  the  ides  meant  the  thirteenth  day  of  each 
month  except  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  in  which  months  it  was 
the  fifteenth  day,  because  in  these  four  it  was  six  days  before  the  nones, 
and  in  the  other  months  four  days.  The  ides  of  March  was  the  day  on 
which  Julius  Caesar  was  assassinated  in  the  senate  house  by  Cascaand  other 
conspirators,  44  B.  c. 

IDIOTS.  It  is  shown  by  the  latest  returns,  that  exclusive  of  lunatics  (see  In- 
sanity), there  are  in  England,  pauper  idiots,  or  idiots  protected  by  national 
institutions,  males,  3372 ;  females,  3893 ;  total,  7265.  In  England  there  ia 
one  lunatic  or  idiot  in  every  1033  individuals ;  in  Wales,  there  is  one  in 
every  807  ;  in  Scotland,  one  in  731 ;  and  in  Ireland,  one  in  812. 

IDOLS,  AND  IDOLATRY.  The  public  worship  of  idols  was  introduced  by  Ni- 
nus,  king  of  Assyria,  2059  B.  c. —  Vossius.  Idols  are  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  the  pillar  set  up  by  Jacob,  at  Bethel,  about  1800  B.C. — Dufresiwy. 
Constantine,  emperor  of  Rome,  ordered  all  the  heathen  temples  to  be  de- 
•troyed,  and  all  sacrifices  to  cease,  330  A.  D. — Dufresnoy.  In  Britain,  thfl 
18* 


418  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  {  im- 

religion  of  the  Druids  gave  way  to  the  more  gross  and  barbarous  supersti- 
tions of  the  Saxons,  who  had  their  idols,  altars,  and  temples,  and  they  soon 
overspread  the  country  with  them :  they  had  a  god  for  every  day  in  the 
week.  See  Week.  The  idolatry  of  the  Saxons  yielded  to  Christianity  after 
the  coming  of  St.  Augustin.  See  Christianity. 

ILIUM.  A  city  was  built  here  by  Dardanus,  and  called  Dardania,  1480  B.  c. 
Troy  (wkic/i  see),  another  city,  was  founded  by  Troas,  about  1341  B.  c. ;  and 
Ilus,  his  successor,  called  the  country  Ilium.  This  kingdom  existed  296 
years  from  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  Priam  being  the  sixth  and  last  king.  The 
Trojan  war  was  undertaken  by  the  united  states  of  Greece  to  recover  Helen, 
whom  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  had  borne  away  from  her  husband,  Menelaus, 
king  of  Sparta,  1204  B.  c.  See  Helen.  More  than  100,000  warriors  engaged 
in  this  expedition ;  and  the  invaders,  having  wasted  many  defenceless  towns 
and  villages,  laid  siege  to  the  capital,  1193  B.  c.  Troy  was  taken  after  ten 
years'  war  by  stratagem,  and  burnt  to  ashes  by  the  conquerors,  who  put  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  or  carried  them  oft'  as  slaves,  1184  B.  c. — Ap^lo- 
durus. 

ILLINOIS.  One  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  on  the  Kaskaskia  and  Caho- 
kia  by  the  French  from  Canada.  Ceded  to  Great  Britain  at  the  peace  of 
1763.  Chiefly  settled  by  emigrants  from  other  states  since  1800.  In  1789  it 
was  part  of  the  North-West  territory.  In  1809  it  was  made  a  separate  terri- 
tory, and  in  1818  admitted  into  the  Union,  being  the  23d  state.  Population 
in  1810,  12;282 ;  in  1830,  157,575 ;  in  1840,  476,183.  It  is  a  free  state  and  has 
always  been  so.  The  chief  products  are  grain  and  Indian  corn ;  it  has  in- 
exhaustible lead-mines.  New  constitution  adopted  August  31,  1847. 

1LLUMINATI.  These  were  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  Spain,  where  they  were 
called  Alumbrados,  about  A.  D.  1575;  and  after  their  suppression  in  Spain, 
they  appeared  in  France.  One  of  their  leaders  was  the  friar  Anthony  Bou- 
chet.  The  chief  doctrine  of  this  sect  was.  that  they  obtained  grace,  and 
attained  perfection,  by  their  own  sublime  manner  of  prayer.  A  secret 
society  bearing  this  name  was  founded  by  Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt,  in  May, 
1776. 

ILLUMINATED  BOOKS  AND  PAGES.  The  practice  of  adopting  ornaments, 
drawings  and  emblematical  figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MSS.,  is  of 
great  antiquity ;  and  illuminated  pages  are.  many  of  them  exquisitely  painted. 
Varro  wrote  the  lives  of  700  illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  with 
their  likenesses,  about  70  B.  c. — Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment  by  the  commons  house  of  parlia- 
ment, and  the  first  of  a  lord  chancellor,  was  in  1386.  By  statute  of  the  12th 
and  13th  of  William  and  Mary,  it  was  enacted,  that  no  pardon  under  the 
great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to  an  impeachment  by  the  commons  in  parlia- 
ment, 1699  and  1700.  Memorable  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  Feb. 
13,  1788;  the  trial  lasted  seven  years,  ending  April  25,  1795,  in  an  acquittal 
Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  April  29.  and  his  acquittal,  June  12.  1806. 
Inquiry  into  the  charges  preferred  by  colonel  Wardle  against  the  duke  o5 
York,  commenced  Jan.  26.  and  ended  March  20,  1809.  in  his  acquittal 
Trial  of  Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  by  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  be- 
fore the  house  of  lords,  commenced  Aug.  16 ;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on 
her  majesty's  defence.  Oct.  3  ;  and  the  last  debate  on  the  bill  took  place, 
NOT.  10,  1820.  See  Qiwen  of  George  IV. 

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT.  By  the  Union  with  Ireland,  the  parliament  of 
Great  Britain  became  Imperial ;  and  the  first  Imperial  parliament,  admit 
ting  100  Irish  members  into  the  commons,  and  28  temporal  and  4  spiritual 
peers  into  the  house  of  lords,  was  held  at  Westminster.  January  22,  1801. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


419 


The  Imperial  parliament  is  now  constituted  thus :  in  the  Commons,  since 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  (which,  see),  in  1832,  there  are  471  English ; 
29  Welsh ;  105  Irish  ;  and  53  Scotch  members— in  all  658.  In  the  Lords, 
459  members,  of  whom  28  are  temporal,  and  4  spiritual  representative  peers 
of  Ireland ;  and  16  representative  peers  of  Scotland.  See  Commons,  Lords, 
Parliament,  and  Reform. 

IMPORTS  OP  MERCHANDISE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.     See  Exports,  &c. 
Table,  p.  317. 

VALUE   OP   IMPORTS   INTO   GREAT   BRITAIN,   FROM   ALL  PARTS   OP   THE  WORLD. 


IP  '710 

.•50    • 
1175 


JE4,753,777  I  In  1800 

7,2S9>562         1810    - 
-   14,815,855         1820 


,£30,570,605 

41,136,135 

•  36,514,564 


Inl83jO 
1840 
1845 


jE46,2t5,24) 

62,004,000 

-  85,28i.,953 


IMPOSTORS.  The  names  and  pretensions  of  religious,  political,  and  other  im- 
postors, would  fill  a  volume;  they  have  been,  of  course,  found  in  every 
country,  and  have  existed  in  every  age.  The  following  are  selected  from 
various  authorities,  as  being  among  the  most  extraordinary : — 


Aldebort,  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  pre- 
tended he  had  a  letter  from  the  Redeem- 
er, which  fell  from  heaven  at  Jerusalem  ; 
he  seduced  multitudes  to  follow  him  into 
woods  and  deserts,  and  to  live  in  imitation 
of  John  the  Baptist. 

Gonsalvo  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to 
be  the  angel  Michael ;  he  was  burnt  by 
the  inquisition  of  Spam,  in  1360. 

George  David,  son  ol  a  waterman  at  Ghent, 
styled  himself  the  nephew  of  God,  sent 
into  the  world  to  adopt  children  worthy  of 
heaven ;  he  denied  the  resurrection, 
preached  against  marriage,  in  favor  of  a 
community  of  women,  and  taught  that 
the  body  only  could  be  defiled  by  sin ;  he 
had  many  followere  ;  died  at  Basle,  1556. 

Demetrius  Griska  Eutropeia,  a  friar,  pre- 
tended to  be  the  son  of  Basilowitz.  czar  of 
Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris  had 
put  to  death ;  but  he  maintained  that  ano- 
ther child  had  been  substituted  in  his 
place :  he  was  supported  by  the  arms  of 
Poland ;  his  success  astonished  the  Rus- 
sians, who  invited  him  to  the  throne,  and 
delivered  into  his  hands  Fedor,  the  reign- 
ing czar,  and  all  his  family,  whom  he 
cruelly  put  to  death :  his  imposition  being 
discovered,  he  was  assassinated  in  his 
palace,  1606. — D'Alembert's  Revolutions 
of  Russia. 

Sabbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused 
the  Turks  and  Jews  a  long  time  at  Con- 
stantinople and  other  places,  by  person- 
ating our  Saviour,  1666. 

IMPOSTORS   EXTRAORDINARY    IN    BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two  men  crucified,  both  pretending  to  be 
the  Messiah ;  and  two  women  executed  for 
assuming  the  characters  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  Mary  Magdalen,  5  Henry  ill., 

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  maid  of 
Kent,  spirited  up  to  hinder  the  Reforma- 
tion, by  pretending  to  inspirations  from 
heaven,  fortelling  that  the  king  would  have 
an  early  and  violent  death  if  he  divorced 
Catherine  of  Spain,  and  married  Anne 


Boleyn.  She  and  her  confederates  wert 
hanged  at  Tyburn,  24  Henry  VIII,  1534.— 
Rapin. 

In  the  first  year  of  Mary's  reign,  after  her 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spam,  Elizabeth 
Croft,  a  girl  of  18  years  of  age,  was  se- 
creted in  a  wall,  and  with  a  whistle,  made 
for  the  purpose,  uttered  many  seditious 
speeches  against  the  queen  and  the  priiiv,?, 
and  also  against  the  mass  and  confession, 
for  which  she  was  sentenced  to  stand  upon 
a  scaffold  at  St.  Paul's  cross,  during  ser- 
mon-time, and  make  public  confession  of 
her  imposture,  1553:  she  was  called  the 
Spirit  of  the  Wall. — Baker's  Chron. 

William  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  our 
Saviour,  and  was  executed  for  blasphemy, 
34  Eliz.,  1591. 

James  Naylpr,  personated  our  Saviour ;  he 
was  convicted  of  blasphemy,  scourged, 
and  his  tongue  bored  through  with  a  hot 
iron  on  the  pillory,  by  sentence  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  under  Cromwell's 
administration,  1656. 

valentine  Greatrakes,  an  Irish  impostor, 
who  pretended  to  cure  all  diseases  by 
stroking  the  patient ;  his  imposture  de- 
ceived the  credulous,  and  occasioned  very 
warm  disputes  in  Ireland,  in  1665,  and  in 
England,  where  it  fell  into  disrepute,  in 
1066,  upon  his  examination  before  the 
Royal  Society,  after  which  we  hear  no 
more  of  him.  Birch's  Memoirs  of  '.he 
Roy.  Society. 

Dr.  Til  us  Oates.     See  Conspiracies. 

Mary  Tofts,  of  Godalming,  by  pretending 
she  bred  rabbits  within  her,  so  imf  osed 
upon  many  persons  (among  others,  Mr. 
St.  Andre,  surgeon  to  the  king),  that  they 
espoused  her  cause,  1726. 

The  Cock-lane  ghost,  imposture  by  WiiMana 
Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter,  1762. 

Johanna  Southcote.  who  proclaimed  hel 
conception  of  the  Messiah,  and  had  a  mul 
titude  of  followers;  she  died  in  Dec.  1814. 

IN    THE    UNITED   STATE* 

Matthias,  alias  Matthews,  who  professed  W 

be  the  Messiah,  New- York.  1830-31. 
Joseph  Smith.  See  article  Mormons. 


IMPRESSMENT  OF  SEAMEN.    Affirmed  by  Sir  M.  Foster  to  be  of  ancient 


420  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  *na> 

practice.  The  statute  2  Richard  II.  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well 
known,  1378.  The  first  commission  for  it  was  issued  29  Edward  III.  1355. 
Pressing,  either  for  the  sea  or  land  service,  declared  to  be  illegal  by  the  Bri- 
tish parliament,  Dec.  1641.  None  can  be  pressed  into  the  king's  naval  service 
above  55,  nor  under  18.  No  apprentice  nor  landsmen  who  have  not  served  at 
sea  for  3  or  2  years.  No  masters  of  merchants'  ships,  first-mates  of  50  tons, 
and  boatswains  and  carpenters  of  100  tons.  No  men  employed  by  the  pub- 
lic boards,  and  none  except  by  an  officer  with  a  press-warrant. 

INCENDIARIES.  The  punishment  for  arson  was  death  by  tho  Saxon  laws  and 
Gothic  constitutions.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  incendiaries  were  burnt  to 
death.  This  crime  was  made  high  treason  by  statute  8  Henry  VI.,  1429;  and 
it  was  denied  benefit  of  clergy,  21  Henry  VIII.,  1528. 

INCEST.  It  has  been  looked  upon  with  horror  by  most  nations,  but  Persia  and 
Egypt  are  exceptions.  The  history  of  the  latter  country  abounds  with  in- 
stances of  incestuous  marriages  among  its  sovereigns  Physcon  married  his 
brother's  queen,  then  repudiated  her.  and  married  her  daughtt  r  by  his 
brother,  and  murdered  his  children  by  both  wives,  129  B.  c.  See  Egypt. 
In  our  own  country.  Vortigern,  a  king  of  South  Britain,  married  his  own 
daughter,  A.  D.  446.  The  instances  are  numerous  in  Portugal.  Maria, 
queen  of  Portugal,  married  her  uncle,  the  prince  of  Brazil  June.  1760;  and 
the  son  of  that  incestuous  marriage.  Joseph,  then  in  his  sixteenth  year,  mar- 
ried his  aunt,  the  princess  Mary,  Feb.,  1777.  The  present  Don  Miguel  of 
Portugal  was  betrothed  to  his  niece,  Donna  Maria,  by  procuration  at  Vienna, 
in  Oct.  1826.  she  being  then  only  seven  years  of  age.  In  England,  incest  was 
early  punished  with  death ;  and  was  again  made  capital  by  a  law  of  the 
Commonwealth,  in  1650. 

INCOME  TAX  IN  ENGLAND.  This  is  not.  as  some  suppose,  a  new  impost 
In  1512,  parliament  granted  a  subsidy  of  two  fifteenths  from  the  commons, 
and  two  tenths  from  the  clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to  enter  on  a  war  with 
France. — Rapin.  This  tax  was  attempted  in  1793,  and  1799 :  and  again  in 
1802 ;  but  was  abandoned.  In  1803.  it  was  revived,  at  the  rate  of  5  per 
cent,  on  all  incomes  above  150/.,  and  lower  rates  on  smaller  incomes.  In 
1805,  it  was  increased  to  6£  per  cent. ;  and  in  1806  was  raised  to  10  per  cent, 
embracing  the  dividends  at  the  bank.  It  produced — 

In  1801,  at  Is.  in  the  pound      -    ,£4,650,000  I  In  1806,  at  2s.  in  the  pound      -  £11,500,00(1 
In  1805,  at  Is.  3d.  ditto  -  -       5,937,500  |  And  subsequently          -  -      16,548,935 

The  tax  produced  from  lands,  houses,  rentages,  &c.,  8,657.9372. ;  from  fund- 
ed and  stock  properties,  2  885  505Z. ;  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade,  3,831,0882. 
and  salaries  and  pensions,  1,174.4562. ;  total,  sixteen  millions  and  a  half. 
Repealed  in  March,  1816.  Sir  Robert  Peel's  bill,  imposing  the  present  tax 
of  21.  18s.  4d.  per  cent,  per  ann.,  to  subsist  for  three  years,  passed  June  22, 
1842;  it  produced  about  5.350,0002.  a  year.  This  tax  was  renewed  for  three 
years  more,  in  March,  1845. 

INDEPENDENTS.  Sects  of  Protestants,  chiefly  in  England  and  Holland.  They 
are  such  as  hold  the  independency  of  the  church,  or  that  each  congregation 
may  govern  itself  in  religious  matters.  They  say  there  is  no  absolute  occa- 
sion fur  synods  or  councils,  whose  resolutions  may  be  taken  to  be  wise  and 
prudent  advice,  but  not  as  decisions  to  be  peremptorily  obeyed  ;  they  affirm 
that  one  church  may  advise  or  reprove  another,  but  has  no  authority  to  ex- 
communicate or  censure.  Their  first  meeting-house  founded  in  England  was 
that  by  Henry  Jacobs,  1616. 

INDEX  EXPURGATORY.  A  catalogue  of  prohibited  books  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  first  made  by  the  inquisitors,  and  approved  by  the  council  of  Trent 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


421 


The  index  of  heretical  books,  by  which  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was 
forbidden  (with  certain  exceptions)  to  the  laity,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  ol 
pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1595.  It  enumerated  most  of  the  celebrated  works 
of  France,  Spain,  Germany,  and  England,  and  which  are  still  prohibited. 
— Aste. 

INDIA.  Known  to  the  ancients,  many  of  whose  nations,  particularly  the  Ty- 
rians  and  Egyptians,  carried  on  much  commerce  with  it.  It  was  conquered  by 
Alexander,  327  B.  c.,  and  subsequently  the  intercourse  between  India  and 
the  Roman  empire  was  very  great.  The  authentic  history  of  Hindoostan  is 
reckoned  to  commence  with  the  conquests  of  Mahmud  Gazni,  A.  D.  1000. — 

whom  123  perish  in  one  night.    See 
Blackhole.        -  .  May  19,  I7c*i 

Calcutta  retaken  by  colonel,  afterwards 
lord  Clive  ;  he  defeats  the  sotibah,  at 
Plassey  '  -  -  June  20.  1757 

Warren  Hastings  becomts  governor  of 
Bengal  -  -  -  April  13,  1772 

India  Bill.    See  India  Bill      June  16,  1773 

Supreme  court  established        -  -  1773 

Pondicherry  taken          -  Oct.  11,  1778 

The  strong  fortress  of  Gualior  taken  by 
major  Popham  -  Aug.  4,  1778 

Hyder  Ali  overruns  the  Carnati-,  and 
defeats  the  British  -  Sept.  10,  1780 

He  takes  Arcot    -  •  Oci.  31,  1780 

Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor  of 
Madras  -  -  -  June  22,  1781 

Hyder  AH  signally  defeated  by  Sir  Eyre 
Coote  -  -  -  -July  1,  178) 

Death  of  Hyder,  and  accession  of  his 
son,  Tippoo  Saib  •  Dec.  11,  178^ 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  See  Hust- 
ings, Trial  of  •  Feb.  13,  1783 

Definitive  treaty  with  Tippoo ;  his  two 
sons  hostages  -  -  March  19,  17SG 

Government  of  lord  Mornington,  after- 
wards marquis  Wellesley  May  17,  1798 

Seringapatam  stormed,  and  Tippoo 
Saib  killed  -  -  May  4,  1799 

Victories  of  the  British ;  the  Carnatic 
conquered  ....  1800 

Victories  of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley        -  1803 

Marquis  Cornwallis  resumes  the  gov- 
ernment -  -  July  30,  180T. 

Act  by  which  the  trade  to  India  was 
thrown  open  ;  that  to  China  remain- 
ing wiih  the  company  July  31,  1813 

Lord  Amherst's  government   -  Aug.  1,  1823 

Lord  William  Bentinck  arrives  as  go- 
vernor-general •  -  July  4,  1828 

Act  opening  the  trade  to  India,  and  tea 
trade,  <fec.  to  China,  forming  a  new 
era  in  British  commerce  •  Aug.  28,  i883 

Lord  Auckland,  governor-general ;  he 
leaves  England  -  -  Sept.  1836 

Battle  of  Ghizny ;  victory  of  Sir  John, 
now  Lord  Keane.  (See  Ghizny) 

July  23,  1338 

Shah  Soujah  restored  to  his  sovereignty, 
and  he  and  the  British  army  enter 
Cabul  -  -  -  Aug.  7, 1839 

English  defeat  Dost  Mahomed,  -  Oct.  18, 184C 

Kurrock  Singe,  king  of  Lahore,  dies ;  at 
his  funeral  his  successor  is  killed  by 
accident,  and  Dost  Mahorn**-^  next 
heir,  surrenders  to  England  -  ^ov.  5,  ISM 

General  rising  against  the   Bnush  at 


Irruption  of  the  Mahometans,  under 
Mahmud  Gazni  -  -  A.  D.  1000 

Patna,  or  Afghan  empire  founded       -  1205 

Reign  of  Jenghis  Khan,  one  of  the  most 
bloody  conquerors  of  the  world  ; 
14,000,000  of  the  human  race  perish 
by  his  sword,  under  the  pretence  of 
establishing  the  worship  of  one  god : 
he  died 1237 

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  celebrated  Timour,  or  Tamer- 
lane, invade  Hindostan  •  -  1398 

Tamerlane  takes  the  city  of  Delhi ;  de- 
feats the  Indian  army,  makes  a  con- 
quest of  Hindostan,  and  butchers 
100,000  of  its  people  -  -  -1399 

The  passage  to  India  discovered  by 
Vasco  da  Gama  -  -  -  1497 

Conquest  of  the  country  completed  by 
the  sultan  Baber,  founder  of  the  Mo- 
gul empire  ....  1525 

Reign  of  the  illustrious  Acbar,  the 
greatest  prince  of  Hindostan  -  -  1555 

Reign  of  Aurungzebe ;  his  dominions 
extending  from  10  to  35  degrees  in 
latitude,  and  nearly  as  much  in  longi- 
tude, and  his  revenue  amounting  to 
32,000,000/.  sterling  •  -  -  1660 

Invasion  of  the  Persian,  Nadir  Shah,  or 
KouliKhan  -  -  -  -1738 

At  Delhi  he  orders  a  general  massacre, 
and  150,000  persons  perish  -  -  1738 

He  carries  away  treasure  amounting 
to  125,000,000^.  sterling  -  -  1739 

Defeat  of  the  last  imperial  army  by  the 
Rohillas  ....  1749  | 

[The  Moguf  empire  now  became  mere- 
ly nominal,  distinct  and  independent 
sovereignties  being  forme  I  by  nu- 
merous petty  princes.  The  empe- 
rors were  of  no  political  consequence 
from  this  period. 

BRITISH  POWER  IN  INDIA. 

Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the 

nortr.-east  and  north-west  passages  -  1528 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  expeditions  -  1579 

Levant  company  make  a  land  expedi- 
tion to  India      ....  1539 
First  adventure  from  England  -  -  1591 

First  charter  to  the  London  company 

of  merchants    -  -  -  -1600 

Second  charter  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany     .....  1609 
Calcutta  purchased        -  -  -  1698 

Capture  of  Calcutta  by  Serajah  Dowla. 

gee  Calcutta.  ....  1756 
He  imprisons  146  British  subjects,  of 


422 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


INDIA,  continued. 

Cabul;  Sir  Alexander  Burnes  and 
other  officers  murdered  -  Nov.  2,  1841 

Lord  Ellenborough  appointed  governor- 
general  -  -  -  Oct.  13,  1841 

Sir  William  Macnaghten  treacherously 
assassinated  -  •  Dec.  25,  1841 

The  British,  under  a  convention,  evacu- 
ate Cabuj,  placing  Lady  Sale,  &c.,  as 
hostages  in  the  hands  of  Akbar  Khan ; 
a  dreadful  massacre  ensues  -  Jan.  6,  1842 


Ameers  of  Scinde  defeated  by  Sir  Char- 
les Napier ;  Scinde  is  afterwards  an- 
nexed to  the  British  empire  •  Feb.  17,  UM3 

Battles  of  Maharajpoor  and  Punniar ; 
the  strong  fort  of  Gwalior,  the  "  Gib- 
raltar of  the  East,"  taken  -  Dec.  29,  "843 

Sir  Henry  Hardinge  appointed  gover- 
nor-general -  •  May  2, 1844 


THE   LATE   WAR   BETWEEN   THE   SIKHS   AND   THE   BRITISH. 


The  Sikh  troops  cross  the  Sutlej  river, 
and  attack  the  British  post  at  Feroze- 

Eore,  which  was  held  by  Sir  John 
ittler  -  -  -    Dec.  14,  1845 

Battle  of.  A'iwal ;  the  Sikhs  defeated 

Jan.  28,  1846 

Battle  of  So'oraon ;  the  enemy  defeated 
with  immense  loss  in  killed  and 
drowned  -  -  Feb.  10,  1846 

[The  Sikhs  lost  10,000  men ;  the  British 
2,338  in  killed  and  wounded.] 


The  citadel  of  Lahore  is  occupied  by 
the  British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough; 
and  the  war  terminates  -  Feb.  20,  1846 

Great  battle  between  the  British  under 
Lord  Gough,  and  the  Sikhs  under 
Sheere  Singh,  at  Ramluggar.  Nov.  22,  1843 

Moultan  taken,  after  a  long  siese,  Jan  3.  1849 

Sheere  Sing  defeated  by  Lord  Gough 

Feb.  21,  1849 

The  Punjaub  formally  annexed  to  the 
British  crown  -  March  29,  1849 


INDIA  COMPANY,  THC  EAST.  The  first  commercial  intercourse  of  the  En- 
glish with  the  East  Indies,  was  a  private  adventure  with  three  ships  fitted 
out  in  1591 ;  only  one  of  them  reached  India,  and  after  a  voyage  of  three 
years,  the  commander,  captain  Lancaster,  was  brought  home  in  another 
ship,  the  sailors  having  seized  on  his  own ;  but  his  information  gave  rise  to 
a  capital  mercantile  voyage,  and  the  Company's  first  charter,  in  Dec.  1600. 
Their  stock  then  consisted  of  72.000Z.,  and  they  fitted  out  four  ships,  and 
meeting  with  success,  have  continued  to  trade  ever  since.  India  stock  sold 
at  5CKM.  for  a  share  of  100Z.,  in  1683.  A  new  company  was  formed  in  1698 ; 
and  both  were  united  in  1702.  The  India-house  was  built  in  1726,  and  en- 
larged in  1799.  Board  of  control  instituted  1784. 

INDIA  BILL.  The  bill  placing  the  company's  affairs  under  the  control  of  the 
British  government,  and  re-organizing  the  various  departments  in  India, 
passed  June  16,  1773.  See  East  India  Bill.  Mr.  Fox's  celebrated  bill 
passed  in  the  commons,  but  was  thrown  out  in  the  lords'  house,  1783.  Mr. 
Pitt's  bill  constituting  the  Board  of  Control  passed  August  13,  1784. 

INDIA  RUBBER.  Also  called  Caoutchouc,  first  brought  to  Europe  from 
South  America,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Several 
plants  produce  various  kinds  of  elastic  gum ;  but  that  in  commerce  is 
chiefly  the  juice  of  the  Siphonia  Elastica,  or  syringe  tree.  Incisions  in  the 
bark  of  this  tree  give  vent  to  a  liquid  which  forms  India  rubber.  No  sub- 
stance is  yet  known  which  is  so  pliable,  and  at  the  same  time  so  exceedingly 
elastic ;  it  oozes  out  under  the  form  of  a  vegetable  milk,  from  incisions 
made  in  the  tree,  and  is  gathered  chiefly  in  the  time  of  rain,  because  it 
flows  then  most  abundantly. — M.  Macquer. 

INDIANA,  one  of  the  western  United  States,  first  settled  at  Vincennes  by  tho 
French  ;  ceded  to  England  at  the  peace  of  1763,  but  no  settlement  made 
by  them  until  1787.  Was  part  of  the  N.  W.  Territory  in  1801.  Suffered 
much  during  the  war  of  1812.  See  battle  of  Tippccanoe.  Admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1816.  Population  in  1800,  5,641 ;  in  1820,  147,178 ;  in  1840, 
685,866. 

INDIANS,  NORTH  AMERICAN.  The  origin  of  the  aborigines  of  this  continent 
continues  to  be  a  matter  of  speculation  among  the  ethnologists.  They 
have  gradually  but  now  almost  entirely  disappeared  before  the  track  of  the 
white  man  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  even  in  the  far  west  their  numbers 


UID  ]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  423 

are  yearly  becoming  smaller.  King  Philip's  Indian  war  in  New  England, 
1675.  Indians  joined  the  French  against  the  English  colonies,  1690.  At- 
tacked by  Capt.  Church,  1704  ;  burned  Deerfield,  Mass.,  1704 ;  and  Haver- 
hill,  N.  H.,  1708;  Indian  war  in  South  Carolina,  1715;  again  joined  the 
French,  1754-9 ;  CheroKees  subdued,  1761 ;  Indians  besieged  Detroit,  1763. 
[During  the  revolutionary  war  the  Indians  were  employed  at  times  on  both 
sides,  but  chiefly  by  the  British.]  Treaty  with  the  Choctaws.  1786  ;  with 
the  Creeks,  1790;  Gen.  Harm er  defeated  by  the  Indians  near  Chillicothe, 
1790 ;  Gen.  Butler  defeated  by  the  Indians  on  the  Miami,  1791 ;  treaty 
with  Six  Nations,  &c.,  1794;  with  the  Delavvares.  1804;  Gov.  Harrison  de- 
feated hostile  Indians  on  the  Wabash.  May  16,  1811 ;  Creek  war  in  Florida, 
Gen.  Jackson,  1813  ;  treaty  with  Choctaws,  Cherokees,  &c.,  by  Gen.  Jack- 
son, 1816  ;  Indian  land  in  Ohio  ceded  to  the  United  States.  1816  ;  war  with 
Seminoles,  1817  ;  bill  for  removing  the  Indians  west  of  Mississippi,  passed 
May  27,  1832  ;  war  with  Winnebagoes,  1832  ;  Black  Hawk  captured,  Aug. 

27,  1832 ;   Winnebagoes  subdued  by  Gen.  Scott,  1832 ;   war  against  the 
Indians  in  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Georgia,  conducted  by  Gens.  Scott.  Gaines, 
Tessup,  &c.,  1835-40.    In  1836  the  Secretary  of  War  reported  as  follows  : 

Number  of  Indians  emigrated  from  the  Atlantic  States  to  the  lands  provided  for 
them  west  of  the  Mississippi   -  .'....    31,357 

Number  yet  to  be  removed    .........    72,181 

Number  of  Indians  of  indigenous  tribes,  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  RocKy 
Mountains  ....  150,341 

Total  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  .  -  352,879 

Treaty  with  the  Sioux,  they  relinquishing  5.000,000  acres  west  of  Missis- 
sippi for  &LOOO.OOO,  Sept.  29, 1837  ;  with  Winnebagoes,  Oct.  1,  1837;  Powell 
alias  Osceola.  the  Seminoln  chief,  with  50  warriors,  taken  prisoners  in  Flo- 
rida. Oct.  20,  1837 ;  great  mortality  from  small-pox  among  the  Mandans, 
Mintarees,  Blackfeet,  and  other  Indians  in  Missouri  territory — the  Mandans 
tribe  entirely  destroyed — Nov.,  Dec.,  1837 ;  fight  in  Arkansas  between  the 
Ross  and  Ridge  parties  and  Cherokees — Ross  and  about  40  others  killed,  June 

28,  1839 ;  150  Chippewas  treacherously  massacred  by  the  Sioux,  at  a  meet- 
ing for  a  treaty  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  July  1,  1839 ;  Cayuse  Indians 
in  Oregon  having  attacked  and  murdered  15  persons,  and  carried  off  64  pri- 
soners from  a  missionary  station,  are  chastised  by  the  settlers  in  a  severe 
engagement,  Nov.  29,  1847. 

INDIGO.  Before  the  American  colonies  were  established,  all  the  indigo  used 
in  Europe  came  from  the  East  Indies ;  and  until  the  discovery  of  a  passage 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  it  was  conveyed  like  other  Indian  products, 
partly  through  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  partly  by  land  to  Babylon,  or  through 
Arabia  and  up  the  Red  Sea  to  Egypt.  The  real  nature  of  indigo  was  so 
little  known  in  Europe,  that  it  was  classed  among  minerals,  as  appears  by 
letters-patent  for  erecting  works  to  obtain  it  from  mines  in  the  principality 
of  Halberstadt,  dated  Dec.  23,  1705 ;  yet  what  Vitruvius  and  Pliny  call 
indicum  is  supposed  to  have  been  our  indigo. — Beckmann.  The  first  men- 
tion of  indigo  occurs  in  English  statutes  in  1581.  The  first  brought  to 
Europe  was  procured  from  Mexico.  Its  cultivation  was  begun  in  Carolina, 
in  1747.  The  quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1840,  was  6,831. 2691b., 
and  in  1845,  it  was  10,127,4881b. 

rNDULGENCES.  They  were  commenced  by  Leo.  III.,  about  A.  D.  800 ;  were 
much  used  by  Urban  II.  1090 ;  and  were  subsequently  conferred  by  the  Ro- 
man pontiffs  in  the  twelfth  century  as  rewards  to  the  crusaders.  Clement 
V.  was  the  first  pope  who  made  public  sale  of  indulgences,  1313.  In  1517, 
Leo.  X.  published  general  indulgences  throughout  Europe,  when  the  prac- 
tice led  to  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  in  1517,  and  to  the  Refoi  mat  ion  in 


424  THK  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  INC 

England,  in  1534. — Bower's  Lives  of  the  Popes.  Indulgences  were  ft»r  the 
pardon  of  sins,  and  were  sometimes  so  extensive  as  to  be  for  the  past,  pre- 
sent, and  to  come.  They  were  written  upon  parchment,  and  sealed  and 
signed  by  the  pope  or  his  delegates. — Ashe. 

INFIRMARIES.  Ancient  Rome  had  no  houses  for  the  cure  of  the  sick.  Dis- 
eased persons,  however,  were  carried  to  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius  for  a  cure, 
as  Christian  believers  were  taken  to  churches  which  contained  wonder- 
working images.  Benevolent  institutions  for  the  accommodation  of  tra- 
vellers, the  indigent,  and  sick,  were  first  introduced  with  Christianity,  and 
the  first  infirmaries  or  hospitals  were  built  close  to  cathedrals  and  monaste- 
ries. The  emperor  Louis  II.  caused  infirmaries  situated  on  mountains  to  be 
visited.  A.  D.  855.  In  Jerusalem  the  knights  and  brothers  attended  on  the 
sick.  There  were  hospitals  for  the  sick  at  Constantinople,  in  the  llth  cen- 
tury. The  oldest  mention  of  physicians  and  surgeons  established  in  infir- 
maries, occurs  in  1437. — Beckmann.  See  Hospitals. 

INFORMERS.  This  tribe  was  once  very  numerous  in  Greece  and  Rome,  they 
being  countenanced  by  wicked  princes.  The  emperor  Titus  punished  in- 
formers by  banishment,  and  sometimes  death ;  and  Pliny  gives  praise  to 
Trajan  for  the  like  good  policy.  In  England,  and  particularly  in  London, 
numbers  of  unprincipled  men  obtain  large  gains  as  informers  against  per- 
sons whose  slightest  infractions  of  the  law.  often  unconsciously  committed, 
subject  them  to  the  power  and  exactions  of  this  despised  class. 

INK.  The  ancient  black  inks  were  composed  of  soot  and  ivory-black,  and 
Vitruvius  and  Pliny  mention  lamp-black ;  but  they  had  likewise  various 
colors,  as  red,  gold,  silver,  and  purple.  Red  ink  was  made  by  them  of  ver- 
milion and  various  kinds  of  gum.  INDIAN  INK  is  brought  from  China,  and 
must  have  been  in  use  by  the  people  of  the  east  from  the  earliest  ages, 
most  of  the  artificial  Chinese  productions  being  of  very  great  antiquity. 
It  is  usually  brought  to  Europe  in  small  quadrangular  cakes,  and  is  com- 
posed of  a  fine  black  and  animal  glue. — Beckmann. 

INNS  OF  COURT.  A  number  of  inns  of  court  were  established  at  different 
periods,  in  some  degree  as  colleges  for  teaching  the  law.  The  Temple  (of 
which  there  were  three  societies,  namely,  the  Inner,  the  Middle  and  the 
Outer)  was  originally  founded  in  the  Temple  church,  built  by  the  knights 
Templars.  32  Henry  II.  1185.  The  inner  and  Middle  Temple  were  made 
inns  of  law  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  about  1340 ;  the  0«ter  not  until  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  about  1560. — Stowe's  Survey. 

INOCULATION.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  introduced  inoculation  in 
England  from  Turkey.  In  1718  she  had  her  own  son  inoculated  at  Adrian- 
nple.  with  perfect  success ;  and  she  was  allowed  to  have  it  tried  for  the 
first  time  in  England,  on  seven  condemned  criminals.  7  George  I.  1721. 
The  practice  was  preached  against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy 
from  that  period  until  1760.*  Vaccine  inoculation  was  introduced  by  Dr 
Tenner,  January  21,  1799 ;  he  had  discovered  its  virtue  in  1796,  and  had 
been  making  experiments  during  the  intermediate  three  years.  He  was 
voted  10.000/.  as  a  reward  by  parliament.  June  2,  1802.  The  emperor  Na- 
poleon valued  this  service  of  Dr.  Jenner  to  mankind  so  highly  that  he  libe- 
berated  Dr.  Wickham  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner 's  request,  and 
subsequently  thecrnperoi  liberated  whole  families  of  English,  making  it  a 

*  Inoculation  was  deemed  a  very  precarious  affair  ny  our  grandfathers.  The  London  Daily 
Advertiser  (Nov.  7,  1751)  has  this  paragraph  : — "  We  hear  that  the  son  and  daughter  ol  Thcmai 
Davison,  esq.,  of  Blakeslone,  have  been  inoculated  in  this  town  (Newcastle),  and  (hat  they  ar« 
both  well  recovered."  Dr.  Mead  practiced  inoculation  very  successfully  up  to  1754,  and  Dr 
Dimsdnle  of  London  inoculated  Catharine  II..  empress  of  Russia,  in  17&3.  S;e  Sinall  Pox. 


INS  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  425 

point  to  refuse  him  nothing  that  he  asked.    Innoculation  introduced  in  the 
IJnited  States  by  Dr.  B.  Waterhouse,  1800.     See  Small  Pox&nd  Vaccination. 

INQUISITION.  Before  the  conversion  of  Constantino  the  Great,  the  bishops 
only  examined  into  doctrines,  and  punished  heresy  with  excommunica- 
tion ;  but  after  the  emperors  became  Christians,  they  ordained  that  such  aa 
were  excommunicated  should  be  also  banished  and  forfeit  their  estates. 
This  continued  till  about  the  year  800.  when  the  western  bishops'  power 
was  enlarged  to  the  authority  of  citing  persons  to  their  courts,  both  to  con- 
vict and  punish  them  by  imprisonment,  penances,  or  death.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  heresy,  as  it  was  then  called,  was  much  increased  ;  and  the  inqui- 
sition arose  in  the  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses.  It  was 
instituted  by  pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1203  ,  and  Gregory  IX.  in  a  council  he!d 
At  Toulouse  in  1229,  gave  it  its  final  form,  committing  the  management  of 
it  to  the  bishops ;  but  afterwards  thinking  these  too  indulgent,  he  gave  the 
direction  of  his  inquisition  to  the  Dominicans.  It  was  established  in  France, 
by  St.  Louis,  in  1226  ;  and  in  the  four  Christian  kingdoms,  of  Spain.  It  was 
established  in  Portugal  in  1536.  The  last  great  Auto  da  Fe  was  celebrated 
in  1781 ;  and  although  the  rack  and  faggot  are  not  now  employed  in  the 
work  of  torture  and  death,  yet  the  power  of  the  Holy  office  is  still  exer- 
cised in  encouraging  vexations ;  enjoining  ridiculous  penances  and  priva- 
tions ;  prohibiting  liberal  institutions  ;  and  interdicting  useful  books. 

f\3ANITY.  In  England  within  twenty  years,  insanity  has  more  than 
tripled.  In  France  it  is  more  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  population  than 
it  is  in  most  other  countries.  The  total  number  of  lunatics  and  idiots  in 
England  is  as  follows :  lunatics  6806 — idiots  5741 — together  12  547 ;  but 
allowing  for  defective  returns,  the  number  may  be  taken  at  14  000 — an  ave- 
rage of  one  to  every  thousand  of  the  population.  In  Wales :  lunatics  133 — 
idiots  763 — total  896;  and  adding  for  parishes  that  have  made  no  returns, 
they  may  be  set  down  at  1000 — a  proportion  of  one  to  eight  hundred.  Scotland 
has  3652  insane  persons — or  one  to  about  seven  hundred.  In  Ireland  the  num- 
ber of  lunatics  and  idiots  exceeds  8000,  as  shown  by  returns,  which,  however, 
were  not  completed. — Sir  Andrew  Halliday.  The  number  of  insane  persons 
and  idiots  in  the  United  States,  in  1840,  was  17,434.  There  were  23  asylums 
capable  of  containing  2840  patients.  Great  advances  have  been  made  of 
late  years  in  the  treatment  of  insanity.  The  late  Dr.  A.  Brigham  of  Utica, 
formerly  of  Hartford,  was  an  able  and  successful  philanthropist  in  this 
cause. 

INSOLVENCY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In  May,  1837.  a  'commercial  crisis' 
was  at  its  height.  The  'heavy'  failures  in  two  months,  in  New  York  alone 
amounted  to  260,  besides  countless  smaller  ones.  Failures  in  New  Orleans 
to  the  amount  of  827  000  000  in  two  days.  In  Boston  168  failures  from  Nov. 
1.  1836,  to  May  12,  1837.  New  York  city  Banks  all  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments May  10,  1837.  The  New  England  Banks  generally,  immediately 
after. 

INSOLVENCY.  The  first  Insolvent  Act  in  England  was  passed  in  1649,  but  it 
was  of  limited  operation;  a  number  of  acts  of  more  extensive  operation  were 
passed  at  various  periods,  and  particularly  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The 
benefit  of  the  act  known  as  the  Great  Insolvent  Act.  was  taken  in  England, 
by  50,733  insolvents,  from  the  time  of  its  passing  in  1814,  to  March  1827,  a 
period  of  thirteen  years.  Since  then,  the  acts  relating  to  insolvency  have 
been  several  times  amended.  Persons  not  traders,  or.  being  traders,  whose 
debts  are  less  than  300Z.,  may  petition  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy  and  propose 
compositions  and  have  pro  tern,  protection  from  all  process  against  his  per- 
son and  property,  6  Viet.,  1842.  Act  amended.  8  Viet..  Aug..  1844. 

INSURANCE  ON  SHIPS  AND  MERCHANDISE.      Suetonius  conjectures  that 


426 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[rot 


Claudius  was  the  first  contriver  of  it,  A.  D.  43.  Insurance  was  in  general  nse 
in  Italy  in  1194.  and  in  England  in  1560.  Insurance  policies  were  first  used  in 
Florence  in  1523.  The  first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted  in  1601. 
Insurance  of  houses  and  goods  in  London  began  iu  1667.  This  was  the  year 
following  that  of  the  great  fire  of  London.  An  office  was  then  set  up  for 
insuring  houses  and  buildings,  principally  contrived  by  Dr.  Barton,  one  of 
the  first  and  most  extensive  builders  of  the  city  of  London.  The  first  regular 
office  set  up  in  London  was  the  Hand-in- tiand,  in  1696.  A  duty  was  laid 
on  insurances  of  Is.  Qd.  per  hundred  pounds  insured,  in  1782:  this  duty  was 
increased  in  1797.  and  was  variously  altered  since.  The  date  of  the  first  in- 
surance office  in  the  United  States,  has  not  been  ascertained. 

IF.  SURRECTIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Shay's  Insurrection  in  Massa- 
chusetts (caused  by  the  scarcity  of  money  and  heavy  taxes),  1786.  Insur- 
rection in  Pennsylvania,  caused  by  duties  on  spirits,  1794.  See  the  accounts 
of  Cunspiracief ,  Massacres,  Rebellions,  Riots,  &c. 

INTEREST  OF  MONEY.  It  was  twenty  per  cent,  in  Europe  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Fixed  at  twelve  per  cent,  in  Spain.  Germany  and  Flanders,  by  Charles 
V.  in  1560. — RobMion.  Till  the  fifteenth  century,  no  Christians  were  allow- 
ed to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and.  there- 
fore, often  banished  and  persecuted.  Interest  was  first  settled  by  law  in 
England  at  ten  per  cent.,  37  Henry  VIII.,  1546.  This  law  was  repealed  by 
Edward  VI. ;  but  it  was  restored  by  Elizabeth.  In  those  days  the  monarch 
could  not  borrow  without  the  collateral  security  of  the  metropolis.  Interest 
was  reduced  to  eight  per  cent.,  and  the  word  first  used  instead  of  usury,  21 
James  I.,  1624.  Reduced  by  the  Rump-parliament  to  six  per  cent. ;  and  so 
confirmed  at  the  Restoration.  Reduced  to  five  per  cent.,  13  Anne,  1714,  at 
which  rate  it  remains.  The  rate  in  Ireland  is  six  per  cent. ;  regulated  14 
George  III..  1773.  All  interest  above  the  legal  standard  of  Britain  is  usury, 
and  punishable  by  the  statute. — Blackstone.  The  law  does  not  now  apply  to 
bills  having  only  60  days  to  run.  See  Usury  Laws. 

INTEREST  OP  MONEY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  rates  vary  in  differ- 
ent States,  viz: — In  La.  five^r.  ct.,  in  Maine,  N.  H..  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md.,  Va.,  N.  Ca.,  Tenn.  Kent.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Illin.,  Misso., 
Ark.,  and  the  United  States  government  claims,  the  rate  is  six  per  cent.  In 
N.  Y.,  S.  Ca.,  Mich.,  and  Wise.,  seven  per  cent.  In  Geo.,  Ala.,  Mississ.,  and 
Flor.,  eight  per  cent.  Laws  against  usury,  with  penalty  of  forfeiting  the 
whole  debt,  in  Me.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Penn.,  Del.  Forfeit  of  the  usury, 
and  double,  treble,  the  usury,  in  14  other  States.  Usurious  contracts  void 
in  Md.,  N.  Ca.,  Geo.,  Tenn.,  Ohio,  Ark. 

INUNDATIONS,  It  would  be  impossible  to  record  in  this  volume  the  numerous 
catastrophes  which  class  under  this  head;  the  following  are  among  the  most 
remarkable: — 


An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  whicli  drowned 
more  than  400  families,  738. — Fordun. 

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town 
and  harbor  of  Ostend  totally  immersed, 
1108.  The  present  city  wns  built  above  a 
league  from  the  channel  where  the  old  one 
iies  submerged. — Histoire  de  flandre. 

At  thu  Texel,  which  first  raised  the  com- 
merce of  Amsterdam,  1400. 

The  sea  broke  in  at  Don,  and  drowned  72 
villages,  and  100,000  people,  and  formed 
the  Zuyder  Sea  (see  Dort),  April  17, 1446. 

The  Severn  overflowed  during  ten  days,  and 
carried  away  men,  women,  and  children, 
in  their  beds,  ard  covered  the  tups  of  many 
mountains ;  the  waters  settled  upon  the 


lands,  and  were  called  The  Great  Waten 
for  100  years  after,  1  Richard  111.  1483.— 
Hollinshed. 

A  general  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the 
dikes  in  Holland,  1530  ;  the  number  ol 
drowned  said  to  have  been  400,000. 

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  persons  perish- 
ed, 1617. 

An  inundation  at  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock 
opened,  and  poured  out  water  to  the  height 
of  a  church  steeple,  1686.—  Vide  PliiL. 
Trans. 

Part  of  Zealand  overflowed.  1300  inhabltanti 
were  drowned,  and  incredible  damage  wai 
done  at  Hamburg.  1717. 

At  Madriu,  several  of  the  Spanish  nsfcu  TJ 


J 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


427 


INUNDATIONS,  continued. 

and  other  persons  of  distinction  perished, 
1723.— Du  /Vesnoy. 

ID  Navarre,  where  '2000  persons  lost  their 
lives  by  the  torrents  from  the  mountains, 
Sept.  1787. 

At  Pest,  near  Presburg,  the  overflow  of  the 
Danube,  by  which  24  villages  and  their 
inhabitants  were  swept  away,  April  1511. 

By  the  overflow  of  the  Da  lube,  a  Turkish 
corps  of  2000  men,  on  a  s  nail  island  near 
Widilin,  were  surprised,  and  met  instant 
death,  Sept.  14,  1813. 

In  Silesia,  6000  inhabitants  perished, and  the 
ruin  of  the  French  arm)  under  Macdonald 
was  accelerated  by  the  lloods ;  also  in  Po- 
land 4000  lives  were  supposed  to  have 
been  lost,  same  year. 

In  Germany,  119  villages  were  laid  under 
water,  and  great  loss  of  life  and  property 
was  sustained,  in  March  1816. 

Awful  inundation  at  Dantzic,  occasioned  by 
the  Vistula  breaking  through  some  of  its 
dikes,  by  which  10,000  head  of  cattle  and 
4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  numerous 


At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  50,000  of  its  In- 
habitants  lai  1  uniler  water.  Feb.  1830. 

10,000  houses  swept  away,  a •  fi  c-bout  iOOf 
persons  perished,  at  Cantor.,  u  China,  ir 
consequence  of  ?n  ir -i.dation,  occasioned 
by  incessant  rains.  Equal  or  greater  ca- 
lamity was  produced  by  the  same  cause 
in  other  parts  of  China.  Oct.  1833. 

Awful  inundation  in  France  ;  the  Saone 
poured  its  waters  imc  the  Rhone,  broke 
through  its  banks,  and  covered  60,000 
acres  ;  Lyons  was  inundated,  in  Avignon 
100  houses  were  swept  away  ;  218  house* 
were  carried  away  at  La  (Jiiillotiere;  and 
upwards  of  300  at  Vaise,  Marseilles,  anil 
Nismes ;  the  Saone  had  not  attained  such 
a  height  for  238  years,  Oct.  31  to  Nov.  4, 
18JO. 

Inundation  of  the  Mississippi  at  New  Or- 
leans, 160  squares  and  IfiOO  houses  flood- 
ed, May  12,  1849. 

The  inundations  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi. 
&c.,  at  different  times,  have  caused  great 
destruction  of  property,  and  (at  times)  of 
life. 


lives  lost,  April  9,  1829. 

INVOCATION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  AND  SAINTS.  The  practice  of  the  Romish 
church  of  invoking  the  intercession  of  saints  with  God,  particularly  the 
prayers  to  the  Virgin,  has  been  traced  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  593. — Ashe.  The  Eastern  church  begun  (in  the  fifth  century)  by 
calling  upon  the  dead,  and  demanding  their  suffrage  as  present  in  the  di- 
vine offices  ;  but  the  Western  church  carried  it  so  far  as  frequently  to  ca- 
nonize those  they  had  any  regard  for,  though  the  wickedness  of  their  lives 
gave  them  no  title  to  any  such  honor,  to  make  processions,  masses,  litanies, 
prayers  and  oblations  for  and  to  them. 

IODINE.  This  most  important  substance  was  discovered  by  M.  de  Courtois,  a 
manufacturer  of  saltpetre  at  Paris,  in  1812 ;  the  discovery  was  pursued  with 
great  advantage  by  M.  Clement,  in  1813.  Iodine  is  very  active;  it  is  of  a 
violet  hue,  easily  evaporates,  and  melts  at  220  degrees  ;  changes  vegetable 
blues  to  yellow,  and  a  seven-thousandth  part  converts  water  to  a  deep  yel- 
low color,  and  starch  into  a  purple.  Five  volumes  of  oxygen  and  one  of 
iodine  form  iodic  acid. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  They  were  subject  to  Venice  until  ceded  by  the  treaty 
of  Campo-Formio  to  France,  in  1797.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Great  Britain  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  latter  power, 
November  5.  1815.  A  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent  of 
England  for  the  government  of  these  islands  in  1818.  The  Ionian  Islands 
are  now  among  the  free  states  of  Europe.  Corfu  is  the  principal,  and  the 
seat  of  government. 

IONIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE.  This  order  which  is  an  improvement 
on  the  Doric,  was  founded  by  the  lonians,  about  1350  B.  c. — Vitruvius  by 
PerrauU. 

IONIC  SECT  OF  PHILOSOPHERS.  Founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  570  B.  c. 
This  sect  distinguished  itself  for  its  deep  and  abstruse  speculations,  under 
the  successors  and  pupils  of  the  Milesian  philosopher,  Anaximander,  Anax- 
imenes,  Auaxagoras.  and  Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates. 

IOWA,  now  one  of  the  United  States,  once  formed  part  of  the  French  posses- 
sions, and  was  included  in  the  vast  tract  of  country  purchased  in  1803 
under  the  general  name  of  Louisiana.  First  purchase  of  land  from  the 
Indians  in  Iowa  was  made  in  1832.  Iowa  separated  from  Wisconsin  as  a  ter- 
ritory, 1838.  Admitted  inlo  the  Union.  Dec,  1846.  Population  in  1840, 43,111 


428 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


IPSUS,  BATTLE  or,  by  which  Seleucus  is  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  On  the  one  side  were  Antigo- 
nus  and  his  son ;  on  the  other  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cas- 
sander.  The  former  led  into  the  field  an  army  of  above  70.000  foot,  and 
10,000  horse,  with  75  elephants.  The  latter's  forces  consisted  of  64.000  in 
fantry,  besides  10  500  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed  chariots,  t  nti 
gonus  and  his  son  were  defeated,  301  B.  c. — Plutarch. 

IRELAND.  It  is  disputed  by  historians  from  what  nation  this  country  wai 
originally  peopled.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  satisfactorily  shown  that  the 
first  colonists  were  Phoenicians.  The  Partholani  landed  in  Ireland  about 
2048  B.  c.  The  descent  of  the  Damnonii  was  made  about  1463  B.  c.  This  was 
followed  by  the  descent  of  Heber  and  Heremon,  Milesian  princes,  from  Gali- 
cia,  in  Spain,  who  conquered  Ireland,  and  gave  to  its  throne  a  race  of  171 
kings. 


Arrival  of  Heremon  -  -  B.  c.  1070 

A  colony  from  Spain  bring  with  them 

the  Phoenician  letters,  about  -  •  500 

Arrival  of  St.  Patrick  -  -  A.  p.  448 

The  renowned  Brian  Boiroimhe  is 

crowned  at  Tara  ...  1002 
Battle  of  Clontarf,  which  terminates 


the  power  of  the  Danes 


-1039 


[In  the  twelfth  century  Ireland  is  divi- 
ded into  five  kingdoms,  viz. :  Ulster, 
Leinster,  Meath,  Connaught,  and 
Munster;  besides  a  number  of  petty 
principalities,  whose  sovereigns  con- 
tinually war  with  each  other.] 

Adrian  IV  permiitfid  Henry  II.  to  in- 
vade Ireland,  on  condition  that  he 
compelled  every  Irish  family  to  pay 
a  carolus  to  the  Holy  See,  and  held 
it  as  a  fief  of  the  church  -  -1157 

Henry  II.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  re- 
ceives the  submissions  of  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  country,  settles  the 
government  upon  a  footing  similar  to 
that  of  England,  and  makes  his  eon 
John  lord  of  Ireland  -  -  -  1172 

Ireland  wholly  subdued  -  -  -  1210 

English  laws  and  customs  introduced 
by  king  John  ...  - 1210 

Henry  VlII.  assumes  the  title  of  king, 


instead  of  lord  of  Ireland 


The  Catholics  enter  into  a  conspiracy  to 
expel  the  English,  and  cruelly  mas- 


-1542 


sacre  the  Protestant  settlers  in  Ulster, 
to  the  number  of  40,000  persons,  com- 
menced on  St.  Ignatius's  day,  Oct.  23,  1641 

Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  the  whole 
island  to  obedience  between  1649  and  1656 

Landing  of  king  William  III.  at  Car- 
rickfergus  -  June  14,  1G9C 

Battle  of  the  Boyne ;  the  Duke  of 
Schomberg  killed  -  July  1.  1690 

Memorable  Irish  rebellion  commenced 
May  4, 1798,  and  was  not  finally  sup- 
pressed until  the  next  year  •  -  1799 

Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  -  -  -  Jan.  1,  1801 

Emmett's  insurrection       -        July  23,  1803 

Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  (See 
Roman  Catholics)  -  April  13, 1829 

Great  repeal  movement ;  meeting  at 
Trim.  (See  Repeal)  -  March  19,  1843 

O'Connell's  trial.  (See  Trials)  Jan  15, 1844 

O'Connell  died  at  Genoa,  aet.  72,  May  15, 1847 

Famine  and  great  distress  in  Ireland 
throughout  -  -  -  1847 

Relieved  by  England,  and  by  voluntary 
gifts  from  the  United  Stales. 

Bill  for  suppression  of  crime  in  Ireland 
passed  parliament  •  Dec.  20.  1847 

Mitchell  convicted  of  treason  -  May  26, 1848 

Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended,  July  25, 1848 

Smith  O'Brien  arrested,  and  the  rebel- 


lion put  down 


Aug.  5, 1848 


IRON.  It  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Dactyles,  owing  to  the  forests  of  the 
mount  having  been  burnt  by  lightning,  1432  B.  c. — Arundelian  Marbles. 
The  Greeks  ascribed  the  discovery  of  iron  to  themselves  and  referred  glass 
to  the  Phoanicians ;  but  Moses  relates  that  iron  was  wrought  by  Tubal-Cain. 
Iron  furnaces  among  the  Romans  were  unprovided  with  bellows,  but  were 
placed  on  eminences  with  the  grate  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 
Swedish  iron  is  very  celebrated,  and  Daunemora  is  the  greatest  mine  <if 
Sweden.  British  iron  was  cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude  in  Sussex 
in  1543. — ftymer's  Faxlera.  Iron-mills  were  first  used  for  slitting  iron  int<; 
bars  for  smiths  by  Godfrey  Bochs,  in  1690.  Tinning  of  iron  was  first 
introduced  from  Bohemia  in  1681.  There  are  upwards  of  800.000  tons  of 
iron  produced  annually  in  England.*  For  iron  vessels,  iron  war-steamors, 
&c.,  see  Steamers. 


*  Tnere  is  iron  enough  in  the  blood  of  forty-two  men  to  make  a  ploughshare  weighing  twenty 
fcni  pounds.— Anon. 


ITA  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  429 

[RON-MASK,  THE  MAN  OP  THE.  A  mysterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a 
mask,  and  closely  confined,  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pignerol,  Sainte  Mar- 
guerite, and  afterwards  at  the  Bastile.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was 
treated  with  profound  respect;  but  his  keepers  had  orders  to  dispatch  hioi 
if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St.  Mars  himself  always  placed  the  dishes  on  his 
table,  and  stood  in  his  presence.  Some  conjecture  him  to  have  been  an 
Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from  Constantinople,  although  he  died 
ten  years  before  the  mask ;  others  that  he  was  the  count  de  Vermandois, 
son  of  Louis  XIV.,  although  he  was  reported  to  have  perished  in  the  camp 
before  Dixmude.  More  believe  him  to  have  been  the  celebrated  duke  of 
Beaufc.i  t.  whose  head  is  recorded  to  have  been  taken  off  before  Candia ; 
while  ctill  more  assert  that  he  was  the  unfortunate  James,  duke  of  Mou- 
mouth,  who,  in  the  imagination  of  the  Londoners,  at  least,  was  executed  on 
Tower-hill  But  there  are  two  better  conjectures  ;  he  is  said  to  have  been 
a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  Louis  XIII. .  his  Bather  being  tie  duke 
of  Buckingham  ;  or  the  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  birth  was  con- 
cealed to  prevent  civil  dissensions  in  France,  which  it  might  one  day  have 
caused.  The  mask  died  after  a  long  imprisonment,  Nov.  19,  1703. 

ISLAMISM.  The  religion  of  Mahomet,  planned  by  him  in  a  cave  near  Mecca, 
where  he  employed  a  Persian  Jew.  well  versed  in  history  and  laws,  and  two 
Christians,  to  assist  him.  One  of  these  latter  was  of  the  Jacobite,  and  the 
other  of  the  Nestorian  sect.  With  the  help  of  these  men  he  framed  his 
Koran,  or  the  book  which  he  pretended  to  have  received  at  different  times 
from  heaven  by  the  hands  of  the  angel  Gabriel.  At  the  age  of  forty  he 
publicly  assumed  the  prophetical  character,  calling  himself  the  apostle  of 
God,  A.  D.  604.  See  Koran,  Mecca,  fyc. 

fSLE  OF  FRANCE.  Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1500 ;  but  the  Dutch 
were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  The  French  formed  their  establishment  at 
Port  Louis  in  1715.  This  island,  together  with  six  French  frigates  and 
many  Indiamen  was  taken  by  the  British,  Dec.  2,  1810.  They  retain  pos- 
session of  it.  and  it  is  now  a  fixed  British  colony.  SeeMauritius. 

ISMAEL.  SIEGE  OF,  in  Bessarabia.  After  a  long  siege  by  the  Russians,  who 
lost  20  000  men  before  the  place,  the  town  was  taken  by  storm,  December 
22,  1790 ;  when  the  Russian  general,  Suwarrow.  the  most  merciless  and  sa- 
vage warrior  of  modern  times,  put  the  brave  Turkish  garrison,  consisting 
of  30  000  men,  to  the  sword ;  every  man  was  butchered ;  and  Suwarrow, 
not  satisfied  with  this  vengeance,  delivered  up  Ismael  to  the  pillage  of 
his  ferocious  soldiery,  and  ordered  the  massacre  of  6000  women,  who  were 
murdered  in  cold  blood. 

ISSUS.  BATTLE  OF.  Alexander  defeats  Darius  in  this,  his  second  great  battle 
with  him ;  Darius  loses  100,000  men,  and  his  queen  and  family  are  cap- 
tured, 333  B.  c.— Plutarch,.  The  Persians  lost  100,000  foot  and  10  000  horse 
in  the  field ;  and  the  Macedonians  only  300  foot  and  150  horse. — Diodorus 
Sicidits.  The  Persian  army,  according  to  Justin,  consisted  of  400,000  foot 
and  100.000  horse,  and  61;000  of  the  former,  and  10,000  of  the  latter,  were 
left  dead  on  the  spot,  and  40,000  were  taken  prisoners. — Justin. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  among  the  Greeks,  and  received 
their  name  from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  observed,  insti- 
tuted in  honor  of  Melicerta,  1326  B.  c. — Lengltt.  They  were  re-instituted 
in  honor  of  Neptune  by  Theseus,  and  their  celebration  was  held  so  sacred 
and  inviolable  that  even  a  public  calamity  could  not  prevent  it.  1259  B.  c  — 
Arundelian  Marbles. 

ITALY.  The  garden  of  Europe,  and  the  nurse  of  arts  as  well  as  arms.  It  re- 
ceived its  name  from  Italus,  a  king  of  the  corn'.ry.  or  from  Italos,  a  Greek 
word  signifying  an  ox.  The  aborigines  ol  ftaly  v^re  the  progeny  of 


430 


THE    WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


[JA* 


Meshec"i,  the  sixth  son  of  Japheth.  In  process  of  time,  the  Gomerites  of 
Celts,  who  inhabited  the  greatest  part  of  Gaul,  sent  several  colonies  into 
Italy,  while  other  colonists  arrived  from  Greece,  and  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  three  grand  parts,  viz. — Cisalpine  Gaul,  the  settlement  of  the 
Celts ;  Italia  Propria,  the  residence  of  the  first  inhabitants ;  and  Magna 
Graecia.  the  seat  of  the  Grecian  colonists.  The  modern  inhabitants  of  Italy 
may  be  derived  from  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  who  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  who  founded  on  its  ruins  the 
kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Lombardy.  For  Roman  empire,  see  Tabular  Vieics 


Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Visi- 
goths under  Alaric.  See  Rome  JL.  D.  410 

The  Huns  ravage  the  Roman  empire 
uniler  Attila,  "  the  Scourge  of  God"  -  447 

The  Western  Roman  empire  is  de- 
stroyed by  'he  Heruli,  whose  leader, 
CKluacer,  erects  the  kingdom  of  Italy  476 

The  reign  of  Totila,  who  twice  pillages 
Rome,  and  reduces  the  inhabitants  to 
such  distress,  that  the  ladies  and  peo- 
ple of  quality  are  obliged  to  beg  for 
bread  at  the  doors  of  the  Goths-  511  to  552 

The  power  of  the  Goths  destroyed,  and 
their  kingdom  overthrown  by  the  ge- 
nerals of  the  Eastern  empire  -  -  553 

Narses,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the 
Lombards  from  Germany  into  this 
country  •  -;*  .  -  -  -  568 

The  Lombards  overrun  Italy         -      -   596 

Venice  first  governed  by  a  doge  •    697 

Charlemagne  invades  Italy  -  -      -    774 

He  repairs  to  Rome,  and  is  crowned 
emperor  of  the  West  •  •  -  800 

[During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  the 
pope  of  Rome,  who  had  hitherto  been 
merely  a  spiritual  minister,  finds 
means  to  assume  a  temporal  power, 
not  only  independent  of,  but  superior 
to  all  others.] 

Pope  Damasius  II.  is  the  first  who  caus- 
es himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara  1053 

Pope  Gregory  VII.,  surnamed  Hilde- 
brand,  pretends  to  universal  sove- 
reignty, in  which  he  is  assisted  by  the 
countess  Matilda,  mistress  of  the 
greater  part  of  Italy,  who  makes  a  do- 
nation of  all  her  estates  to  the  Church  1076 

Disputes  between  the  popes  and  empe- 
rors, relative  to  the  appointment  of 
bishops,  begin  about  1 106,  and  agitate 
Italy  and  Germany  during  several 
centuries. 

The  Venetians  obtain  many  victories 
over  the  Eastern  emperors  -  •  1125 

Tuscany  becomes  independent       -     -  1208 

The  duchies  of  Ferrara,  Modena,  and 
Reggio  are  created  -  -  -  1228 

Milan  erected  into  a  duchy  -      -  1277 


The  papal  seat  removed  for  seventy 
years  to  Avignon,  in  France  -  -  l&K 

The  cardinals  not  agreeing  in  the  elec- 
tion of  a  pope,  they  set  fire  to  the  con- 
clave, and  separate,  and  the  papal 
chair  is  left  vacant  for  two  years  - 1314 

Louis  Gonzaga  makes  himself  master 
of  Mantua,  with  the  title  of  imperial 
vicar  ....  132S 

Lucca  becomes  an  independent  repui. 
lie 137U 

Naples  conquered  by  Diaries  VIII.      -  1492 

The  republic  of  Venice  loses  all  its  Ita- 
lian provinces  in  a  single  campaign, 
assailed  by  the  pope,  the  emperor, 
and  the  kings  of  Spain  and  France  -  1509 

Leo  X.  having  exhausted  all  his  finan- 
ces, opens  the  sale  of  indulgences  and 
absolutions,  which  soon  replenishes 
his  treasury  ....  1517 

Parma  and  Placentia  made  a  duchy    •  1545 

Cosmo  de  Medicis  made  grand-duke  of 
Tuscany  by  Pius  V.  -  -  -  1569 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.  reforms  the  calen- 
dar. See  Calendar  -  -  -  1582 

Ambassadors  from  Japan  to  the  pope. 
See  Jeddo  •  •  •  -  1619 

The  Corsicans  revolt  from  the  Genoese, 
and  choose  Theodore  for  their  king. 
See  Corsica  ....  1736 

Milan  vested  in  the  house  af  Austria  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  - 1748 

Division  of  the  Venetian  states  by 
France  and  Austria  -  -  -  1797 

Italy  overrun,  and  Pius  VI.  deposed  by 
Bonaparte  -  -  -  -  1798 

The  Italian  republic       -  -          -  1802 

Italy  formed  into  a  kingdom,  and  Napo- 
leon crowned  -  1805 

Eugene  Beauhamois  made  Viceroy  of 
Italy 1805 

The  kingdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon  -  -  -  1814 

[The  various  other  events  relating  to 
Italy  will  be  found  under  the  respec- 
tive heads  of  Genoa.  Lombardy.  Mi- 
lan, Naples,  Rome,  Venice,  ffc.} 


The  population  of  the  whole  of  Italy  proper  now  amounts  tc  23,677:000.  -  - 
Aim .  de  Gotha. 


f.  Introduced  into  the  alphabet  by  Giles  Beys,  printer,  of  Paris,  1660.— Du 
Fresnoy. 

JACOBINS.  The  name  given  to  one  of  the  principal  parties  in  the  French  re- 
volution. The  Jacobin  club  originated  from  a  small  and  secret  association 
of  about  forty  gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  had  united  to  disseminate 


MM  J  DICTIONARY   Ol    LATES.  431 

political  and  other  opinions  ;  the  members  were  called  Jacobins  from  their 
meeting  in  the  hail  of  the  Jacobin  friars  at  Paris.  The  club  became  nu- 
merous and  popular,  and  fraternal  societies  were  instituted  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  the  kingdom.  From  its  institution,  one  principal  object  was, 
to  discuss  such  political  questions  as  seemed  likely  to  be  agitated  in  the 
national  assembly,  in  order  that  the  members  might  act  in  concert.  They 
are  represented  as  having  been  determined  enemies  of  monarchy,  aristo- 
cracy, and  the  Christian  religion,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  grand 
spring  of  the  revolution.  They  were  suppressed  October  18,  1794.  The 
religious  sect  called  Jacobins  are  those  of  both  sexes  who  follow  the  rules 
of  St.  Dominick.  See  Dominicans. 

JACOBITES.  A  sect  among  the  eastern  Christians,  so  called  from  Jacob  Ba- 
radaeus.  a  Syrian,  whose  heresy  spread  to  a  great  extent  in  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries.  In  England  existed  a  political  party  called  Jacobites. 
They  were  the  partisans  of  James  II.,  and  were  so  named  after  his  expul- 
sion in  1688.  Those  who  openly  appeared  in  arms  for,  or  who  expressed 
their  wishes  to  restore  the  abdicated  family,  were  called  Jacobites;  the  dis- 
tinction is  now  entirely  lost. 

JAFFA.  Celebrated  in  Scripture  as  Joppa,  the  port  whence  Jonah  embarked, 
and  the  place  where  Peter  raised  Tabitha  from  the  dead.  In  profane  history, 
the  place  whence  Perseus  delivered  Andromeda.  Jaffa  was  taken  by  Bona- 
parte in  February  1799 ;  and  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the  British  in 
June,  same  year.  Here,  according  to  sir  Robert  Wilson,  were  massacred 
3800  prisoners  by  Bonaparte  :  but  this  is  reasonably  doubted. 

JAMAICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  May  3,  1495.  It  was  conquered  from 
the  Spaniards  by  admiral  Penn,  and  the  land  forces  commanded  by  Venables 
in  1655 ;  the  expedition  had  been  planned  by  Oliver  Cromwell  against  St. 
Domingo.  An  awful  earthquake  occurred  here  in  1692;  and  the  island  was 
desolated  by  a  furious  hurricane  in  1722 ;  and  again  1734  and  1751.  In  June 
1795,  the  Maroons,  or  original  natives,  who  inhabit  the  mountains,  rose 
against  the  English,  and  were  not  quelled  till  March  1796.  Tremendous 
hurricane,  by  which  the  whole  island  was  deluged,  hundreds  of  houses 
washed  away,  vessels  wrecked,  and  a  thousand  persons  drowned,  October 
1815.  An  alarming  insurrection,  commenced  by  the  negro  slaves,  in  which 
numerous  plantations  were  burned,  and  property  of  immense  value  destroy- 
ed. Before  they  were  overpowered,  the  governor,  lord  Belmore,  declared 
the  island  under  martial  law,  Dec.  22,  1831.  Awful  fire  here,  Aug.  26 
1843.  The  Cholera  in  1850. 

JANISSARIES.  This  order  of  infantry  in  the  Turkish  army  was  formerly 
reputed  to  be  the  grand  seignor's  foot  guards.  They  were  first  raised  by 
Amurath  I.  in  1361 ;  and  have  several  times  deposed  the  sultan.  Owing  to 
an  insurrection  of  these  troops  on  the  14th  June,  1826,  when  3000  of  them 
were  killed  on  the  spot,  the  Ottoman  army  was  reorganized,  and  a  firman 
was  issued  declaring  the  abolition  of  the  Janissaries  two  days  afterwards. 

JANSENISM.  This  sect  was  founded  by  Cornelius  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres. 
about  1625.  Jansen  was  a  prelate  of  piety  and  morals,  but  his  "Augusti- 
nus,':  a  book  in  which  he  maintained  the  Augustine  doctrine  of  free  grace, 
and  recommended  it  as  the  true  orthodox  belief,  kindled  a  fierce  contn> 
versy  on  its  publication  in  1640,  and  was  condemned  by  a  bull  of  pope  Ur- 
ban VIII. 

^ANUARY.  This  month,  the  first  in  our  year,  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  a 
divinity  among  the  early  Romans.  See  next  article.  January  was  added  to 
the  Roman  calendar  by  Numa.  713  B.  c.  He  placed  it  about  the  winter  sol- 
stice, and  made  it  this  first  month, .because  Janus  was  supposed  to  preside 
over  the  beginning  of  all  business.  This  g'  id  was  painted  with  two  faces 


432  THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS.  [  JEN 

because,  as  some  persons  have  it,  on  the  one  side  the  first  of  January  looked 
towards  the  new  year,  and  on  the  other  towards  the  old  one.  On  the  first 
day,  it  was  customary  for  friends  and  acquaintances  to  make  each  other 
presents,  from  whence  the  custom  of  new  year's  gifts,  still  retained  among 
us,  was  originally  taken. 

JANUS,  TKMPLE  OF.  at  Rome.  Was  erected  by  Romulus,  and  kept  open  in 
the  l:jne  of  war  and  closed  in  time  of  peace.  It  was  shut  only  twice,  during 
above  700  years,  viz : — under  Numa,  714  B.  c.  and  under  Augustus,  5  B.  c. ; 
and  during  that  long  period  of  time,  the  Romans  were  continually  employed 
in  war. 

JANVILLIERS,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  Prussians,  in  which,  after 
an  obstinate  engagement,  Blucher,  who  commanded  the  latter  army,  was 
driven  back  to  Chalons  with  considerable  loss,  February  14,  1814.  About 
this  period  there  were  many  battles  fought  between  Napoleon  and  Blucher, 
and  Napoleon  and  prince  Schwartzenberg,  until  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
March  31,  1814. 

JAPAN.  This  island  was  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  Marco  Paulo;  and 
was  visited  by  the  Portuguese  about  1535.  The  Japanese  are  as  fabulous  :*» 
the  Chinese  in  the  antiquity  of  their  empire,  but  the  certain  period  beg\ns 
with  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  ecclesiastical  emperors,  from  the  year 
660  B.  c.  The  English  visited  Japan  in  1612.  There  was  once  a  great  num- 
ber of  Christians  in  different  parts  of  the  empire ;  but,  in  1622,  they  under- 
went great  persecutions,  insomuch  that  they  were  all  extirpated.  See 
Jcddo. 

JAVA.  The  atrocious  massacre  of  20  000  of  the  unarmed  natives  by  the  Dutch, 
sparing  neither  women  nor  children,  to  possess  their  effects,  took  place  in  1740, 
and  for  its  cruelty  and  cowardice  fixes  an  indelible  stain  not  only  upon 
their  nation,  but  upon  man.  The  island  capitulated  to  the  British,  August 
8,  1811.  The  sultan  was  dethroned  by  the  English,  and  the  hereditary 
prince  raised  to  the  throne,  in  June,  1813.  Java  was  restored  to  Holland 
in  1814. 

JEDDO.  The  capital  of  Japan,  containing  about  1  680,000  inhabitants,  a  num- 
nearly  equal  to  London.  In  1619,  ambassadors  from  Japan  arrived  at  the 
court  of  Paul  V.  to  do  him  homage  as  the  head  of  the  Christian  religion, 
which  their  master  had  embraced  through  the  preaching  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries; but  the  misconduct  of  the  Jesuits,  who  were  endeavoring  to  over- 
turn the  Japanese  government,  caused  them  to  be  expe.led  in  1622.  and  the 
inhabitants  relapsed  into  their  former  idolatry.  The  emperor's  palace  is  of 
indescribable  magnificence ;  its  hall  of  audience  is  supported  by  many  pillars 
of  massive  gold  and  plates  of  gold  cover  its  three  towers,  each  nine  stories 
high.  Several  other  costly  palaces,  belonging  to  the  emperor,  empress,  con- 
cubines, and  vassal  kings,  enrich  this  great  eastern  city. 

JEMMAPPES.  BATTLE  OF,  one  of  the  most  obstinate  and  bloody  of  modern 
times ;  40.000  French  troops  forced  28,000  Austrians,  who  were  intrencbed  in 
woods  and  mountains,  defended  by  forty  redoubts,  and  an  immense  number 
of  cannon ;  the  revolutionary  general  Dumouriez  was  the  victor  in  this  battle, 
whhh  lasted  four  days.  According  to  the  most  authentic  account.',  the 
number  of  killed  on  the  side  of  the  Austrians  amounted  to  10,000,  OH  that 
of  the  French  to  12;000,  Nov.  6,  1792. 

JENA.  BATTLE  OP,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  of  modern  times,  between  the 
French  and  Prussian  armies;  the  one  commanded  by  the  empero.1  Na- 
p«V«eon,  and  the  other  by  the  Prussian  king,  who  was  signally  defeated,  with 
the  Ions  of  80.000  slain  and  nearly  as  many  thousands  ^nade  prisoner.*  In 


7E8  |  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  433 

this  battle  the  Prussians  lost  200  field-pieces,  and  Napoleon  advanced  tfl 
tterlin,  Oct.  14,  1806 

JERSEY,  GUERNSEY,  SARK,  AND  ALDERNEY,  appendages  to  the  duchy 
of  Normandy,  were  united  to  the  crown  of  England,  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, in  1066.  Jersey  was  attempted  by  the  French  in  1779  and  1781.  A 
body  of  French  troops  surprised  the  governor,  made  him  prisoner,  and 
compelled  him  to  sign  a  capitulation;  but  major  Pierson,  the  commander  ot 
the  English  troops,  refusing  to  abide  by  this  forced  capitulation,  attacked 
the  French,  and  compelled  them  to  surrender  prisoners  of  war;  but  he  was 
killed  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Jan.  6,  1781. 

JERUSALEM.  Built  1800  B.  c.  The  first  and  most  famed  Temple  was  found 
ed  by  Solomon,  1015  B.  c. ;  and  was  solemnly  dedicated  on  Friday.  October 
30,  1004  B.  c.,  being  one  thousand  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  — Blair ; 
Usher ;  Bible.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Israelites,  1048  B.  c.  and  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  587  B.  c.  Razed  to  the  ground  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70  after  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  sieges  in  history.  More  than  1.100,000  of  the  Jewa 
perished  on  this  occasion.  A  city  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  former  by 
the  emperor  Adrian,  A.  o.  130.  .The  walls  were  rebuilt  by  the  empress  Eu- 
doxia  in  437.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in  614;  by  the  Saiacens 
in  636;  and  by  the  crusaders,  when  70000  intidels  were  put  to  the  sword, 
1099.  A  new  kingdom  was  founded,  which  lasted  88  years.  Taken  from 
the  Christians  by  Saladin,  in  1187;  and  by  the  Turks,  who  drove  away  the 
Saracens  in  1217.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte  in 
February  1799.  See  Jews. 

JESTER.  In  some  ancient  works  a  jester  is  described  as  "a  witty  and  jocose 
person,  kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  of  their  faults,  and  those  of  other 
men,  under  the  disguise  of  a  waggish  story."  Several  of  the  early  English 
kings  kept  jesters,  and  particularly  the  Tudors.  There  was  a  jester  at  court 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  but  we  hear  of  no  licensed  jester  afterwards. 

JESUITS.  The  order  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (who  was  canonized), 
a  page  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and  subsequently  an  officer  of  his  army. 
Loyola  having  been  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  both  legs,  A.  D. 
1521,  devoted  himself  to  theology  while  under  cure,  and  renounced  the  mi- 
litary for  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  His  first  devout  exercise  was  to  dedi- 
cate his  life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  her  knight ;  he  next  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his  return  laid  the  foundation  for  his  new  order 
in  France.  He  presented  the  institutes  of  it  in  1539,  to  pope  Paul  III.  who 
made  many  objections  to  them ;  but  Ignatius  adding  to  the  three  vows  of 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  implicit  submission  to  the 
holy  see,  the  institution  was  confirmed  by  a  bull,  September  27,  1540,  by 
which  their  number  was  not  to  exceed  60  That  clog,  however,  was  taken 
off  by  another  bull.  March  14,  1543 ;  and  popes  Julius  III..  Pius  V.,  and 
Gregory  XIII.,  granted  them  such  great  privileges  as  rendered  them  pow- 
erful and  numerous.  But  though  Francois  Xavier.  and  other  missionaries, 
the  first  brothers  of  the  order,  carried  it  to  the  extremities  of  the  habitable 
globe,  it  met  with  great  opposition  in  Europe,  particularly  at  F  iris.  Tho 
Sorbonne  issued  a  decree  in  1554,  by  which  they  condemned  the  institution, 
as  being  calculated  rather  for  the  ruin  than  the  edification  of  the  faithful. 
Even  in  Romish  countries,  the  intrigues  and  seditious  writings  of  this  order, 
have  occasioned  it  to  be  discountenanced.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled  Eng- 
land by  proclamation,  2  James  I.  1604,  and  Venice  1606.  They  were  put 
down  in  France  by  an  edict  from  the  king,  and  their  revenues  confiscated, 
1764 ;  and  were  banished  Spain  1767.  Suppressed  by  pope  Clement  XIV. 
in  1773.  Restored  by  Pius  VII.  in  1814 ;  and  since  tolerai  \  in  othe1-  states 
19 


434 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


j"  JET* 


and  even  where  not  tolerated,  the  body,  as  now  in  England,  possesses  a  se- 
cret and  extensive  existence. 

JESUS  CHRIST.  Born  on  Monday,  December  25,  A.  M.  4004,  in  the  year  o<.' 
Rome  752  ;  but  this  event  should  be  dated  four  years  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  common  era.  Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and 
his  first  ministry,  A.  D.  30.  He  celebrated  the  last  passover,  and  instituted 
the  sacrament  in  its  room,  on  Thursday,  April  2.  He  was  crucified  on  Fri- 
day, April  3,  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  He  arose,  April  6;  ascended 
to  heaven  from  Mount  Olivet,  on  Thursday,  May  14,  following :  and  his 
Spirit  descended  on  his  disciples  on  Sunday,  the  day  of  Pentecost,  May  24, 
A.D.  33. 

JEWELRY.  Worn  by  most  of  the  early  nations.  So  prodigious  was  the  ex- 
travagance of  the  Roman  ladies,  that  Pliny  the  elder  says,  he  saw  Lollia 
Paulina  wearing  ornaments  which  were  valued  at  322;916i.  sterling.  Jewels 
were  worn  in  France  by  Agnes  Sorel,  in  1434.  The  manufacture  was  ex- 
tensively encouraged  in  England  in  1685.  See  article  Dress. 

JEWISH  ERA.  The  Jews  usually  employed  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae  until 
the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was  adopted  by  them. 
They  date  from  the  creation,  which  they  consider  to  have  been  3760  years 
and  three  months  before  the  commencement  of  our  era.  To  reduce  Jewish 
time  to  ours,  subtract  3761  years. 

JEWS.  A  people  universally  known  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  They 
derive  their  origin  from  Abraham,  with  whom,  according  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  Jewish  writers,  God  made  a  covenant,  1921  B.  c.  See  Tabular 
Views,  p.  6  to  p.  42. 

JEWS,  MODERN  HISTORY  OP. 

Tims  takes  Jerusalem ;  the  city  and 
temple  are  sacked  and  burnt,  and 
1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perish,  multi- 
tudes destroying  themselves  A.  D.  70 

100,000  Greeks  and  Romans  are  mur- 
dered by  the  Jews  about  Cyrene  -  115 

Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  and  erects 
a  temple  to  Jupiter  -  -  -  130 

More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain 
by  the  Romans,  in  135  and  -  -  136 

[They  are  now  banished  from  Judea  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  are  for- 
bidden to  return,  or  even  to  look  back 


upon  their  once  flourishing  and  be- 
loved city,  on  pain  of  death.  From 
this  period,  the  Jews  have  been  scat- 
tered among  all  other  nations.] 

GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Jews  first  arrive  in  England      -  -  1078 

Thinking  to  invoke  the  divine  mercy,  at 
a  solemnization  of  the  Passover,  they 
sacrifice  a  youth,  the  son  of  a  rich 
tradesman  at  Paris,  for  which  the 
criminals  are  executed,  and  all  Jews 
banished  France  -  -  -  1090 

The  Jews  massacred  in  London,  on  the 
coronation-day  of  Richard  I.,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  priests  -  -1089 

600  being  besieged  in  York  castle  by 
the  mob.  they  cut  each  other's  throats 
to  avoid  their  fury  -  1190 

Jews  of  boih  sexes  imprisoned ;  their 
eyes  or  teeth  plucked  out,  and  num- 
bers inhumanly  butchered,  by  king 
John  -  -  1204 

They  circumcise  and  attempt  to  cruci- 
fy a  child  at  Norwich  ;  the  offender* 


are  condemned  in  a  fine  of  20,000 
marks  .....  1235 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Lincoln,  for 
which  eighteen  are  hanged  •  •  1255 

700  Jews  are  slain  in  London,  a  Jew 
having  forced  a  Christian  to  pay  him 
more  than  2s.  per  week  as  interest 
upon  a  loan  of  20s. — Stow?.  •  •  1262 

Statute  that  no  Jew  should  enjoy  a  free- 
hold, passed  ....  1269 

Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interest 
compelled  to  wear  a  plate  on  his 
breast  signifying  that  he  was  a  usu- 
rer, or  to  quit  the  realm  -  -  1274 

267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered  for 
clipping  coin  -  1277 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Northampton, 
for  which  fifty  are  drawn  at  horses' 
tails  and  hanged  •  •  -  1282 

15,660  Jews  are  apprehended  in  one 
day,  and  are  all  banished  England. — 
Rapin  •  •  .  .  .  -  1287 

Massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun  by  the 
peasantry ;  500  defend  themselves  in 
a  castle,  where,  for  want  of  weapons, 
they  throw  their  children  at  the'-,  en- 
emies, and  then  destroy  on.°  'mother  131 

A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe, 
they  are  suspecied  of  having  poison- 
ed the  springs,  and  1,500,000  are  inas- 
(acred.— Lenglet.  -  -  -  1343 

500.UXI  Jews  are  banished  Spain,  and 
150.000  from  Portugal  -  -  1492 

They  are  banished  France         •  •  1491 

After  having  been  banished  England 
365  years,  they  are  re-admitted  bv 
Cromwell,  in  virtue  of  a  ueaty  with 
Manasseh  Ben  Israel  -  -  •  1G53 


JUD  J 


DICTIONARY   OF  DATES 


435 


JEWS,  continued. 


Statute  to  naturalize  them  in  England, 
passed  .....  1753 

This  act  repealed  on  the  petition  of  all 
the  cities  in  England  -  -  -  1754 

The  Jews  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Avignon  are  declared  to  be  citizens 
of  France  ....  1790 

Sitting  of  the  great  Sanhedrim,  of  Paris, 
convened  by  the  emperor  Napoleon 

Jan.  20,  1807 

London  Society  for  promoting  Christi- 
anity among  the  Jews  -  -  1808 

Alexander  ol  Russia  grants  land  on  the 
sea  of  Azoph  to  converted  Jews, 

Sept.  1,  1820 

Bill  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  Eng- 


land, lost  on  the  second  reading,  by  a 
majority  in  the  Commons,  228  again* 
lt»  May  17, 1338 

Moses  Montefiore.  esq.,  elected  sheriff 
of  London ;  and  knighted  by  the 
queen,  being  the  first  Jew  on  whom 
that  honor  has  been  conferred,  Nov.  9,  18J7 

Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  per- 
mitting the  title  of  citizen  of  the  first 
class  to  be  held  by  any  Jew  who  ren- 
ders himself  worthy  of  it  -  -  \8ft 

Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek 
priest,  a  persecution  of  the  Jews  be- 
gan at  Danascus. — See  Damascus 

Feb.  1,  l»ffl 


JOAN  OF  ARC,  OR  MAID  OF  ORLEANS.  The  young  and  celebrated  heroine 
of  France.  The  English  under  Bedford  closely  besieging  Orleans,  Joan  of 
Arc  pretended  she  had  a  divine  commission  to  expel  them,  and  Charles 
VII.  intrusted  her  with  the  command  of  the  French  troops.  She  raised 
the  siege,  and  entered  Orleans  with  supplies,  April  29,  1429,  and  the  En- 
glish who  were  before  the  place  from  October  12,  preceding,  abandoned  the 
enterprise,  May  8,  following.  She  captured  several  towns  in  the  possession 
of  the  English,  whom  she  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Patay,  June  10,  1429. 
In  her  various  achievements  no  unfeminine  cruelty  ever  stained  her  conduct. 
She  was  wounded  several  times  herself,  but  never  killed  any  one,  or  shed 
any  blood  with  her  own  hand.  She  was  taken  at  the  siege  of  Compiegne, 
May  25,  1431 ;  and  to  the  great  disgrace  of  the  English,  was  burnt  for  a 
witch  five  days  afterwards  at  Rouen,  in  the  22d  (some  say  29th)  year  of  her 
age. —  Voltaire 's  Pucelle  d}  Orleans. 

JOHN  DOE  AND  RICHARD  ROE.  Names,  as  pledges  to  prosecute,  well 
known  in  the  law.  Magna,  Charta  demanded  witnesses  before  trial,  and 
since  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  fictitious  names  of  John  Doe  and  Richard 
Roe  are  put  into  writs,  as  pretended  witnesses.  I 

JUBILEE.  By  Mosaic  institution  the  Jews  celebrate  a  Jubilee  every  fifty 
years.  Among  the  Christians  a  jubilee  every  century  was  instituted  by 
pope  Boniface  VIII.,  in  the  year  1300.  It  was  celebrated  every  fifty  years 
by  command  of  pope  Clement  VI. ;  and  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Urban 
VI.  to  every  thirty-third  year ;  and  Sixtus  V.  to  every  twenty-fifth  year,  at 
which  period  it  is  now  fixed 

JIJDGES.  On  the  Norman  conquest  the  judges  had  the  style  of  Justiciarius 
Anglite :  these  judges  continued  until  the  erection  of  the  Courts  of  King's 
Bench  and  Common  Pleas.  The  last  who  had  the  office  of  Justiciarius  Anglict 
was  Phillip  Basset,  in  1261.  Judges  punished  for  bribery,  17  Edward  I. 
1288,  when  Thomas  de  Weyland  was  banished  the  land;  and  in  1351,  Wil- 
liam de  Thorp  was  hanged.  John  de  Cavendish  was  beheaded  by  the  Kent- 
ish rebels,  1382.  Tresylian,  chief  justice,  was  executed  for  favoring  des- 
potism, and  other  judges  were  seized  and  condemned.  1388.  The  prince  of 
Wales  was  committed  by  Judge  Gascoigne  for  assaulting  him  on  the  bench 
1412.  Sir  Thomas  More,  lord  chancellor,  was  beheaded,  July  6,  1535. 
Judges  threatened  with  impeachment,  and  Berkeley  taken  off  the  bench 
and  committed  by  the  commons,  1641.  Three  impeached,  1680.  Most  of 
them  dismissed  for  not  allowing  the  legality  of  a  dispensing  power  in  the 
crown.  3  James  II.  1687.  The  celebrated  Judge  Jefferies  was  committed  by 
the  lord  mayor  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died,  1689.  The  independence  of  the 
judges  in  England  was  established  by  making  their  appointments  patent* 
for  life,  1761.  Judges  were  sent  to  India,  1773.  Three  additional  judges, 


*36  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  TUL 

one  to  each  court,  were  appointed,  1784.  A  new  judge  took  his  seat  aa 
vice-chancellor,  May  5,  1813. 

JUDGES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Those  of  the  Supreme  Court,  eight  in 
number,  are  appointed  for  life  or  during  good  conduct,  by  the  President  and 
Senate.  The  chief  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  have 
been  John  Jay,  appointed,  1789 ;  William  Cushing,  of  Mass.,  1796 ;  Oliver 
Ellsworth,  1796 ;  John  Marshall,  1801 ;  Roger  B.  Taney,  1836.  IT.  S.  Cir- 
cuit Judges  were  first  appointed  1801.  The  judges  of  the  several  Statci 
are  thus  appointed  : — 

By  the  Governor  and  Legislature,  or  Senate,  or  Council,  in  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Louisana,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Michigan. 

By  the  Legislature  alone,  in  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Tennessee,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 

By  the  Governor  alone  in  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky. 

By  popular  vote,  in  Mississippi  and  in  New  York,*  and  Maryland. 

THE  TERM  OP  OFFICE  of  the  superior  judges,  is  for  life  (or  "  during  good 
behavior  ")  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina.  Louisiana,  Kentucky  and  Illinois. 

Until  seventy  years  of  age,  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut. 

Until  sixty-five  years  of  age,  in  Missouri. 

For  periods  varying  from  two  to  twelve  years,  in  New  Jersey,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan ;  and  for 
one  year  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Vermont. 

THEY  ARE  REMOVABLE — 

By  impeachment  in  fourteen  States.  By  conviction  of  misconduct  in  a  court 
of  law,  in  Maryland.  By  joint  resolution  of  Senate,  and  two-thirds  of  As- 
sembly, in  New  York. 

JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PRIVY  COUNCIL,  in  lieu  of  the  Court  of 
Delegates,  for  appeals  from  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  England  and  Ire 
land  in  cases  of  lunacy — from  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  Court*, 
of  England,  and  Vice  Admiralty  Courts  abroad — from  the  Courts  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  the  Colonial  Courts,  &c.,  fixed  by  statute  3  and  4  William 
IV.  1833. 

"UGGERNAUT,  or  "  Lord  of  the  world."  The  first  object  of  Hindoo  venera- 
tion, is  a  celebrated  idol  of  an  irregular  pyramidical  black  stone,  with  two 
rich  diamonds  to  represent  eyes ;  the  nose  and  mouth  are  painted  verm if- 
lion,  and  the  visage  is  frightful.  The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god 
is  stated  at  1,200.000  annually:  of  these  a  great  many  never  return,  and 
to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles  the  way  is  strewed  with  human  bones:  the 
temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  above  800  years. 

JOGURTHA,  THE  WAR  WITH.  A  memorable  war  against  the  Numidian  to  re- 
duce his  kingdom,  commenced  111  B.  c.  and  continued  five  years.  Cicciliua 
Metellus  was  first  sent  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  battles;  and 
afterwards  Sylla  and  Marius;  the  latter  of  whom  dragged  him  in  chains  to 
Rome  to  adorn  his  triumph.  The  name  and  wars  of  Jugurtha  have  been 
inmiortali/.ed  by  the  pen  of  Sallust. 

JULIAN  PERIOD.  A  term  of  years  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  the 
lunar  cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman  indiction  15.  It  consists  of  7980 


•  The  election  of  judges  by  the  people,  in  New  York,  was  first  provided  for  by  the  new  eonrti 
ration  of  1846. 


JUR.  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  437 

years,  and  began  4713  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in  comput- 
ing time,  to  avoid  the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendant  on  reckoning  any  period 
antecedent  to  our  era,  an  advantage  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  mun- 
dane eras  used  at  different  times.  By  subtracting  4713  from  the  Julian 
period,  our  year  is  found  ;  if  before  Christ,  subtract  the  Julian  period  from 
4714.  For  Julian  year,  see  Calendar  and  Year. 

JULY.  The  seventh  month  of  the  year,  from  the  Latin  Julius,  the  surname  of 
C.  Caesar,  the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  born  in  it.  It  was  the  fifth  month 
in  the  Roman  calendar  until  Numa  added  January  and  February  to  the 
year,  713  B.  c.  See  those  months  severally,  and  article  Year 

JUNE.  The  sixth  month,  but  originally  the  fourth  month  of  the  Roman  year. 
It  had  its  name  Junius,  which  some  derive  £  Junone,  and  others  d  Juniori- 
bus,  this  being  for  the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for  aged  persons. 
When  Numa  added  two  months  before  March,  this  month  became,  as  it  is 
now,  the  sixth  of  the  calendar,  713  B.  c.  See  Year.  i 

^UNIUS'S  LETTERS.  Junius  was  the  assumed  name  of  a  concealed  political 
writer,  who  published  his  letters  in  the  Public  Advertiser,  in  1769.  They 
were  written  in  a  nervous,  sarcastic,  and  clear  style,  and  produced  a  power- 
ful impression,  and  the  volume  is  now  one  of  the  most  admired  in  British 
literature.  These  letters  have  been  ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William 
Gerard  Hamilton,  commonly  called  single-speech  Hamilton,  John  Wilkes; 
Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Ashburton),  Mr.  serjeant  Adair,  the  rev.  J. 
Rosenhagen,  John  Roberts,  esq.,  Mr.  Charles  Lloyd.  Mr.  Samuel  Dyer,  ge- 
neral Lee,  Hugh  Boyd,  esq.,  and  sir  Philip  Francis;  but  '.he  matter  is  still 
hidden  in  obscurity.  "I  am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall 
perish  with  me." — Junius.  And  recently  to  Horace  Walpole. 

TiJPITER.  Known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans :  to  the  for-; 
mer,  it  is  said  3000,  B.  c. ;  and  correctly  inserted  in  a  chart  of  the  heavens, 
made  about  600  B.  c.,  and  in  which  1460  stars  are  accurately  described  ;  this 
chart  is  said  to  be  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter 
were  discovered  by  Galileo,  A.  D.  1610;  but  Jansen.  it  is  affirmed,  claimed 
some  acquaintance  with  them  about  twenty  years  before. 

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy, mention  being  made  of  six  Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon  freemerj 
appointed  to  try  causes  between  the  English  and  Welsh  men  of  property, 
and  made  responsible  with  their  whole  estates,  real  and  personal,  for  false 
verdicts. — Lambard.  But  by  most  authorities  their  institution  is  ascribed 
to  Alfred.  In  Magna  Charta,  juries  are  insisted  on  as  the  great  bulwark  of 
the  people's  liberty.  When  either  party  is  an  alien  born,  the  jury  shall  be 
one-half  denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens,  statute  28  Edward  III.  1353. 
By  the  common  law  a  prisoner  upon  indictment  or  appeal,  might  challenge 
peremptorily  thirty-five,  being  under  three  juries  ;  but  a  lord  of  parliament, 
and  a  peer  of  the  realm  that  is  to  be  tried  by  his  peers,  cannot  challenge 
any  of  his  peers. 

JURIES.  COERCION  OP.    About  the  year  927,  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  used 

:  to  feed  the  jury  empanelled  in  their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common 
law  of  denying  sustenance  to  a  jury  after  the  hearing  of  the  evidence.  A 
i  jury  may  be  detained  during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge  if  they  cannot  agre« 
upon  a  verdict ;  and  may  be  confined  without  meat,  drink,  or  candle,  till 
they  are  unanimous.  Some  jurors  have  been  fined  for  having  fruit  in  their 
pockets,  when  they  were  withdrawn  to  consider  of  their  verdict,  though 
they  did  not  eat  it. — Leon.  Dyer.  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury  not  being  able  to 
agree,  and  having  been  some  time  under  duress,  forcibly  broke  from  the 
court  where  they  were  locked  up,  and  went  home,  October  9,  1791. — 
Phillips. 


438  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  KIE 

JUSTICES  OP  THE  PEACE.  These  are  local  magistrates,  invested  with  ex- 
tensive powers  in  minor  cases,  but  subject  to  supercession  and  punish- 
ment by  the  king's  bench  for  an  abuse  of  their  authority.  Justices  of  the 
peace  in  every  county  first  nominated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1076. 
— Stowe.  In  the  United  States  the  office  is  held  by  special  appointment, 
and  the  tenure  is  different  in  different  States ;  it  is  usually  for  seven  years. 

JUSTINIAN  CCDE.  Wherein  was  written  what  maybe  termed  the  statute 
law,  scattered  through  2000  volumes,  reduced  to  fifty,  completed  A.  D.  629. 
To  this  code  of  laws  Justinian  added  the  Pandects,  the  Institutes,  and 
Novels.  These  compilations  have  since  been  called,  collectively,  the  body 
of  civiJ  law  (corpus  juris  civilis).  A  digest  was  made  in  533. — Blair. 

K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE.  This  optical  instrument,  which  combines  mirrors,  and  pro- 
duces a  symmetrical  reflection  of  beautiful  images,  was  invented  by  Dr. 
Brevvster  of  Edinburgh  ;  it  was  first  suggested  in  1814,  and  the  instrument 
perfected  in  1817,  when  it  found  its  way  into  every  body's  hands.  It  is  in- 
tended to  assist  jewellers,  glass-painters,  and  other  ornamental  artists,  in  the 
formation  of  patterns,  of  which  it  produces  an  infinite  number. 

KAMTSCHATKA.  The  peninsula  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Morosco,  a  Cossack  chief,  A.  D.  1690;  and  was  taken  possession  of 
by  Russia  in  1097 ;  it  was  not  ascertained  to  be  a  peninsula  until  visited  by 
Behring,  in  1728.  Four  mouths,  commencing  at  our  midsummer,  may  be 
considered  as  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  here,  the  rest  of  the  year 
being  dreary  winter. 

KENIL WORTH  CASTLE.  Built  in  1120,  but  much  of  the  pile  was  erected 
subsequently  by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and  its  remains  now  form  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  objects  in  the  kingdom.  This  celebrated  castle  was  conferred 
on  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  by  queen  Elizabeth,  whom  he  afterwards  en- 
tertained within  its  walls  for  seventeen  days.  His  sumptuous  entertainment 
of  the  queen  commenced  July  19,  1575,  and  cost  the  earl  daily  10(KM.  a  vast 
expenditure  in  those  times. 

KENTUCKY,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  first  explored  by  Daniel  Boone, 
an  enterprising  hunter,  in  1770.  First  white  settlement  near  Lexington,  1775. 
Was  a  part  of  Virginia  until  1782,  when  it  was  made  a  separate  district.  Ad 
raitted  into  the  Union  1792.  Population  in  1790,  73  677  ;  in  1810,  406,511 , 
in  1830,  688,844 ;  in  1840,  779:828,  including  182,258  slaves. 

KEYS.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Theodore,  of  Samos,  by  Pliny, 
about  730  B.  c.  But  this  is  an  error,  as  keys  are  mentioned  in  the  siege  of 
Troy,  1193  B.  c.  Keys  were  originally  made  of  wood,  and  the  earliest  form 
was  a  simple  crook  similar  to  the  common  picklock  now  in  use.  The  ancient 
keys  now  to  be  found  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious  are  mostly  of  bronze. 
The  late  Francis  Douce,  esq.,  had  some  of  remarkable  shapes,  the  shaft  ter- 
minating on  one  side  by  the  works,  on  the  other  by  a  ring.  Keys  of  this 
description  were  presented  by  husbands  to  wives,  and  were  returned  again 
upon  divorce  or  separation. 

El  EL,  TREATY  OP.  Between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  signed  Jan- 
uary 14,  1814.  By  this  treaty  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Previously 
the  Norwegians  had  been  deserted  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  had  sent 
a  deputation  to  England,  to  interest  that  country  in  their  favor.  The  mission 
was  fruitless.  On  the  contrary,  the  English  blockaded  the  ports  of  Norway, 
and  the  Swedes  entered  by  land.  The  Norwegians  fought  some  brave  actions, 
but  they  were  defeated.  The  prince  of  Denmark  quitted  Norway,  and  th« 
diet  elected  the  king  of  Sweden  to  be  their  king. 


f.IH  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  439 

KING.  The  Latin  Rex,  the  Scythian  Reis,  the  Spanish  Rey,  the  French  Rot, 
all  come  from  the  Hebrew  Rosck,  chief,  or  head.  Nimrod  was  the  first 
founder  of  a  kingdom,  2245  B.  c. — Du  Fi-esnoy.  Misraim  built  cities  in 
Egypt,  and  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  that  division  of  the 
earth.  Saul  was  the  first  king  of  Israel,  1095  B.  c.  Most  of  the  Grecian  states 
were  governed  by  kings ;  and  kings  first  ruled  in  Rome.  The  Egyptians 
understood  the  only  just  principle  of  government,  namely,  to  make  the  peo- 
ple happy ;  and  although  among  them  the  monarchy  was  hereditary,  the 
sovereign  was  as  much  bound  by  the  laws  as  his  meanest  subject :  there  was 
a  peculiar  code  for  his  direction  in  the  most  minute  particulars  of  public 
and  private  life.  The  king's  hour  of  rising,  the  portion  of  time  he  should 
devote  each  day  to  the  services  of  religon,  the  administration  of  justice, 
th3  quality  of  his  food,  and  the  rank  of  persons  by  whom  he  was  served, 
were  all  prescribed. 

KING  Q-F  ENGLAND.  The  style  "  kir.g  of  England,"  was  first  used  by  Egbert 
A.  D.  828;  but  the  title  Rex  gentis  Anglorum,  king  of  the  English  nation, 
existed  during  the  Heptarchy.  See  Britain.  The  plural  phraseology  of  we, 
us,  our,  was  first  adopted  by  king  John,  in  1207.  The  title  of  "  king  of  Ire- 
land." by  British  sovereigns,  was  not  assumed  until  .542,  when  Henry  VIII, 
changed  Lord  of  Ireland  into  king.  The  style  "  Great  Britain  "  was  adopted 
at  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  6  Anne,  1707;  and  of  the  "United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  "  at  the  union  of  these  countries,  Jan- 
uary 1,  1801.  when  the  royal  style  and  title  was  appointed  to  run  thus  : — 
"Georgius  Tertius,  Dei  Gratia  Britanniarum  Rex,  Fidei  Defensor,"  "George 
the  third,  by  the  Grace  of  God  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  King.  Defender  of  the  Faith." 

KING  OF  THE  FRENCH.  Decreed  by  the  National  Assembly  that  the  title  of 
"  king  of  France"  should  be  changed  in  the  person  of  Louis  XVI.  to  that  of 
"  king  of  the  French,"  October  16.  1789.  The  royal  title  was  abolished  in 
1792;  but  restored  in  the  Bourbon  family,  in  1814.  Louis-Philippe  I. 
was  invited  to  the  monarchy  under  the  style  of  the  "  king  of  the  French," 
August  9,  1830.  See  France. 

KING  OP  HUNGARY.  The  averseness  of  the  Hungarian  people  to  the  term 
queen,  has  led  to  the  custom  among  them,  that  whenever  a  female  succeeds 
to  the  throne,  she  shall  be  called  king.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  in  the  annals  ot 
Hungary,  that  the  daughter  of  Louis  I.  reigned  as  king  Mary,  in  1383.  See 
Hungary. 

RING  OF  THE  ROMANS.  The  emperors  of  Germany,  in  order  that  their  eldest 
sons  might  be  chosen  their  successors,  in  their  own  lifetime  politically  ob- 
tained them  the  title  of  "  king  of  the  Romans,"  this  people  being  compre- 
hended in  that  sovereignty.  The  first  emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  IV.,  in 
1055.  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.  of  England,  was  induced  to  go  to 
Germany,  wheie  he  disbursed  vast  sums  under  the  promise  of  being  elected 
next  emperor;  he  obtained  the  title  of  " king  of  the  Romans,"  but  failed 5a 
succeeding  to  the  Imperial  crown.  The  style  "  king  of  Rome  "  was  revived 
by  Bonaparte,  who  conferred  it  on  his  son.  upon  his  birth,  in  April,  1811 : 
but  the  title  ceased  with  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  Napoleon,  April 
6,  1814. 

KING'S  BENCH,  COURT  OF,  IN  ENGLAND.  Obtained  its  name  from  the  king 
sometimes  sitting  here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the  judges,  to  whom  the 
judicature  belongs  in  his  absence,  on  a  low  bench  at  his  feet.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  court  extends  all  over  England,  and  is  not  so  subject  to  control 
as  others,  because- the  law  presumes  the  king  to  be  here  in  person.  The 
name  of  this  court  has  been  altered  to  that  of  Qiieen's  Bench,  since  the 


440  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  KJ*. 

accession  of  Victoria,  in  June,  1837,  as  is  the  case  with  all  institutions  in 
immediate  connection  with,  or  dependent  upon  the  sovereign. 

KIND'S  EVIL.  Supposed  to  be  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  kings  of  England. 
The  first  who  touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confessor,  1058.  This  vulgar 
ciedulity  had  in  the  age  of  Charles  II.  arisen  to  such  a  height,  that  in  four- 
teen years,  92.107  persons  were  touched ;  and,  according  to  Wiseman,  the 
king's  physician,  they  were  nearly  all  cured !  Queen  Anne  officially  an- 
nounced in  the  London  Gazette,  March  12,  1712.  her  royal  intention  to  touch 
publicly  for  the  cure  of  the  evil ;  and  touching  for  it  continued  a  custom  un- 
til it  was  wisely  discouraged,  and  ultimately  dropped  by  George  I.,  1714. 

E.LNG'S  SPEECH.  The  fast  royal  speech  from  the  throne  was  delivered  by 
Henry  I.,  in  1107.  A  late  celebrated  writer,  after  remarking  with  his  accus- 
tomed harshness  upon  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  just  then  (April  1827)  become 
chief  of  a  new  administration,  said — "  Canning  being  now  minister,  of  one 
thing,  and  one  thing  only,  we  are  certain,  we  shall  have  no  more  grammati- 
cal blunders  in  king's  speeches ;  these  things  will  still  be  wiitten  in  the 
same  meagre  way,  in  point  of  matter,  as  before ;  but  we  shall  have  them  in 
a  perspicuous  and  pure  style." — Cobbett. 

KINGDOMS.  The  origin  of  kingdoms  may  be  referred  to  Belus,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Nimrod  of  Holy  Writ;  he  was  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian 
monarchy,  2245  B.C. —  Usher.  Menes  or  Misralm,  makes  his  son  Atholas, 
surnamed  the  first  Mercury,  king  of  Upper  Egypt ;  and  another  son,  Toso- 
thrus,  he  establishes  at  Memphis,  2188  B.  c. — Blair.  Ninus  founds  the  As- 
syrian monarchy,  2059  B.  c. — Lenglet. 

FUSSING.  Kissing  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian  custom.  Kissing 
was  a  mode  of  salutation  among  the  Jews,  as  we  may  collect  from  Judas 
approaching  his  master  with  a  kiss  ;  it  was  also  customary  in  Rome.  Kiss- 
ing the  pope's  foot  took  its  rise  from  the  custom  of  kneeling  to  sovereigns, 
and  began  with  Adrian  I.  or  Leo  HI.  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century. 
From  kneeling  to  sovereigns  came  also  the  ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling 
to  his  lord  in  homage,  first  practised,  A.  D.  709. 

KIT-KAT  CLUB.  A  society  which  consisted  of  about  thirty  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  of  distinguished  abilities,  instituted  in  1703,  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  Erotestant  succession  in  the  house  of  Hanover,  which  they 
effected  by  spirited  publications  as  well  as  other  measures.  Addison,  Steele, 
and  Dr.  Garth  were  members,  and  made  several  epigrams  upon  the  toasts  of 
the  club.  The  clnb  took  its  name  from  one  Christopher  Kat.  a  pastry-cook, 
who  lived  near  the  tavern  where  they  met,  in  King-street,  Westminster,  and 
who  served  them  with  pastry. — Bmmjer's  Life  of  Queen  Anne. 

KNIGHT.  The  origin  of  this  title  as  a  military  honor  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  siege  of  Troy,  but  this  solely  depends  upon  a  passage  or  two  in 
Homer.  With  certainty  we  may  trace  the  distinction  to  the  Romans,  who. 
after  their  union  with  the  Sabines,  created  three  centuries  of  knights,  about 
750  B.  c. — Livy. 

KNIGHT-ERRANTRY.  Took  its  rise  in  the  combats  of  the  Celtic  nations, 
particularly  the  judicial  combats,  and  much  prevailed  in  Spain.  France,  and 
Germany.  Tilts  and  tournaments  commenced  with  the  return  of  the  cru- 
saders from  the  holy  wars,  and  for  about  300  years  they  wen-  the  chiel 
amusements  of  courts,  and  the  successful  combatants  acquired  knighthood, 
and  the  favor  of  the  ladies.  When  public  combats  declined,  the  knights 
travelled  in  search  of  adventures,  to  correct  injustice,  and  fight  in  the 
cause  of  the  fair ;  and  the  consequent  follies  gave  rise  to  the  novel  of  Dot 
Quixote. 

RN1GHTHOOD.     Was  conferred  in  England  by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  ufl« 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


441 


confession  and  consecration  of  the  sword,  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy 
The  first  knight  made  by  the  sovereign  with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athti- 
stan,  on  whom  Alfred  bestowed  this  new  dignity,  A.  D.  900. — Spelman.  The 
custom  of  ecclesiastics  conferring  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  suppressed 
in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in  1100. — Ashmole's  Institutes.  All  persons 
having  ten  pounds  yearly  income  were  obliged  to  be  knighted,  or  pay  a  fine, 
38  Henry  III.  125-1.— Salmon. 

KNIGHTHOOD  IN  EUROPE.  As  a  system,  under  the  denomination  of  chi- 
valry, knighthood  is  to  be  dated  from  the  eleventh  century.  On  the  de- 
cline of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  all  Europe  being  reduced  to  a  state  ol 
anarchy,  the  proprietor  of  every  manor  became  a  petty  sovereign ;  his  man- 
sion was  fortified  by  a  moat,  and  defended  by  a-guard,  and  called  a  castle. 
Excursions  were  made  by  one  petty  lord  against  another,  and  the  women  and 
treasure  were  carried  off  by  the  conqueror.  At  length  the  owners  of  rich 
fiefs  associated  to  repres  these  marauders,  and  to  make  property  secure,  and 
to  protect  the  ladies ;  binding  themselves  to  these  duties  by  a  solemn  vow, 
and  the  sanction  of  a  religious  ceremony.  The  first  knights  being  men  ol 
the  highest  rank  and  largest  possessions,  adtiission  into  the  order  was 
deemed  a  great  honor. 


MILITARY,    RELIGIOUS,   AND 

Alcantara,  instituted       -  -    A.  D. 

Alexander  Nevskoi,  Russia 
Amaranta,  Sweden         ... 
Angelic  Knights,  Greece      •  •     - 

Annunciada,  Mantua       ... 
Annunciation,  Savoy  •  • 

Argonauts,  Naples          ... 
Avis,  Portugal  •  •  -     - 

Band,  Spain         .... 
Bannerets,  England,  1360.     Renewed. 

See  Bannerets       •  •  •     - 

Bath,  England,  1399.    Renewed.    See 

Bath     - 

Bear,  Switzerland     -  -  -     - 

Black    Eagle,    Prussia,    instituted   by 

Frederick  I.  -  •  • 

Blood  of  Christ,  Mantua       •  •     - 

Bro;herly  Love,  instituted 
Burgundian  Cross     -  -  •     - 

Calatrava,  Castile,  instituted  by  San- 

cho  III.  ..... 

Carpet,  England       -  •  •     • 

Catharine,  Russia  .  .  - 

Chase,  instituted  by  the  duke  of  Wir- 

temberg       •  -  •  •     - 

Christ,  Livonia    .... 
Christ,  Portugal        •  •        ^*°r" 

Christian  Charity,  France         •   ,.. 
Cincinn.itus,  America 
Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Concord,  Prussia,  instituted  by  Chris- 
tian Ernest,  elector  of  Brandeuturgh 
Crescent,  Naples       •  •  •     - 

Crown  Royal,  France     - 
Daneburgh,    Denmark,    instituted   by 

Waldemar    II.,    1219 ;    revived    by 

Christian  V.  -  -  -     - 

Death's  Head,  Female  Order,  by  the 

widow    Louisa    Elizabeth    of  Saxe 

Mersburgh        •  • 

Dove  of  Castile         •  •          *     • 

Dragon,  Hungary 
Ear  of  Corn,  Brittany          -  - 

Glephan'  Denmark,  by  Christian  I.    - 
Ermine,  France  -  •  •  '  •      • 

darter  England        -  •  •     • 


HONORARY  ORDERS   OP  KNIGHTHOOD. 

1160  Generosity,  Brandenburgh 

1700  Golden  Fleece,  instituted  at  Bruges  by 

1645  Philip,  surnamed  the  Good 

456  Golden  Lion,  Hesse-Cassel 

1618  Golden  Shield  and  Thistle   -           -     - 

1355  Golden  Spur,  by  Pius  IV. 


1382 
1147 

1232 


1725 
1213 

1701 
1603 
1708 
1535 

1156 
1553 
1698 

1719 
1203 
1319 
1590 
1783 
1619 

1660 
1448 
802 


1671 


1709 
1379 
1439 
10.30 
1478 
1450 
1350 


1685 


1429 
1785 
1370 
1559 
1816 

Holy  Ghost,  France,  1468.     Revived    -  1559 

1  193 
1211 
1092 
1738 
1048 
1206 


Guelphic,  Hanover 


Holy  Ghost,  Rome 
Holy  Trinity 
Hospitallers  (tehich  see) 
Januarius,  Naples     - 
Jerusalem.    See  Malta  • 
Jesus,  France 


Jesus  Christ,  Rome,  instituted  by  John 

XXII..  1415.  Reformed  by  Paul  V.  16'0 
Knot,  Naples  ....  1351 
Lu  Calza,  Venice  -  -  -  -  1400 

Legion  of  Honor,  France,  instituted  by 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  -  -  -  1802 

Lily  of  Arragon         -  -  -     -  1403 

Lily  of  Navarre  -  -  -  -1048 

Loretto,  Lady  of  •  -        1587 

Malta.    See  Malta.        •  •  •  1531 

Martyrs.  Palestine    -  •  -     -  1319 

Maria-Theresa,  Order  of  Ladies,  Spain  1792 
Mauritians,  Savoy  •  -  -  1430 

Merit,  instituted  by  the  landgrave  of 

Hesse  Cassel          •  •  •     -  1785 

Merit,  Prussia      ....  1740 
Noble  Passion,  Germany     •  -     -  1704 

Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain  -  -  -    722 

Passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  I  ranee  •  I3t>2 

Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV,    -  •     -  15fi& 

Porcupine,  France          ...  1393 
Red  Eagle,  Prussia  -  •  -     •  1792 

Redemption,  instituted  -  •  •  1212 

Rosary,  Spain  -  •  •        1172 

Round  Table,  Enrhmd— See  Knightt 

of  the  Round  TiMe    •  -  •   G2B 

,St  Andrew,  Russia  (tradition  ascribe* 
to  this  saint  the  InttodactioDof  Chris- 
tianity into  Muscovy)       -  -     -  1698 
St.   Andrew,  Scotland,  809;   renewed 

1452 ;  and  again  by  James  VI.  -  1605 

St.  Anthony.  Ethiopia         •          •         367 


442 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[cir 


St.  Michael,  Germany  .  .  1618 

St.  Patrick,  Ireland  -  .     .  1783 

St.  Puul.  Home   ....  1540 
SL  Peter,  Rome        -  -  -     -  1530 

St  Rupert,  Germany,  by  tt.3  archbish- 
op of  Saltzbureh         -  -  -1701 
St.  Sepulchre.  Palestine       -           -     -  10W 
St.  Stephen,  by   Casimir  de   Medicis, 

grand-duke  of  Tusrany  -  1561 

St.  Thomas  of  Aeon  -  -  -     -1370 

Saviour,  Greece  -  -  June  1,  1833 

Seraphims.  Sweden  -  -  -        1331 

Ship  and  Crescent,  France        -  -  1289 

Sincerity,  instituted  by  the  elector  of 

Saxony        •  -  -  -     -  1CX 

Slaves  of  Virtue,  Germany        -  -1662 

Swan,  Cleves  -  -  -     -    960 

Sword,  Cyprus    -  .  .  -1195 

Sword,  Sweden,  1523;  revived       -     -1772 
Templars.—  See  Templar*       •  .  1118 

Teste  Mcrte,  Wurtemburg  -  -     -  1652 

Teutonic,  1190  ;  renewed  in  Prussia   -  1522 
Thistle  of  Bourbon         -  -  -  1370 

Thist'e  of  Scotland,  812;  revived   -        1540 
Trinitarians,  Spain         -  -  -  1594 

Truxillo,  Spain         -  -  .     -  1227 

United   Ladies  fcr  the   honor  of  Lie 
Cross,  in  Germany      ...  1666 

Virgin  Mary 1233 

Virgin  of  Mount  Carmel,  France          -  1607 
Warfare  of  ( :hrist,  Poland  -  -     -  1705 

Warfare  of  Christ,  Russia         -  -  1325 

Wins  of  St.  Michael,  Portugal       -     -  1165 
Wladimir,  Russia  -  -  -  168S 


KNIGHTHOOD  IN  EUROPE,  continued. 

St.  Anthony,  Hainault    -  -  -1382| 

St.  Blaze,  Aeon          -  -      •  1250 ; 

St.  Catharine,  Palestine-  -  -1163; 

St.  Catharine,  Russia  -  •     -  1698 1 

St.  Denis,  France  ...  1267 ! 

St.  George,  Austria  -  -  -        1470 1 

St.  George,  Carinthia     •  -  •  1279 

St.  George,  Defender  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  Bavaria  -  •  1729 

St.  George,  England ;  instituted  by  Ed- 
ward HI.  See  Garter  -  -  1349 

Si  George;  tutelary  saint  of  Genoa,  by 
Frederick  III.  -  -  -  -  1460 

St.  George,  Rome  -  -  -  1496 

St.  George,  Russia    -  -  -     -  1782 

St  George,  Spain  -  -  -  1318 

St.  George,  Venice    -  -  -     -  12UO 

St.  Hubert,  Germany,  by  the  duke  of 
Juliers  and  Cleves  -  •  -  1417 

St.  James,  Holland   -  -  -     -  1290 

St.  James,  Portugal        -  -  -  1310 

St.  James,  Spain       •  -  -     -  1030 

St.  Jerome,  Germany     -  •  •  1154 

St.  John  of  Aeon        -  -  -      -  1370 

St.  John  of  Jerusalem     ...  1048 

St.  John  of  Malta       -  -  -     -1522 

St.  John  of  Rhodes         -  -  .1300 

St.  Julien,  of  Alcantara       -  -     -1176 

St.  Lazarus,  and  St.  Maurice,  by  Eman- 
uel  Philibert,  duke  of  Savoy  -  - 1572 

St.  Louis.  France      -  -  -     -  1693 

St.  Mark,  Venice,  830;  renewed          •  1562 

St.  Mary  the  Glorious          -  -     -  1233 

St.  Mary  de  Merced,  Spain       -  -  1218 

St.  Michael,  France  -  -  -     -  1469 

KNIGHTS,  FKMALE.  The  title  of  knight,  which  was  given  to  men  of  snperioi 
worth,  ability,  and  fortune,  in  former  times,  was  sometimes  given  to  womer 
also.  As  an  instance,  it  was  conferred  on  the  women  who  preserved  th«j 
city  of  Tortosa  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149.  by  their 
stout  resistance  and  vigorous  attack  of  the  besiegers,  by  which  means  the 
Moors  were  forced  to  raise  the  siege.  Large  immunities  and  favors  were 
granted  to  them  and  their  descendants  for  their  heroism  on  this  occasion. 

KNIGHTS  or  THE  ROUND  TABLE.  Instituted  by  king  Arthur,  about  A.  n. 
528. — Asser's  Life  of  Alfred.  This  ancient  order  was  revived  by  Edward 
III.  at  Windsor,  upon  New  Year's  day,  1344.  The  king,  with  a  view  to  the 
recovery  of  France,  which  descended  to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  became 
anxious  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon 
projecting  and  setting  up  king  Arthur's  Round  Table,  he  proclaimed  a 
solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise. 
He  published  his  royal  letters  of  protection,  for  the  safe  coming  and  return 
of  such  foreign  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  those 
jousts  and  tournaments. — Beatson. 

KNIGHTS  OK  THK  SHIRE.  The  barons,  or  tenants  in  chief,  or  freeholders  by 
Doomsday-book,  were  700  in  number,  but  being  split  into  small  parts,  were 
greater  and  lesser,  all  of  whom  were  entitled  to  sit  in  parliament ;  but  the 
latter  or  lesser  barons,  were  allowed  to  choose  two  representatives,  hence 
called  knights  of  the  shire,  A.  D.  1307. 

KMviHTS  TEMPLARS.  A  religious  and  military  order,  instituted  A.  n.  1118 
They  came  to  England  early  in  Stephen's  reign,  and  settled  at  the  Temple 
in  London  ;  and  at  other  places  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  All  the  knights 
were  arrested  in  France  in  one  day,  being  charged  with  great  crimes,  and 
possessing  great  riches  ;  fifty -nine  of  them  were  burnt  alive  at  Paris  in  Oct. 


LAB  |  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  443 

1307.  Those  in  England  were  all  seized  the  same  year.  Thei:  order  WM 
abolished  by  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  at  the  council  of  Viennt,  in  1312 ; 
and  many  thousands  were  subsequently  massacred,  their  wealth  being  given 
to  the  knights  of  Malta.  See  Malta. 

KNIVES.  First  made  in  England  in  1563.  They  were  the  earliest  branch  of 
cutlery,  and  were  first  manufactured  by  one  Mathews,  of  Fleet-Bridge,  Lon- 
don, 5th  Eliz.,  1563. —  Chamberlain's  England,  edit.  1683.  See  Forks. 

KORAN,  OR  ALKORAN  OF  MAHOMET,  written  about  A.  D.  610.  Its  general 
aim  was,  to  unite  the  professions  of  Idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Christians  in 
the  worship  of  one  God  (whose  unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under 
certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obedience  to  Mahomet  as  the  pro- 
phet.  It  was  written  in  the  Koreish  Arabic,  and  *this  language,  which  cer- 
tainly possessed  every  fine  quality,  was  said  to  be  that  of  paradise.  Maho. 
met  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him,  during  a  period  of  twenty- 
three  years,  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  The  style  of  this  volume  is  beautiful, 
fluent,  and  concise,  and  where  the  majesty  and  attributes  of  God  are  de- 
scribed, it  is  sublime  and  magnificent.  Mahomet  admitted  the  divine  mis- 
sion both  of  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ. — Dr.  Jortin.  The  leading  artujle  of 
faith  which  this  impostor  preached,  is  compounded  of  an  eternal  truth,  and 
a  necessary  fiction,  namely,  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet 
is  the  apostle  of  God. — Gibbon.  The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in 
1143 ;  and  into  English  and  other  European  languages  about  1763,  et  seq. 
It  is  a  rhapsody  of  3000  verses,  divided  into  114  sections.  See  Alcoran; 
Islamism;  Mecca;  Mahometism,  fyc. 


LA  HOGUE,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets,  under 
admirals  Russel  and  Rooke,  and  the  French  fleet  commanded  by  admiral 
Tourville.  The  English  attacked  the  French  near  La  Hogue,  gaining  a 
splendid  victory,  burning  thirteen  of  the  enemy's  ships,  destroying  eight 
more,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly,  and  thus  preventing  a  threatened  descent  upon 
England,  May  19,  1692. 

LA  PEROUSE'S  VOYAGE.  It  was  commenced  in  1785,  when  Perouse  sailed 
from  France  for  the  Pacific,  with  the  Boussole  and  Astrolabe  under  his  com- 
mand. The  last  direct  intelligence  received  from  him  was  from  Botany  Bay, 
in  March  1788.  Several  expeditions  were  subsequently  dispatched  in  search 
of  Perouse,  but  no  certain  information  was  had  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the 
East  India  ship  Research,  ascertained  that  the  French  ships  had  been  cast 
away  on  two  different  islands  of  the  New  Hebrides — a  fate  authenticated  by 
various  articles  of  the  wreck  of  these  vessels,  which  capt.  Dillon  brought 
with  him  to  Calcutta,  April  9,  1828,  40  years  afterwards. 

LA  VENDEE,  WAR  OP.  The  French  Royalists  here  took  to  arms,  and  were 
successful  in  a  number  of  battles  with  the  Republican  armies,  fought  be- 
tween July  12,  1793,  and  January  1,  1794,  when  they  experienced  a  severe 
reverse.  Numerous  other  engagements  were  fought,  with  various  success, 
until  this  war  terminated,  Jan.  10,  1800. 

LABYRINTH.  There  were  four  most  famous  in  history:  the  first  was  built  by 
Daedalus,  in  the  island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210  B.  c. ; 
the  second  in  Egypt  in  the  isle  of  Mceris,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that 
place,  683  B.  c. ;  and  the  fourth  in  Italy,  erected  by  Porsenna,  king  of  the 
Hetrurise,  about  520  B.  c.— Pliny.  The  beauty  and  art  of  the  labyrinth  of 
Egypt  were  almost  beyond  belief;  it  had  12  halls  and  3000  chambers,  with 
pillars,  was  encrusted  with  marble,  and  adorned  with  sculpture. — Heroiktus. 
The  labyrinth  of  Woodstock  is  famous  from  its  connection  with  the  story  of 


444  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  LAM 

Fair  Rosamond,  mistress  of  Henry  II. ;  there  is  a  curious  Maze  at  Hampton 
Court  that  is  much  visited. 

LACE.  Mention  is  made  of  it  as  being  of  very  delicate  texture  in  Fraace  and 
Flanders  in  1320 ;  and  fine  laces  were  much  in  use  for  ruffles  and  frills  foi 
the  men,  and  headdresses  for  the  women,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Lace 
was  general  in  the  court  costume  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Dresden,  Valencien- 
nes, Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have  long  been  famous  for  their  fine  lace.  An 
ounce  weight  of  Flanders  thread  has  been  frequently  sold  for  four  pounds 
in  London,  and  its  value  when  manufactured  has  been  increased  to  forty 
pounds,  ten  times  the  price  of  standard  gold. 

LACED^EMON.  See  Sparta.  Lelez  begins  the  kingdom  of  Lclegia,  in  Laco- 
nia,  1516  B.  c.  Eurotas  gives  his  daughter  Sparta  in  marriage  to  Lacedse- 
mon,  and  makes  him  partner  on  the  throne,  1490  B.  c.  The  city  of  Sparta 
was  built  about  this  time,  and  hence  the  name  by  which  the  country  is  mosl 
known.  The  Lacedsemon  republic  became  famous  in  History  after  700  B.  c. 
particularly  by  the  conquest  of  Athens.  It  was  made  a  Roman  province  71 
B.  c.  The  territory  now  belongs  to  the  Turks. —  Thucydides ;  Priestley. 

LADIES.  The  mistresses  of  manor-houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  to  the 
poor  weekly  with  their  own  hands  certain  quantities  of  bread,  and  were 
therefore  called  Lef-days — two  Saxon  words  signifying  bread-giver,  and  the 
words  were  at  length  corrupted,  and  the  mistress  is  called  to  this  day  Lady, 
that  is,  Lef-day.  The  introduction  of  ladies  to  court,  was  first  to  that  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France  in  1499.  As  a  title  of  honor,  the  title  of  lady  properly 
belongs  only  to  the  daughters  of  earls,  and  all  of  higher  rank ;  but  custom 
has  made  it  a  term  of  complaisance  for  the  wives  of  knights,  and  all  women 
of  eminence  or  gentility.  See  Lord. 

JrfADRONE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1520 ;  they  are  eleven  in  nun*; 
ber ;  at  the  island  of  Guam  he  first  touched.  Here,  some  of  the  natives 
having  stolen  some  of  his  goods,  and  showing  a  great  disposition  to  theft, 
he  named  the  islands  the  Ladrones,  or  Islands  of  Thieves,  which  they  are 
called  to  this  day. 

LADY  DAY.  This  festival,  the  25th  March,  was  instituted  about  A.  D.  350, 
according  to  some  authorities,  and  not  before  the  seventh  century  accord- 
ing to  others.  On  this  day,  the  25th  of  March,  the  angel  Gabriel  brought 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  message  concerning  her  son  Jesus  ;  hence  it  is  called 
the  Annunciation,  and  is  celebrated  in  the  Catholic  church  as  one  of  its 
chief  feasts ;  and  in  the  Reformed  church  also,  on  account  of  the  con- 
nection between  the  circumstance  commemorated  and  the  Incarnation.  In 
England,  before  the  alteration  of  the  style,  the  new  year  began  on  the  25th 
of  March. 

LA  FAYETTE'S  first  visit  to  the  United  States,  to  aid  the  cause  of  American 
independence  ;  he  arrived  at  Charleston,  April  25,  1777,  being  then  nineteen 
years  old.  He  raised  a  corps  at  his  own  expense  ;  was  wounded  at  Brandy- 
wine  ;  employed  in  Rhode  Island,  1778 ;  visited  France,  promoting  new  re- 
inforcements for  the  United  States,  and  returned  1779.  His  triumphal 
reception  in  the  United  States  on  a  visit  of  pleasure,  Aug.  13,  1824 ;  re- 
ceived from  C6ngress  the  sum  of  $200,000  and  a  township  of  land  in  reward 
for  his  services ;  returned  to  France  in  the  frigate  Brandywine.  Septembef 
7,  1825. 

LAMPS.  See  Lanterns.  Lamps  are  mentioned  in  all  the  early  ages;  they 
were  in  use  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome.  The  earthen  lamp  which  Epic- 
tetus  the  philosopher  had  in  his  study  sold,  after  his  death,  for  8000 
drachmas.  A.  D.  161.  Lamps  with  horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred. 

.     Lamps  were  in  general  use  through  the  streets  of  London  up  to  the  clow 


LAN]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  445 

of  the  1 8th  century,  as  were  flambeaux  which  were  carried  by  link-boys. 
London  streets  were  first  lighted  by  oil-lamps  in  1681 ;  and  with  gas  lampa 
in  1814.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of  elegant  manufacture;  of  this  kind 
is  the  Argand  lamp,  brought  into  general  use  in  England  in  1785,  et  seq. 
See  Safety  Lamp. 

LA.NCASTERTAN  SCHOOLS.  On  a  system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual 
instruction,  propagated  by  Joseph  Lancaster  and  Dr.  Bell;  they  were  not 
much  patronized  till  about  1808,  when  Lancaster's  system  attracted  general 
attention,  notwithstanding  the  prejudices  that  existed  against  the  founder, 
who  had  been  laboring  to  introduce  schools  upon  his  economic  plan  from 
1798.  They  became  general  in  1818,  and  there  are  now  some  hundreds  of 
them  in  England,  and  in  London  more  than  forty.  They  were  founded  in 
Senegal,  and  were  extensively  instituted  in  Russia,  in  1819. 

LAND.  Was  let  generally  in  England  for  Is.  per  acre,  36  Henry  VIII.  1544. 
The  whole  rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  6,000,OOOZ.  in  1600.  It  was 
about  14,000,OOOZ.  in  1688.  In  1798  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  his  Income  Tax  of 
10 per  cent,  on  an  estimate  of  100  millions,  taking  the  rent  of  land  at  50 
millions,  the  rent  of  houses  at  10  millions,  and  the  profits  of  trade  at  40 
millions;  but  in  this  estimate  were  exempted  much  land  and  the  inferior 
class  of  houses.  See  Income  Tax.  The  rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  has 
been  recently  estimated  in  parliament  at  1 27  millions,  but  authorities  vary 
much  on  the  amount.  See  Public  Lands,  U.  S. 

LANDGRAVE.  This  is  from  land,  and  grave  a  count,  a  German  title  of  do- 
minion, which  appears  to  have  commenced  in  the  eleventh  century;  it  be- 
came the  title  of  the  house  of  Hesse  Cassel,  about  the  year  1300  ;  and  the 
rank  was  subsequently  assumed  by  the  branches  of  Hesse  Homburg,  Hesse 
Philipstal,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  &c.  See  Hesse. 

L  A  NGSIDE,  BATTLE  OP  ;  between  the  forces  of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the 
earl  of  Murray,  and  the  army  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  in  which  the  latter 
suffered  a  complete  defeat,  May  15,  1568.  Immediately  after  this  last  fatal 
battle,  the  unfortunate  Mary  fled  to  England,  and  landed  at  "Workington,  in 
Cumberland,  on  May  16 ;  and  was  soon  afterwards  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE.  Language  must  either  have  been  revealed  originally  from  hea- 
ven, or  it  is  the  fruit  of  human  invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by 
Horace,  Lucretius,  Cicero,  and  most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers ;  the 
former  opinion  by  the  great  majority  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  the  pro- 
foundest  philosophers  of  France  and  England.  It  has  been  affirmed  that 
Hebrew  was  the  language  spoken  by  Adam :  but  others  deny  this,  and  say  that 
the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  are  only  dialects  of  the  original,  which  has 
for  many  ages  been  lost  and  unknown.  Psammeticus  the  Powerful,  desiring 
to  know  the  most  ancient  people  and  language  on  the  earth,  caused  two 
children  to  be  kept  from  all  knowledge  of  the  use  of  speech,  until  they 
were  two  years  old :  they  were  then  brought  into  his  presence,  and  they 
both  pronounced  the  sound  beccos,  the  Phoenician  term  for  bread.  He  there- 
fore gave  the  Phoenician  the  precedence,  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  all  other 
nations,  C4V  B.  c. — Herodotus,  Polycen.,  Strabo. 

LANGUAGES.  Of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  are  dialects.  The 
original  European  ones  are  thirteen,  viz:  Greek,  Latin,  Dutch,  Sclavonian, 
spoken  iL  the  east :  Welsh,  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain ;  Irish,  Albanian,  in 
the  mountains  of  Epirus,  Tartarian,  the  old  Illyrian,  the  Jazygian,  remain^- 
ing  yet  in  Liburnia  ;  the  Chaucin,  in  the  north  of  Hungary ;  and  the  Finnic, 
in  East  Friesland.  Arabic  is  the  mother  tongue  of  Africa.  From  the  Latin 
sprung  the  Italian,  French  and  Spanish ;  and  from  the  Spanisli  the  Portu- 
guese. The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect  of  the  Tartarian.  From  the  High 
Dutch,  or  Teutonic,  sprang  the  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  English,  Scotcit, 


446  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS.  [  LAI 

&c.  There  are  3664  known  languages  now  used  in  the  world  Of  these, 
937  are  Asiatic;  587  European;  276  African;  and  1624  American  language? 
and  dialects. — Professor  Adelung. 

LANTERNS.  In  general  use  from  a  very  early  date.  Those  of  scraped  horn 
were  invented  in  England,  it  is  said  by  Alfred,  and  it  is  supposed  that  horn 
was  used  for  window-lights  also,  as  glass  was  not  known  in  Alfred's  reign, 
A.  D.  872-901. — Stowe's  Ghron.  London  was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns, 
with  glass  sides,  A.  D.  1415.  The  pellucid  laminae  of  the  ox  horn  have  served 
for  ages  for  the  sides  of  lanterns  instead  of  glass,  and  for  many  uses  are 
preferred.  See  article,  Lamps. 

LAOCOON.  This  exquisite  work  of  art,  executed  in  marble,  is  universally 
allowed  to  be  the  triumph  of  Grecian  sculpture.  It  was  modelled  by  Ages- 
ander,  Athenodorus,  and  Polydorus,  all  of  Rhodes,  and  of  great  eminence 
as  statuaries;  and  in  all  ages,  and  by  all  nations,  this  beautiful  group  is 
allowed  to  be  the  greatest  victory  of  art  that  has  ever  been  achieved  by 
human  hands. 

LATERAN,  COUNCILS  OP  THE.  They  were  held  in  the  Basilica  of  the  La- 
teran,  at  Rome.  Of  these  councils  there  were  five :  by  the  first,  the  right 
of  investitures  was  settled  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the  emperor  Henry 
V.,  1122;  by  the  second  council  were  secured  the  temporalities  of  ecclesias- 
tics, 1139;  the  third  was  to  denounce  schismatics,  1179;  the  fourth  on 
church  affairs,  attended  by  400  bishops  and  1000  abbots;  and  the  fifth  was 
the  famous  council  of  Julius  II.,  1512. 

LATHE,  for  turning  ivory,  wood,  iron,  and  other  substances,  so  as  to  shape 
them  to  the  views  of  the  artist,  was  originally  an  instrument  of  rude 
construction,  invented  by  Talus,  a  grandson  of  Daedalus,  about  1240  B.  c. 
Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  to  Theodore  of  Samos.  Modern  lathe  engines 
frequently  cost  thousands  of  pounds. 

FjATIN  LANGUAGE.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  languages  of  Europe,  and 
from  which  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  It  is  named  alter  the 
Latini,  and  the  Latini  from  Latinus,  their  king.  A  vast  portion  of  our  most 
beautiful  and  expressive  words  are  derived  from  the  Latin.  It  ceased  to  be 
spoken  in  Italy,  about  A.  D.  581 ;  and  was  first  taught  in  England  by  Adel- 
mus,  brother  of  Ina,  in  the  seventh  century.  During  six  or  seven  hundred 
years  the  Latin  tongue  prevailed  in  all  public  proceedings  from  the  Tweed 
to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Danube  to  Mount  Atlas,  and  has  been  more 
or  less  retained  even  to  this  day.  In  England  it  was  ordered  to  be  discon- 
tinued in  conveyancing,  and  in  courts  of  law,  in  1731. 

LATITUDE.  First  determined  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  about  170  B.  c.  It  is 
the  extent  of  the  earth  or  of  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equator  to 
either  pole.  Maupertuis,  in  latitude  66.20,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude, 
and  made  it  69.493;  he  measured  it  in  1737.  Swanberg,  in  1803,  made  it 
69.292.  At  the  equator,  in  1744,  four  astronomers  made  it  68. 732;  and 
Lambton,  in  latitude  13,  made  it  68.743.  Mudge,  in  England,  made  it 
69.148.  Cassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it  69.12;  and  Biot, 
68.769  ;  while  a  recent  measure  in  Spain  makes  it  but  68.63 — less  than  at 
the  equator;  and  contradicts  all  the  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a  pro- 
late spheroid,  which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernouilli,  Euler,  and  others, 
while  it  has  more  generally  been  regarded  as  an  oblate  spheroid. 

LATIUM.  Now  the  city  of  Romania;  built  by  Latinus,  king  of  Janiculum, 
who  gave  his  name  to  the  country,  calling  his  subjects  Latines,  901  B.  c. 
Laurentum  was  the  capital  of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latinus,  Lavinium 
under  ^Eneas,  and  Alba  under  Ascanius.  The  Latins,  though  originally 
known  only  among  their  neighbors,  soon  rose  in  rank  when  Romulua  had 
founded  the  city  of  Rome  in  their  country. 


LAW]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  447 

LATTER-DAT  SAINTS.  A  new  sect,  whose  principles  aro  variously  repre- 
sented. By  some  we  are  told  that  their  tenets  do  not  vary  mucli  from  those 
of  the  Church  of  England,  the  Scriptures,  without  mysticism,  being  the 
foundation  of  them.  By  others  it  is  said  that  they  assume  the  power  of 
curing  the  sick,  resisting  the  operations  of  the  deadliest  poisons,  and  work 
ing  miracles  of  several  kinds ;  and  maintain  that  this  is  the  last  generatioi 
of  men.  They  have  appeared  in  Hertfordshire,  Lancashire,  and  Yorkshire 
and  an  address  was  published  by  them  at  Manchester,  in  May,  1840.  Great 
numbers  of  these  fanatics  have  lately  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 

LAWS,  ANCIENT.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  1807 
B.  c.,  were  the  first  Attic  laws,  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for  the  Athe- 
nians, 623  B.  0. ;  but  the  latter  code  was  afterwards  superseded  by  that  of 
Solon,  578  B.  c.  The  Spartan  laws  of  Lyourgus  were  made  884  B.  c. ;  they 
remained  in  full  force  for  700  years,  and  are  calculated  to  raise  our  admira- 
tion, as  well  by  their  singularity,  as  by  the  effect  they  had  in  forming  a  race 
of  men  totally  different  from  all  others  living  in  civilized  society.  The  Roman 
laws  were  founded  on  those  of  Phoroneus.  The  Gregorian  and  Hermoginian 
codes  were  published  in  A.  D.  290.  The  Theodosian  code  in  435.  The  Jus- 
tinian code,  in  529,  and  the  digest,  in  533. — Blair.  See  Civil  Law. 

LAWS,  BRITISH.  The  British  laws  of  earliest  date  were  translated  into  the 
Saxon,  in  A.  D.  590.  The  Saxon  laws  of  Ina  were  published  in  709.  Alfred's 
code  of  laws,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  Blngland,  waa 
compiled  in  887,  but  in  use  previously.  Edward  the  Confessor  promulgated 
his  laws,  in  1065.  Stephen's  charter  of  general  liberties,  1136;  Henry  II. 'a 
confirmation  of  it,  1154  and  1175.  The  maritime  laws  of  Richard  I.,  1194. 
See  article  Oleron.  Magna  Charta,  by  king  John,  1215.  Its  confirmation 
by  Henry  III.,  1216,  et  seq.  See  Magna  Charta  and  Forests,  Charter  of  the. 
Celebrated  declaration  made  by  the  lord  chief  justice  of  the  King's  Bench, 
'  That  no  fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against  the  real  truth  of  the 
fact  as  to  prevent  the  execution  of  justice,"  May  21,  1784. — Lord  Mansfield. 

LAW'S  BUBBLE.  The  most  ruinous  speculation  of  modern  times.  The  pro- 
jector, John  Law,  of  Edinburgh,  raised  himself  to  the  dignity  of  comptroller- 
general  of  the  finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme  for  esta- 
blishing a  bank,  an  East  India,  and  a  Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of 
which  the  national  debt  of  France  was  to  be  paid  off.  He  first  offered  his 
plan  to  Victor  Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia,  who  told  him  he  was  not  powerful 
enough  to  ruin  himself.  The  French  ministry  accepted  it  in  1710;  and  in 
1716,  he  opened  a  bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the  protection  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  regent  of  France ;  and  most  of  the  people  of  property  of  every 
rank  in  that  kingdom,  seduced  by  the  prospect  of  immense  gains,  subscribed 
both  in  the  bank  and  the  companies.  In  1718  Law's  was  declared  a  Royal 
bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of  twenty-fold  the  original  value,  so 
that  in  1719,  they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times  the  amount  of  all  the 
current  specie  in  France.  But  the  following  year  this  great  fabric  of  false 
credit  fell  to  the  ground,  and  almost  overthrew  the  French  government, 
ruining  tens  of  thousands  of  families.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  des- 
perate game  was  played  by  the  South  Sea  directors  in  England,  in  the  same 
fatal  year,  1720. — Hist,  of  France,  Nouv.  Diet. 

LAWYERS.  The  pleaders  of  the  bar,  called  barristers,  are  said  to  have  been 
first  appointed  by  Edward  I.  or  in  his  reign  1291.  Serjeants,  the  highest 
members  of  the  bar,  are  alone  permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of  Common 
Pleas.  The  first  king's  counsel  under  the  degree  of  serjeant  was  sir  Francis 
Bacon,  in  1604.  There  are  about  12uO  barristers  in  England:  and  the  num- 
ber of  lawyers  in  England  and  Wales,  counting  London  and  country  attor- 
neys, solicitors,  &c.,  is  about  14,000.  A  list  of  19,527  practising  lawyers  in 
the  United  States,  was  published  iy  New  York.  1850. 


448  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [LEA 

LEAD.  Is  found  in  various  countries,  and  is  abundant  in  various  parts  of  Bri- 
tain, and  in  some  places  richly  mixed  with  silver  ore.  The  famous  Clydes- 
dale mines  were  discovered  in  1513.  The  lead  mines  of  Cumberland  and 
Derbyshire  yield  about  15,000  tons  per  annum.  The  finest  sort  of  black  lead, 
that  most  fit  for  pencils,  is  produced  only  at  Borrowdale,  but  there  in  great 
quantities.  Leaden  pipes  for  the  conveyance  of  water  were  brought  into  use 
in  1236. 

LEAGUES,  POLITICAL  AND  RELIGIOUS.  The  League  of  the  Public  Good, 
was  one  between  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon,  and  other 
princes  against  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1464.  The  League  of  Cambray  was 
entered  into  in  1508.  The  Holy  League  against  Louis  XII.,  1510.  The 
League  of  Smalcald,  1529.  The  League  of  the  Beggars  (the  Protestants  so 
called,  though  Catholics  joined  the  league)  to  oppose  the  institution  of  the, 
Inquisition  in  Flanders,  1560.  The  League,  so  denominated  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, to  prevent  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who  was  then  of  the 
reformed  religion,  was  commenced  in  1576.  The  League  of  Wurtzburg, 
1610.  League  against  the  emperor,  1626.  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in 
Scotland,  against  the  episcopal  government  of  the  church,  and  the  regal 
authority,  13  Charles  I.,  1638.  League  of  Augsburg,  1686. 

LEAP-YEAR,  OR  BISSEXTILE.  The  Leap-year  originated  with  the  astrono- 
mers of  Julius  Caesar,  45  B.  c.  They  fixed  the  solar  year  at  365  days  6  hours, 
comprising,  as  they  thought,  the  period  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  another ; 
the  six  hours  were  set  aside,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years,  forming  a  day,  the 
fourth  year  was  made  to  consist  of  366  days.  The  day  thus  added  was 
called  intercalary,  and  was  added  to  February.  See  Bissextile.  This  almost 
perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  through- 
out the  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.,  in  1582,  when 
the  calendar  was  altered  to  its  present  state.  See  Calendar.  The  difference 
between  365  days  6  hours,  and  365  days  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds, 
and  6  decimals,  which  last  is  the  true  length  of  the  astronomical  year,  in 
the  course  of  years  caused  1700  and  1800  not  to  be  leap-years,  nor  will  1900 
be  a  leap-year ;  but  the  year  2000  will  be  one.  See  Julian  Year,  Gregorian 
Calendar,  &c. 

LEARNING  AND  THE  ARTS.  These  were  carried  to  their  height  among  the 
Greeks  during  the  fourth  century  B.  c. ;  and  with  the  Romans  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  they  declined 
until  the  refugees  from  Greece  caused  them  to  revive  in  Italy,  about  A.D. 
1250.  Learning  had  been  found  so  to  obstruct  the  tyranny  of  the  emperors, 
that  mathematicians  and  philosophers  were,  by  several  decrees,  banished  from 
Rome,  A.  D.  16,  and  89,  et  seq.  After  the  dark  ages,  came  Brunette,  Latini, 
and  numerous  enlightened  men  ;  and  Leo  X.,  about  1513,  gave  vast  encou- 
ragement to  literature  and  the  arts. 

The  illustrious  Medici  family  greatly  promoted  learning  in  Italy,  about  1550. 
— Fontana.  And  about  this  time  literature  began  to  flourish  in  France, 
Germany,  and  England  The  reign  of  Anne  has  been  called  by  some  the 
"golden,"  by  others,  the  "  Augustan  age"  of  English  literature. 

LEATHER.  It  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of 
manufactured  hides  were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c.,  by  all  ancient  nations. 
The  Gordian  knot  was  made  of  leather  thongs,  330  B.  c.  The  ancients  un- 
derstood the  art  of  tanning  leather,  and  it  was  practised  early  in  England, 
and  great  improvements  made  in  it  up  to  1795.  Leather  is  converted  into 
many  uses:  a  leathern  cannon  was  proved  at  Edinburgh,  fired  three  times, 
and  found  to  answer,  Oct.  28,  1788. — Phillips.  The  duty  on  leather  produced 
annually  in  England,  450,000i,  and  in  Ireland,  about  50,l)00i  It  was  abo- 
lished in  both  countries,  May  29, 1 830. 


l.EPJ  DICTIONARY    OK    DATES.  449 

LEGHORN'.  Livorno.  This  city  suffered  dreadfully  by  an  earthquake  in  1741. 
It  was  entered  by  the  French  army  in  the  revolutionary  war,  July  17,  1796, 
but  the  immense  amount  of  British  property  then  there  had  been  previously 
removed.  Leghorn  was  evacuated  by  the  French  in  1799,  and  was  retaken 
the  following  year.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  British  and  Ital- 
ian allied  forces,  in  Dec.  1813. 

LEGION.  The  Legio  was  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  was  first 
formed  by  Romulus,  under  whom  it  consisted  of  3000  foot  and  300  horse, 
about  750  B.  0.  When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy,  216  B.  c ,  the  legion  consisted 
of  5000  soldiers;  and  under  Marius,  in  88  B.  c.,  it  was  6200  soldiers,  besides 
700  horse.  There  were  ten  and  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen  legions  kept 
at  Rome.  Augustus  maintained  a  standing  army  of  twenty-five  legions, 
about  5  B.  c. ;  and  the  peace  establishment  of  Adrian  was  thirty  of  these 
formidable  brigades.  The  peace  of  Britain  was  protected  by  three  legions. 
A  Legion  was  divided  into  10  cohorts,  and  every  cohort  into  6  centuries,  with 
a  vexillum,  or  standard  guarded  by  1 0  men. 

LEGION  OP  HONOR.  A  military  order  in  France,  embracing  all  distinctions 
in  the  army,  and  including  in  its  incorporation  civil  officers,  and  all  such 
individuals  as  have  eminently  distinguished  themselves  for  services  to  the 
state,  military  deeds,  and  for  public  virtue;  instituted  by  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, when  first  consul,  May  18,  1802.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon 
family,  Louis  XVIII.  confirmed  this  order,  April  1814. 

LEIPSIC.  Famous  for  its  university  and  its  fair.  Here  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
king  of  Sweden,  defeated  the  Imperialists,  Sept  7,  1631.  The  siege  of  Leip- 
sic  was  sustained  in  1637.  Leipsic  was  taken  by  the  Prussian  army,  1756.  In 
the  same  year,  the  Austrians  laid  siege  to  Leipsic  in  vain,  but  they  took  it 
two  years  afterwarda  though  they  did  not  retain  it  long.  In  the  late  war? 
it  has  frequently  fallen  into  adverse  hands.  See  next  article. 
LEIPSIC,  BATTLE  OP.  One  of  the  greatest,  most  sanguinary,  and  decisive  o' 
modern  times,  between  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  the, 
one  side,  and  the  Austrian,  Russian,  and  Prussian  armies  on  the  other ;  tin 
former  160,000,  and  the  latter  240,000  strong.  This  great  battle  was  los> 
by  the  French,  chiefly  owing  to  17  German  battalions,  their  Saxon  allies, 
turning  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement.  80.000  men  perished  in 
the  field,  of  whom  more  than  40,000  were  French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  ol 
artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  of  the  allies  was  followed  by 
the  capture,  next  day,  of  Leipsic,  and  of  the  rear-guard  of  the  French  army. 
The  king  of  Saxony  and  his  family  were  also  made  prisoners ;  and  the  em- 
peror of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of  Swe- 
den, entered 'Leipsic  immediately  after  the  battle,  Oct.  16  and  .18,  1813. 
LENT.  The  quadragesimal  fast  observed  in  the  Catholic  church  from  Ash- 
Wednesday  (which  see)  to  Easter-day,  and  supposed  to  be  of  apostolic  institu- 
tion. The  primitive  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the  Sunday 
which  is  now  called  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent;  and  the  four  days  beginning 
were  added  by  pope  Felix  III.,  in  the  year  487,  in  order  that  the  number  ol 
fasting  days  should  amount  to  forty.  Lent  was  first  observed  in  England  by 
command  of  Ercombert,  king  of  Kent,  in  640. — Baker's  Ghron. 
LEPANTO,  BATTLE  OK.  The  great  naval  engagement  between  the  combined 
fleets  of  Spain,  Venice,  and  Pius  V.,  and  the  whole  maritime  force  of  the 
Turks.  Don  John  of  Austria  commanded  the  Christian  fleet,  which  consisted 
of  206  galleys,  and  30,000  men.  while  the  Turks  had  250  galleys  of  which, 
after  a  dreadful  conflict,  they  saved  but  100,  losing  30,000  men  in  killed 
and  prisniers ;  and  thus  was  prostrated  for  a  time  the  naval  power  of  Turkey, 
Oct.  7,  1571.—  Vouaire. 


450  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [LEX 

LETTERS.  Those  of  the  alphahet  were  invented  by  Memnon,  the  Egyptian 
1822  B.  c.—  Usher,  Blair.  The  first  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew 
alphabet  was  aleph,  called  by  the  Greeks  alpha,  and  abbreviated  by  other 
nations  to  A.  The  letters,  both  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  so 
vary  in  number  and  sound,  that  a  volume  might  be  written  in  describing  the 
alphabets  which  are  known.  See  Alphabet. 

LETTERS  OF  MARQUE  AND  REPRISAL.  These  are  licenses,  first  issued  in 
England  by  Edward  I.,  for  the  seizure  of  the  enemy's  vessels  and  for  repri- 
sal and  retaliation  upon  the  enemy  on  the  sea. — Rymer's  Fcedera.  They  were 
first  granted  in  1295. — Baker's  Ohron.  They  are  usually  granted  in  time  ol 
war  to  private  armed  ships,  and  do  great  mischief  to  the  commerce  of 
belligerent  nations. — Powel. 

LETTERS  TIE  CACHET.  These  instruments  of  oppression  were  so  much  in 
use  by  the  French  government  previously  to  the  Revolution,  that  one  of  the 
earliest  acts  of  the  National  Assembly  was  to  denounce  them,  and  decree 
their  abolition,  and  the  abolition  of  arbitrary  imprisonment,  Nov.  1,  1789. — 
Hist,  of  the  French  Reool. 

LEUCTRA,  BATTLE  OF.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  ancient  history,  fought  at 
the  village  of  Leuctra,  between  Platsea  and  Thespia,  between  the  Thebans, 
under  Epaminondas,  and  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotns,  king  of  Sparta, 
the  victory  being  with  the  former.  In  this  battle,  Cleombrotus  and  4000 
Lacedemonians  were  slain,  and  not  more  than  300  Thebans ;  July  8,  37 
B.  c.  From  this  day  the  Spartans  lost  their  preponderance  in  Greece, 
which  they  had  maintained  for  about  500  years,  and  it  passed  to  the 
Thebans. — Plutarch.  Xenophon  says  1400,  out  of  whom  400  were  Spartans. 
LEVELLERS.  Men  whose  purpose  is  to  destroy  superiority,  and  bring  all 
things  to  a  level  or  equality. — Collier.  There  were  various  associations  of 
this  kind.  The  most  extraordinary  was  that  of  which  Muncer  and  Storck 
were  the  chiefs.  These  two  began  by  pulling  down  all  the  images  in  the 
churches  which  Luther  had  left  standing ;  and  then  finding  an  army  in  their 
followers,  they  became  levellers,  and  Muncer  openly  taught  that  all  distinc- 
tions of  rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights  of  mankind.  At  the  head  ol 
40,000  men,  he  wrote  to  the  sovereign  princes  in  Germany  and  to  the  ma- 
gistrates of  cities  to  resign  their  authority ;  and  on  his  march  to  enforce 
these  principles  of  equality  and  reformation,  his  followers  ravaged  the  coun- 
try. The  landgrave  of  Hesse  at  length  defeated  him:  7000  of  the  enthusi- 
asts fell  in  battle,  and  the  rest,  with  their  leader,  fled ;  ne  was  taken  and  be- 
headed at  Mulhausen,  iu  1525. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  At  the  period  of  the  French 
Revolution  some  knots  of  persons  styled  levellers  appeared  in  England. 
LEWES,  BATTLK  OF.  Between  Henry  III.,  king  of  England,  and  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  and  the  rebellious  barons,  fought  May  14,  1264.  In  tlrs 
battle  the  royal  army  was  overthrown,  and  the  king,  his  brother,  Richard 
king  of  the  Romans,  his  son,  and  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I., 
were  taken  prisoners.  One  division  of  four  of  Moutfort's  army,  a  body  ol 
Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of  prince  Edward,  who  pursuing 
the  fugitives  too  far,  caused  the  battle  to  be  lost.  From  this  time  Montfort 
used  his  power  so  despotically  as  to  be  in  the  end  the  cause  of  his  own  de- 
struction. See  Evesham. 

LEXICOGRAPHY.  Morrison  mentions  a  standard  dictionary  in  the  Chinese 
language  of  40,000  hieroglyphic  characters  as  having  been  compiled  1100 
B.  c.  Numerous  dictionaries  appeared  in  P]urope  about  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Calipini's  dictionary  ap- 
peared about  A.  D.  1500.  The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  in  1759. 
See  article,  Dictionary. 

LEXINGTON,  BATTLK  OF.  This  battle  claims  distinction  as  being  the  first 
fought  hptwf-pn  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  w 


Lin]  DICTIONARY    OF    1TVTES.  451 

•if  independence.  The  British  troops,  under  Major  Pitcairn.  sent  from  Bos- 
ton to  destroy  the  American  stores  at  Lexington,  were  attacked  by  ilio 
Americans  and  273  of  them  were  killed  and  wounded,  April  19,  1775. 

LEYDKN.  SIEGE  OP.  A  memorable  siege  sustained  against  the  armies  of  Spain, 
and  d  iring  which  6000  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence,  A.  D. 
1574.  In  commemoration  of  this  long  siege,  a  university  was  founded,  ce- 
lebrated for  its  colleges  and  medicinal  garden,  and  valuable  library,  1575. 
The  university  was  almost  destroyed  by  the  catastrophe  of  a  vessel  ladec 
with  10,000  Ibs.  weight  of  gunpowder  blowing  up,  and  demolishing  a  large 
part  of  the  town,  and  killing  numbers  of  people,  Jan.  1807. 

LIBEL.  By  the  laws  of  Rome  (those  of  the  XII.  Tables),  libels  which  aflfectec 
the  reputation  of  another,  were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  Britisli  law 
whatever  renders  a  man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man  in  the  opinion  or  esteent 
of  the  world,  is  deemed  a  libel.  "  The  greater  the  truth,  the  greater  the 
li^el,"  the  well-known  law  maxim  of  a  high  authority,  is  now  disputed. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  libel  were,  viz.:  Lord  George  Gor- 
don's libel  on  the  queen  of  France,  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment for  five  years  and  fined  500£.,  Jan.  28,  1788.  The  Times'  libel  on 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.,  Feb.  1790.  The  Morning  Post's 
libel  on  lady  Elizabeth  Lambert,  damages  4000/.  July  9,  1792.  Peltier's  libel 
on  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  in  L'Ambigtt,  of  which  he  was  found  guilty,  Feb. 
21,  1803.  Act  against  blasphemous  and  seditious  libels,  punishing  the  of- 
fender by  banishment  for  the  second  offence,  passed  in  England  1820.  Act 
regulating  the  law  of  libel  in  England,  July  1830.  By  statute  in  New  York 
and  Massachusetts,  the  truth  may  be  a  justification,  if  the  publication  was 
made  with  good  motives  and  for  justifiable  ends. 

LIBERIA.  Colony  in  West  Africa,  founded  by  colored  people  sent  out  by 
American  Colonization  Society,  1822;  Jehudi  Ashmun  was  the  first  supei- 
intendent  of  the  colony;  new  Constitution — Roberts  elected  president — 
Oct.  6,  1 847  ;  ratification  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  Au- 
gust 1,  1849. 

LIBERTINES.  A  sect  distinguished  by  its  monstrous  doctrines.  Its  heads 
were  persons  named  Quintin  and  Corin.  They  maintained  that  whatever 
was  done  by  men  was  done  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  that  there  was  no 
sin  but  to  those  who  thought  so ;  that  to  live  without  any  doubt  or  scruple 
was  to  return  to  the  state  of  innocency ;  that  the  soul  died  with  the  body 
that  heaven  was  a  dream,  and  hell  a  phantom;  reh'gion  a  mere  state  trick1 
with  many  other  monstrous  opinions.  This  sect  arose  in  A.  D.  1525;  and 
the  term  libertine  has  been  held  in  a  bad  sense  ever  since. 

LIBRARY.  The  first  public  library  of  which  we  have  any  certain  account  ra 
history  was  founded  at  Athens,  by  Pisistratus,  544  B.  0.  The  second  of  any 
note  was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  B.  c.  It  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed when  Julius  Caesar  set  fire  to  Alexandria,  47  B.  C.  400,000  valuable 
books  iu  MS.  are  said  to  have  been  lost  by  this  catastrophe. — Blair.  The 
first  private  library  was  the  property  of  Aristotle,  334  B.  c. — Strabo.  The 
first  library  at  Rome  was  instituted  167  B.  0.:  it  was  brought  frcm  Ma- 
cedonia. The  library  of  Apellicon  was  sent  to  Rome,  by  Sylla,  from  Athens, 
86  B.  c.  This  library  was  enriched  by  the  original  manuscripts  of  Aristotle's 
works.  A  library  was  founded  at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  335 ;  it  was  destroyed  in  477.  A  second  library  was  formed 
from  the  remains  of  the  first,  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy's  successors,  con- 
sisting of  700,000  volumes,  which  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens, 
who  heated  the  water  of  their  baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books  instead 
of  wood,  by  command  of  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens,  in  642. — No-ito. 
Diet.  Ifixt.  Pope  Gregory  I.  ordered  that  the  library  of  th«  Palatine 


452 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[LIB 


Apollo  should  be  committed  to  the  flames  under  the  notion  of  confining  the 
clergy  to  the  attention  of  the  Scriptures  From  that  time,  all  ancient  learn- 
ing which  was  not  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  church,  has  beet 
emphatically  distinguished  as  profane  in  opposition  to  sacred.  The  earlf 
Chinese  literature  suffered  a  similar  misfortune  to  that  of  the  west  in  tht 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library ;  their  emperor,  Chee-wang-tee, 
ordered  all  writings  to  be  destroyed,  that  everything  might  begin  anew  as 
from  his  reign ;  and  books  and  records  were  afterwards  recovered  by  suc- 
ceeding emperors  with  great  difficulty. 

rJBRARIISS  ix  EUROPE.  There  are  in  Europe  383  public  libraries,  contain- 
ing over  10,000  volumes  each.  The  number  of  books  which  are  thus  pub- 
Holy  accessible  are  in  this  proportion,  viz.:  in  Saxony,  for  every  100  inhabit- 
ants, there  are  417  books;  in  Denmark,  412;  in  Bavaria,  339;  in  Tuscany, 
361;  in  Prussia,  200;  in  Austria,  167;  in  France,  129;  in  Belgium,  95 ;  in 
Great  Britain,  53.  The  first  public  library  in  Europe,  before  the  invention 
of  printing,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  of 
England,  as  early  as  1341.  The  first  in  Italy  was  founded  by  Nicholas 
Niccoli,  one  of  the  great  restorers  of  learning ;  at  his  death  he  left  his  li- 
brary for  the  use  of  the  public,  A.  D.  1436.  It  was  enlarged  by  Cosmo  de 
Medici.  The  first  permanent  libraries  were,  Turin  Univ.,  1436 ;  Vienna, 
(imperial,)  1440  ;  Vatican,  1465 ;  &c.  See  talk,  below. 

Jn  the  following  tables,  the  libraries  containing  leas  than  10,OCO  volumes 
each  (of  which  there  are,  in  France  alone,  at  least  seventy  or  eighty,)  are 
not  taken  into  the  account : 


France  has  170  Public  Li- 
braries, containing 
Belgium  has  14  do. 
Prussia     "    44  do. 
Austria     "   48  do. 


4,000,000  vols. 


538.000  "  Denmark  "  5 
2,400,000  "  Tuscapy  "  9 
2,400,000  "  G.  Britain  "  83 

Taking  the  capital  cities  we  find  the  following  results : 


Saxony     has   6    containing  654.000  vols. 


Bavaria 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


1,267,000 
645,000 
411,000 

1,771,498 


Paris    has    9    Public 

braries,  containing 
Brussels  has  2  do. 
Berlin      "    2  do. 
Vienna     "    8  do. 
Milan       "    2  do. 


Li- 


1,474,000  vols. 
143.500  " 
6311,000  " 
458,000  -1 
230,000  u 

Arranging  these  libraries  according  to  their  extent,  they  vuld  stand  as 
follows : — 

Vf>la. 


Dresden 


has  4  containing  840,500  vols. 

Munich          "2       "  800000    " 

Copenhagen  "8       "  657,000    u 

Florence         "6        "  818.000    " 

London          "4       "  490,500    " 


Founded. 


founded.    Vol*. 


Paris  (1)  National  Lib., 

1505 

824,000 

Milan,  Brerea  Lib.,              1797 

170,000 

Municn,  Royal  Lib., 

1550 

600,000 

Paris  (8),  St  Genevieve,     1624 

150,000 

Petersburg  imperial  Lib., 

446,000 

Darmstadt,  Grand  Ducal,    1760 

150,000 

London,  British  Museum, 

1753 

435.000 

Florence,  Magliabecchian,  1714 

150,000 

Copenhagen,  Royal  Lib., 

1550 

412.000 

Naples,  Koyal  Lib., 

150,000 

Berlin,  Koyal  Lib., 

1650 

410,000 

Brussels,  Koyal  Lib.,           1839 

1H8,500 

Vienna,  Imperial  Lib., 

1440 

818,000 

Kome(l),  Casanate  Lib.,     1760 

120.000 

Dresden,  Koyal  Lib., 

1656 

800,000 

Hague,  Koyal  Lib., 

100,000 

Madrid  National  Lib., 

1718  • 

200.000 

Paris  (4\'  Mazarine  Lib,      1661 

100,000 

Wolfenbuttel,  Ducal  Lib., 

1604 

200,000 

Rome  (2),  Vatican  Lib.,       1465 

100.000 

Stuttgard,  Royal  Lib., 

1765 

187,000 

Parma,  Ducal  Lib.,              1760 

100.000 

Paris  (2)  Arsenal  Lib., 

1781 

180.000 

The  chief  University  Libraries  may  be  ranked  in  the  following  order:  — 

Founded. 

Vols. 

Founded. 

Volt. 

Gottingen,  Univ'ty  Lib., 

1786 

860.000  Vienna,  University  Lib.,        1777 

115.000 

Breslau,  University  Lib., 

1811 

850,000  !  Leipsic,  University  Lib.,         1544 

112,000 

Ox  i-rd.  B-xlleian  Lib., 

1597 

220,000   Copenhagen,  University  Lib.,  1780 

110,000 

Tubingen,  Utiiv'ty  Lib., 

1562 

800,000  :  Turin,  University  Lib.,           1486 

110,000 

Munich.  University  Lib., 

200,000   Louvairif,  University  Lib  ,     1689 

105.000 

Hcidi-lburg,  tlniv'ty  Lib., 

1708 

200.000    Dublin.  Trinity  College  Lib.. 

104.2S9 

Cambridge,  Public  Lib., 

1484 

166.724  ;  U|>sal,  University  Lib.,           1621 

100,00(1 

Bologna,  University  Lib., 

1«90 

150.000   KHangen,  University  Lib.,      1748 

100,000 

Prague,  University  L'b., 

1777 

180,000    Edinburgh,  University  Lib.,  1582 

90,864 

LIB] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


453 


Tho  largest  Libraries  in  Great  Britain  are  those  of  the 
Founded.    Volx. 


1  British  Museum,  London,  1753    4-3.5,000 
1598    220,000 


Eoyal  Institution,  London, 
London  Institution, 


Founded. 


2  Bodleian,  Oxford, 

8  University,  Cambridge,  1484  166.724  i  London  Library, 

4  Advocates.  Edinburgh,  1682  148,000  :  Sion  College,  &c. 

6  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1601  104,289  I 

LIBRARIES  IN  THB  UNITED  STATES.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  chief 
public  and  college  libraries  in  the  United  States  in  1849,  was  stated  to  be 
1,294,000.  The  number  of  libraries  is  182.  Of  these,  43  contain  ovei 
10,000  volumes  each;  9  over  20,000;  and  only  2  over  50,000.  In  1849  th« 
precedence  of  the  largest  as  to  numbers  stood  thus  • 

Vote.  [  Vol*. 

6  Mercantile  Library,  New  York,   82,OC<! 
72,000     ' 
60,COO 
50,000 


1  Harvard  College,  including  Divin- 

ity and  Law  Schools, 

2  Philadelphia  and  Loganian  Lib., 
8  Boston  Atherueum, 

4  Library  of  Congress, 

6  New  York  Society  Library, 


50,000 
32,000 


7  Georgetown  College,  D.  C., 

8  Brown  University, 

9  New  York  State  Library, 


10  Yale  College, 

11  Astor  Library,  New  York, 


25.000 
24.000 
24.000 
21,000 
20,000 


The  Astor  Library  is  scarcely  yet  opened,  and  the  building  is  not  yet  erected. 
The  Smithsonian  Institution  at  "Washington  has  not  yet  commenced  collecting 
its  library.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  School  District  libraries  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  in  1849,  was  1,338.848.  There  are  10,621  school  dis- 
tricts, and  1,785  incorporated  or  private  schools.  The  mercantile  libraries, 
chiefly  for  merchants'  clerks,  in  the  large  cities,  are  of  comparatively  recent 
date  and  of  great  utility.  That  in  New  York  was  founded  in  1820,  and 
contains  32,000  volumes;  in  Boston,  founded  1820,  contains  7,637  volumes; 
in  Philadelphia,  founded  1822,  contains  12,200  volumes.  There  are  similar 
ones  in  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  Troy,  &c. 

The  public  libraries  containing  over  5000  volumes,  were  distributed  (accord- 
ing to  evidence  in  the  British  Museum  Report  in  1849)  thus : — 


VoU. 

Vote. 

1  Alabama,  has  1  Public  Library.      6,000 

Brought  up,              84, 

453,609 

8  Columbia,  Dist  of,  has      2,          53,000 

12  New  Jersey,              has    8, 

28.500 

8  Connecticut,              "       6,          81,449 

13  New  York, 

12, 

157.411 

4  Georgia,                      "        1,          13,000 

14  North  Carolina, 

1, 

10,000 

6  Kentucky, 

1,            7,000 

15  Ohio, 

1, 

80,497 

6  Louisiana, 

1,            5,500 

16  Pennsylvania, 

H 

159,21)0 

7  Main*, 

8,          88,860 

17  Khode  Island, 

8, 

87.185 

8  Maryland, 

1,          12,000 

18  South  Carolina, 

9, 

80,000 

9  Massachusetts, 

14,        200,000   19  Tennessee, 

2 

16,00(1 

10  Missouri, 

2,          14,800   20  Vermont,                      "      2, 

16,254 

11  New  Hampshire,               2,          22,500   21  Virginia,                      "      4, 

41.000 

•84        458,609  Total    •    -    -    72,       979,856 

The  above  estimate  is  perhaps  below  the  mark,  and  does  not  include  school, 
parish,  and  town  libraries,  which  are  numerous,  but  of  moderate  extent. 
The  city  of  Paris  alone  has  1,474,000  volumes,  in  large  public  libraries ;  i.  e. 
half  as  many  again  as  the  whole  of  the  United  States.  See  Parl.  Rtp.  Brit. 
MILS.  ;  Prof.  JewetCs  Hep.  Smithsonian  Inst. ;  G.  Livermore  in  N.  Amer.  Rev , 
July  1850,  &c. 

I IEGE.  Formerly  called,  on  account  of  the  number  of  its  churches  and  con- 
vents, "  the  paradise  of  priests,  the  purgatory  of  men,  and  the  hell  of  wo- 
men." In  the  time  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  A.D.  1461,  Liege  was  a  large 
and  wealthy  place,  and  the  prince  bishop  was  a  prelate  of  almost  sovereign 
power.  Taken  by  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1702 , 
and  by  the  French  and  other  powers,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it 
was  annexed  to  France.  Liege  was  incorporated  with  the  Netherlands,  is 
1814. 


454  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  ("Lin 

LIGHT-HOUSES  They  were  erected  by  all  the  ancient  uommercial  people, 
and  called  Tors,  or  pillars,  as  those  of  Hercules,  near  Gibraltar;  that  of 
Pharos,  at  Alexandria,  550  feet  high,  and  visible  forty-two  miles;  the  Pharos 
of  Messina ;  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  &c.  There  are  forty-two  round  the 
coasts  of  England,  fifteen  on  the  east  coast,  thirteen  in  the  English  channel, 
and  fourteen  in  the  Irish  channel.  There  are  seventeen  on  the  Scottish 
coasts,  and  twenty-six  on  the  Irish  coasts. 

LIGURIAN  REPUBLIC.  Founded  in  June,  1802,  upon  the  ruins  of  that  of 
Genoa.  The  doge  of  this  new  republic  was  solemnly  invested  at  Genoa, 
August  10,  1802.  The  Ligurian  republic  was  incorporated  with  France,  it 
having  demanded  a  union  with  the  latter  country,  May  25,  1805.  It  merge! 
into  tlie  kingdom  of  Italy. 

LIMA.  See  America  and  Columbia.  In  1524,  Pizarro,  marching  through  Peru, 
was  struck  with  the  beauty  of  the  valley  of  Rimac,  and  there  he  founded  a 
city,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,  or  City  of  the  Kings. 
This  Spanish  name  it  retains  in  all  legal  deeds,  but  it  is  better  known  aa 
Lima.  Awful  earthquakes  occurred  here,  since  solemnly  commemorated  by 
annual  festivals,  A.D.  1586,  1630,  1687,  and  October  28,  1746.  In  the  last  it 
was  almosr  totally  destroyed,  as  well  as  Callao,  which  see. 

LINEN.  A  fabric  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  ves- 
tures of  fine  linen. —  Gen.  xli.  42.  This  article  was  first  manufactured  in 
England  by  Flemish  weavers,  under  the  protection  of  Henry  III.,  1253, 
Before  this  period  woollen  shirts  were  generally  worn.  A  company  of  linen 
weavers  established  itself  in  London  in  1368;  and  the  art  of  staining  linen 
became  known  in  1579.  A  colony  of  Scots,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
other  Presbyterians  who  fled  from  persecution  in  that  country  in  the  suc- 
ceeding inglorious  reigns,  planted  themselves  in  the  northeast  part  of  Ire- 
land, and  there  established  the  linen  manufacture.  It  was  liberally  encou- 
raged by  the  lord  deputy  Wentworth,  in  1634.  Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread, 
and  yarn,  from  Ireland,  were  permitted  to  be  exported  duty  free,  1696. 
This  law  gave  rise  to  the  subsequently  improved  state  of  the  manufacture 
there.  The  Irish  Linen  Board  was  established  in  1711 ;  the  Linen-hall,  Dub- 
lin, was  opened  1728;  the  board  was  abolished  in  1828.  Dunfermline  in 
Fifeshire,  Dundee  in  Angusshire,  and  Barnesley  in  Yorkshire,  are,  in  Great 
Britain,  chief  seats  of  the  linen  manufacture. 

LTNN-dSAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  Botany  of  the  eminent  Linne,  a  Swede, 
or,  as  his  name  is  Latinized,  Linnaeus,  was  commenced  about  1725-30 ;  and 
his  first  great  work  was  a  dictionary  of  7300  plants  arranged  in  classes, 
orders,  and  geaera ;  he  classed  the  plants  according  to  the  number  and  situ- 
ation of  the  sexual  parts,  and  made  the  flower  and  fruit  the  test  of  his  vari- 
ous genera.  The  Linnsean  Society  in  London  was  instituted  in  1788,  and 
was  incorporated  March  26,  1802. 

LISBON.  The  Moors  are  said  to  have  given  the  name  of  Lisboa  to  this  city 
when  they  conquered  it,  A.D.  716.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by 
Emanuel,  1506.  Lisbon  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  November 
1,  1755.  See  Earthquakes.  It  became  a  point  of  the  late  war,  and  the  court 
fled  to  the  Brazils,  November,  1807,  in  which  month  (the  30th)  the  French 
army  under  Junot  entered  Lisbon,  and  held  possession  of  it  until  the  battle 
of  Vimeira,  in  which  they  were  defeated  by  the  British,  under  Sir  Anhur 
Wellesley,  August  21, 1808.  Insurrection  at  Lisbon,  August  21,  1831.  Mas- 
sacre at  Lisbon,  June  9,  1834.  See  Portugal. 

LISLE,  SIBOE  OP.  Lisle  was  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  the 
allies;  and  though  its  immense  fortifications  were  dee«ied  impregnable,  it 
was  taken  after  a  three  months'  siege,  in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  in  consideration  of  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications 


MVJ  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  455 

of  Dunkirk :  this  siege  is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  famous  of  modern  hia 
tory.  In  the  Revolutionary  war,  Lisle  sustained  a  severe  bombardment  from 
the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  Oct.  7,  1792. 

LITANIES.  They  were  first  used  in  processions  and  other  devotions,  about 
A.  D.  400.  Litanies  to  the  Virgin  Mary  were  first  introduced  by  pope  Gre- 
gory I.,  in  or  about  595. — Newton  on  the  Prophecies.  The  first  English  litany 
was  commanded  to  be  used  in  the  Reformed  Churches  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1543.—  Collier's  Ecc.  Hist. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY,  IN  ENGLAND.  See  Copyright.  The  statute  of  queen 
Anne,  1709-10,  securing  literary  property,  was  confirmed  by  a  memorable 
decision  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  claim  of  perpetual  copy- 
right was  overruled  Feb.  22,  1774.  The  statute  declared  the  author  to  have 
an  exclusive  right  for  14  years,  a.nd  if  at  the  end  of  that  term  he  were  living, 
the  right  to  again  return  to  him  for  the  same  term  of  years.  The  later  acts 
extended  the  author's  right  to  28  years,  and  if  living  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
then  to  the  remainder  of  his  life.  By  the  5th  and  6th  of  Victoria,  the  right 
is  to  endure  for  the  life  of  the  author,  and  for  seven  years  alter  his  death ; 
but  if  that  time  expire  earlier  than  42  years,  the  right  is  still  to  endure  for 
42  years,  for  which  term  also  any  work  published  after  the  author's  death  ia 
to  continue  the  property  of  the  owners  of  the  manuscript ;  act  passed  July 
1,  1842.  The  Dramatic  Authors'  Protection  act,  passed  June  10,  1833.  The 
International  Copyright  bill,  passed  July  31,  1838;  this  act  secures  protection 
in  England  to  works  of  authors  of  any  country  which  concedes  the  same 
protection  to  English  authors. 

LITERARY  SOCIETIES,  CLUB,  FUND,  &c.  The  various  societies  connected 
with  literature  in  London,  will  be  found  in  their  respective  places  through 
the  volume.  The  celebrated  Literary  Club  was  instituted  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
and  included  many  of  the  illustrious  men  in  literature  of  the  age,  1765. 
The  Literary  Fund,  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields,  was  founded  in  1790,  to  relieve 
authors  and  literary  men  who  by  age  or  infirmities  are  reduced  to  poverty ; 
this  society  was  incorporated  in  1818.  The  Royal  Society  of  Literature  was 
established  Sept.  15,  1825. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Alois  Sennefelder,  whose 
first  essays  were  executed  about  1796  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  art  was 
announced  in  Germany,  and  was  known  as  polyautography.  It  became  par- 
tially known  in  England  in  1801  at  seq.,  but  its  general  introduction  may  be 
referred  to  Mr.  Ackermann,  of  London,  about  1817.  Sennefelder  died  in 
1841. 

LITURGY.  In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  churches  the  word  Liturgy  waa 
restrained  to  signify  the  mass  only.  The  present  ENGLISH  LITURGY  was  first 
composed,  and  was  approved  and  confirmed  by  parliament,  in  1547-8.  The 
offices  for  morning  and  evening  prayer  were  then  put  into  nearly  the  same 
form  in  which  we  now  have  them,  but  other  parts  were  different.  Upon  the 
solicitation  of  Calvin  and  others,  the  liturgy  was  reviewed  and  altered  to 
very  nearly  its  present  state,  1551.  It  was  first  read  in  Ireland,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  in  1550,  and  in  Scotland,  where  it  occasioned  a  tumult,  in  1637. 
Again  altered  in  1661.  The  liturgy  was  revised  by  Whitehead,  formerly 
chaplain  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,  Grindall,  Cox,  and  Pil- 
kington,  and  dean  May,  and  secretary  Smith. 

LIVERIES.     In  England  they  originated  with  our  ancestors,  who  clothed  their 
vassals   in    uniform,  thereby  to   distinguish   families;  they  were  originally  a 
single  article  of  dress,  or  a  particular  color  used  on  a  part  of  some  one  gar- 
ment, and  in  the  end  they  became  rich  suits  and  gaudy  trappings. — Afhe. 
LIVERPOOL.    This  town,  which  within  the  last  century  has,  by  a  progressive 


456  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [:  O( 

increase  in  extent,  population,  and  commercial  importance,  obtained  the  first 
rank  after  the  metropolis,  in  England,  is  supposed  to  be  noticed  in  Domes- 
day-book under  the  name  Esmedune,  or,  Smedune.  In  other  ancient  records 
its  various  appellations  are,  Litlterpul,  and  Lyrpul,  signifying  probably,  in  the 
ancient  dialect  of  the  county,  the  lower  pool ;  though  some  have  deduced 
its  etymology  from  a  pool  frequented  by  an  aquatic  fowl,  called  the  "  Liver," 
or  from  a  sea- weed  of  that  name;  it  was  but  a  small  fishing  place,  until,  in 
1172,  its  favorable  situation,  and  the  convenience  of  its  port,  attracted  the 
notice  of  Henry  II.,  who  made  it  the  place  of  rendezvous  and  embarkation 
of  his  troops  for  the  conquest  of  Ireland.  In  1843,  the  number  of  ships 
which  entered  the  port  of  Liverpool  was  as  follows;  British,  2,G15,  of  the 
aggregate  burthen  of  691.707  tons;  foreign,  1,014,  burthen,  417,621  tons. 
The  amount  of  duties  paid  at  the  custom-house  for  the  year  ending  5th  Jan- 
uary, 1844,  was  £4,121.522.— Parl.  Ret. 

tLOYD'S,  LONDON.  The  coffee-house  in  connection  with  the  Royal  Exchange, 
and  held  previously  to  the  late  fire  (see  Exchange)  on  the  northern  side 
of  that  building.  Lloyd's  was  established  in  1772,  and  is  the  resort  of 
eminent  merchants,  underwriters,  insurance  brokers,  <fcc. ;  and  here  are 
effected  insurances  for  all  the  world  on  ships  and  merchandise.  The  books 
kept  here  contain  an  account  of  the  arrival  and  sailing  of  vessels,  and  aro 
remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of  maritime  affairs. 

LOADSTONE.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  productions  of  the  earth.  Its 
virtues  were  but  indistinctly  known  to  the  ancients,  yet  its  attractive  qua- 
lity had  been  taken  notice  of  from  very  remote  times. — Sturmius.  Aristotle 
assures  us  that  Thales  made  mention  of  it,  and  Hippocrates  speaks  of  it 
under  the  name  of  stone  that  attracts  iron,  and  Pliny  was  struck  with  ita 
attractive  power.  The  polar  attraction  of  the  loadstone  was,  it  is  said, 
known  m  France  before  A.  D.  1180;  but  this  honor  is  accorded  to  Roger 
Bacon  about  1267.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could  communicate  its 
virtues  to  steel  or  iron;  and  Flavio  Giojo  of  Amalfi,  was  the  inventor  of 
the  mariner's  compass.  See  Compass. 

LOANS.  Those  for  the  service  of  the  crown  of  England  were  generally  bor- 
rowed at  Antwerp  until  after  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1559,  that  queen 
borrowed  200,0002.  of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  reform  her  own 
coin,  and  sir  Thomas  Gresham  and  the  city  of  London  joined  in  the  secu- 
rity.— Rapin.  The  amount  of  the  English  loans,  during  four  late  memo- 
rable periods,  was,  viz : 

Seven  years  war from  1755  to  1763  -        -    £52.000,000 

American  war       ......  from  1770  to  1784  -        -      75,500,000 

French  revolutionary  war    ....  from  1798  to  1802  -        -    168.500.000 

War  against  Bonaparte        ....  from  1 808  to  1814  -        -    200.300,000 

Besides  the  property  tax.  In  1813,  were  raised  two  loans  of  twenty-one 
millions  and  twenty-two  millions;  and  it  deserves  to  be  recorded  that  a 
subscription  loan  to  carry  on  the  war  against  France  was  filled  up  in  Lon- 
don in  fifteen  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  to  the  amount  of  eighteen  mil- 
lions, Dec.  5,  1796. 

LOCHLEVEN  CASTLE,  KINROSS.  Built  on  an  island  in  the  celebrated  lake 
of  Loch  Leven,  in  1257,  and  was  a  royal  residence  when  Alexander  III.  and 
his  queen  were  forcibly  taken  from  it  to  Stirling.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
English  in  1301,  and  again  in  1335.  Patrick  Graham,  first  archbishop  of 
St.  Andrew's,  was  imprisoned  and  died  within  its  walls,  1447.  The  carl 
of  Northumberland  was  confined  in  it  in  1 569.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  re- 
markable as  the  place  of  the  unfortunate  queen  Mary's  imprisonment,  in 
1667,  and  of  her  escape,  on  Sunday,  May  2,  1568.  In  this  castle  Mary  was 
compelled  to  sign  her  abdication  of  the  throne  of  Scotland,  of  which  an 
interesting  account  is  given  by  sir  Walter  Scott,  in  The  Abbot:  and  of  which. 


LOMJ  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  457 

also,  some  new  and  affecting  particulars  are  given  by  Mr.  Tytler,  in  the  7tb 
volume  of  his  History  of  Scotland,  published  in  August,  1840. 
LOCKS.  Those  of  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  clumsy  con- 
trivances. Denou  has  engraved  an  Egyptian  lock  of  wood.  Uu  Cange 
mentions  locks  and  padlocks  as  early  as  A.  D.  1381.  The  French  are  ac- 
counted the  worst  locksmiths  in  Europe  and  the  English  the  best  Bra- 
man's  celebrated  patent  locks  were  registered  in  1784.  Locks  have  been 
made  at  Wolverhampton  in  suits  of  eight,  ten,  or  more,  of  exquisite  work- 
manship, all  with  different  keys,  so  that  none  of  them  can  open  any  but  its 
own  lock,  yet  a  master  key  will  open  all.  See  Keys. 

J.OCUSTS.  The  visits  of  these  animals  in  Eastern  countries  have  frequently 
superinduced  pestilence  and  death,  and  many  instances  are  recorded  of 
these  consequences.  Owing  to  the  putrefaction  of  vast  swarms  in  Egypt 
and  Lybia,  upwards  of  800,000  persons  perished,  128  B.  c.  The  county  of 
Palestine  was  infested  with  such  swarms  that  they  darkened  the  air,  arid 
after  devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth  they  died,  and  their  intolerable 
stench  caused  a  pestilential  fever,  A.  D.  406.  A  similar  catastrophe  occurred 
in  France  in  873.  A  remarkable  swarm  of  locusts  settled  upon  the  ground 
about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables ;  great  numbers  fell  in  the 
streets,  and  were  preserved  by  the  curious ;  they  resembled  grasshoppers, 
but  were  three  times  the  size,  and  their  colors  more  variegated,  Aug.  4, 
1748.  They  infested  Germany  in  1749,  Poland  in  1750,  and  Warsaw  in  June 
1816. 

LODI,  BATTLE  OP  THE  BRIDGE  OF.  One  of  the  great  early  achievements  in 
Italy  of  Bonaparte.  He  commanded  the  French  army,  which  was  opposed 
to  the  Austrians  commanded  by  general  Beaulieu,  and  obtained  a  brilliant 
and  decisive  victory  after  a  bloody  engagement  in  which  several  thousands 
of  the  imperialists  perished  on  the  field,  and  many  thousands  were  mado 
prisoners,  May  10,  1796.  The  conqueror  pursued  his  advantage  with  won- 
derful rapidity,  as  after  this  battle  all  Lombardy  lay  open  to  his  army,  and 
the  republican  flag  floated  in  Milan  a  few  days  afterwards. 

LOG-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  A.  i>.  1570;  and  first  mentioned  by  Bourne 
in  1577.  The  log-line  is  divided  into  spaces  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  way  which 
the  ship  makes  is  measured  by  a  half-minute  sand  glass,  which  bears  nearly 
the  same  proportion  to  an  hour  that  fifty  feet  bear  to  a  mile :  the  line  used 
in  the  royal  navy  is  forty-eight  feet. 

LOGA11ITHMS,  so  useful  in  mathematics,  are  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of  num- 
bers one  to  another.  They  were  invented  by  baron  Merchiston,  an  eminent 
Scotchman  (sir  John  Napier)  in  1614.  The  method  of  computing  by  means 
of  marked  pieces  of  ivory  was  discovered  about  the  same  time,  and  hence 
called  Napier  s  bones.  The  invention  was  afterwards  completed  by  Mr. 
Briggs,  at  Oxford. 

LOLLARDS.  The  name  given  to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  in  England,  and  a  reproachful  appellation  of  the  followers  of  Wick- 
hffe. — Chaucer.  The  original  sect  was  founded  by  Walter  Lollard  in  1315  ; 
he  was  burned  for  heresy  at  Cologne  in  1322.  After  his  death  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe  were  called  Lollards.  The  first  martyr  in  England  on  account 
of  religious  opinions  was  William  Sawtree,  the  parish  priest  of  St.  Osith, 
London.  Feb.  19,  1401,  reign  of  Henry  IV.  The  Lollards  were  proscribed 
by  the  English  parliament  in  1416,  and  about  1414,  numbers  of  them,  or 
persons  to  whom  the  name  was  given,  were  burnt  alive. — Moreri ;  Carte. 
LOMBARD  MERCHANTS.  In  Englnnd  they  were  understood  to  be  com- 
posed of  natives  of  some  one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence, 
or  Venice.-  -Anderson  on  Commerce.  Lombard  usurers  were  sent  to  England 
20 


458  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [LOO 

by  pope  Gregory  IX.  to  lend  money  to  convents,  communities,  and  private 
persons,  who  were  not  able  to  pay  down  the  tenths  which  were  collected 
throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigor  that  year,  13  Henry  III.,  1229. 
They  had  offices  in  Lombard-street,  which  great  hanking  street  is  called 
after  them  to  this  day.  Their  usurious  transactions  caused  their  expulsion 
from  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  lilizabeth. 

LOMBARDY.     The   Lombards   were   a   detachment   of   Alemanni    from    the 
marches  of  Brandenburgh,  famous  for  their  bravery.     They  were  invited 
into  Italy  by  Justinian,  to  serve  against  the  Goths.     To  reward  their  ser- 
vices,  the  emperor  gave  them  part  of  Upper  Pannonia,  A.  D.  548      They 
passed  into  Italy,  and  their  chief  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  army  at  Milan, 
in  570.     The  kingdom  of  Lombardy  supported  itself  and  made  considerable 
conquests  till   772,  when  Charlemagne  took  Desiderius,  the  last  king,  and 
annexed  his  territories  to  the  German  empire. — La  Combe.     See  Milan,  Ac. 
LONDON.     The  greatest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.     Some  will  have  it  that 
a  city  existed  on  the  spot  1107  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  354 
years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome.     It  was  the  capital  of  the  Trinobantes 
54  B.  c.  and  long  previously  the  royal  seat  of  their  kings.     In  A.  D.  61,  it  waa 
known  to  the  Romans  as  Lundinium.     Lundinium  or  Colonia  Augusta  waa 
the  chief  residence  of  merchants  at  that  period,  and  the  great  mart  of  trade 
and  commerce,  though  not  dignified  with  the  name  of  a  colony. — Tacitus.     It 
is  said,  but  not  truly,  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Ltid,  an  old  British  king 
who  was  buried  near  where  Ludgate  formerly  stood ;  but  its  name  is  from 
Llyn-Din,  the  "  town  on  the  lake."     See  Fires,  Plagiie,  Ac. 
LONGEVITY.     In  Great  Britain  the  instances  of  it  are  remarkable,  though 
rare.     Golour  M'Crain,  of  the  Isle  of  Jura,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  said  to 
have  kept  180  Christmasses  in  his  own  house,  and  died  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  being  the   oldest  man  on  anything  approaching  to  authentic 
record  for  upwards  of  3000  years  —  Greig.     Thomas  Parr,  a  laboring  man  of 
Shropshire,  was  brought  to  London  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,  and 
considered  the  wonder  of  his  time,  being  then  in  his  153d  year,  and  in  per- 
fect health ;  but  the  journey  and  change  of  air  and  diet  killed  him,  Nov.  15, 
the  same  year.     Henry  Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670,  and  was  buried 
in  Bolton  church-yard,  Dec.  6,  in  that  year,  aged  169  years.     There  are 
some  extraordinary  instances  of  great  age  in  Russia;  and  at  Dantzic  a  man 
is  said  to  have  died  at  184;  and  another  to  be  living  in  Wallachia,  aged  186 
years.     In  Holy  Writ,  Methuselah  is  stated  to  have  lived  969  years,  the 
greatest  age  of  any  on  record,  according  to  the  reckoning  before  the  Flood : 
but  the  length  of  the  years  of  that  time  is  not  ascertained ;  hence  there  is  no 
fixed  principle  to  determine  the  real  ages  of  that  epoch. 

LONGITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus  at  Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degre* 
in  the  Canaries,  162  B.  C.  Harrison  made  a  time-keeper  in  A.  D.  1759,  which 
in  two  voyages  was  found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  the  limits  required 
by  the  act  of  parliament,  12th  Anne,  1714;  and  in  1763,  he  applied  for  the 
reward  of  20,000/.  offered  by  that  act,  which  he  received  The  celebrated 
Le  Roi  of  Paris,  in  1776,  invented  a  watch  that  keeps  time  better;  and  the 
chronometers  of  Arnold,  Earnshaw,  and  Breguet  bring  the  longitude  almost 
to  the  truth.  Philosophers  have  sought  the  longitude  in  vain  ;  but  Newton 
has  said  it  will  yet  be  discovered  by  a  fool. 

LOOKING-GLASSES.  Made  only  at  Venice  in  1300.  They  were  made  in 
England,  by  Venetian  artists,  some  of  whom  took  up  their  abode  in  Lambeth, 
in  1673. — Salmon.  The  French  excelled  in  their  manufacture  of  them  in  the 
last  century ;  but  the  English  have  brought  their  factories  to  great  perfection 
of  late  years,  and  now  make  looking-glasses  to  cover,  in  a  single  plate,  th« 
walla  of  large  rooms. 


LOT] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  459 


LOOM-ENGINE.  The  weaver's,  otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought 
,  into  use  in  London  from  Holland,  in  or  about  the  year  1670,  since  when  tho 
general  principle  of  the  loom  has  been  infinitely  varied  by  mechanical  in- 
genuity. There  are  about  250.0UO  hand-looms  in  Great  Britain,  and  75,000 
power-looms,  each  being  equal  to  three  hand  looms,  making  twenty-two 
yards  each  per  day.  The  steam-loom  was  introduced  in  1807. 

LORD.  In  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  Lord  is  a  particular  appellation  for 
the  supreme  majesty  of  GOD  and  CHRIST,  and  in  that  sense  cannot  be  ap- 
plied to  any  other  being.  With  us,  it  is  a  term  of  nobility. — See  Lords  and 
Baron.  The  word  lord  h  abbreviated  from  two  syllables:  it  was  originally 
Hlaford,  which,  by  dropping  the  aspirate  became  Laford,  and  afterwards  by 
contraction  Lord.  "The  etymology  of  this  word,"  a  writer  observes,  "  ia 
worth  observing,  for  it  was  composed  of  hlaf,  a  load  of  bread,  and  ford,  to 
give  or  afford ;  so  that  Hla/ord,  now  Lord,  implies  a  giver  of  bread ;  be- 
cause in  those  ages,  such  great  men  kept  extraordinary  houses,  and  fed  the 
poor;  for  which  reason  they  weie  called  givers  of  bread." — See  Ladies.  The 
nickname  of  "  My  Lord,"  given  by  vulgar  people  to  hunchbacked  persons, 
is  from  the  Greek  word  lordos,  crooked. — Haydn. 

LORDS.  The  now  recognized  nobility  of  England  take  their  creation  from  the 
1st  of  William  the  Conqueror,  1066,  when  William  Fitzosborne,  the  first 
peer,  was  made  earl  of  Hereford ;  Walter  Devereux  made  earl  of  Salisbury ; 
Copsi,  earl  of  Northumberland :  Henry  de  Ferrers  made  earl  of  Derby,  and 
Gerbodus  (a  Fleming)  made  earl  of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other  peers  were 
made  in  this  sovereign's  reign.  Peers  of  England  are  free  from  all  arrests 
for  debts,  as  being  the  king's  hereditary  counsellors.  Therefore  a  peer  can- 
not be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no  attachment  lies  against  his  per- 
son ;  but  execution  may  be  taken  upon  his  lands  and  goods.  For  the  same 
reason,  they  are  free  from  all  attendance  at  courts  leet  or  sheriff's  turns ;  or, 
in  case  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  posse  comitatus.  See  Baron ;  Earl ; 
Ma/rquesf,  &c. 

LORDS,  HOUSE  OP.  The  peers  of  England  were  summoned  ad  consulendum,  to 
consult,  in  early  reigns,  and  were  summoned  by  writ  6  and  7  John,  1205. 
The  commons  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of  the  nation  until 
some  ages  after  the  conquest. — Hume.  Deputies  from  certain  boroughs 
were  returned  to  meet  the  barons  and  the  clergy  in  1258. — Goldsmith.  And 
writs  are  extant  of  the  date  of  Jan.  23, 1265  ;  but  several  historians  maintain 
that  the  first  regular  parliament  of  the  three  estates,  as  now  constituted,  was 
held  22  Edward  I.,  1293-4.  The  house  of  lords  includes  the  spiritual  as  well 
as  temporal  peers  of  England.  The  bishops  are  supposed  to  hold  cer- 
tain ancient  baronies  under  the  king,  in  right  whereof'  they  have  seats  in 
this  house.  The  temporal  lords  consist  of  the  several  degrees  of  nobility : 
some  sit  by  descent,  as  do  all  ancient  peers ;  some  by  creation,  as  all  new- 
made  peers;  and  others  by  election,  since  the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707, 
and  with  Ireland  in  1801.  Scotland  elects  16  representative  peers,  and  Ire- 
land 4  spiritual  lords  by  rotation  in  sessions,  and  28  temporal  peers  for  life. 
The  house  of  lords  now  consists  of  3  princes,  20  dukes,  21  marquesses,  115 
earls,  22  viscounts,  201  barons,  16  Scotch  lords,  28  Irish  lords,  26  English 
prelates,  and  4  Irish  bishops — in  all  456  peers. 

LOTTERY,  STATE.  The  first  mentioned  in  English  history  began  drawing  at 
the  western  door  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  January  11,  1569,  and  continued 
day  and  night  until  May  6  following.  Its  profits  were  for  repairing  the 
fortifications  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  the  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate. 
The  first  lottery  mentioned  for  sums  of  money  took  place  in.  1 630.  Lotte- 
ries were  established  in  1693,  and  for  more  than  130  years  yielded  a  large 
annual  revenue  to  the  crown.  The  Irish  state  lottery  was  draws  in  Dublin 


460  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGRESS.  [LUT 

in  1780.  All  lotteries  were  suppressed  in  France  by  a  decree  of  the  national 
convention,  Nov.  15,  1793.  They  were  abolished  in  England.  1826  ;  aud  an  act 
was  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  50i  for  advertising  foreign  or  any  lotteries 
in  the  British  newspapers,  Is36.  Abolished  in  Bavaria  by  unanimous  vote 
of  the  deputies,  Oct.  19,  1847.  They  have  long  been  abolished  in  New  Eng- 
land ;  in  New  York  they  were  prohibited  about  1830.  In  nearly  all  the  states 
there  is  a  penalty  against  lotteries  not  specially  authorized  by  the  legislatures 
LOUISIANA,  ONE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  First  explored  by  the  French,  and 
received  its  name  in  1682,  from  M.  La  Salle,  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV.,  arid  a 
settlement  was  attempted  in  1684,  but  failed.  In  1699,  a  more  successful 
attempt  was  made  by  M.  Iberville,  who  entered  the  Miss.,  and  founded  a 
colony.  His  efforts  were  followed  up  by  one  Crozat,  a  man  of  \vealth,  wh* 
held  the  exclusive  trade  of  the  country  for  a  number  of  years.  About  the 
year  1717,  he  transferred  his  interest  in  the  province  to  a  chartered  company, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  notorious  John  Law,  whose  national  bank  and 
Mississippi  speculation  involved  the  ruin  of  half  the  French  nobility.  In 
1731,  the  company  resigned  the  concern  to  the  crown,  who,  in  1762,  ceded 
the  whole  of  Louisiana  to  Spain.  In  1800,  Spain  reconveyed  the  province 
to  the  French,  of  whom  it  was  purchased  by  the  United  States,  in  1803,  for 
$15,000,000.  The  purchase  included  the  territory  of  the  United  States  W.  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  1812  the  present  State  of  Louisiana  formed  a  constitu- 
tion, and  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  Population  in  1810,  76,556 ;  in  1820, 
153,407  ;  in  1830,  215,575;  in  1840,  352,411,  including,  168,452  slaves. 
IiOUVRE.  This  renowned  edifice  in  Paris  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign 
of  Dagobert,  A.  D.  628 ;  but  Francis  I.  laid  the  foundation  of  what  is  now 
called  the  Old  Louvre,  1522.  Here  were  deposited  the  finest  collection  of 
paintings,  of  statues,  and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The  chief 
of  them  were  brought  from  Italy  during  the  triumph  of  Bonaparte's  arms, 
but  most  of  them  have  since  been  restored  to  the  rightful  possessors. 

LUCCA,  THE  DUCHY  OF,  adjoining  Tuscany.  On  the  fall  of  the  Lombard  king- 
dom, A.  D.  774,  it  was  annexed  to  the  German  empire.  In  1815  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Austrians  and  granted  to  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain.  The  duke  retires  to  Massa,  but  returns  and  yields  to  his  people's 
.demand  for  "eforms,  Sept.  3,  1847:  appointed  a  regency  and  again  fled, 
Sept.  15.  The  duchy  sold  by  the  duke  to  Tuscany  for  an  annuity  of  £215,- 
000,  until  he  should  succeed  to  the  duchy  of  Parma,  on  the  death  of  Maria 
Louisa,  present  duchess,  Oct.  10,  1847. 

LUCIA,  ST  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1650.  Taken  by  the  British  several 
times  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Memorable  insurrection  of  the  French 
negroes,  April,  1795.  In  this  year  Guadaloupe,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Domi- 
nica, St.  Eustatia,  and  St.  Lucie,  were  taken  by  the  British.  St.  Lucia  was 
restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1 802 ;  but  was  again  seized  on  by  Eng- 
land the  next  year,  and  confirmed  to  her  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 
See  Colonies. 

LUNEVILLE,  PEACE  OF,  concluded  between  the  French  republic  and  tl.e  em- 
peror of  Germany,  confirming  the  cessions  made  by  the  treat}'  of  Campo 
Formio,  stipulating  that  the  Rhine,  to  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form 
the  boundary  of  France,  and  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  Batavian, 
Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  Feb.  9,  1801. 

LUSTRUM.  Au  expiatory  sacrifice  made  for  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman 
people,  at  the  end  of  every  five  years,"  after  the  census  had  been  taken,  572 
B.  c.  Every  five  years  were  called  a  IvMrum;  and  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
years  were  commonly  expressed  by  two,  three,  or  four  lustra. 

LUTHERANISM.  Sprung  up  in  Germany  in  1517,  in  which  year  Leo  X.  pub- 
lished his  indulgences  for  money ;  and  Iccelius,  a  Dominican  friar,  who  WM 


LYCJ  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  461 

deputed  with  others  of  his  order  to  collect  in  Saxony,  carried  his  zeal  to  such 
a  height  as  to  declare  his  commission  unbounded ;  t.hat  no  crime  could  be 
committed  too  great  to  be  pardoned :  and  that  by  purchasing  indulgences, 
not  only  past  sins,  but  those  which  were  intended,  were  to  be  forgiven. 
Against  these  practices  Luther  openly  preached  with  wonderful  success,  and 
thus  began  the  Reformation  in  Germany. — Mekhior  Adam,  in  Vita  Lutheri. 

LTTTZEN,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  commanded  by 
general  Wittgenstein,  fought  May  2,  1813.  This  sanguinary  battle  opened 
the  campaign  of  that  year ;  and  though  each  of  the  adversaries  claimed  tl  e 
victory,  it  was  manifestly  on  the  side  of  France;  but  in  this  engagemei.; 
marshal  Duroc  was  mortally  wounded.  The  battles  of  Bautzen  and  Wurt- 
zen  immediately  followed  (May  20  and  26),  both  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  when 
the  allies  were  compelled  to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an  armistice  was  agreed  to. 
and  afterwards  prolonged,  but  unfortunately  for  the  French  emperor  it  did 
not  produce  peace. 

LUTZENGEN,  or  LUTZEN,  BATTLE  OF;  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
against  the  emperor.  In  this  sanguinary  and  memorable  battle,  Gustavus, 
the  most  illustrious  hereof  his  time,  and  the  chief  support  of  the  Protestant 
religion  in  Germany,  and  in  alliance  with  Charles  I.  of  England,  was  foully 
killed  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Nov.  6,  1632.  This  is  also  called  the  battle 
of  Lippstadt. 

LUXEMBURG.  Considered  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world.  It  was  taken 
and  pillaged  by  the  French  in  1543;  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1544; 
by  the  French  in  1684;  and  restored  to  Spain  in  1697.  It  was  again  taken 
by  the  French  in  1701 ;  and  afterwards  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town, 
and  ceded  to  the  emperor  at  the  peace  in  1713.  These  are  among  the  chief 
occurrences.  Luxemburg  withstood  several  sieges  in  the  last  century  ;  it 
surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  June  7,  1795 
The  garrison,  on  the  capitulation,  took  an  oath  not  to  serve  against  the  re- 
public of  France  until  exchanged,  and  were  conducted  to  the  right  side  of  the 
Rhine  immediately  after. 

LUXURY.  The  instances  of  extravagance  and  luxury  are  numerous  in  the  his- 
tory of  almost  all  countries,  ancient  and  modern,  and  many  laws  have  been 
enforced  to  repress  them.  Horace  mentions  fowls  dressed  in  Falernian  wine, 
muscles  and  oysters  from  the  Lucrine  lake  and  Circean  promontory,  and 
black  game  from  the  Umbrian  forests. — Lardner.  Lucullus,  at  Rome,  waa 
distinguished  for  the  immoderate  expenses  of  his  meals;  his  halls  were 
named  from  the  different  gods ;  and  when  Cicero  and  Pompey  attempted  to 
surprise  him,  they  were  amazed  by  the  costliness  of  a  supper  which  had  been 
prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus,  who  merely  ordered  his  attendants  to 
serve  it  in  the  hall  of  Apollo;  this  feast  for  three  persons  casually  met, 
would  have  sufficed  for  three  hundred  nobles  specially  invited.  In  England, 
luxury  was  restricted  by  a  law  wherein  the  prelates  and  nobility  were  con- 
fined to  two  courses  every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food  in  every  course, 
except  on  great  festivals.  The  law  also  prohibited  all  who  did  not  enjoy  a 
free  estate  of  100J.  p<fr  annum  from  wearing  furs  (see  Furs),  skins,  or  silk ; 
and  the  use  of  foreign  cloth  was  confined  to  the  royal  family  alone  ;  to  all 
others  it  was  prohibited,  A.  D.  1837.  An  edict  was  issued  by  Charles  VI.  of 
France,  which  said,  "  Let  no  man  presume  to  treat  with  more  than  a  soup 
and  two  dishes,"  1340. 

L5TCEUM.  The  Lyceum  took  its  name  from  its  having  been  originally  a  tem- 
ple of  Apollo  Lycens;  or  rather,  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus,  son 
of  Apollo.  The  Lyceum  was  a  celebrated  spot  near  the  banks  of  the  His- 
BUS  in  Attiea,  where  Aristotle  taught  philosophy;  and  as  lie  generally  taught 


462 


THE   WORLDS   PROGRESS. 


[LTH 


his  pupils  while  he  walked,  hence  they  were  called  peripatetics,  and  his  phi- 
losophy was  called  from  this  place,  the  philosophy  of  the  Lyceum,  342  u.  a 
— Stanley. 

LTD  I  A.  A  very  ancient  kingdom  under  a  long  dynasty  of  kings,  the  last  of 
whom  was  Croesus,  whose  riches  became  a  proverb :  he  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus,  548  u.  c.  The  coinage  of  money  of  gold  and  silver  (together  with 
many  other  useful  inventions,  and  the  encouragement  of  commerce)  is  as- 
cribed to  the  Lydiana  A  number  of  illustrious  men  flourished  here. — Hero- 
dotus. 


Ar»on,  a  descendant,  of  Hercules,  reigns 

in  Lydia. — Herod.        .        .    B.  c.  1223 
The  kingdom  of  Lydia,  properly  so 
called,  begins  under   Ardysus  I. — 

Blair .7*7 

Alyattes  reigns 761 

Meles  commences  his  rule          .        .    747 
Eeign  of  Camlaules    ....    735 
Gyges,  first  of  the  race  called  Merm- 
:ia«l».  puts  Candaules  to  death,  mar- 
ries his  queen,  usuipsthe  throne, 
and  makes  great  conquests     .        .    718 
Ardysus  II.   reigns;   tDe  Cimbri  be- 

stege  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia  .     680 
The  Milesian  war  commenced  under 
Gyges,  is  continued  by  Sadyattes, 

who  reigns 631 

Eeign  of  Alyattes  II    .        .        .        .619 
Battle  upon  the  river  Halys  between 
the  Lydians  and  Medes,  intercepted 
by  an  almost  total  eclipse  of  the  sun, 
which     superstitiously  occasions  a 
conclusion  of  the  war.-Blriir.  May23,  585 
[This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many 
years  before  ty  Thales,  of  Miletus. — 
Blair.} 


Croesus,  son  of  Alyattes,  succeeds  to 
the  throne,  and  becomes  celebrated 
for  his  victories  and  conquests,  B.C.  582 

Ephesus  falls  into  his  hands;  the  loni- 
ans,  -iEolians,  and  other  parts  of  Asia 
Minor  are  subjected  to  his  dominion  554 

All  the  nations  west  of  the  Halys  are 
conquered,  and  that  river  becomes 
the  boundary  of  the  kingdom  Blair  550 

Cnssus,  dreading  the  power  of  Cyrus, 
whose  conquests  had  reached  to  the 
borders  of  Lydia,  crosses  the  Halys 
to  attack  the  Medes.  with  an  army 
of  420.000  men  and  60,000  horse  548 

He  is  defeated  by  Cyrus,  pursued,  be- 
sieged in  his  capital,  and  taken  543 

The  conqueror  orders  Croesus  to  be 
burned  alive,  and  the  pile  is  already 
on  fire,  when  he  calls  on  the  name 
of  Solon  in  agony  of  mind,andCyrus 
hearing  him  pronounce  it,  spares  his 
life 548 

Lydia,  the  kingdom  of  the  "  richest  of 
mankind,"  is  made  a  province  of  the 
Persian  empire  .  ...  518 


JEsop,  the  Phrygian  fabulist,  Alcman,  the  first  Greek  poet  who  wrote  in  a 
style  of  gallantry,  Thales  of  Miletus,  Anaximenes,  Xenophanes,  Auacreon  of 
Teos,  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  &c.,  flourished  in  Lydia.  The  country  remain- 
ed subject  to  the  Persian  empire  until  the  latter  was  conquered  by  Alexan- 
der, about  330  B.  c.  It  next  became  part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Pergamus, 
founded  by  Philseterus,  the  eunuch  ;  Attalus  afterwards  bequeathed  it  to  tho 
Romans,  arid  finally  the  Turks  conquered  it  from  the  Eastern  Empire,  A.  D. 
1326.—  Priestley. 

LYONS.  Founded  by  L.  Plancus,  43  B.  c.  The  city  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  a 
single  night  by  lightning,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Two  gen- 
eral councils  were  held  here  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  The  silk  man- 
ufacture commenced  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  1515.  Lyons  was  besieged 
in  1793  by  the  convention  army  of  60,000  men,  and  surrendered  Oct.  7, 
when  awful  scenes  of  blood  and  rapine  followed.  The  National  Convention 
decreed  the  demolition  of  the  city,  Oct.  12,  same  year.  It  capitulated  to  the 
Austrians,  March,  1814,  and  July  1815.  An  insurrection  among  the  artisans, 
which  led  to  great  popular  excesses  for  many  days,  broke  out,  Nov.  21,1831. 
Dreadful  riots,  April  15,  1834.  A  dreadful  inundation  occurred  at  Lyons, 
Nov.  4,  1840.  See  Inundations. 

LYRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Grecian  Mercury,  who,  according  to 
Homer,  gave  it  to  Apollo,  the  first  that  played  upon  it  with  method,  and 
accompanied  it  with  poetry.  The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre  with  three 
strings,  is  due  to  the  first  Egyptian  Hermes.  Terpander  added  severa. 
strings  to  the  lyre,  making  the  number  seven,  673  B.  a  Phrynis,  a  musician 
of  Mhylene,  added  two  more,  making  niue,  438  B.  c. 


MAC] 


DICTIOXAKY    OF    DATES. 


463 


M. 

MACEDON.  The  first  kingdom  was  founded  by  Carmus,  about  814  B.  c.  It 
was  an  inconsiderable  country,  sometimes  under  the  protection  of  Athens, 
sometimes  of  Thebes,  and  sometimes  of  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  by  his  wisdom  as  a  politician,  and  ex- 
ploits as  a  general,  made  it  a  powerful  kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  to  hia 
son's  greatness.  Macedon  ha.d  twenty-one  kings,  from  Caranus  to  Alexan- 
der inclusive:  after  the  conqueror's  death,  when  his  dominions  were  divided 
among  his  generals,  Cassander  seized  Macedon,  and  established  a  new  king- 
dom. See  Tabular  Views,  p.  15  to  p.  37. 


Reign  of  Caranus  -  -  B.  c.  814 
Reign  ot  Perdiccas  I.  -  -  729 

Reign  of  Araaeus  I.-  -  -    678 

Beisrn  of  Philip  I.  -  -    640 

Reign  of  .lErupas;  he  conquers  the 

Illyrians  .  -  -        -    602 

Reign  of  Amyntas  -  -  -    54T 

Reign  of  Alexander  I.    -  -  497 

Reign  of  I'erdiecas  II.         -  -    454 

Archelaus,  mituialson  of  Perdiccas, 

murders  the  legitimate  heirs  of  his 

father,  and  seizes  the  throne  -  413 
He  is  surnamed  the  "Patron  of 

Learning'1  -  -  -    411 

He  is  murdered  by  a    favorite    to 

whom  he  promised  his  daughter  in 

marriage,  yet  gave  her  to  another  -  899 
Reign  of  Auiyntas  II.  -  -  899 

He  is  driven  from  the  throne  -    898 

Recovers  his  throne,  and  puts  Pan- 

sanias  to  death      -  -  -    897 

The  Illyrians  enter  Macedonia,  ex- 

pel   Auiyntas,    and   put   Argieus, 

brother  of  Pausanius,  on  the  throne  892 
Amyntas  again  recovers  his  kingdom  890 
KeC'n  of  Alexander  II.  -  -  871 

He  is  assassinated    -  -    370 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  III.  -        -    866 

He  is  killed  in  battle  -  -    860 

Reign  of  Philip  II.  and  institution  of 

the  Macedonian  phalanx  -  -  360 
Philip  gains  the  battle  of  Methon 

over  the  Athenians          -  -    860 

He  defeats  the  Illyrians  in  a  despe- 

rate engagement  -        -    859 

He  takes  Amphipolis,  and  receives  an 

arrow  In  his  right  eye.  See  Archery  358 
He  conquers  Thrace  and  Illyrla  -  856 
Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great  -  &i6 

Philip  adds  to  his  conquests  -  -  848 
Close  of  the  first  sacred  war  -  848 

Illy  ricuinoverrunbythearmyof  Philip  344 
Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon  -  848 
Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  the 

young  prince  Alexander  -    848 

War  against  the  Athenians  -  -  841 
Philip  besieges  Byzantium  -  841 

Battle  of  Chjeronea;  Philip  conquers. 

See  Clueronea     -  -  -    883 

Philip  is  assassinated  hyPausanias,  at 

Eg8ea,duringthecelebrationofgacies 

in  honor  of  his  daughter's  nuptials 
Alexander  III.,  surnamed  the  Great, 

succeeds  his  father      -  -        - 

He  eniers  Greece  -  - 

The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of 

their  armies  against  the  Persians 
The  Thebans  revo.t;  he  levels  Thebes 


386 


to  the  ground  ;  the  house  of  Pindar 

is  alone  left  standing  -  -  385 

The  Almighty  favors  Alexander  with 
a  vision,  in  which  the  high-priest  of 
the  Jews  appears  to  him,  exhorting 
him  to  enter  Apia.  See  Jews  -  884 

He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his 
first  battle  over  Darius.  See  (fra- 
nicus.  Battle  of  -  -  -  834 

Sardis  surrenders  to  the  conqueror  ; 
Halicarnassus  is  taken,  and  nume- 
rous cities  in  Asia  Minor  -  884 

Memnon  ravages  the  Cyclades ;  Da- 
rius takes  the  field  with  460,000  in- 
fantry and  100,000  cavalry  -  388 

Battle  of  Issus  (which  see)          •      -    838 

Alexander,  In  his  way  to  Egypt,  lays 
siege  to  Tyre,  which  is  destroyed 
after  seven  months  -  -  882 

Damascus  is  taken,  and  the  vast  trea- 
sures of  Darius  come  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  victor  -  -  832 

Gaza  surrenders  -  -      -    332 

Alexander  enters  Jerusalem ;  and 
Egypt  conquered  -  -  332 

Alexandria  founded      -  -          883 

Great  battle  of  Arbela,  the  third  and 
last  between  Alexander  and  Da- 
rius; the  Persian  army  totally  de- 
feated. See  Arbela,  •  -  881 

Alexander  proclaimed  master  of  Asia; 
he  enters  Babylon  In  triumph  -  831 


GRECIAN    OR   MACEDONIAN  EMPIRE. 

Alexander  sits  on  the  throne  of  Da- 
rius at  Susa  ...  ago 

Parthia  and  Hyrcania  are  overrun  by 
Alexander  -  -  -  829 

Thalestris.  queen  of  the  Amazons, 
visits  him,  attended  by  a  retinue  of 
300  women.  See  Amazons  -  829 

He  puts  his  friend  Parmenio  to 
death,  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy, 
supposed  to  be  false  -  -  829 

Alexander  makes  more  conquests     -    823 

His  expedition  to  India;  Porus,  king 
of  India,  is  defeated  and  taken  ; 
and  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Ganges  is  overrun  -  -  827 

Calisthenes  Is  put  to  the  torture  for 
refusing  to  render  divine  homage 
to  Alexander  -  -  -  826 

Subjection  of  the  Cosseans          -      -    826 

Death  of  Alexander    -  -  -    823 

885  I  His  conquests  are  divided  among  his 

|      generals         ....    828 
885  !  His  remains  are  transported  to  Alex- 
andria, and  buried  by  Ptolemy      -    899 


464  THE  WORLD'S  PKOGEESS.  [AJUO 

MACEDON,  continued. 


The  Greeks  defeated  by  sea  and  land 

near  Cranon  (which  see)  -        B.  c.  822 

Thebes  rebuilt  by  Cassander      -      -  315 

Selencus  recovers  Babylon  -  812 

Cassander  puts  Roxana  and  her  son 

to  death,  and  usurps  the  throne    -  811 

Battle  of  Ipsus  (ic/iich  see)    -  -  801 

New  division  of  the  empire       -      -  801 

MACEDON    II. 

Death  of  Cassander     -  -  -  29S 

Reign  of  Alexander  and  Antipnter    -  293 
Demetrius  murders  Alexander,  and 

seizes  the  crown  of  Macedon          -  294 


Reign  of  Antigonus  Gonatus       B.C.  271 
Pyrrhus  invaflesMacedon,d<-featsAn- 

tigonus,  and  is  proclaimed  king     -  274 

Pyrrhus  slain  :  Antisonus  restored  -  272 

Antigonus  takes  Athens  -        -  268 

The  Gauls  again  invade  Macedon      -  26S 

Revolt  of  the  Parthians        -  -  250 


Reign  of  Demetrius  II. 
Reign  of  Philip,  his  son 
His  war  against  the  Bhodians 
Philip  is  defeated  by  the  Romans 
He  is  totally  subdued 


24'.' 
282 
202 
198 
190 


The  reign  of  Perseus      -  -        -    179 

Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romans      •    171 


Irruption  of  the  Gauls     -  -  279 

The  consul  JEmilius  Paulus  enters  Macedon,  and  pronounces  it  a  Roman 
province.  Perseus  and  his  sons  are  made  prisoners,  168  B.  c.,  and  next  year 
walk  in  chains  before  the  chariot  of  ./Emilius  in  his  triumph  for  the  conquest 
of  Macedon.  The  country  is  finally  conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Amurath 
II.  in  A.  n.  1429.  Priestley. 

MACHIAVELIAN  PRINCIPLES.  These  are  principles  laid  down  by  Nicho- 
las Machiavel.  of  Florence,  in  his  Practice  of  Politics,  and  The  Prince.  By 
some  they  are  stigmatized  as  "  the  most  pernicious  maxims  of  government, 
founded  on  the  vilest  policy;"  and  by  others  as  "sound  doctrines,  notwith- 
standing the  prejudice  erroneously  raised  against  them."  The  work  appeared 
in  1517  ;  and  was  translated  into  English  in  1761.* 

MADAGASCAR.  One  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world,  discovered  by  Lo- 
renzo Almeida  A.  D.  1506.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  is  said  to  exist  a  race 
of  dwarfs,  with  a  strange  peculiarity  of  form ;  but  this  rests  on  the  unsup- 
ported statement  of  a  French  traveller  who  was  in  possession  of  a  preserved 
pigmy  which  he  had  brought  from  Madagascar.  A  paper  describing  the 
pigmy  was  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  by  an  eminent  physician,  in  ]  809. 

MADEIRA.  So  called  on  account  of  its  woods ;  it  was  discovered,  it  is  said,  by 
Mr.  Macham,  an  English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled  from  England  for 
an  illicit  amour.  He  was  driven  here  by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress,  a  French 
lady,  dying,  he  made  a  canoe,  and  carried  the  news  of  his  discovery  to  Pedro, 
king  of  Arragon,  which  occasioned  the  report  that  the  island  was  discovered 
by  a  Portuguese,  A  D.  1345.  But  it  is  maintained  that  the  Portuguese  did 
not  visit  this  island  until  1419.  nor  did  tney  colonize  it  until  1431.  It  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  British  in  July  1801.  And  again,  by  admiral 
Hood  and  general  (now  viscount)  Beresford,  Dec.  24,  1807,  and  retained  in 
trust  for  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  which  had  just  then  emigrated  to  the 
Brazils.  It  was  subsequently  restored  to  the  Portuguese  crown. 

MADRAS.  Colonized  by  the  English,  and  Fort  George  built  by  permission  of 
the  king  of  Golconda,  17  James  I.,  1620.  Madras  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1746,  and  waa  restored  in  1749,  immediately  after  the  peace  of  Aix  la- 
Chapelle. 

MADRID.  Mentioned  in  history  as  a  castle  belonging  to  the  Moors.  It  waa 
sacked  A.  D.  1109.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court  in  1516.  The 
Kscurial  was  built  in  1557,  et  seq.  The  old  palace  was  burnt  down  in  1734. 
The  French  took  possession  of  this  city  in  March  1808,  after  the  royal  family 
had  retired  into  France ;  and  on  May  2,  the  citizens  rose  up  in  arms  to 


*  Tne  writings  of  this  celebrated  politician  countenanced  (another  commentator  says)  "the 
doing  of  any  act  to  compass  or  briny  about  those  things  which  are  neither  honorable  nor  just, 
whereby  ambitious  sovereigns  or  evil  ministers  may  accomplish  what  thi-irextrmagan'  desirci 
prompt  them  to,  at  the  expense  of  their  subjects'  peace,  or  their  country's  but'ety." — Ferguson 


MAG] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  465 


expel  them,  when  a  dreadful  conflict  and  carnage  took  place.  Joseph  Bona- 
parte entered  Madrid  as  king  of  Spain,  July  20,  1808 ;  but  soon  retired. 
Retaken  by  the  French  Dec.  2,  same  year:  and  retained  till  Aug.  12,  1812, 
when  Madrid  was  entered  by  the  British  army.  Ferdinand  VII.  was  restored 
May  14,  1814.  Madrid  was  the  scene  of  various  occurrences  during  the 
late  civil  war,  for  which  see  Spain. 

MAESTRICHT.  This  city  revolted  from  Spain  1 570,  and  was  taken  by  the 
prince  of  Parma  in  1579.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced  it  after  a 
memorable  siege,  and  it  was  confirmed  to  the  Dutch  in  1648.  Louis  XIV. 
took  it  in  1673;  William  prince  of  Orange  invested  it  in  vain,  in  1676;  but, 
in  1678,  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch.  In  1748,  it  was  besieged  by  the  French, 
who  were  permitted  to  take  possession  of  the  city  on  condition  of  its  being 
restored  at  the  peace  then  negotiating.  At  the  commencement  of  1793,  Maes- 
tricht  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  French,  but  they  became  masters 
of  it  toward  the  end  of  the  following  year.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to 
the  allied  forces. 

MAGDALENS  AND  MAGDALENETTES.  Communities  of  nuns  and  women, 
the  latter  class  consisting  chiefly  of  penitent  courtesans.  The  convent  of 
Naples  was  endowed  by  queen  Sancha,  A.  D.  1324.  That  at  Metz  was  insti- 
tuted in  1452.  At  Paris,  1492.  The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed  by 
pope  Leo  X.,  in  1515;  and  Clement  VIII.  settled  a  revenue  on  the  nuns,  and 
further  ordained  that  the  effects  of  all  public  prostitutes  who  died  without 
will  should  fall  to  them,  and  that  those  who  made  wills  should  not  have 
their  bequests  sanctioned  by  the  law  unless  they  bequeathed  a  part  of  their 
effects  to  the  Magdalen  institution,  which  part  was  to  be  at  least  one  fifth, 
1594.  The  Magdalen  hospital,  London,  was  founded  in  1758,  principally 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.  In  New- York,  a  similar  institution  called 
"  A  Home  for  the  Friendless  "  was  founded,  1846. 

MAGELLAN,  STRAITS  OP  They  were  passed  by  Ferdinand  Magellan  (Fer- 
nando de  Magellhaens)  a  Portuguese,  with  a  fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  in  1519.  The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was 
undertaken  by  this  illustrious  navigator;  and  his  vessel  performed  the  enter- 
prise although  the  commander  perished.  The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here, 
since  called  cape  Famine,  because  the  garrison  had  all  perished  for  want  of 
food. 

MAGI,  OR  WORSHIPPERS  OF  FIRE.  The  prime  object  of  the  adoration  of 
the  Persians  was  the  invisible  and  incomprehensible  God,  whom,  not  know- 
ing, they  worshipped  as  the  principle  of  all  good,  and  they  paid  particular 
homage  to  tire,  as  the  emblem  of  his  power  and  purity.  They  built  no  altars 
nor  temples,  as  they  deemed  it  absurd  to  pretend  to  confine  an  omnipresent 
God  within  walls;  accordingly  their  sacred  fires  blazed  in  the  open  air,  and 

•  their  offerings  were  made  upon  the  earth.  The  Magi  were  their  priests,  and 
their  skill  in  astronomy  rendered  the  secrets  of  nature  familiar  to  them,  so 
that  the  term  Magi  was  at  length  applied  to  all  learned  men,  till  they  weie 
finally  confounded  with  the  magicians.  Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  was  the 
reformer  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi :  he  flourished  1080  B.  c. — Du  Frexnoy. 

MAGIC  LANTERN.  This  was  the  invention  of  the  illustrious  Roger  Bacon, 
England's  great  philosopher,  about  A.  D.  1260.  Bacon  first  invented  the  con- 
vex magnifying  glasses  in  1252 ;  and  he  afterwards,  in  his  many  experiments, 
applied  them  to  this  use. 

MAGNA  CHART  A.     The  great  charter  of  English  liberty  may  be  said  to  have 

been  derived  from  Edward  the  Confessor,  continued  by  Henry  I.  and  his 

successors,  Stephen,  Henry  II.,  and  John.     But  the  Charter  more  particularly 

meant,  was  a  body  of  laws,  the  great  charter  of  our  rights  granted  by  John 

20* 


466  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MAJ 

and  signed  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,  June  15.  1215.  The  barons  took 
arms  to  enforce  this  sacred  possession,  which  was  many  times  confirmed, 
and  as  frequently  violated,  by  Henry  III.  This  last  king's  grand  charter 
was  granted  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign,  1224,  and  was  assured  by  Edward 
I.  It  is  remarked,  that  when  Henry  III.  granted  it  he  swore  on  the  word 
and  faith  of  a  king,  a  Christian,  and  a  knight,  to  observe  it  For  this  grant 
a  fifteenth  of  all  moveable  goods  were  given  to  the  king,  whether  they  were 
temporals  or  spirituals ;  yet  sir  Edward  Coke  says  that  even  in  his  days  it 
had  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times 

MAGNET.  Sturmius,  in  his  Epislola,  dated  at  Altorf,  1682,  observes  that  the 
attractive  quality  of  the  magnet  has  been  taken  notice  of  from  time  im- 
memorial ;  but,  that  it  was  our  countryman,  Roger  Bacon,  of  Ilchester,  in 
Somersetshire  (he  died  the  17th  June,  1294),  who  first  discovered  its  pro- 
perty of  pointing  to  the  north  pole.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could 
communicate  its  virtue  to  steel  or  iron.  The  variation  not  being  always  the 
same  was  taken  notice  of  by  Helvelius,  Petil,  and  others.  Flavio  Gioja,  of 
Naples,  invented  or  improved  the  mariner's  compass,  in  1302.  The  impor- 
tant discovery  of  the  inclination  or  dip  of  the  magnetic  needle  was  made 
about  1576  (published  1580)  by  Robert  Norman,  of  London.  Dr.  Gilbert's 
experiment  was  made  in  1600.  Artificial  magnets  were  invented,  or  rather 
improved,  in  1751.  A  magnetic  clock,  invented  by  Dr.  Locke,  of  Ohio,  an- 
nounced at  Washington,  Jan.  5.  1849. 

MAHOMETISM.  See  Alcoran  and  Koran.  The  creed  of  Mahomet  was  pro- 
mulgated A.  D.  604,  by  Mahomet,  styled  by  some  writers  as  a  renowned 
general  and  politician ;  and  by  others  as  a  successful  impostor  and  tyrant. 
Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel 
during  a  period  of  twenty-three  years.  It  was  written  in  the  Koreish  Ara- 
bic, which  he  asserted  was  the  language  of  Paradise,  and  it  is  considered 
as  possessing  every  fine  quality  of  a  language.  It  has  1000  terms  for  sword, 
600  for  lion,  200  for  serpent,  and  80  for  honey.  It  is  spoken  and  written  in 
various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Mahomet  died  in  631,  of  the  effects,  it  is 
said,  of  a  slow  poison,  given  to  him  in  a  piece  of  mutton  three  years  before, 
by  a  Jew,  who  took  this  method  to  discover  if  he  was  a  true  prophet,  and 
immortal,  as  he  had  declared  himself  to  be. — Prideaux. 

MAIL-COACHES  IN  ENGLAND.  Were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  in  1784;  and 
were  extended  to  other  routes  in  1785,  at  the  end  of  which  year  they  be- 
came general  in  England.  This  plan  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  was  the 
invention  of  Mr.  Palmer  of  Bath ;  the  mails  had  been  previously  conveyed  by 
carts  with  a  single  horse,  or  by  boys  on  horseback. 

MAINE,  one  of  the  United  States;  first  permanent  settlement  in,  at  Bristol. 
The  district  was  granted  in  1635  to  sir  Ferdinand  Gorges,  who  appointed  a 
governor  and  council.  It  was  purchased  of  the  heirs  of  Gorges  in  1652  by 
the  State  of  Massachusetts,  for  $5,334;  annexed  to  Massachusetts,  under 
charter  from  William  &  Mary,  in  1691 :  became  a  separate  State  in  1820. 
Population  in  1790  was  96,540;  in  1810,  228,705;  in  1840,  501,793. 

MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emperor  and  imperial  family  were  ad- 
dressed by  this  title,  which  was  previously  given  to  their  great  officers  of 
state.  Popes  also  had  the  title  of  majesty.  The  emperors  of  Germany 
took  the  title,  and  endeavored  to  keep  it  and  the  closed  crown  to  hemselves. 
It  was  first  given  to  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1461. —  Voltaire.  Upon  Charles 
V.  being  chosen  emperor  of  Germany  in  1519,  the  kings  of  Spain  took  the 
style  of  Majesty.  Francis  I.  of  France,  at  the  interview  with  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  addressed  the  latter  as  Your 
Majesty,  1520. — See  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  James  L  coupled  this  title 
with  the  term  "Sacred,"  and  "Most  Excellent  Majesty."  See  Titles. 


MAS]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  467 

MAJORCA  AMD  MINORCA.  For  occurrences  relating  to  these  islands,  sea 
Minorca. 

MALPLAQUET,  BATTLE  OP.  The  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and 
prince  Eugene,  against  the  arms  of  France  commanded  by  marshal  Viilara. 
The  armies  consisted  on  each  side  of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers,  and  the 
victory  was  with  the  allies;  but  this  action  was  attended  with  great  slaugh- 
ter on  both  sides,  the  allies  losing  16,000  men,  which  loss  was  but  ill  repaid 
by  the  capture  of  Mons;  fought  Sept.  11,  1709. 

MALTA,  KNIGHTS  OF.  A  military-religious  order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Some 
merchants  of  Melphis,  trading  to  the  Levant,  obtained  leave  of  the  caliph  of 
Egypt  to  build  a  house  for  those  who  came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
whom  they  received  with  zeal  and  charity,  A.  D.  1048.  They  afterwards 
founded  a  hospital  for  the  sick,  from  whence  they  were  called  Hospitallers. 
This  foundation  was  laid  in  A.  D.  11 04,  in  the  reign  of  Baldwin,  aud  they 
new  became  a  military  order  in  1118,  into  which  many  persons  of  quality 
entered,  and  changed  their  names  into  knights.  After  the  Christians  had 
lost  their  interest  in  the  East,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the  knights  retired 
to  Margett,  and  then  to  Acre,  which  they  defended  valiantly  in  1290  ;  then 
they  followed  John,  king  of  Cyprus,  who  gave  them  Limisson  in  his  domi- 
nions, where  they  stayed  till  1310,  and  that  same  year  they  took  Rhodes, 
under  the  grand  master  Foulques  de  Vallaret,  and  next  year  defended  it 
undar  the  duke  of  Savoy,  against  an  army  of  Saracens;  since  when,  his 
successors  have  used  F.  E.  R.  T.  for  their  device,  that  is,  Fortitudo  ejus 
Rhodum,  tenuit,  or,  he  kept  Rhodes  by  his  valor ;  from  this  they  were  called 
knights  of  Rhodes;  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by  Solyman  in  1522,  they 
retired  into  Candia,  thence  into  Sicily.  Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them  the 
city  of  Viterbo  for  their  retreat ;  and  in  1530,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave 
them  the  isle  of  Malta.  The  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  declared  himself 
grand-master  of  the  order  in  June,  1799. 

MALTA.  The  memorable  siege  by  the  Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon 
the  enterprise  after  the  loss  of  30,000  men,  1566.  The  island  was  taken  by 
general  Bonaparte  in  the  outset  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  June  12,  1798. 
He  found  in  it  1200  cannons,  200,000  Ibs.  of  powder,  two  ships  of  the  line, 
a  frigate,  four  galleys,  and  40,000  muskets;  besides  an  immense  treasure 
collected  by  superstition ;  and  4500  Turkish  prisoners,  whom  he  set  at 
liberty.  Malta  was  blockaded  by  the  British  from  the  autumn  of  1798,  and 
was  taken  by  major-general  Pigot,  Sept.  5,  1 800 ;  but  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored  to  the  knights.  The 
British,  however,  retained  possession,  and  the  war  recommenced  between 
the  two  nations:  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  island  was  gua- 
ranteed to  Great  Britain. 

MA  MELUKES.  The  name  of  a  dynasty  which  reigned  a  considerable  time  in 
Egypt.  They  were  originally  Turkish  and  Circassian  slaves,  and  were 
established  by  the  sultan  Saladin  as  a  kind  of  body-guard,  A.D.  1246.  They 
advanced  one  of  their  own  corps  to  the  throne,  and  continued  to  do  so  urtil 
Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province  in  1517,  when  the  beys  took  them  into 
pay,  and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  renegades  from  various  countries.  On  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  Bonaparte,  in  1798,  they  retreated  into  Nubia.  As- 
sisted by  the  Arnauts,  who  were  introduced  into  the  country  in  the  war,  thb 
Mamelukes  once  more  wrested  Egypt  from  the  Turkish  government  In  1811 
they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the  Turkish  pacha,  and  slain. 
MANNHEIM.  First  built  in  A.D.  1606;  and  became  the  court  residence  in 
1719;  but  the  extinction  of  the  palatinate  family  in  1777  caused  the  re- 


468  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [ATA  it 

inoval  of  the  court  to  Munich.  Battle  of  Mannheim,  between  the  armies  of 
the  allies  and  the  French,  fought  May  30,  1793.  Mannheim  surrendered  to 
the  French,  under  command  of  general  Pichegru,  Sept.  20,  1795.  On  the 
25th  of  the  same  month,  the  Austriana  under  general  Wurmser,  defeated  the 
French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were  fought  with  various  success  in 
the  neighborhood  during  the  late  wars  Kotzebue,  the  popular  dramatist, 
was  assassinated  at  Mannheim,  by  a  student  of  Wurtzburg,  named  Sandt, 
April  2,  1819. 

tfANICHEANS.  An  ancient  sect,  founded  by  Manes,  which  began  to  infest 
the  East,  about  A.D.  277.  It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and 
particularly  into  Persia.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant  Manes  had  been,  left 
him  a  store  of  wealth,  after  which  he  assumed  the  title  of  apostle,  or  envoy 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  announced  that  he  was  the  paraclete  or  comforter  that 
Christ  had  promised  to  send.  He  maintained  two  principles,  the  one  good, 
and  the  other  bad;  the  first  he  called  light,  which  did  nothing  but  good, 
and  the  second  he  called  darkness,  which  did  nothing  but  evil.  Several 
other  sects  sprung  from  the  Manicheans.  Manes  was  put  to  death  by  Sapor, 

Iking  of  Persia,  in  290.  His  offence  against  this  prince  was,  his  having 
dismissed  the  physicians  of  the  court,  pretending  he  could  cure  one  of  the 
royal  family  by  his  prayers,  instead  of  which  the  patient  died  in  his  arms. — 
Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 

MANILLA.  Capital  of  the  Philippine  Isles;  a  great  mart  of  Spanish  com- 
merce. 3000  persons  perished  here  by  an  earthquake  in  1 645.  Manilla  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1757;  and  again  in  Oct.  1762,  by  storm.  The  cap- 
tors humanely  suffered  the  archbishop  to  ransom  it  for  about  a  million  ster- 
ling ;  but  great  part  of  the  ransom  never  was  paid.  Since  the  establishment 
of  a  free  trade  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  which  took  place  in  1783,  the  usual 
Acapulco  ships  and  other  government  traders  have  been  discontinued ;  and 
the  commerce  to  the  Manillas  and  other  parts,  is  carried  on  in  private  bottoms 
by  free  companies  of  merchants. — Butler. 

MANTINEA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  Epaminondas,  at  the  head  of  the  Thebans, 
and  the  combined  forces  of  Lacedaemon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia. 
The  Theban  general  was  killed  in  the  engagement,  and  from  that  time 
Thebes  lost  its  power  and  consequence  among  the  Grecian  states,  363  B.C. — 
Strdbo. 

1ANTUA.  Virgil  was  born  at  a  village  near  the  city.  Mantua  surrendered  to 
the  French,  Jan.  7,  1797,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months;  and  it  was  attacked 
by  the  Austrian  and  Russian  army,  July  30,  1799,  to  which  it  surrendered 
after  a  short  siege.  In  1800,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the  French  again 
obtained  possession  of  it ;  but  they  delivered  it  up  to  the  Austrians  in 
1814. 

MAPS  AND  CHARTS.  They  were  invented  by  Anaximander,  the  Milesian 
philosopher,  a  disciple  of  Thales,  and  the  earliest  philosophical  astronomer 
on  record,  570  B  c.  He  was  also  the  first  who  constructed  spheres.  A 
celestial  chart  was,  it  is  said,  constructed  in  China,  in  the  sixth  century. — 
freret.  And  sea-charts  were  first  brought  to  England,  by  Bartholomew 
Columbus,  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  western  continent, 
A.D.  1489  The  earliest  map  of  England  was  drawn  by  George  Lily  in  1520. 
Mercator's  chart,  in  wl  ich  the  world  was  taken  as  a  plane,  was  invented  in 
1556.  A  map  of  the  moon's  surface  was  first  drawn  at  Dantzic,  in  1647.  See 
Charts. 

MARATHON,  BATTLE  OF.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  ancient  history 
The  Greeks  were  only  10,000  strong,  the  number  of  the  Persians  not  known. 
The  former  were  commanded  by  Miltiadts.  Arisiides,  nnd  Themistocles,  who 
defeated  the  Persians.  Persian  loss  6,400— Athenian  192.  Among  tut 


MAR]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  469 

number  of  the  slain  was  Hippias,  the  instigator  of  the  war ;  the  remaindoi 
of  the  Persian  army  were  forced  to  re-embark  for  Asia,  Sept.  28,  490  B.  c. 

MARBLE.  Lipsenus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  of  Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who 
sculptured  marble,  and  polished  their  works ;  all  statues  previously  to  their 
time  being  of  wood,  568  B.  c. — Pliny.  Marble  afterwards  came  into  use  for 
statues,  and  the  columns  and  ornaments  of  fine  buildings  and  the  edifices 
and  monuments  of  Rome,  were  constructed  of,  or  ornamented  with,  fine 
marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra  prove  that  its  magnificent  structures,  which 
were  chiefly  of  white  marble,  were  far  more  extensive  and  splendid  than 
those  of  even  Rome  itself.  These  latter  were  discovered  by  some  English 
travellers  from  Aleppo,  A.  D.  1678.  See  Palmyra. 

MARCH.  This  was  the  first  month  of  the  year,  until  Numa  added  January 
and  February,  713  B.  c.  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into  months,  gave 
to  this  month  the  name  of  his  supposed  father  Mars ;  though  Ovid  observes, 
that  the  people  of  Italy  had  the  month  of  March  before  the  time  of  Romu- 
lus, but  that  they  placed  it  very  differently  in  the  calendar.  The  year  for- 
merly commenced  on  the  25th  day  of  this  month.  See  Tear. 

MARENGO,  BATTLE  OP.  In  this  ever-memorable  engagement  the  French  army 
was  commanded  by  Bonaparte,  against  the  Austrians,  and  after  prodigies 
of  valor,  his  army  was  retreating,  when  the  timely  arrival  of  general  Dessaix 
(who  was  afterwards  mortally  wounded  in  this  battle)  turned  the  fortunes 
of  the  day.  The  slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful :  the  Austrians  lost 
6000  in  killed,  12,000  in  prisoners,  and  45  pieces  of  cannon ;  and  though  the 
French  boasted  that  the  loss  on  their  side  did  not  much  exceed  3000  men, 
it  was  afterwards  known  to  be  vastly  more,  June  14,  1800.  By  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  the  conqueror,  Bonaparte,  signed  on 
the  next  day,  twelve  ot  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy  were  put  into  pos- 
session of  the  latter :  and  he  became,  in  fact,  the  master  of  Italy. 

MARESCHAL,  OB  MARSHAL.  In  France  marshals  were  the  ancient  esquirea 
of  the  king ;  and  by  their  first  institution  they  had  the  command  of  the  van- 
guard, to  observe  the  enemy,  and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its  encamp- 
ment. Till  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  in  A.  D.  1515,  there  were  but  two  French 
marshals,  who  had  500  livres  per  annum  in  war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of 
peace.  The  rank  afterwards  became  of  the  highest  military  importance, 
the  number  was  without  limit,  and  the  command  supreme.  During  the  em- 
pire of  Napoleon,  the  marshals  of  France  filled  the  world  with  their  renown. 
See  Marshal,  Field. 

MARION" AN,  BATTLE  OP,  near  Milan,  in  Italy,  one  of  the  most  furious  engage- 
ments of  modern  times.  In  this  sanguinary  conflict,  which  happened  be- 
tween the  heroic  Swiss  and  the  French  under  Francis  the  First  upwards  of 
twenty  thousand  men  were  slain ;  the  former,  after  losing  all  their  bravest 
troops,  were  compelled  to  retire,  September  13,  1515. 

M  ARINER'S  COMPASS  The  Chinese  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  compass  to 
their  emperor  Hong-Ti,  who  they  say  was  a  grandson  of  Noah;  and  some  of 
thei.  historians  refer  the  invention  of  it  to  a  later  date,  1115  B.  c.  See  Com- 
pa*s.  The  honor  of  its  discovery,  though  much  disputed,  is  generally  given 
to  Flavio  de  Gioja,  or  Giovia,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  an  ancient  commercial  city 
of  Naples,  A.  D.  1302.  The  variation  of  the  needle  was  first  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  his  voyage  of  discovery,  1492 ;  and  it  was  observed  in  London 
in  1580.  The  dipping-needle  was  invented  by  Robert  Norman,  a  compass- 
maker  of  Ratcliflfe,  in  that  year. 

MARQUE,  LETTERS  OP.  Instruments  authorizing  the  subjects  of  one  prince  to 
make  reprisals  upon,  and  capture  the  ships,  property,  and  subjects  of  another 
prince  or  country.  Some  such  instruments  are  said  to  have  been  first  used 


\ 


\i 


470  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MAR 

by  the  Venetian  government.  The  first  letters  of  marque  granted  in  Eng- 
land were  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  against  the  Portuguese,  A.  D.  1295. — 
Rymer's  Fcedera. 

MARQUESS.  This  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons  Markin-Reve,  and  by  the 
Germans  Markgrave,  took  its  original  from  Mark  or  March,  which,  in  the 
language  of  the  northern  nations,  is  a  limit  or  bound,  and  their  office  was 
to  guard  or  govern  the  frontiers  of  a  province.  It  has  the  next  piace  of 
honor  to  a  duke,  and  was  introduced  several  years  after  that  title  had  been 
established  in  England.  The  first  on  whom  it  was  conferred,  was  the  great 
favorite  of  king  Richard  II.,  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  who  was  created 
marquess  of  Dublin,  and  by  him  placed  in  parliament  between  the  dukes  and 
earls,  A.  D.  1385  Alexander  Stewart,  second  son  of  James  IIL  of  Scotland, 
was  made  marquess  of  that  kingdom,  as  marquess  of  Ormond,  in  1480. 

MARRIAGE.  The  first  institution  of  this  union  between  man  and  woman  for 
life,  with  certain  ceremonies  of  a  binding  and  solemn  nature,  is  ascribed  to 
Cecrops,  king  of  Athens,  1554  B.  c. — Eusebius  Pref.  to  Chron.  The  prevail- 
ing ceremony  in  most  countries  was  that  of  a  man  loading  home  his  bride, 
after  a  solemn  contract  with  her  friends.  To  render  this  contract  the  more 
sacred,  it  was  made  the  work  of  the  priest,  instead  of  being  that  of  a  civil 
magistrate  adopted  by  several  civilized  nations.  The  celebration  of  mar- 
riage in  churches  was  ordained  by  pope  Innocent  III.,  about  A..  D.  1199. 
Marriage  was  forbidden  in  Lent,  A.  D.  364.  It  was  forbidden  to  bishops  in 
692  and  to  priests  in  1015  ;  and  these  latter  were  obliged  to  take  the  vow 
of  celibacy  in  1073.  Marriages  were  solemnized  by  justices  of  the  peace 
under  an  act  of  the  Commons  in  Oliver  Cromwell's  administration,  1 653.  A 
tax  was  laid  on  marriages,  viz. :  on  the  marriage  of  a  duke  50£,  of  a  com- 
mon person  2s.  6d,  the  8th  of  William  III.,  1695.  Marriages  were  again 
taxed  in  1784. 

MARRIAGES  BY  SALE.  Among  the  Babylonians  at  a  certain  time  every  year, 
the  marriageable  females  were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bid- 
der, by  the  public  crier.  The  richest  citizens  purchased  such  as  pleased 
them  at  a  high  price ;  and  the  money  thus  obtained  was  used  to  portion  off 
those  females  to  whom  nature  had  been  less  liberal  of  personal  charms. 
When  the  beauties  were  disposed  of,  the  crier  put  up  the  more  ordinary  lots, 
beginning  with  the  most  ill-favored  among  those  that  remained,  announcing 
a  premium  to  the  purchaser  of  each :  the  bidders  were  to  name  a  sum  below 
the  given  premium,  at  which  they  would  be  willing  to  take  the  maid;  and 
.  he  who  bid  lowest  was  declared  the  purchaser.  By  these  means  every  female 
:  was  provided  for.  This  custom  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter  of  Belo- 
chus,  about  1433  B.  0. 

MARSEILLES.  Is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phoceans,  about 
600  B.  c. —  Univ.  Hist.  Cicero  styled  it  the  Athens  of  Gaul.  It  was  taken 
by  Julius  Caesar  after  a  long  and  terrible  siege ;  and  it  was  sacked  by  the 
Saracens,  A.  D.  473.  Marseilles  became  a  republic  in  1214.  It  was  subjected 
to  the  counts  of  Provence  in  1251 ;  and  was  again  united  to  the  crown  of 
France  in  1482.  In  1649  the  plague  raged  with  great  violence  in  Marseilles, 
and  with  still  greater  in  1720,  when  it  carried  off  50,000  of  the  inhabitants. 

MARSHALS,  FIELD,  in  the  British  army.  The  rank  is  of  modern  date,  and 
was  preceded  by  that  of  captain-general,  and  that  also  of  commander-in- 
chief.  The  duke  of  Marlborough  was  captain-general,  1702.  The  first  mil- 
itary chiefs  bearing  the  rank  of  marshal  were  those  of  France.  George  II. 
first  conferred  the  rank  upon  John,  duke  of  Argyle,  and  George,  earl  of  Ork- 
ney in  1736.  See  AlareschaL 

ICARSTON  MOOR,  BATTLE  OP.  This  battle  was  the  beginning  of  the  misfor- 
tunes and  disgrace  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  of  England.  The  Scots  and 


MA.K.J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  471 

parliamentarian  army  bad  joined,  and  were  besieging  York,  when  prince  Ru- 
pert, joined  by  the  marquis  of  Newcastle,  determined  to  raise  the  siege. 
Both  sides  drew  up  on  Marstou  Moor,  to  the  number  of  fifty  thousand,  and 
the  victory  seemed  long  undecided  between  them.  Rupert,  who  command- 
ed the  right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was  opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  who 
now  first  came  into  notice,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops  whom  he  had 
taken  care  to  levy  and  discipline.  Cromwell  was  victorious,  he  pushed  hia 
opponents  off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned  to  a  second  en- 
gagement and  a  second  victory.  The  prince's  whole  train  of  artilery  was 
taken,  and  the  royalists  never  afterwards  recovered  the  blow;  fought  July 
3,  1644. 

MARTINIQUE.  This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Vincent,  an  1 
the  Grenadines,  were  taken  by  the  British  from  the  French  in  February 
1762.  They  were  restored  .to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following  year. 
They  were  again  taken  March  16,  1794;  were  restored  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens  in  1802  ;  and  were  again  captured  February  23,  1809.  A  revolution 
took  place  in  this  island  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  but  it  was  finally  suppressed 
by  the  British,  June  1,  1815 ;  and  Martinique  reverted  to  its  French  masters 
at  the  late  general  peace,  1815. 

MARTYRS.  The  Christian  Church,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  has  abounded  in 
martyrs,  and  history  is  filled  with  accounts  of  their  wonderful  constancy  to 
their  faith.  The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are,  many  of  them,  of  very  ancient 
date,  and  took  their  rise  about  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom A.D.  168.  England  has  had  its  Christian  martyrs;  and  the  accounts  of 
those  who  suffered  for  their  adherence  to  the  Protestant  religion  would  fill 
volumes.  The  following  documents  in  connection  with  the  fate  of  Cranmer, 
Latimer,  and  Ridley,  are  of  melancholy  interest.  They  are  taken  from  a 
"  Book  of  the  Joint  Diet,  Dinner  and  Supper,  and  the  charge  thereof,  for  Cran- 
mer, Latimer,  and  Ridley"  kept  by  the  bailiffs  of  Oxford,  while  they  were 
in  the  custody  of  those  officers,  previously  to  their  being  burnt  alive : — 


1ST.  OCTOBER,   1554.  —  DINNER. 

Bread  and  ale       -           -           -  £0 
Oysters           -           -                  -    0 
Butter       -           -           -           -    0 
Eggs   0 

Lyng         -           -           -           -    0 
A  piece  of  fresh  Salmon            -    0 
Wine         -           -           -           -    0 
Cheese  and  pears      -           -      -    0 

0    2 
0    1 
0    2 
0    2 
0    8 
0  10 
0    8 
0    2 

Item,  a  post         -           -          -£014 
Item,  2  chains           •                  •    0    8    4 
Item,  2  staples      -           -          -    0    0    6 
Item,  4  laborers        -           -      -    0    2    8 

£158 
[They  were  burnt  on  Oct  the  16th,  1555.1 

CHARGE  FOR  THE    BURNING   OF   THB    BOOT 
OF  CRA.NMER. 

For  100  of  wood  faggots  for  the 
fire         -           -           -           -060 
For  100  and  %  of  furze         -      -084 
For  the  carriage  of  them             -    0    0    8 
For  two  laborers       -           -      -    0    2    8 

The  three  dinners  -           -  £0 

TO  BTJKN  LATIMER  AND  KIDI.F.V. 

For  three  load  of  wood  faggots  to 
burn  Latimer  and  Kidley        •    0 
Item,  1  load  of  furze  faggots      -    0 
Item,  for  the  carriage  of  these  4 
loads      -           -          -           -    0 

2 

12 
3 

2 

6 

0 
4 

6 

£0  12    8 
[He  was  burnt  on  March  the  21st,  In  1556.] 

MARTYRS,  ERA  OP.  This  is  also  called  the  era  of  Diocletian,  and  was  used 
by  the  writers  of  ecclesiastical  history  until  the  Christian  era  was  introduced 
in  the  sixth  century ;  and  it  still  continued  to  be  the  era  of  some  nations, 
particularly  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  commences  from  the  day  upon 
which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  August  29,  A.D.  284;  and  ihe 
persecutions  of  the  Christians  in  his  reign  caused  it  to  be  so  called. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  middle  United  States,  was  originally  included  in  the  pa- 
tent of  Virginia,  granted  under  charter  to  Calvert,  lord  Baltimore,  in  1632 ; 
named  in  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I. ;  first  colony  were 
Catholics  who  settled  at  St.  Mary's,  on  the  Potomac,  Ki34;  free  toleration 
of  all  religions  and  creeds  granted  by  lord  Baltimore ;  Constitution  settled 


472 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[MAS 


in  1650,  and  again  in  1776;  the  State  bore  an  active  part  in  the  revolution, 
adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  April  28,  1788,  by  63  to  12.  Population 
in  1790  was  319,728;  in  1810,  380,546;  in  1840,  469,232,  including  89,485 
slaves.  Maryland  resumed  the  payment  of  interest  on  her  debt,  March, 
1847. 

MASKS.  Popp<ee,  the  wife  of  Nero,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to  guard 
her  complexion  from  the  sun.  But  theatrical  masks  were  in  use  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Horace  attributes  them  to  ^Eschylus;  yet  Aristotle 
says  the  real  inventor  and  time  of  their  introduction  were  unknown.  Modern 
masks  and  muffs,  fans,  and  false  hair  for  the  women,  were  devised  by  the 
harlots  of  Italy,  and  brought  to  England  from  France  in  1572. — Stoves  Chron 

MASQUERADES.  They  were  in  fashion  in  the  court  of  Edward  III.,  1340; 
and  in  the  reign  of  Charles,  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among  the 
citizens.  The  bishops  preached  against  them,  and  made  such  representa- 
tions as  occasioned  their  suppression,  9  George  1.  1723.  [No  less  than  six 
masquerades  were  subscribed  for  in  a  month  at  this  time.]  They  were  re- 
vived, and  carried  to  shameful  excess  by  connivance  of  the  government, 
and  in  direct  violation  of  the  laws,  and  tickets  of  admission  to  a  masque- 
rade at  Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  subscribed  for  at  twenty-five 
guineas  each,  1776. — Mortimer. 

MASS.  In  the  Romish  church,  mass  is  the  office  or  prayers  used  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist.  and  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a  representation  of 
the  passion  of  our  Saviour.  Hence  every  part  of  the  service  is  supposed  to 
allude  to  the  particular  circumstances  of  his  passion  and  death.  The  ge- 
neral division  of  masses  consists  in  high  and  low :  the  first  is  that  sung  by 
the  choristers,  and  celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon;  low  masses  are  those  in  which  the  prayers  are  barely  rehearsed 
without  singing.  Mass  was  first  celebrated  in  Latin  about  A.D.  394.  Ita 
celebration  was  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  seventh  century.  Pros- 
tration was  enjoined  at  the  elevation  of  the  host  in  1201. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  United  States.  First  settled  at  Plymouth  by  •» 
colony  of  English  Puritans  from  Holland,  who  landed  Dec.  22.  1620.  This 
was  called  the  Plymouth  colony.  The  Massachusetts  colony  at  Salem  and 
Charlestown,  in  1628,  and  Boston,  1630.  These  colonies  united  in  1692 
The  American  revolution  originated  here,  at  Boston  and  vicinity,  and  this 
State  bore  an  important  and  honorable  part  in  the  contest.  See  Boston, 
Bunker  Hill,  Lexington,  &c.  Present  State  Constitution  formed  in  1780 ; 
revised  and  altered  in  1820;  slavery  abolished  in  1783;  Shay's  rebellion  in 
this  State  in  1786;  Federal  Constitution  adopted  Feb.  6.  1788,  by  187 
against  168.  Population  in  1721,  94,000  ;  in  1790,  388,727  ;  in  1810.  472,040; 
in  1820,  523,287;  in  1840,  737,699. 

MASSACRES.  Ancient  and  modern  history  abound  with  events  which  class 
under  this  head ;  and  perhaps  the  most  frightful  and  unprovoked  enormities 
of  this  kind  have  been  perpetrated  by  opposing  Christian  sects,  one  npo^ 
another,  in  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion  1  The  following  are  among 
the  most  remarkable  massacres  recorded  by  various  authors. — 


BEFORE  CHRIST. 

Of  all  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily,  which 
took  place  897  B  o. 

8000  Tyriuns  crucified,  and  8000  put  to  the 
sword  for  not  surrendering  Tyre  to 
Alexander,  881  B.C. 

The  Jews  of  Antioch  fall  upon  the  other  in- 
habitants, and  massacre  100,<iOpof  them, 
for  refusing  to  surrc-n.lrr  their  nrms  to 
Demetrius  Nicanor,  tyrant  of  Syria, 

1M  B.O 


A  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutones  and 
Ambrones,  near  Aix,  by  Marius,  the  Hu- 
man general,  200,000  being  left  dead  on 
the  spot,  102  BO. 

Tht-  Uoimins,  throughout  Asia,  women  and 
children  not  excepted.  cruelly  massacred 
in  olie  day,  by  order  of  Mithrldiites, 
king  of  1'ontus.  88  B.C. 

A  great  riumliiT  of  Koman  Senators  mas 
eucred  by  Ciiina,  Marius.  and  Sertorlul 


MAS] 


DICTIONABY    OP    DATES. 


473 


WA.SSACRES,  continued. 

Many  patricians  dispatch  themselves  to 
avoid  their  horrid  butcheries,  86  B.  c. 

Again,  under  Sylla,  and  Catiline,  his  minis- 
ter of  vengeance,  82  and  79  B.  c.  . 

At  Praeneste,  Octavianus  Caesar  ordered 
800  Roman  senators  and  other  persons 
of  distinction,  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
manes  of  Julius  Caesar,  41  B.  c. 

AFTER  CHRIST. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  1,100,000 
of  Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  A.  D.  70. 

The  Jews,  headed  by  one  A  ndrse.  put  to 
death  100,000  Greeks  and  Romans,  in 
and  near  Cyrene,  A.  D.  115. 

Cassias,  a  Roman  general  under  the  empe- 
ror M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  400.000  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Seleucia,  A.  D.  167. 

At  Alexandria,  many  thousands  of  citizens 
are  massacred,  by  an  order  of  Antoninus, 
A.  D.  218. 

The  emperor  Probus  put  to  death  700,000 
of  the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction  of 
Gaul.  A  D.  277. 

Of  eighty  Christian  fathers,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Gratian,  at  Nicomedia ;  they 
were  put  into  a  ship  which  was  set  on 
fire,  and  then  driven  out  to  sea,  A.  v.  370. 

Of  Thessalonica,  when  7000  persons,  invit- 
ed into  the  circus,  were  put  to  the  sword, 
by  order  of  Theodosius.  A.  D.  890. 

Belisarius  put  to  death  about  80.000  citi- 
zens of  Constantinople  for  a  revolt,  to 
which  they  were  impelled  by  the  tyran- 
ny and  exactions  of  two  rapacious  minis- 
ters set  over  them,  A.  D.  552. 

Massacre  of  tJie  Latins  at  Constantinople, 
by  order  of  Andronicus,  A.  D.  1184. 

Of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  com- 
menced at  Toulouse,  A.  D.  1209.  Tens 
of  thousands  perished  by  means  of  the 
sword  and  gibbet. 

The  Sicilians  massacre  the  French  through- 
out tin  whole  island  of  Sicily,  without 
distinction  of  sex  or  age,  on  Easter-day, 
the  first  bell  for  vespers  being  the  signal. 
This  horrid  affair  is  known  in  history  by 
the  name  of  Sicilian  Vespers,  A.  D.  1282. 
— Du  fresnny. 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun, 
by  the  peasants,  who,  from  a  pretended 
prophecy,  conceived  the  Holy  Land  was 
to  be  recovered  from  the  infidels  by  them. 
500  of  these  Jews  took  shelter  in  a  castle, 
and  defended  themselves  to  the  last 
extremity,  when,  for  want  of  weapons, 
they  threw  their  children  at  the  enemy, 
and  then  killed  each  other,  A.  D.  1817. 

At  Paris,  of  several  thousand  persons,  at 
the  instance  of  John,  duke  of  Burgun- 
dy, A.  D.  1418. 

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  or- 
der of  Christian  II.,  A.  D.  1520. 

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants 
throughout  the  kingdom  of  France,  at- 
tended with  circumstances  of  the  most 
horrid  treachery  and  cruelty.  It  began 
at  Paris,  in  the  night  of  the  festival  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24.  1572.  by  se- 
cret orders  from  Charles  IX.,  king  of 
France,  at  the  instigation  of  the  queen 
dowager,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  his  mo- 


ther. It  is  styled  in  history,  the  Massa- 
cre of  St  Bartholomew. 

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia,  by  the  Turks, 
when  65.000  were  slain,  A.  D.  1592. 

Of  Protestants,  at  Thorn,  put  to  de;ith  un- 
der a  pretended  legal  sentence  of  the 
chancellor  of  Poland,  for  being  concerned 
in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  Roman 
Catholic  procession,  A.  D.  1724.  All  the 
Protestant  powers  in  Europe  interceded 
to  have  this  unjust  sentence  revoked, 
but  unavailingly. 

At  Batavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred 
by  the  natives,  October  1740,  under  the 
pretext  of  an  intended  insurrection. 

At  the  taking  of  Ismael  by  the  Russians, 
30,000  old  and  young  were  slain,  Decem- 
ber, 1790.— See  J*maeL 

In  St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made 
proclamation  for  the  massacre  of  all  the 
whites,  March  29, 1804,  and  many  thou- 
sands perished. 

Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  massacre  of 
the  French,  May  2, 1808. 

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  the  citadel 
of  Cairo,  March  1, 1811. 

Massacre  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the 
Catholics,  May  1815. 

Massacre  of  vast  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cadiz,  by  the  soldiery,  whose 
ferocious  disorders  continue  for  sot  >e 
days,  March  6,  1820. 

MASSACRES  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Of  800  English  nobles  on  Salisbury  Plain, 
May  1,  A.  D.  474. 

Of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  number  of 
1200,  by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  Northumber- 
land, A.  D.  580. 

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties  of 
England,  in  the  night  of  November  18, 
1002,  and  the  28d  Ethelred  II.  At  Lon- 
don it  was  most  bloody,  the  churches 
being  no  sanctuary.  Amongst  the  rest 
was  Gunilda,  sister  of  Swein,  king  of 
Denmark,  left  in  hostage  for  tho  per- 
formance of  a  treaty  but  newly  conclud- 
ed.— Baker's  Chronicle. 

Of  the  Jews  in  England.  Some  few  press- 
ing into  Westminster  Hall  at  Kichard  I.'s 
coronation,  were  put  to  death  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  a  false  alarm  being  given  that 
the  king  had  ordered  a  general  massacre 
of  them,  the  people  in  many  parts  of 
England,  from  an  aversion  to  them,  slew 
all  they  met  In  York,  500,  who  had 
taken  shelter  in  the  castle,  killed  them- 
selves, rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  multitude.  A.  D.  1189. 

Of  the  Bristol  colonists,  at  Cnllen's  Wood, 
Ireland  (see  Culten's  Wood),  A.  D.  1209. 

Of  the  English  factory  at  Amboyna,  in 
order  to  dispossess  its  members  of  the 
Spice  Islands,  A.  D.  1623. 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland  tr> 
O'Neill's  rebellion,  Oct.  23,  1641.  Up- 
wards of  80,000  British  were  killed  in  the 
commencement  of  this  rebellion. — Si? 
William  Petty.  In  tho  firsc  two  or  Inieu 
days  of  it,  forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the 
Protestants  were  destroyed.— LorrtClar- 
endon.  Before  the  rebellion  was  entire!/ 


474  THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

MASSACRES,  continued. 


suppressed,   154,000    Protestants   were 

massacred. — Sir  W.  Temple. 
Of  the  unoffending  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe, 

May  9.  1691.— tieeGtencoe. 
Of  194  men,  women,  and  children,  chiefly 

Protestants,  burnt,  shot,  or  pierced  to 


death  by  pikes  perpetrated  by  the  ii.&ur* 

fent  Irish,  at  the  barn  of  Kculiabogue, 
reland,  in  1798. — Sir  Rich.  Musgrote. 
Massacre  of   64    American    prisoners    at 
Dartmoor,  England,  (disowned  by  Brit- 
ish Government,)  April  6, 1315. 


WASTE  II  OF  THE  CEREMONIES.  An  officer  in  several  of  the  principaJ 
courts  of  Europe  Following  the  usage  in  other  countries,  a  master  of 
the  ceremonies  was  instituted  in  England  for  the  more  honorable  reception 
of  the  ambassadors  and  persons  of  quality  at  court,  1  James  L  1603.— 
Bnktr. 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY.  Owing  to  the  extreme  ignorance  of  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton,  lord  Chancellor  of  England,  the  first  reference  in  a  cause  was  made 
to  a  master,  A.  D.  1588 ;  and  the  masters  have  since  been  chosen  from  among 
the  most  learned  equity  members  of  the  bar. 

MASTER  OP  THE  ROLLS  IN  ENGLAND.  An  equity  judge,  so  called  from 
his  having  the  custody  of  all  charters,  patents,  commissions,  deeds,  and 
recognizances,  which  being  made  into  rolls  of  parchment,  gave  occasion  for 
that  name. 

MATHEMATICS.  With  the  ancients  they  meant  all  sorts  of  learning  and  disci- 
pline; but  even  then,  as  now,  in  a  more  particular  manner,  mathematics 
were  restrained  to  those  arts  that  more  immediately  related  to  numbers  and 
quantity.  They  were  first  taught  to  the  Jews,  and  by  them  to  the  Egyptians, 
so  early  as  1950  B.  c. — Josephus  de  Antiq.  Jud. 

MATINS.  The  service  or  prayers  first  performed  in  the  morning  or  beginning 
of  the  day  in  the  Catholic  church.  Emphatically,  the  French  Matins  imply 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572.  The  Matins  of  Moscow, 
the  massacre  of  prince  Demetrius,  and  all  the  Poles  his  adherents,  at  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  27,  1600. 

MAURITIUS.  The  isle  of  France  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  A.  D. 
1500;  but  the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  They  called  it  after 
prince  Maurice,  their  stadtholder,  but  on  their  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  they  deserted  it ;  and  it  continued  unsettled  until  the  French 
landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  one  of  the  finest  provinces  in  France.  This 
island  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1810,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris  in  1814. 

MAUSOLEUM.  Artemisia,  sister  and  wife  of  Mausolus,  married  her  own  bro- 
ther, famous  for  his  personal  beauty.  She  was  so  fond  of  her  husband,  that 
at  his  death  she  drank  in  her  liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned, 
and  erected  to  his  memory  a  monument,  which  for  its  grandeur  and  magnifi- 
cence, was  called  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  This  monument 
she  called  Mausoleum,  a  name  which  has  been  given  to  all  monuments  of 
unusual  splendor.  She  invited  all  the  literary  men  of  her  age,  and  proposed 
rewards  to  him  who  composed  the  best  elegiac  panegyric  upon  her  husbaud. 
The  prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopompus,  357  B.  C. 

MAY.  The  fifth  month  of  the  year,  and  the  confine  of  spring  and  summer, 
received  its  name,  say  some,  from  Romulus,  who  gave  it  this  appellation  in 
respect  to  the  senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who  were  denominated  majores; 
though  others  supposed  it  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury, 
to  whom  they  offered  sacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  it.  Numa  Pompilius  by 
adding  January  and  February  to  the  year,  made  this  month  the  fifth,  which 
before  was  the  third,  713  B.  c. 

tf AY-DAY.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  procession  to  the  grotto  of 
Egeria  on  May-day.  May-day  has  also  been  immemorially  observed  ir 


MBC]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  47o 

England  as  a  rural  festival ;  and  high  poles,  denominated  May-poles,  are  in 
many  places  profusely  decorated  with  garlands  wreathed  in  honor  of  the  dav. 
The  late  benevolent  Mrs.  Montague  gave,  for  many  years,  on  May-day,  an 
ente-tainmeut  at  her  house  in  Porttnan-square,  to  that  unfortunate  class  the 
chimney-sweepers  of  London.  They  were  regaled  with  the  good  English 
fare  of  roast-beef  and  plum-pudding,  and  a  dance  succeeded.  Upon  their 
departure,  each  guest  received  the  donation  of  a  shilling  from  the  mistress  of 
the  feast. 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE,  IRELAND.  Founded  by  act  of  parliament,  and  en- 
dowed by  a  yearly  grant  voted  for  its  support,  and  the  education  of  student* 
who  are  designed  for  the  priesthood  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  Ireland, 
35  Geo  III.,  1795.  It  contains  500  students.  Permanent  endowment  of 
this  college,  at  the  instance  of  the  government,  to  which  30,0001.  for  the  en- 
largement of  the  buildings,  and26,000/.  annually,  were  granted  by  parliament, 
June,  1845.  This  endowment  occasioned  much  excitement  and  controversy 
in  England. 

MAYOR.  The  office  of  mayor  arose  out  of  the  immunities  granted  to  free  cities 
by  the  emperors,  and  in  some  towns  they  had  considerable  power.  Mayor 
of  the  palace  was  a  high  office  in  France.  In  this  quality  Charles  Martel 
ruled  with  despotic  sway,  A.  D  735,  el  seq.,  under  the  last  kings  of  the  Mero- 
vingian dynasty ;  his  father  had  previously  held  this  office,  and  had  it  made 
hereditary  in  his  family.  Mayors  are  the  chief  magistrates  of  corporate  towns, 
before  whose  institution  in  England,  towns  were  generally  governed  by  port- 
reeves. The  office  of  mayor  may  be  properly  said  to  date  from  the  reign  of 
Richard  I. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS.  They  were  invented  by  Phidion  of  Argos,  869 
B.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  They  became  general  in  most  countries  soon  after- 
wards ;  they  were  very  early  known  in  Plngland.  Standards  of  weights  and 
measures  were  provided  for  the  whole  kingdom  by  the  sheriffs  of  London. 
8  Richard  I.,  A.  D.  1197.  Standards  were  again  fixed  in  England,  1257. 
They  were  equalized  for  the  United  Kingdom  in  1825. 

MECCA.  This  city  is  famous  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Mahomet,  A.  D.  571. 
The  temple  is  a  gorgeous  structure,  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  On  one 
of  the  neighboring  hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is  pretended  Mahomet  usually 
retired  to  perform  his  devotions ;  and  where  the  greatest  part  of  the  Koran 
was  brought  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  A.  D.  604.  Two  miles  from 
the  town  is  the  hill  where  they  say  Abraham  went  to  offer  up  Isaac, 
1871  B.  c. 

MECHANICS.  The  time  when  the  simple  mechanical  powers  were  first  in- 
troduced is  so  uncertain,  and  perhaps  so  little  known,  that  they  have  been 
ascribed  to  the  Grecian  and  other  deities  of  the  heathen  mythology — for 
instance,  the  axe,  the  wedge,  wimble,  &c.,  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of 
Daedalus.  We  know  nothing  of  the  machinery  by  which  the  immense  masses 
of  stone  which  are  found  in  some  of  the  ancient  edifices  were  moved  and 
elevated. 

The  first  writing  on  mechanics,  was  by        i  The  water-mill  was  probably  invente  1 
Aristotle,  about  .        .        .        B.  o.  820       in  Asia ;  the  first  that  was  described 


The  Statera  Romana  invented 

The  fundamental  property  of  the  lever 
and  other  instruments  was  demon- 
strated by  Archimedes  .  .  .  205 

The  hand-mill,  or  quern,  was  very  early 
in  use;  the  Romans  found  one  in 
Yorkshire ** 

Cattle  mills,  molce  jumentarice,  were 
also  in  use  by  the  Romans,  and  in 
parts  of  Europe  .  .  .  .  ** 


was  near  on«  of  the  dwellings  of 
Mithridates .  .  .  .  B.  c.  70 

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erect- 
ed on  the  river  Tiber,  at  Rome  .  50 

Floating  mills  on  the  Tiber  .        A.  D.  586 

Tide-mills  were,  many  of  them,  in  use 
in  Venice  about ....  1078 

Wind-mills  were  in  very  general  use 
in  the  twelfth  century  .  .  .  ** 


476 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[MEM 


MECHANICS,  continued. 

Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use 

at  Augsburg       .        .        .        .A.D.  1882 
Theory  of  the  inclined  plane  inves- 
tigated by  Cardan,  about        .  1540 
Work  on  statics,  by  Stevinns    .           1586 
Theory  of  falling  bodies,  Galileo          1688 
Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens  1647 
Laws  of  collision,  Wallis,  Wren          1662 
Epicycloidal  form  of   the  teeth   of 
wheels,  Roemer      ....  1675 


Application  of  meclanics  to  astrono- 
my, parallelogism  of  forces,  laws  of 
motion,  &c.,  Newton  .  A.  D.  1679 

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  the 
analysis,  by  Dr.  Gregory  .  .  1697 

Spirit  level  (and  many  other  inven- 
tions), by  Dr.  Hooke,  from  1660  to  1702 

The  Mechanics'  Institute  in  London 
was  formed  in  ....  1828 

Mechanics'  Institute  in  INew  York 
formed 1S88 


Percussion  and  animal   mechanics, 
Borelli;  he  died      .       .       .       .1679 

Mechanics'  institutions  are  now  very  numerous  in  the  United  States  and  in 
England. 

MEDIA.  In  ancient  times  Media  was  a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  It 
revolted  from  Arbaces  820  B.  c.,  and  afterwards  became  an  independent 
kingdom,  and  conquered  Persia ;  but  Cyrus  having  vanquished  Darius  the 
Mede,  536  B.  c.,  Media  was  from  that  time  united  to  the  Persian  empire,  and 
shared  its  fate. — Blair;  Priestley. 


Revolt  of  the  Medes.—  Blair.       B.  c.  820 
The  country  was  subjected  to  the  As- 

syrians. —  Idem.        ....  T66 
Fbraortes  reigns  ;  he  conquers  Persia, 


Armenia,  and  other  countries  . 


647 


Battle  of  Rages;  the  Assyrians  defeat 
the  Medes.— Blair.  .  .  .  .625 

War  with  the  Lydians;  the  hostile  ar- 
mies meet;  but  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
so  alarms  them,  they  conclude  peace 
without  striking  a  blow  .  .  .  685 

The  reign  of  Astyages.— Blair.  .       .  585 


Cyrus  made  king  of  Persia  .  B.  c.  559 
Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus  .  .  550 
Croesus  king  of  Lydia  defeated,  and  his 

throne  seized  by  Cyrus    .        .        .  646 
Cyrus  takes  Babylon ;  puts  Belshazzar 
to  death :  and  makes  Astyages  (or 
Darius,  the  Mede)  viceroy       .        .  638 
By  the  death  of  Astyages,  Cyrus  be- 
comes master  of  all  Persia ;  and  this 
era  is  properly  the  commencement 
of  the  Persian  empire. — Lenglet.    .  867 


The  Medos  were  a  brave  people,  but  they  degenerate^  and  introduced'  lux- 
ury into  Persia.  They  admitted  polygamy,  and  a  man  was  deemed  infamous 
who  had  less  than  seven  wives,  as  was  also  a  woman  who  could  not  boast 
of  at  least  live  husbands. — Aspin. 

MEDICAL  LITERATURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  Medical  Reposi- 
tory, commenced  at  New  York,  1797,  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind.  It  was 
conducted  by  Dr.  S.  L.  Mitchill. 

MEDICIN  E.  The  art  of  preparing  simples  was  brought  into  Europe  from  the 
East,  about  A.  D.  1150.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  practice,  the  preparation 
was  principally  confined  to  ecclesiastics  in  Europe  generally,  until  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth.  The  practice  of 
medicine  Is  now  one  of  the  highest  sciences,  and  in  most  countries  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  most  learned  and  distinguished  men ;  and  various  statutes  have 
been  enacted  to  discourage  pretenders  to  the  healing  art. 

MEDINA,  IN  ARABIA  DESERTA,  famous  for  the  tomb  of  Mahomet,  contained  in 
a  large  mosque,  closed  with  rich  curtains  and  lighted  by  a  vast  number  of 
rich  lamps.  Medina  was  called  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  because  here  Maho- 
met was  protected  when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  16,  A.  D.  622.  This  flight 
gave  rise  to  the  remarkable  epocha  in  chronology  called  the  Hegira,  a  word 
that,  in  Arabic,  denotes,  to  flee,  or  quit  one's  country  or  friends. 

MEMORY.  That  faculty  of  the  mind  or  soul  whereby  past  things  are  repre- 
sented to  us  as  if  they  were  present. — Cardan.  Simonides,  grandson  of 
Simonides  the  elder,  of  Cos,  poet  and  historian,  obtained  a  prize  at  Olympia 
for  teaching  artificial  memory,  of  which  he  was  the  inventor,  477  B.  c. — 
Arundelian  Marbles.  The  science  of  mnemonics  was  made  known  in  Ger- 
many in  1807.  See  Mnemonics. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.    The  term  was  applied  to  several  orders  of  religious 


MES]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  477 

who  commenced  their  alms-begging  in  the  thirteenth  century,  in  the  ponti 
ficate  of  Innocent  III.  They  were  confined  by  a  general  council,  held  bj 
Gregory  X.  at  Lyons,  in  1272,  to  the  following  four  orders — Dominicans 
Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines.  The  Capuchins  and  other  orders 
subsequently  branched  from  them. 

MENSURATION.  The  art  of  measuring  geometrical  superficies  and  solids  is 
of  very  early  date.  The  various  properties  of  conic  sections  were  dis- 
covered by  Archimedes,  to  whom  the  chief  advancement  in  mensuration 
may  be  attributed.  He  also  determined  the  ratio  of  spheres,  spheroids,  &c., 
about  218  B.  c. 

MERCATOR'S  CHARTS.  The  true  inventor  of  these  charts  is  said  to  havo 
been  a  Mr.  Wright,  who  made  several  voyages ;  and  in  his  absence  Merca- 
tor  published  the  charts  in  his  own  name,  1556. — Pardon.  They  are,  how- 
ever, now  confidently  ascribed  to  Mercator's  own  ingenuity.  In  these 
charts  the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude  cut  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles, and  are  both  represented  by  straight  lines,  enlarging  the  degrees  of 
latitude  as  they  recede  from  the  equator. 

MERCHANT — from  inercans.  The  name  given  to  high  commercial  citizens  who 
trade  abroad.  The  merchants  of  London  and  Amsterdam  were  accounted 
the  most  enterprising  and  richest  in  the  world.  An  attempt  was  made  by 
queen  Anne's  ministry  to  exclude  merchants  from  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  in  1711;  but  it  failed.  The  Merchant  Adventurers'  society  (see 
Adventurers  Merchant)  was  established  by  the  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1296;  it 
extended  to  England  in  Edward  III.'s  reign;  and  was  formed  into  an 
English  corporation  in  1564. — Haydn. 

MERCURY.  This  substance  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  has  been  found 
in  vast  quantities  in  various  countries.  The  mines  in  Carniola  in  Germany 
are  the  most  productive  in  Europe,  and  have  yielded  in  some  years  1200 
tons;  they  were  discovered  by  accident  in  1497.  The  anti-venereal  virtues 
of  mercury  were  found  by  James  Carpus,  an  Italian  surgeon.  A.  D.  1512. — 
Now).  DicL  The  compound  termed  calomel  was  first  mentioned  by  Croi- 
lius  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  the  first  directions  for  its  preparation 
were  given  by  Beguin,  1608.  It  was  given  to  patients  under  inoculation 
for  the  small-pox  in  1745.  Pallas  congealed  mercury  by  artificial  cold  in 
1762.  Its  malleable  qualities  were  discovered  by  M.  Oberlin,  of  Vienna,  1785. 

MERRY  ANDREW.  The  name  was  first  given  to  a  droll  and  eccentric  phy- 
sician, whose  name  was  Andrew  Borde,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  who,  on  some  occasions,  on  account  of  his  facetious  manners  and 
good-humor,  appeared  at  court,  1547.  He  used  to  attend  markets  and  fairs, 
and  harangue  the  people,  by  whom  he  was  called  Merry  Andrew.  The 
name  is  now  given  to  a  buffoon,  a  zany,  or  jack-pudding. — L'Estrange. 
Johnson. 

MESS  ALI ANS.  A  sect  whose  religious  error  consisted  in  adhering  to  the  letter 
of  the  gospel,  interpreting  the  words  to  justify  and  excuse  their  worst  pro- 
pensities and  vices.  Amongst  other  absurdities  they  refused  to  work,  quoting 
this  passage,  "Labor  not  for  the  food  that  perisheth;"  about  A.  I).  310— 
Baronius,  Annal. 

MESSENIA,  now  Manra-Matra,  a  country  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  kingdom 
was  commenced  by  Policaon,  1499  B.  c.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  san- 
guinary wars  against  Sparta  (see  next  article),  and  once  contained  a  hundred 
cities,  most  of  whose  names  even  are  now  unknown.  Messenia  joined  the 
Achaean  league  21C  B.  c. 

MESSENIAN  WARS      The  celebrated  wars  between  Lncedemon  and  Messenia 
Tho  first  began  743  B.  c.,  and  was  occasioned  by  violence  having  been  offered 


478  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MET 

to  some  Spartan  women  who  had  assembled  in  a  temple  of  devotion  commoi. 
to  both  nations;  the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed  in  his  efforts  to  defend  the 
females.  This  dreadful  war  raged  for  nineteen  years,  and  atone  period  made 
so  great  a  carnage,  thai  the  Spartan  army  sent  orders  home  for  all  the  un- 
married women  to  prostitute  themselves  to  recruit  the  population.  In  the 
end  Ithome  was  taken,  and  the  Messetiians  became  slaves  to  the  conquerors. 
The  second  war  was  commenced  685  B.  c.  to  throw  off  the  galling  Spartan 
yoke,  and  lasted  fourteen  years,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  Messenians  who 
fled  to  Sicily.  The  third  took  place  465  B.  c.,  it  endured  ten  years,  when 
the  whole  nation  abandoned  the  Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA,  IN  SICILY.  So  named  by  the  Messinese,  who  seized  this  city  then 
called  Zancle,  671  B.  c.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman  empire, 
but  fell  to  the  Saracens  A.  D.  829. — Priestley. — In  the  eleventh  century  Roger 
the  Norman  took  it  by  surprise,  and  delivered  it  from  the  Mahometan  op- 
pression. Great  Messinian  conspiracy,  1282.  The  memorable  revolt  took 
place  1672.  Almost  ruined  by  an  earthquake  1693  ;  and  nearly  depopulated 
by  a  plague  in  1743.  In  1780  Messina  suffered  much  by  an  earthquake;  and 
in  Feb.  and  March,  1783,  was  half  destroyed  by  the  same  calamity;  since 
which  it  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt. 

METALLURGY.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  Genesis,  Tubal  Cain  is  mentioned 
as  "an  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  The  seven  metala 
are  mentioned  by  Moses  and  Homer.  Virgil  mentions  the  melting  of  steel 
in  furnaces.  The  Phoenicians  had  an  extraordinary  skill  in  working  me- 
tals. 

METAPHYSICS.  This  term,  literally  denoting  "after  physics,"  originated 
with  Aristotle.  What  may  be  denoted  the  modern  metaphysics,  cannot  be 
traced  farther  back  than  the  fifteenth  century — the  period  when  an  extraor- 
dinary impulse  was  given  in  Europe  to  the  human  mind,  and  commonly 
called  the  revival  of  learning. 

<s  METEMPSYCHOSIS.  A  doctrine  supposing  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  from 
%  one  body  to  another.  The  first  belief  in  it  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who 
would  eat  no  animal  food,  lest  they  should  devour  the  body  into  which 
the  soul  of  a  deceased  friend  had  passed.  They  had  also  an  idea,  that  so 
long  as  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  kept  entire,  the  soul  would  not  trans- 
migrate ;  which  accounts  for  the  extraordinary  pains  they  were  at  in  em- 
balming the  dead ;  a  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  528  B.  c. 

METHODISTS.  A  large  and  increasing  body  of  religionists,  whose  tenets,  dis- 
cipline, and  designs,  are  often  misunderstood,  and  of  course  misrepresented. 
"  Our  end,"  says  Mr.  Benson,  in  his  Apology,  "is  not  to  form  a  sect,  or  to 
bring  people  to  this  or  the  other  speculative  opinion,  mode  of  worship,  or 
form  of  church-government,  but  simply  to  make  them  Christians — Christiana 
in  heart  and  life,  in  temper,  word,  and  work — such  as  lived  in  the  early  days 
of  Christianity,  and  such  as  we  may  conceive  may  still  live."  The  methodists 
may  be  said  to  have  appeared  formally,  if  not  originally  at  Oxford  A.  D. 
1729;  the  reverend  John  Wesley  being  the  first  who  there  introduced  me- 
thodism.  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  and  Mr.  Whitfield,  commenced  their 
career  by  teaching  in  1734.  The  term  appears  to  have  been  brought  forward 
in  the  days  of  Puritanism,  being  suggested  by  the  Latin  appellative  Metho- 
dislcK,  given  to  a  college  of  physicians  in  ancient  Rome,  in  consequence  of 
the  strict  regimen  under  which  they  placed  their  patients.  The  methodist 
missions  were  commenced  and  superintended  by  Mr.  Wesley  and  Dr.  Coke 
in  1769,  when  two  missionaries  were  sent  out  to  North  America.  But  thesd 
•missions  were  not  reduced  to  a  system,  nor  were  societies  regularly  organiz- 
ed for  their  support,  until  1817. 


MID] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  479 


MEXICO.  Discovered  in  A.  D.  1518.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Cortes,  whose  name  is  infamous  ou  account  of  his  cruelties  to  the  vanquished, 
A.  D.  1521.  The  mint  of  Mexico,  the  richest  in  the  world,  was  begun  in 
1535.  This  country,  like  other  states  in  the  new  world,  has  recovered  its  in- 
dependence.  Iturbide  made  emperor,  May,  1822.  Mexican  constitution 
proclaimed  by  the  president  Vitioria,  Oct.  1823.  Iturbide  shot  July  19, 
1824.  Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain  ratified,  April  1825.  Titles 
suppressed,  May  1826.  The  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  decreed,  March, 
1829.  Spanish  expedition  against  Mexico  surrendered,  Sept.  26,  same  year. 
Mexican  revolution ;  the  president  Guerrero  deposed  Dec.  23,  same  year. 
The  independence  of  Mexico,  previously  recognized  by  the  great  European 
powers,  also  recognized  by  the  emperor  of  Brazil,  June,  1 830.  Civil  war 
between  Bustamente  and  Santa  Anna,  1832.  Santa  Anna  elected  president. 
March  1834.  Declaration  of  war  against  France,  Nov.  30,  1838.  Castle  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa  taken  by  the  French,  Nov.  27,  1838.  This  war  terminated, 
March  9,  1839.  Civil  war  with  change  of  leaders  at  various  times.  Santa 
Anna  displaced  Bustamente  again,  Oct.  G,  1841.  Insurrection  of  general  Pa- 
redes  against  Santa  Anna.  Nov.  5,  1844,  succeeds  without  Woodshed,  and 
Herrera  made  president,  Dec.  1844.  Paredes  overturns  Herrera,  Dec.  1845. 
War  with  the  United  States,  1846 :  Mexicans  defeated  at  Palo  Alto, 
May  8,  1846;  and  subsequently,  at  Matamoras.  Santa  Fe  captured,  Aug.  23, 
and  Monterey,  Sept.  24,  1846.  Mexican  congress  authorized  their  govern- 
ment to  raise  $15,000,000  for  the  war  against  the  United  States,  upon  the 
mortgage  or  sale  of  church  property,  Jan.  8,  1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista, 
Feb.  22,  1847.  Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  general  Scott,  March  29,  1847. 
Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo,  April  18.  General  Paredes  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  in 
disguise,  Aug.  14,  1847.  Battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco,  Aug.  20, 
1847;  of  Chepultepec,  Sept.  12.  Surrender  of  city  of  Mexico  to  American 
general  Scott,  Sept.  14,  1847.  Treaty  of  peace  with  the  United  States  rati- 
fied at  Queretaro,  May  30,  1848.  Paredes  excites  a  revolt  at  Guanaxuato, 
June  15.  Mexico  evacuated  by  the  American  troops,  June  12.  Herrera  be- 
comes president,  July  6.  Bustamente  defeats  Paredes,  July  18.  Vera  Cruz 
surrendered  by  the  United  States,  Aug.  1.  See  War  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  Signor  de  la  Rosa,  first  Mexican  minister  to  the  United  States  after 
the  war,  presented  his  credentials,  Dec.  2,  1848. 

MEZZOTINTO.  A  peculiar  manner  of  engraving,  representing  figures  on  cop- 
per, received  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  painting.  The  invention  of  i* 
is  generally  ascribed  to  prince  Rupert,  A.  D.  1648  ;  but  baron  Heinikin  state* 
that  colonel  de  Siegen  engraved  a  large  and  admirable  print  of  Amelia  Eliza- 
beth of  Hesse  in  mezzotinto  in  1643.  See  Engraving. 

MICHIGAN,  one  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  by  the  French  at  Detroit 
in  1647.  Many  of  the  Hurons,  a  native  tribe  in  this  region,  were  converted 
to  the  Catholic  faith  by  the  Jesuits.  The  territory  ceded  to  England  by  the 
peace  of  1763  ;  made  a  separate  territory  of  the  United  States  in  1805  ; 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1836.  During  the  war  of  1812-13  the 
territory  was  gained  for  a  time  by  the  British,  but  it  was  recovered  by  gen- 
eral Harrison.  Population  in  1810,  was  4,528;  in  1820,  9,048;  in  1830 
31,639;  in  1840,  212,267. 

MICROSCOPES.  Invented  nearly  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  Holland,  A.  D. 
1621.  Those  with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of  re- 
fraction was  discovered,  about  1624.  The  honor  of  this  invention  is  awarded 
to  Drebel  and  Torricelli.  Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In 
England,  great  improvements  were  made  in  the  microscope  by  Henry  Baker, 
F.R.S.,  who  wrote  two  treatises  upon  it,  about  1763. — Biog.  Did. 

UIDWIKERY      "Women  were  the  only  practitioners  of  this  art  among  the  H» 


480  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MIL 

brews  and  Egyptians.  Hippocrates,  who  practised  medicine  in  Greece,  460 
B.  C.,  is  styled  by  some  the  father  of  midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic.*  It  ad- 
vanced under  Celsus,  who  flourished  A.  D.  37,  and  under  Galen,  who  lived  A  D. 
131.  In  England  midwifery  became  a  science  about  the  period  of  the  insti- 
tution of  the  College  of  Physicians,  10  Henry  VII.,  1518.  The  celebrated 
Dr.  Harvey  personally  engaged  in  the  practice  of  it,  about  1603 ;  and  after 
his  example  the  calling  in  of  men  in  all  difficult  cases  followed.  Astruc 
affirms  that  the  epoch  of  the  employment  of  men-midwives  goes  no  farther 
back  than  the  first  lying-in  of  Madame  de  la  Valliere,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV., 
1663.  She  sent  for  Julian  Clement,  an  eminent  surgeon,  who  was  conducted 
with  great  secrecy  to  the  house.  The  same  surgeon  was  employed  in  the 
subsequent  labors  of  this  lady,  and  he  being  very  successful,  men-midwives 
after  came  into  repute,  the  name  of  accoucheur  being  given  to  them. 

MILAN.  The  capital  of  this  celebrated  dukedom,  the  ancient  Liguria,  is  re- 
puted to  have  been  built  by  the  Gauls  about  408  B.  C.  It  submitted  to  the 
Romans  222  B.  c. ;  was  formed  into  a  republic  A.  D.  1221  ;  and  lastly  was 
governed  by  dukes  from  A.  D.  1395  until  1505,  when  it  was  conquered  by 
Louis  XII.  John  Galeazzo  was  the  first  who  took  the  title  of  duke  of  Milan, 
about  1390.  The  French  were  expelled  from  Milan  by  Charles  V.  of  Ger- 
many, about  1525 ;  and  this  emperor  gave  it  to  his  son,  Philip  II.  Milan 
was  given  to  Austria,  upon  Naples  and  Sicily  being  ceded  to  Spain,  1748. 
Seized  by  the  French,  June  30,  1796.  Retaken  by  the  Austrians  in  1799  ; 
but  regained  by  the  French  May  31,  the  next  year.  This  city  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  late  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  crowned 
with  the  Iron  crown  at  Milan,  May  26,  1805.  The  celebrated  Milan  decree 
of  Napoleon  against  all  Continental  intercourse  with  England,  declaring 
England  in  a  state  of  blockade,  was  issued  from  this  city,  Dec.  17,  1807. 
Put  under  military  occupation  in  consequence  of  disturbances,  Sept  8.  1847. 
Collision  of  the  Milanese  with  the  Austrian  soldiers,  Jan.  1,  1848;  followed 
by  conciliations.  Martial  law  proclaimed  in  Lombardy,  Feb.  1848  ;  the  gov- 
ernment threatens  the  people  with  the  fate  of  the  Poles.  The  people  revolt- 
ed and  expelled  the  Austrians,  and  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  entered 
Milan  in  the  popular  cause,  March  23,  1848.  A  vote  taken  in  Lombardy  on 
proposed  union  with  Piedmont. — 561,002  in  favor  of  it;  681  for  postponing 
it  till  the  end  of  the  war,  June  9,  1848.  Vicenza  surrenders  to  the  Austri- 
ans under  Radetsky,  June  10.  The  duke  of  Genoa  repulses  the  Austrians 
at  Rivoli,  July  1.  Milan  capitulates  to  the  Austrians,  Aug.  4,  1848. 

MILITARY  OR  MARTIAL  LAW.  This  is  a  law  built  on  no  settled  principle, 
but  entirely  arbitrary,  and  in  truth,  no  law ;  but  sometimes  indulged,  rather 
than  allowed,  as  law. — Sir  Matthew  Hale.  Martial  law  was  several  times 
proclaimed  in  Great  Britain  during  rebellions.  It  was  almost  general  through- 
out Ireland  in  1798.  The  last  proclamation  of  martial  law  was  in  that  coun- 
try, July  26,  1803.  Paris  was  under  martial  law  for  several  weeks  after  the 
insurrection  of  June,  1848. 

MILITIA.  The  standing  national  militia  of  Great  Britain  is  traced  by  most 
historians  to  king  Alfred,  who,  by  his  prudent  discipline,  made  all  his  sub- 
jects soldiers,  A.  D.  872  to  901.  The  feudal  military  tenures  became  involves 
in  this  force.  The  first  commission  of  array  to  raise  a  militia  in  England 
was  in  1422.  In  the  United  States  the  laws  relating  to  the  militia  and  the 

*  Agnodice,  an  Athenian  virgin,  disguised  her  sex  to  learn  medicine.  She  was  taught  by 
Hleropholus,  her  father,  the  art  of  Midwifery,  and  when  employed,  always  discovered  her  sex 
to  her  patients.  This  brought  her  int  >  so  much  practice,  that  the  males  of  her  profession,  who 
were  now  out  of  employment,  accused  her,  before  the  Areopagus,  of  corruption.  !She  confessed 
her  sex  to  the  judges,  and  a  law  was  made  to  empower  all  free-born  women  to  learn  midwifery. 
—Hyg.fa.  274. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 

appointment  of  officers  are  different  in  the  different  States  See  Encyclo- 
pedia Americana.  The  aggregate  militia  force  of  the  United  States,  as  re- 
ported in  1848,  was  1,888,538,  but  as  the  returns  in  some  instances  were 
for  former  years,  the  number  probably  reached,  in  1850,  at  least  to  2,100,000. 
As  the  regular  army  has  always  been  small  (in  time  of  peace  about  8000) 
the  republic  has  relied  chiefly  on  the  militia  in  time  of  war. 

MILKY  WAY.  Ancient  poets  and  philosophers  speak  of  the  galaxy  as  the 
road  by  which  heroes  went  to  heaven.  The  Greeks  supposed  that  Juno  ac- 
cidentally gave  suck  to  Mercury  when  an  infant,  or  to  the  infant  Hercules, 
who,  while  she  slept,  was  laid  by  her  side ;  but  perceiving  who  he  was,  she 
threw  him  from  her,  and  the  heavens  were  thus  marked  by  the  wasted  milk. 
Democritus  was  the  first  who  taught  that  the  via,  lactea  was  occasioned  by  a 
confused  multitude  of  stars,  about  428  B.  c. 

MILLENNIUM.  This  doctrine  supposed  that  the  world  would  end  at  the  ex- 
piration of  the  seven  thousandth  year  from  the  creation;  and  that  during 
the  last  thousand  years  Christ  and  the  saints  would  reign  upon  earth.  It 
was  generally  inculcated  as  early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries.  It  was 
propagated  by  Papias,  Justin-Martyr,  and  many  others.  The  Millennium 
was  grounded  upon  a  doubtful  text  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  tho  effect  that  our 
blessed  Saviour  should  reign  with  the  faithful  upon  earth  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, before  the  final  completion  of  beatitude. — Burnet. 

MILLINER.  Defined  by  Shakspeare  and  Johnson  as  a  seller  of  ribands  and 
dresses  for  woman,  a  very  ancient  occupation ;  the  term  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  Milan.  There  are  men-milliners  in  England,  and  the  adoption. 
of  such  a  trade  by  the  male  sex  has  been  strongly  and  justly  censured.  In 
1810,  men-milliners  and  other  classes  of  an  epicene  character  were  very 
strongly  censured  in  the  Society  of  Arts.  Young  females  are  employed  at 
all  seasons,  and  in  all  weathers,  to  carry  bandboxes  through  the  streets,  ex- 
posed to  the  insolence  of  libertines,  and  the  perils  of  vicious  example,  while 
the  perfumed  coxcomb  ['•  He  was  perfumed  like  a  milliner." — S/takspeare.] 
measures  ribands  safely  at  home,  or  folds  gauzes,  and  lisps  the  while  in  lady 
phrases  to  females  of  distinction.* — Butler. 

MILLS  The  earliest  instrument  for  grinding  manna  and  corn,  was  the  mortar. 
Moses  forbade  them  to  be  taken  in  pawn,  because  that,  he  says,  would  be 
like  taking  a  man's  life  to  pledge.  The  hand-mill  was  in  use  among  the 
Britons  previously  to  the  conquest  by  the  Romans.  The  Romans  introduced 
the  water-mill.  See  article  Mechanics. 

MINES.  Those  of  Great  Britain  are  very  numerous,  rich,  and  of  various  kinds. 
Strabo  and  Tacitus  enumerate  gold  and  silver  as  among  the  products  of  Eng- 
land. The  earliest  instance  of  a  claim  to  a  mine  royal  being  enforced, 
occurs  47  Henry  III.,  1262. — Ruding.  It  related  to  mines  containing  gold, 
together  with  copper,  in  Devonshire.  In  the  United  States,  iron,  coal,  lime, 
and  salt  exist  in  great  abundance,  in  various  States:  lead  mines  in  Mis- 
souri are  very  productive.  Gold  mines  have  been  found  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Georgia,  but  their  supply  is  but  moderate.  See  Coal,  Copper, 
Tin,  Gold,  &c. 

MINNESOTA.  A  territory  of  the  United  States  lying  between  40«  30'  nort"- 
lat ,  and  between  91*  10'  and  102*  west  long.,  inhabited  chiefly  by  the  Sioux 
Indians.  First  explored  by  the  French ;  began  to  be  settled  by  emigrants 
from  the  United  States  about  1845-6. 

*  I  look  upon  a  man-milliner  not  only  as  one  of  the  most  unworthy  members  of  society,  but 
as  one  of  the  most  injurious.  When  I  hear  one  of  these  persons  haranguing  upon  the  merits 
of  muslin  or  the  becoming  color  of  a  riband,  anger  will  mingle  itself  with  the  feeling  of  con- 
tempt ;  for  the-employmeul  that  degrades  this  man  might  have  p  cserved  a  woman  from  proa 
tltntion.— Dr.  Southey 

21 


482  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MIS 

MINORCA.  This  island  and  Majorca  were  called  by  the  Greeks,  Balearides. 
Minorca  was  captured  by  lieutenant-general  Stanhope  and  .sir  John  Leake  in 
August  1708,  and  was  confirmed  to  the  British  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
1713.  It  was  retaken  by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  June  1756.  Admiral 
Byng  fell  a  victim  to  the  exasperation  of  the  public  mind,  and  to  the  safety 
of  ministers,  for  not  relieving  it  with  a  force  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the 
enemy.  See  Byng.  It  was  restored  to  the  British  at  the  peace  in  1763. 
Besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken,  Feb.  5,  1782.  It  was  again  captured 
by  the  British,  without  the  loss  of  a  mac,  Nov.  15,  1798 ;  but  was  given  up 
at  the  peace  of  1802. 

MINSTRELS.  They  were  originally  pipers  appointed  by  lords  of  manors  to 
divert  their  copyholders  while  at  work.  They  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee- 
men  or  harpers  of  the  Saxons,  and  continued  till  about  A.  D.  1560.  John  of 
Gaunt  erected  a  court  of  minstrels  at  Tutbury  in  1380.  So  late  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  they  intruded  without  ceremony  into  all  companies,  even  at 
the  houses  of  the  nobility.  In  Elizabeth's  reign  they  had,  however,  sunk 
into  neglect. 

MINT  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  established  at  Philadelphia,  1792.  Branch  at 
New  Orleans,  1838 ;  at  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  1837  ;  at  Dahlonega,  1838.  See  Coining. 

MIRRORS.  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were  made  of  metal;  and  from  a  passage 
in  the  Mosaic  writings  we  learn  that  the  mirrors  used  by  the  Jewish  women 
were  made  of  brass.  Mirrors  in  silver  were  introduced  by  Praxiteles,  328 
B.  o.  See  Looking  Glasses. 

MISS.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  epithet  Miss  applied  to  females  was 
considered  a  term  of  reproach.  Miss  Cross  who  is  particularly  noticed  in 
Hayne's  epilogue  to  Farquhar's  Love  in  a  toitle.  about  1782,  was  the  first 
actress  announced  as  Miss. — G-alCs  Lives  of  the  Players. 

MISSIONS.  Among  the  Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St.  Dominick,  St. 
Francis,  St.  Augustin,  &c.,  had  missions  to  the  Levant  and  to  America. 
The  Jesuits  had  missions  to  China  (which  sec),  and  to  most  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Among  the  Protestants,  an  early  undertaking  of  this  kind  was 
a  Danish  mission,  planned  by  Frederick  IV.,  in  1706.  But  the  Moravian 
Brethren  may  be  said  to  have  led  the  way  to  the  new  Christian  missions, 
about  1732.  The  London  Missionary  Society  held  their  first  meeting,  Nov. 
4,1794;  and  it  has  since  been  the  parent  of  many  benevolent  institutions, 
The  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  formed  1810; 
first  mission  at  Bombay,  1813;  at  Ceylon.  1816;  to  Choctaws,  1817;  Che- 
rokees,  1820.  The  Board  has  an  annual  income  from  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  about  $200.000.  The  statistics  of  its  operations  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  are  given  in  its  annual  reports.  The  contributions  of  this 
Board  and  its  missionaries  to  the  fund  of  geographical  and  ethnographical 
science,  to  say  nothing  of  re>igion  and  civilization,  have  been  very  important. 
The  missions  of  the  Baptists,  Episcopalians,  Methodists.  &c,  are  also  nu- 
merous. American  Baptist  Board  of  Missions,  founded  1814.  Board  of 
Missions  of  General  Assembly  (Presbyterian),  1818.  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society,  1819.  American  Home  Missionary  Society,  1826.  See  Benevc~ 
lent  Societies. 

MISSISSIPPI,  one  of  the  United  States.  First  settled  by  the  French  at  Nat- 
chez, and  claimed  as  part  of  Louisiana,  1716.  Colony  destroyed  by  the 
Indians.  The  country  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  1753.  Part 
of  it  belonged  to  Georgia,  and  the  southern  part  to  Florida.  The  territory, 
together  with  Alabama,  constituted  the  "Mississippi  Territory"  until  1817, 
when  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State.  Population  in  1816,  45,929 
in  1830,  136,806;  in  1840,  375,651,  including  195,211  slaves. 


MOG]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  483 

MISSOURI,  one  of  the  United  States.  "Was  included  with  Louisiana  in  the 
purchase  from  the  French  in  1803.  Town  of  St.  Louis  settled  by  the  French 
in  1764,  but  was  little  more  than  a  trading  post  until  1804,  when  the  terri- 
torial government  was  formed.  Missouri  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State 
in  1821,  after  a  long  debate  on  slavery,  ending  in  the  Missouri  Compromise,' 
which  prohibits  slavery  north  and  west  of  Arkansas,  but  tolerates  it  in  Mis- 
souri. Population  in  1810,  19,833;  in  1830,  140,074;  in  1840,  383,702,  in- 
eluding  58,240  slaves. 

MISSISSIPPI  TRADE.  This  trade  was  begun  in  November,  1716.  The  cele- 
brated Mississippi  scheme  or  bubble  in  France,  which  was  commenced 
about  that  period,  exploded  in  1720  ;  at  which  time  the  nominal  capital  is 
said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000,0002.  See  Law's  Bubble. 

MITHR1DATE.  A  physical  preparation  in  the  form  of  an  electuary,  supposed 
to  ba  the  oldest  compound  known  to  us  at  the  present  day.  It  was  invented 
by  Mithridates  II.  the  king  of  Pontus,  about  70  B.  c.  It  was  formerly 
thought  to  be  a  great  antidote  against  poison ;  but  though  it  is  now  out 
of  date  for  that  purpose,  it  is  still  used  as  an  opiate,  and  is  one  of  the 
capital  medicines  of  our  shops. 

MITHRIDATIC  WAR.  Caused  by  the  massacre  of  100,000  Romans,  86  B.  c., 
and  remarkable  for  its  duration,  its  many  battles,  the  devastation  of  human 
life  it  occasioned,  and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mithridates  having 
taken  the  consul  Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  arr  ass  through  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  crying  out  as  he  rode,  "  I  am  Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans."  B» 
ultimately  dispatched  him,  by  ordering  melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  hia 
throat,  which  was  done  in  derision  of  his  avarice,  85  B.  c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  is  of  very  ancient  use,  having  been  worn  by 
the  high-priest  among  the  Jews.  Among  the  primitive  Christians,  young 
women  who  professed  a  state  of  virginity,  and  solemnly  consecrated  thereto, 
wore  a  purple  or  golden  mitre.  The  pope  has  four  mitres,  which  according 
to  the  solemnity  to  be  performed,  or  festival  day  it  is  worn  on,  is  more  or  lesa 
magnificent.  Anciently  the  cardinals  wore  mitres,  but  at  the  council  of 
Lyons,  in  1245,  they  were  appointed  to  wear  hats,  which  remains  to  this  day. 

MNEMONICS.  Artificial  memory  had  its  professors  in  the  ancient  world* 
The  art  of  assisting  memory,  by  getting  by  heart,  was  introduced  by  Simon- 
ides  the  younger,  477  B.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  In  modern  times,  mnemonics 
have  been  elaborately  treated ;  and  the  Memoria  Technica  of  Dr.  Grey  is  an 
esteemed  work  on  the  subject.  The  science  of  mnemonics,  as  we  now  have 
it,  was  announced  in  Germany,  in  1806-7  ;  but  it  had  been  previously  no 
ticed  in  the  London  monthly  periodicals. 

MODENA.  Erected  into  a  duchy  in  1451.  The  duke  was  expelled  by  the 
French,  1796.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  Modenese  possessions 
were  incorporated  with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797.  The  archduke  Fran- 
cis of  Este  was  restored  in  1814.  Insurrection  here,  Feb.  5,  1831.  The 
archduke  escaped;  but  the  Austrian  troops  soon  afterwards  entered  and 
restored  the  deposed  authorities.  The  people  revolt  and  imprison  the  duket 
March  20,  1848.  The  troops  of  Tuscany  occupy  Modena,  March  24;  Provi- 
sional government  appointed,  April  9,  1848. 

MOGULS.  They  deduce  their  origin  from  Japhet,  son  of  Noah.  His  son, 
Turk,  they  say,  was  the  first  king  or  khan  of  those  nations  afterwards 
known  as  Turks,  Tartars  and  Moguls  The  first  conqueror  of  the  Mogul 
empire  was  Jenghis  Khan,  a  Tartarian  prince,  who  died  A.  D.  1236.  Timour 
Beg  became  great  Mogul  by  conquest,  1399.  Khouli  Khan,  the  famous 
sophi  of  Persia,  considerably  diminished  the  power  of  the  moguls,  carried 
away  immense  treasures  from  Delhi,  and  since  that  event  many  of  th* 
nabobs  have  made  themselves  independent.  See  India. 


484  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MOH 

MONARCHY.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  the  Assyrians,  founded  soon 
after  the  Deluge.  See  Assyria.  Historians  reckon  four  grand,  or  almost 
universal  monarchies, — the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman,  Set 
them  respectively. 

MONASTERIES.  The  first  founded  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in 
A.  D.  270  ;  and  according  to  others,  in  A.  i>.  305.  The  suppression  of  monastic 
houses  has  been  frequent,  even  in  Catholic  countries ;  and  many  religious 
communities  have  bowed  to  the  variable  notions  of  mankind  regarding  re- 
ligion, and  to  the  altered  state  of  the  world.  Constantino  IV.,  among 
other  persec  itors,  commanded  a  vast  number  of  friars  and  nuns  to  appear 
at  Ephesus .  he  there  ordered  them  to  change  their  black  habits  for  white, 
and  to  destroy  their  images.  They  explained  that  this,  on  account  of  the 
vows  they  had  taken,  was  impossible ;  whereupon  he  directed  that  their 
eyes  should  be  put  out,  and  that  they  should  be  banished,  forfeiting  their 
various  monasteries,  which  he  sold  for  the  uses  of  the  state.  When  St. 
Austin  arrived  in  England  A.  D.  596,  Ethelbert  of  Kent  gave  him  an  idol 
temple  without  the  walls  of  his  capital,  as  a  burial-place  for  him  and  his 
successors,  which  was  converted  into  the  first  monastery.  Various  monastic 
houses  were  suppressed  in  England  in  various  reigns ;  and  a  vast  number  in 
1515.  But  the  general  dissolution  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
1534-9.  The  abbey  lands  were  afterwards  granted  to  numerous  courtiers, 
whose  descendants  enjoy,  them  to  this  day. 

MONEY.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in  the  23d  chapter  of  Ge- 
nesis, when  Abraham  purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the  year 
of  the  world  2139.  In  profane  history,  the  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  tu 
the  Lydians.  Moneta  was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the  Romans,  it 
having  been  coined  in  the  temple  of  Juno  Moneta,  269  B.  c.  Money  was 
made  of  different  ores,  and  even  of  leather  and  other  articles,  both  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times.  It  was  made  of  pasteboard  by  the  Hollanders  so 
late  as  1574.  Silver  has  increased  more  than  thirty  times  its  value  since 
the  Norman  conquest,  viz.  a  pound  in  that  age  was  three  times  the  quantity 
that  it  is  at  present,  and  twelve  times  its  value  in  purchasing  any  commo- 
dity. See  articles,  Coin ;  Gold ;  Silver ;  Copper ;  Mint,  &c. 

MONK.  The  first  is  said  to  have  been  Paul  of  Thebais,  who  fled  into  the  de- 
serts to  avoid  the  Decian  persecution  about  A.  D.  250.  St.  Anthony  is  sup- 
posed by  other  authorities  to  have  been  the  first  example  of  a  regular 
monastic  life,  A.  D.  305,  soon  after  which  time  monks  began  to  associate 
St.  Athanasius  introduced  the  monastic  life  into  Rome  in  341.  See  Abbeys. 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural  son 
of  Charles  II.,  was  banished  England  for  a  conspiracy  in  1683.  He  invaded 
England  at  Lyme,  June  11,  1685.  He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton  on 
the  20th  of  the  same  month.  Was  defeated  at  Bridgewater,  July  5 ;  and 
was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  July  15,  1685.  The  county  of  Monmouth, 
from  which  he  was  named,  was  made  an  English  county  by  Henry  VI1L 
about  1535. 

MONOPOLIES.  Commercial  monopolies  reached  to  such  a  height  in  England, 
that  parliament  petitioned  against  them,  and  they  were  in  consequence 
mostly  abolished  about  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  1602.  They  were 
further  suppressed,  as  being  contrary  to  law,  19  James  I.,  1622;  and  were 
totally  abolished,  and  it  was  decreed  that  none  should  be  in  future  created, 
as  was  previously  the  custom,  by  royal  patent,  16  Charles  I.,  1640. — Ander 
son's  History  of  Commerce. 

MONTANISTS.     A  sect  founded  by  Montanus,  of  Ardaba,  in  Mysia,  an  extra- 


MORj  DICTIONARY   OP   DATES.  485 

ordinary  enthusiast,  about  A.  D.  171.  He  was  reputed  to  have  the  gift  of 
prophecy,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  comforter  promised  by  Christ,  con- 
demned second  marriages  as  fornication,  permitted  the  dissolution  of  mar- 
riage, forbade  to  avoid  martyrdom,  and  ordered  a  severe  fast  of  three 
lents ;  he  hanged  himself  with  Maximilla,  one  of  his  women-scholars,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  second  century. — Cave's  Hist.  Lit, 

MONTREAL.  Surrendered  to  the  English  by  the  French  in  1760.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Provincials  in  the  American  war  of  Independence,  November 
12,  1775,  and  was  retaken  by  the  British,  June  15,  1776.  The  church,  Je- 
suits' college,  prison,  and  many  buildings  burnt  down,  June  6,  1803.  Great 
military  affray,  Sept.  29,  1833.  Riot  about  the  "Rebellion  Losses"  Act; 
the  parliament  house  burnt  by  the  mob,  1849. 

MOON.  The  full  moon  was  held  favorable  for  any  undertaking  by  the  Spar- 
tans, and  the  Greeks  generally  looked  upon  full  moons,  or  the  times  of 
conjunction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  as  seasons  most  favorable  to  marriage. 
Opacity  of  tho  moon,  and  true  causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  was  taught  by 
Thales,  640  B.  c.  Posidonius  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the 
moon,  79  B.  c. — Diog.  Laerl.  A  map  of  the  moon  was  first  taken  at  Dant- 
zic,  A.  D.  1647.  The  strength  of  moon-light  at  full  moon  is  90,000  times 
less  than  the  light  of  the  sun. — Dr.  Smith.  It  is  300,000  times  less — 
Bouguer. 

MOORS.  They  first  invaded  Spain,  A.  D.  173.— Univ.  Hist.  The  Saracens  in 
Spain,  beset  by  the  Christians,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Moors,  who 
seized  the  dominions  they  came  to  protect,  and  subdued  the  Saracens,  A.  D. 
1091.  Alphonsus  I.  of  Navarre,  defeated  them  in  many  battles,  1118,  et  seq. 
The  Moors  began  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  being  their  last  refuge  from  the 
power  of  the  Christians,  1238.  Alphonsus  XL  of  Leou  and  Castile,  slew 
200,000  Moors  in  one  battle ;  three  leagues  round  the  country  was  covered 
with  the  dead,  1327.  The  power  of  this  people  was  overthrown  by  Ferdi- 
nand V.,  who  conquered  Granada,  1492.  Philip  III.  banished  them  to  the 
number  of  900,000,  confiscating  their  property,  1610. — Priestley. 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  our  duty  and  felicity,  the  science 
of  ethics,  or  art  of  being  virtuous  and  happy.  Socrates  is  universally  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  moral  philosophy,  about  430  B.  c.  And  Grotius  is 
esteemed  by  many  writers  as  the  father  of  moral  philosophy  in  modern  times, 
about  A.  D.  1623. — Bate,  &c. 

MORAVIANS.  UNITED  BRETHREN.  A  sect  which  took  its  rise  in  Moravia,  in, 
it  is  said,  the  fifteenth  century,  which  some  doubt ;  while  the  Brethren  say 
that  their  sect  is  derived  from  the  Greek  church  in  the  ninth  century.  They 
appeared  in  England  about  1737,  introduced  by  count  Zinzendorf,  who* died 
at  Chelsea,  in  June  1760.  They  settled  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  1741.  In  order 
to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  world,  these  persevering  brethren  formed 
settlements  also  in  Greenland,  the  Cape,  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
other  climes.  The  Moravians  led  the  way  to  the  Scriptural  missions  now 
so  general 

MORGARTEN,  BATTLE  OF,  the  most  memorable,  as  well  as  extraordinary  and 
glorious  in  the  annals  of  Switzerland;  1300  Swiss  engaged  20,000  Austrians, 
commanded  by  the  duke  Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated.  They 
seized  upon  the  heights  of  Morgarten,  which  overlooked  the  defile  through 
which  the  enemy  was  to  enter  their  territory  from  Zug,  and  thus  achieved 
their  victory,  Nov.  15,  1315. 

MORMONS.  The  pretended  revelation  of  the  Mormon  Scriptures  to/' Joe 
Smith"  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  the  state  of  New  York,  about,  1835. 
Surrender  of  a  body  of  700  Mormons  under  arms,  with  their  leaders,  Joe 


486  THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

;     Smith,  Rigdon,  Ac.,  to  the  Missouri  militia,  under  Gen  Atchiuson,  Oct.  28, 

1838.     Joe  Smith  and  his  brother  murdered  in  jail  by  a  mob,  June  27,  1814. 

..    The  Mormon  temple  at  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  sold  to  the  Icarians,  or  Socialists, 

and  the  Mormons  emigrated  to  Deseret  and  California,  1848-9. 
MOROCCO.  Anciently  Mauritania.  From  its  early  possession  by  the  Romans 
it  underwent  various  revolutions.  About  A.  D.  1116,  Abdallah,  a  leader 
of  a  sect  of  Mahometans,  founded  a  dynasty  which  ended  in  the  last 
sovereign's  defeat  in  Spain.  About  this  period,  1202,  Fez  and  other  provinces 
shook  off  their  dependence:  but  the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  about  1650, 
subdued  them,  and  formed  the  empire  of  Morocco.  Hostilities  with  Franco 
provoked  by  Abd-el-Kader,  the  heroic  and  indomitable  ameer  of  Algiers, 
commenced  May,  1844;  Tangier  bombarded,  Aug.  6,  1844;  peace  concluded, 
and  the  French  forces  evacuate  Mogador,  Sept.  1 6, 1844.  Abd-el-Kader  taken 
prisoner  by  the  French  and  carried  to  France,  1846. 

MORTARS.  A  short  gun  with  an  extraordinary  large  bore,  and  close  chamber, 
used  for  throwing  bombs,  first  made  in  England  in  1543.  The  celebrated 
mortar  left  by  Soult  in  Spain,  was  fixed  in  St.  James's  park  in  August,  1816. 
MOSCOW.  One  of  the  largest  cities  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  in  1156;  was 
taken  by  Tamerlane,  1382;  and  subsequently  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Tartars,  whose  last  attack  upon  it  was  in  1571,  when  they  set  it  on  fire.  This 
city  was  entered  by  the  French,  Sept.  14,  1812,  and  the  Russian  governor, 
Rostochin,  ordered  that  it  should  be  set  on  fire  in  five  hundred  places  at 
once.  In  this  memorable  conflagration,  11,840  houses  were  burnt  to  the 
ground,  besides  palaces  and  churches.  The  French,  thus  deprived  of  quar- 
ters, evacuated  Moscow  Oct  19,  and  it  was  re-entered  by  the  Russians  Oct. 
22,  following.  Tins  city  has  been  since  rebuilt. 

MOSKWA,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  French  and  Russians.     See  Borodino. 
MOSS-TROOPERS.      These   were   a  desperate   sort  of  plunderers,   secreting 
.    themselves  in  the  mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland,  defiling  women,  and 
perpetrating  the  most  savage  enormities,  as  well  as  minor  mischiefs,  extirpa- 
ted A.  D.  1609. 

MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING.  The  title  given  to  Louis  XI.  by  pope  Paul  II., 
1469.  It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  never  was  the  title  or  name  of 
Christian  given  to  a  prince  more  unworthily  bestowed,  or  less  deserved. 
MOTTOES,  ROYAL.  Dieu  et  mon  Droit  was  first  used  by  Richard  I.,  A.  D.  1193. 
The  Bohemian  crest,  viz.  three  ostrich  feathers,  and  the  motto  Ich  dien,  ".  I 
serve,"  was  adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy, 
the  king  of  Bohemia  being  slain  in  the  battle,  1346.  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y 
pense,  was  made  the  motto  of  the  Garter,  1349-50.  Je  maintiendrai,  "I  will 
maintain,"  was  adopted  by  William  III.,  1 688.  And  Semper  eadem  was  or- 
dered by  queen  Anne  to  be  Used  as  her  motto. 

MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  The  practice  of  the  Israelites  was,  neither  to 
wash  nor  anoint  themselves  during  the  time  of  mourning.  The  exhibition 
of  grief  for  a  friend  lasted  for  seven  days;  and  upon  extraordinary  occasions 
it  lasted  a  month.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  exhibited  their  grief  lor 
the  dead  by  many  public  abstinences.  The  ordinary  color  for  mourning  in 
Europe  is  black;  in  China  it  is  white;  in  Turkey,  violet;  in  Ethiopia,  brown; 
and  it  was  white  hi  Spain,  until  A.  D.  1498. — Herrera. 

MUNSTER,  TREATY  OP,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  Sweden ;  Spain 
continuing  the  war  against  the  former  kingdom.  By  this  peace,  the  principle 
of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognized.  Signed  at  Muuster, 
Oct.  24,  1648. 


MUSj  DICTIOXARY    OF    DATES.  487 

MURDER.  Th,e  highest  offence  against  the  law  of  nature.  A  court  of  Ephotae 
was  established  by  Demophoon  for  the  trial  of  murder,  1179  B.  c.  The  Per- 
sians did  not  punish  the  tirst  offence.  In  England,  during  a  period  of  the 
Heptarchy,  murder  was  punished  by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VUI.'a 
lime,  the  crime  was  compounded  for  in  Wales.  Murderers  were  allowed 
)>enefit  of  clergy  in  1503  Aggravated  murder,  or  petit  treason,  may  happen 
in  three  ways ;  by  a  servant  killing  his  master ;  a  wife  her  husband ;  and 
an  ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  statute  25  Edward  III.,  1350.  The 
enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are  very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  com- 
mission has  been  excepted  from  mercy  by  our  sovereigns  in  every  instance. 
The  act  whereby  the  murderer  should  be  executed  on  the  day  next  but  one 
after  his  conviction,  was  repealed  7  William  IV.,  July  1836. — Haydn. 

MUSEUM  Originally  a  quarter  of  the  palace  of  Alexander,  like  the  Pryta- 
neum  of  Athens,  where  learned  men  of  extraordinary  merit  were  maintained 
by  the  public,  because  of  their  considerable  services  to  the  commonwealth. 
The  foundation  of  this  establishment  is  attributed  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
who  here  placed  his  library,  about  284  B.C.  See  British,  Museum,  &c. 

MUSIC.  Lucretius  ascribes  its  invention  to  the  whistling  of  the  winds  in 
hollow  reeds.  Franckinus  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by  the  hammers 
of  Tubal  Cain.  Cameleou  Pontique  and  others  to  the  singing  of  birds.  And 
Zarlino  to  the  sound  of  water.  It  is,  however,  agreed  that  music  was  first 
reduced  to  rules  by  Jubal,  1800  B  c.  The  flute  and  harmony  or  concord  in 
music  was  invented  by  Hyagnis,  1506. — Arund.  Marbles.  Vocal  choruses  of 
men  are  first  mentioned  556  B.  c. — Du  Frennoy.  Pythagoras  maintained  that 
the  motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds  inaudible 
to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  "  the  music  of  the  spheres."  St.  Cecilia,  a 
Roman  lady,  is  said  to  have  excelled  so  eminently  in  music,  that  an  angel 
was  enticed  from  the  celestial  regions  by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her 
melody :  and  this  hyperbolical  tradition  has  been  deemed  sufficient  author- 
ity to  make  her  the  patroness  of  music  and  musicians.  She  died  in  the  third 
century. 

MUSICAL  NOTES.  The  first  six  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Guido  Aretin, 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  Arezzo,  A.  D.  1025. — Blair.  The  notes  at  present 
used  were  perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint  was  brought  to  perfection  by 
Palestrina  about  1515.  Gaffurius  of  Lodi  read  lectures  on  musical  compos;- 
tion  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  they  effected  great  improvement  in  the 
science.  .The  Italian  style  of  composition  was  introduced  into  these  countries 
about  1616. 

MUSICAL  INSTITUTIONS,  ENGLAND.  The  Ancient  Academy  of  Music  was  in- 
stituted in  1710.  It  originated  with  numerous  eminent  performers  and  gen- 
tlemen to  promote  the  study  of  vocal  harmony.  The  Madrigal  Society  was 
established  in  1741.  and  other  musical  societies  followed  The  Royal  Society 
of  Music  arose  from  the  principal  nobility  and  gentry  uniting  to  promote  the 
performance  of  operas  composed  by  Handel,  1785.  Royal  Academy  of  Mu- 
sic established  1822. 

MUSKETS.  They  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Arras  in  1414.  The  Spanish 
historians  state  that  Spain  was  the  first  power  that  armed  the  foot-soldier 
with  these  weapons.  They  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhegen  in  1521.  In- 
troduced generally  into  the  English  army,  and  bows  and  arrows  laid  aside, 
12  Henry  VIII.  1521. —  Carte.  It  was  the  duke  of  Alva  who  first  brought  the 
musket  into  use  hi  the  Low  Countries,  1569. — Branxtone. 

MUSLIN.  A  fine  cloth,  made  wholly  of  cotton.  According  to  some,  it  is  so 
called  as  not  being  bare  but  having  a  downy  nap  on  its  surface  resembling 
raoss,  which  the  French  call  mousse.  According  to  others  it  was  first  brought 


488  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [MTI 

from  Mousol,  in  India,  whence  the  name.  Muslins  were  fir,st  worn  in  Eng- 
land in  1670. — Anderson.  They  were  manufactured  in  great  perfection  in 
England  in  1778. 

MUTES.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute  when,  being  arraigned  for  treason  or 
felony,  he  either  makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  purpose.  An- 
ciently, a  mute  was  taken  back  to  prison,  placed  in  a  dark  dungeon,  naked, 
on  his  back,  on  the  bare  ground,  and  a  great  weight  of  iron  placed  upon 
his  body ;  in  this  situation  he  was  fed  with  three  morsels  of  bad  bread  one 
day,  and  three  draughts  of  stagnant  water  the  next,  and  so  on  alternately 
until  he  died.  For  a  very  memorable  instance  of  this  punishment  in  A.  n. 
1605.  see  article  Pressing  to  Death.  By  statute  12  George  III  judgment  is 
awarded  against  mutes,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  convicted  or 
confessed.  A  man  refusing  to  plead  was  condemned  and  executed  at  the 
Old  Bailey  on  a  charge  of  murder,  1778  Another  on  a  charge  of  burglary, 
at  Wells,  1792.  At  Shrewsbury  a  man  tried  and  convicted  notwithstanding, 
Aug.  21,  1801.-— Phillips. 

MUTINY  ON  BOARD  U.  S.  BRIG  SOMERS,  commander  A.  S.  Mackenzie ;  nrd- 
shipman  Spencer  and  two  seamen  hung,  Dec.  1.  1842. 

MUTINY  OP  THE  BOUNTY,  April  28,  1789.     For  particulars  see  Bounty. 

MYCALE,  BATTLE  OF,  fought  September  22,  479  B  c.,  between  the  Greeks  and 
Persians ;  being  the  identical  day  on  which  Mardonius  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  Platea.  The  Persians  consisted  of  about  100,000  men,  who  had  just 
returned  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  of  Xerxes  in  Greece.  They  were 
completely  defeated,  some  thousands  of  them  slaughtered,  their  camp  burnt, 
and  the  Greeks  triumphantly  embarked  their  troops  and  sailed  back  to  Sa- 
mos  with  an  immense  booty. 

MYCENAE.  A  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Argives.  It  stood  about  fifty 
stadia  from  Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclida?  Perseus 
removes  from  Argos  to  Mycenae,  and  reigns,  1313  B.  c.  Mycena?  destroyed 
by  the  Argives,  568  B.  c. 

MYSTERIES.  They  originated  in  Egypt,  the  land  of  idolatry,  and  were  an  in- 
stitution of  the  priesthood  to  extend  their  own  influence ;  so  that  all  max- 
ims in  morality,  tenets  in  theology,  and  dogmas  in  philosophy,  were  wrapt 
up  in  a  veil  of  allegory  and  mystery.  From  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis 
and  Osiris  sprung  those  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres  among  the  Greeks  The 
Eleusinian  mysteries  were  introduced  at  Athens  by  Eumolpus,  1356  B.  c. 
The  laws  were — 1.  To  honor  parents;  2.  To  honor  the  gods  with  the  fruits 
of  the  earth ;  8.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty.  Cicero  makes  the  civil- 
ization of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
They  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Theodosius,  A.  D.  389. 

MYTHOLOGY.  Fable  usurped  the  place  of  historical  truth  as  soon  as  the 
authentic  tradition  concerning  the  Creation  had  been  lost  or  adulterated : 
and  persons  who  had  rendered  themselves  renowned  an  kings  or  leaders  in 
this  life,  and  whose  achievements  had  dazzled  the  benighted  understanding 
of  men  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  were  supposed  to  be  more  than  mortal, 
and  therefore  after  death  the  multitude  wore  easily  taught  to  reverence  them 
with  divine  honors.  The  Egyptians  and  Babylonians,  after  forgetting  the  in- 
visible and  true  God,  worshipped  positive  objects,  as  the  sun  and  moon ;  and 
then  transferred  their  adoration  to  the  operations  of  nature  and  the  passions 
of  their  own  minds,  which  they  embodied  under  symbolical  representations, 
and  ultimately  worshipped  the  symbols  themselves.  Thoth  is  supposed  to 
have  introduced  mythology  among  the  Egyptians.  1521  B.C.;  and  Cadrnua 
the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  and  Phoenician  deities,  among  the  Greeks,  1493 
B.O. 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


489 


N. 

NABONASSER,  ERA  OP.  This  era  received  its  name  from  the  celebrated  prim* 
of  Babylon,  and  began  Feb.  26,  747  B  c.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on  which 
the  year  of  Nabonasser  begins,  subtract  the  year,  if  before  Christ,  from  747  ; 
if  after  Christ,  add  to  it  748. 

NAMES.  Originally  every  person  had  but  one  name.  Plato  recommended  it 
to  parents  to  give  happy  names  to  their  children  ;  and  the  Pythagoreans 
taught  that  the  minds,  actions,  and  successes  of  men  were  according  to  their 
names,  genius,  and  fate.  The  popes  changed  their  names  at  their  exaltation 
to  the  pontificate,  "  a  custom  introduced  by  pope  Sergius,  whose  name  till 
then  was  Swine-snout,  A.  D.  687." — Platina.  Onuphrius  refers  it  to  John  XII. 
956 :  and  gives  as  a  reason,  that  it  was  done  in  imitation  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul,  who  were  first  called  Simon  and  Saul.  In  France  it  was  usual  to 
change  the  name  given  at  baptism,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  two  sons  of 
Henry  II.  of  France.  They  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules;  but 
at  their  confirmation,  these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  It 
is  usual  for  the  religious  at  their  entrance  into  monasteries  to  assume  new 
names,  to  show  they  are  about  to  lead  a  new  life,  arid  have  renounced  the 
world,  their  family,  and  themselves.  See  Surnames. 

NAMUR.  Ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  It  was 
garrisoned  by  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town  to  the  United  Provinces  in  1715. 
Namur  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  but  was  restored  in  1748.  In  1781, 
the  emperor  Joseph  expelled  the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792,  it  was  again 
taken  by  the  French,  who  were  compelled  to  evacuate  it  the  following  year ; 
but  they  regained  possession  of  it  in  1794.  The  French,  however,  delivered 
it  up  to  the  Allies,  in  1814. 

NANTES,  EDICT  OF.     See  Edict. 

NAPLES.  The  continental  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  Naples 
was  a  part  of  the  Roman  territory  at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury it  became  a  prey  to  the  Goths,  and  afterwards  to  the  Lombards ;  and 
the  Saracens,  Normans,  and  French,  also  successively  had  possession  of  thia 
country. 

The  Goths  having  become  masters  of 

Naples  and  of  Sicily,  are  expelled 

by  Belisarius,  general  of  the  Eastern 

empire     -  -  -  A.  D.  637 

The  Lombards  next  get  possession  of 

Naples,   and   are   dispossessed   by 


Charlemagne  ...  $00 
Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis, 
king  of  France,  obtains  the  crown 
from  the  pope,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  rightful  heir,  Conradin,  who  is 
beheaded,  aged  sixteen  years  -  1266 
The  French  becoming  hated  by  theSi- 
cilians,  a  general  massacre  of  the  in- 
vaders takes  place,  one  Frenchman 
only  escaping.  See  Sicilian  Vespers 

March  30,  1282 

Peter  of  Arrngon  reigns    -  -        1282 

The  two  crowns  disjoined  -        1308 

Charles  Durazzo,  becoming  king  of 
Hun<rary,is  murdered  there  by  order 
of  th.e  queen  regent.  In  her  presence  1386 
For  this  murder  she  is  taken  out  of  her 
carriage,  and  drowned  in  the  river 
Boseth     ....        1386 
Sicily  again  united  to  Naples,  find  the 
kings  ever  since  called  king  of  the 
Two  Sicilies        -  -  -        1448 

21* 


Taken  from  the  French  and  annexed 
to  Spain  -  -  -  1504 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  leads  to 
an  Insurrection,  excited  by  Massa- 
niello,  a  fisherman,  who  in  fllteen 
days  raises  an  army  of  200,000  men  1647 


This  insurrection  subsides,  »nd  Massa- 
niello  is  murdered  -  -  1847 

Attempt  of  the  duke  of  Guise  to  pos- 
sess the  crown  -  -  1647 

The  kingdom  completely  conquered 
by  prince  Kugene  •  •  1707 

Discovery  of  the  ruins  of  Heroula- 
neuin.  See  Ilerculaneum  -  ITU 

Naples  ceded  to  the  emperor  by  the 
treaty  of  Kadstadt,  1714  ;  Sicily  1720 

Both  kingdoms  are  recovered  by  the 
crown  of  Spain  ...  1784 

And  Charles,  the  son  of  Philip  of 
Spain,  reigns  ...  1735 

Reign  ot  Ferdinand  IV.        -  -    1759 

His  flight  on  the  approach  of  the 
French  republicans  -  Jan.  14, 1799 

Nelson  appears.  Naples  is  retaken,and 
the  king  restored  -  July  13,  1799 

It  is  again  taken  by  the  French,  Ap'17,1801 

Dreadful  earthquake  felt  throughout 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[NAT 


NAPLES,  continued. 

the  kingdom,  and  thousands  perish 

.July  i>6,1805 
Treaty  offensive  and   defensive  be- 

tween France  and  Naples     Oct.  8,  1805 
1'erdinand  is  again  driven  from  Na- 

ples,    and     Joseph   Bonaparte   is 


crowned  king 


Feb.  6.  1806 


Joseph   abdicates  for  the  crown    of 

Spain  -  -  -  June  1.  1808 

The  crown  is  transferred  to  Joachim 

Mumt  -  -  -July  1,1803 

Naples  is  surrendered  to  aBritishfleet, 

nnil  Ferdinand  re-enters  June  IT,  1815 
Execution  of  Joachim  Murat  Oct.  15,1815 
Revolutionary  movement,  headed  by 

general  Pepe  -  -  July  15,  1820 

Suppression  of  the  Carbonari  Sept.16,  182>i 


Reign  of  Francis  I. 
And  of  Fenlinand  If. 


1826 
Nov.  8.  1880 


Commencement  of  the  dispute  rela- 
tive to  the  sulphur  monopoly,(  which 
Is  afterwards  amicably  adjusted) 

March  15,  1840 


Demonstration  in  favor  of  Pins  IX. 
and  reform,  fired  upon  at  Naples, 
and  arrests  made  -  Dec.  15,  1847 

Sanguinary  disorders  at  MesbinaJan.4,lS48 

Rebellion  at  Palermo,  &c.      Jan.  12,  1848 

Palermo  bombarded  Jan.  13-19, 1848 

The  king  signed  a  constitution  Jan.2S,  1848 

Messina  expelled  the  Neapolitan  gar- 
rison -  -  -  Feb.  22,  184S 

The  parliament  of  Sicily  declares  that 
island  independent ;  Messina  bom- 
barded by  theNeapolitan  fleet  Ap.3, 1S4S 

The  national  guard  raises  barricadesat 
Naples  -  -  May  14.  184S 

The  people  put  down  by  the  king's 
troops  ;  1440  killed  -  May  15,  1843 

TheSlcilian  parliament  elects  the  duke 
of  Genoa  as  king  of  Sicily  July  10,  1S48 

Messina  bombarded  and  taken  by  the 
Neapolitan  troops  -  Sept.  2, 1843 

New  constitution  conceded  to  Sicily 

March  6, 1849 

Catania  bombarded  and  reducedAp.  5.1349 


NARVA,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  was  totally  defeated 
by  the  renowned  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year.  The 
army  of  Peter  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000  men.  while  the  Swedish 
army  did  not  much  exceed  20,000  :  fought  Nov.  30,  1700. 

NASKBY,  BATTLE  OF,  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament  army  under  Fair- 
fax and  Cromwell.  The  main  body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by 
lord  Astley;  prince  Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Marmaduke  Langdale 
the  left,  and  the  king  himself  headed  the  body  of  reserve.  The  victory 
was  with  the  parliamentary  forces,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  the  unfor- 
tunate Charles,  who  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  field  to  his  enemies,  losing 
all  his  cannon  and  baggage,  arid  5000  of  his  army  were  made  prisoners,  June 
14,  1645. 

NATIONAL  DEBT  op  ENGLAND.      The  first  mention  of  parliamentary  secu- 

rity for  a  debt  of  the  nation,  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.     The  present 

national  debt  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.     It  had  amounted  in 

•  the  year  1697,  to  about  five  millions  sterling,  and  the  debt  was  then  thought 

to  be  of  alarming  magnitude. 

In  1702,  On  the  accession  of  queen 
Anne,  the  debt  amounted 
to-       -       -       -       £14,900,000 
In  1714,  On  the  accession  of  Qeo.L 

it  amounted  to        .       54,000,000 
In  1749,  Gco.  II.;  after  the  Spa- 

nigh  war.it  amounted  to  78,000,000 
In  1763,  George  III.:  end  of  the  7 

years1  war,  It  amounted 

to       ....  139,000,000 
In  17S6,ThreeyearsaftertheAme- 


ric(inwar,ltamonnt'd  to  268,000,000 


In  1798,  The  civil  and  foreign  war,  In  1845J  Funded  debt 

It  amounted  to       -    462,000,009 

NATIONAL  DEBT  or  THE  UNITED  STATES,  at  different  times. 


In  1802,  Close  of  the  French  Re- 
volutionary war,  it  a- 
mounted  to  -  £571.000,000 

In  1814,  Close  of  the  war  against 

Bonaparte  -  -  865,000,000 

In  1S17,  "When  the  Irish  and  Eng- 
lish exchequers  were 
consolidated  •  848,282,477 

In  1880,  Total  amount  of  the 
funded  and  unfunded 
debt  -  -  -  840,184022 


In  1840,  Total  amount  of  ditto  789,578,000 


In  1791  the  debt  was 
In  1SOO       »       " 
In  1810       a       "    - 
In  1815       u       " 

In  1816       "       •»    - 
In  1820        «       " 


$75.468  476 
82,97«,294 
•  58.178.217 
99.8-53.660 
127.:t84,!»34 
91,015,566 


In  1880  the  debt  was 
In  1835        "        * 
In  1839        "       «   - 
In  1845        "        tt 
In  1848        '««. 


768,789,241 


-  $49,565,406 

-  87,733 

-  11,9*3,733 

-  16,801,647 

-  66,804,450 


NATURALIZATION.     It  is  denned  to  be  "the  making  a  foreigner  or  alieu. 
a  denizen  or  freeman  of  any  kingdom  or  city,  and  so  becoming,  as  it 


DICTIOXARY    OF    DATES. 


491 


both  a  subject  and  a  native  of  a  king  or  country,  that  by  nature  he  did  nM 
belong  to."  The  first  act  of  naturalization  in  England  passed  in  1437  ;  and 
various  similar  enactments  were  made  in  most  of  the  reigns  from  that  time, 
several  of  them  special  acts  relating  to  individuals.  An  act  for  the  natural- 
ization of  the  Jews  passed  in  1753,  but  it  was  repealed  in  the  following  year, 
on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in  England.  See  United  Stales. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  FRANCE.  Upon  the  proposition  of  the  abbe 
Sieyes,  the  states  of  France  constituted  themselves  into  tl>e  National  Assem- 
bly, June  16,  1789.  On  the  20th,  the  hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by 
order  of  the  king;  upon  which  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers  Etat  repaired  tc 
the  Jen  de  Paume,  or  Tennis-court,  and  swore  not  to  dissolve  until  they  had 
digested  a  constitution  for  France.  On  the  2d  they  met  at  the  church  of  St. 
Louis.  This  assembly  dissolved  itself,  Sept.  21,  1792.  See  next  article. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  OF  FRANCE.  Constituted  in  the  hall  of  the 
Tuileries,  Sept.  17,  and  formally  opened,  Sept.  21,  1792,  when  M.  Gregoire, 
at  the  head  of  the  National  Assembly,  repaired  thither  and  announced  that 
that  assembly  had  ceased  its  functions.  It  was  then  decreed,  "  That  the 
citizens  named  by  the  French  people  to  form  the  National  Convention,  being 
met  to  the  number  of  371,  after  having  verified  their  powers,  declare,  that 
the  National  Convention  is  constituted."  This  convention  continued  until  a 
new  constitution  was  organized,  and  the  Executive  Directory  was  installed 
at  the  Little  Luxembourg,  Nov.  1,  1795.  See  Directory. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY,  LONDON.  The  foundation  of  this  great  institution 
was  the  purchase,  by  the  British  government,  for  the  public  service,  of  the 
Angersteia  collection  of  pictures,  whose  number  did  not  much  exceed  forty. 
They  were  purchased  of  Mr.  Angerstein's  executors,  in  Jan.  1822 ;  and  the 
first  exhibition  of  them  took  place  in  Pall  Mall,  in  May,  1824.  Sir  G.  Beau- 
mont, Mr.  Howell  Carr,  and  many  other  gentlemen,  as  well  as  the  British 
Institution,  contributed  many  fine  pictures;  and  the  collection  has  been 
augmented  by  numerous  later  gifts,  and  recent  purchases.  The  present  edi- 
fice in  Trafalgar-square  was  designed  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  and  was  completed 
and  opened  in  1837. 

N  JLVAL  BATTLES.  The  Argonautic  expedition  undertaken  by  Jason  is  the 
first  upon  record,  1263  B.  c. — Da  Fresnoy.  The  first  sea-fight  on  record  is 
that  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyreans,  664  B.  c. — Blair.  The  fol- 
lowing are  among  the  most  celebrated  naval  engagements  to  be  found  on  the 
page  of  history. 


BEFORE  CHRIST. 

First  sea-fight  on  record,  in  which  the 
Corinthians  conquer  theCorcyreans  664 

The  Athenian  fleet  under  Themistoc- 
les,  with  380  sail,  defeat  the  Per- 
sian, consisting  of  2000,  at  the 
straits  of  Salamis  -  -  -  -  480 

Again,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eu- 
rymedon ;  Cymon,  theAthenian  ad- 
miral, vanquishes  the  Persian  fleet 
and  army.  In  one  day. — Herodotut  470 

The  Lacedemonian  fleet  taken  by  Al- 
cibiades,  the  Athenian  ...  410 

The  Spartan  general,  Lysander,  total- 
ly defeats  the  Athenian  fleet  under 
Conon;  bythis  victoryhe  puts  an  end 
to  the  maritime  power  of  Athens  -  407 

The  Persians  engage  Conon  to  com- 
mand their  fleet,  with  which  he  en- 
tirely vanquishes  the  Lacedemonian 
fleet,  and  takes  60  sail  out  of  90  -  400 

The  Persian  fleet  conquer  the  Spartan 


at  Cnido& :  Pisander,  the  Athenian 
admiral,  is  killed;  and  the  mari- 
time power  of  the  Lacedemonians 
destroyed. — Thueydidet  -  -  894 

The  Koman  fleet  employed  in  the 
siege  of  Lilybsenm,  burned  by  the 
Carthaginians  -  -  -  249 

The  Carthaginian  fleet  destroyed  by 
the  consul  Lntatius  ...  243 

The  Roman  fleets  vanquished  by 
Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  gene- 
ral ;  800  galleys  taken,  and  18,000 
prisoners ;  second  Punic  war  -  209 

At  Actium,between  the  fleets  of  Octa- 
vianusCwsarandMarcAntony.  This 
battle  decides  the  fate  of  the  latter, 
800  of  his  galleys  going  over  to  C»- 
sar,  by  which  he  is  totally  defeated  81 

ANNO  DOMINI. 

The  emperor,  Claudius  II.  defeats 
the  Goths,  and  sinks  2000  of  their 
ships.— Du  fresnoy  -  96f 


492 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

The  fleets  belonging  to  Spain,  Venice, 
and  Pius  V.  defeat  the  Turkish 
fleet  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  The 
Christian  fleet  consisted  of  206  gal- 
leys, and  30,000  men.  The  Turks, 
out  of  250  galleys,  saved  only  100; 
and  lost  80,000  men  in  killed  and 
prisoners. —  Voltaire  -  1571 

Bay  of  Gibraltar;  Dutch  and  Spani- 
ards. This  was  a  bloody  conflict  and 
decisivevictoryandsettledfor  a  time 
thesuperiorityof  theDutch,Apr.  25,  1607 

NAVAL  ENGAGEMENTS  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Alfred,  with  10  galleys,  defeated  800 
sail  of  Danish  pirates  on  the  Dorset 
and  Hampshire  coast.— Aseer's  Life 
of  Alfred  -  807 

Near  bluys;  Edward  III.  defeated 
the  French  fleet  of  400  sail,  which 
were  all  sunk.  30,000  French  were 
killed  in  this  engagement  -  -  1340 

The  English  and  Flemings;  the  latter 
signally  defeated  -  1871 

English  and  French,  in  which  the 
latter  power  loses  80  ships  -  -  1889 

Near  Mifford  Haven;  the  English  take 
14,  and  destroy  15  French  ships  -  1405 

Off  Barfleur  ;  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
takes  600  French  ships  -  -  1416 

In  the  Downs :  the  French  fleet  cap- 
tured by  the  earl  of  Warwick  -  1459 

Bay  of  Biscay ;  English  and  French, 
the  latter  defeated  -  -  -  1512 

Sir  Edward  Howard  defeats  the 
French  under  Prejeant  -  -  1518 

In  the  Channel;  the  British  defeat 
the  French  fleet  with  great  loss  -  1545 

TbeSpanisfiArmadadriven  from  the 
EnglishChannel  tothe  roadof  Calais, 
bya  running  fight  the  Spaniards  los- 
ing 15  ships  and  5000  men ;  they  are 
•sain  defeated,  and  obliged  to  bear 
awayior  Scotland  and  Ireland,when 
theirfleet  isdispersed  in  astorrn.and 
they  lose  17  more  ships,  and  6000 
more  men.  See  Armada,  July  19,  1588 

Dover  Straits ;  between  the  Dutch 
Admiral,  Van  Tromp,  and  admiral 
Blake.  TheDutch  surprise  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  Downs,  80  sail  engaging 
40  English,  six  of  which  are  taken 
or  destroyed ;  and  the  Dutch  admi- 
ral sails  in  triumph  through  the 
channel,  with  a  broom  at  his  mast- 
head, to  denote  that  he  had  swept 
the  English  from  the  seas.  June  29, 1652 

In  the  Downs ;  same  admirals,  and 
nearly  same  loss 

Sept.  28,  Oct.  28,  and  Nov.  29,  1652 

The  English  gain  a  victory  over  the 
Dutch  fleet  off  Portsmouth,  taking 
and  destroying  11  men-of-war  and 
80  merchantmen.  Van  Tromp  was 
the  Dutch,  and  Blake  the  English 
admiral  -  Feb.  10,  1668 

Again,  near  Portland,  between  the 
English  and  Dutch ;  the  latter  de- 
feated ....  Feb.  18,  1658 

Again,  off  the  North  Foreland  The 
Dutch  and  English  fleets  consisted 
of  near  100  men-of-war  each.  Van 


Tromp  commar.<ied  the  Dutch ; 
Blake,  Monk,  and  Deane,  the  Eng- 
lish. Six  Dutch  ships  were  taken ; 
11  were  sunk,  and  the  rest  ran  into 
Calais  road  .  .  .  June  2,  1653 

Again,  on  the  coast  of  Holland ;  the 
Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war,  and  ad- 
miral Tromp  was  killed  -  July  81,  1663 

At  Cadiz,  when  two  galleons,  worth 
2,000.000  pieces  of  eight,  were  taken 
by  the  English  -  -  -  Sept.  1656 

The  Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and 
then  burnt  in  the  harbor  of  Santa 
Cruz,  by  Blake  -  -  -  April,  1607 

English  and  French ;  180  of  the  Bor- 
deaux fleet  destroyed  by  the  duke 
of  York  ..--  Dec.  4,  1664 

The  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James 
II.),  defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Har- 
wich ;  the  Dutch  admiral  blown  up 
with  all  his  crew  ;  18  capital  ?hips 
taken,  14  destroyed  -  June  3,  1665 

The  earl  of  Sandwich  took  12  men  of 
war  and  2  India  ships  -  Sept.  4,  1665 

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and 
English  fleets  for  victory  ,inaintain- 
ed  for  four  days.  The  English  lose 
9,and  theDutch  15  ships,  June  1 — 4.  1666 

Decisive  engagement  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames,  when  the  English 
gain  a  glorious  victory,  the  Dutch 
lose  24  men-of-war,  4  admirals  kill- 
ed, and  4,000  officers  and  seamen. 
Fought  -.--  July  26,  1666 

The  English  fleet  of  16  sail,  defeat  the 
*  rench  of  30,  near  Martinico  -  -  1667 

Coast  of  Holland ;  by  Prince  ttnpert, 
May28.June4,and  Aug.  ll.D'Etrees 
and  Kuyter  defeated  -  -  •  1678 

Several  actions  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  Dutch.  They  agree  to  strike  to 
the  English  colors  in  the  British 
seas.  26  Charles  II.  ...  1678 

Off  Tangiers,  battle  between  the  En- 
glish and  Moors,  which  Listed  11 
days 1679 

Off  Beachy-head;  the  English  and 
Dutch  are  defeated  by  the  French, 

Jane  80,  1690 

The  English  end  Dutch  combined 
fleets  gain  a  signal  victory  over  the 
French  fleet,near  CapeLaHogue ;  21 
of  their  largest  men-of-warw  ere  de- 
stroyed.—See  La  JJogue,  May  19,  1692 

Off  St.  Vincent;  theEnglithgndDutch 
squadrons,un<ler  admiral  Kooke,de- 
feated  by  the  French  -  June  16,  1698 

Off  Curthagena.between  admiral  Ben- 
bow  and  theFrench  fleet,commund- 
ed  by  admiral  Du  Casse,  fought 

Aug.  19,  noil 

The  English  and  Dutch  fleets,  under 
sir  George  Kooke,defeat  the  French 
fleet  (having  theSpanish  ealleonsin 
convoy)  in  the  port  of  Vigo.  They 
take  9  out  of  18  galleons,laden  chief- 
ly with  silver,  anil  six  men-of-war; 
the  other  4  galleons,  and  14  men-of- 
war,  destroyed,  fought  -  Oct.  12,  1709 

Off  the  Lizard,  when  the  English  fleet 
was  defeated  -  -  •  Oct.  9,  1704 


WAV  ] 


D  CT1ONARY    OF    DATES. 


493 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

In  the  Mediterranean,  admiral  Leake 
took  sixty  French  vessels  laden  with 
provisions  -  -  May  22,  1708 

The  Spanish  fleet  of  27  sail  totally  de- 
feaied  by  sir  George  Byng,  in  the  Faro 
of  Messina  -  Ausr.  11,  1718 

Bloody  battle  off  Toulon;  Matthews 
and  Leslock  against  the  fleets  of 
France  and  Spain.  Here  the  brave 
captain  Cornwall  fell ;  and  the  vic- 
tory was  lost  by  a  misunderstanding 
between  the  English  admirals. — A'a- 
val  Hist.  ....  1744 

Off  Cape  Finistere,  the  French  fleet 
taken  by  admiral  Anson  May  3,  1747 

In  the  East  Indies ;  the  French  retired 
to  Pondicherry  -  -  -  1747 

Off  Ushant,  when  admiral  Hawke  took 
seven  men-of-war  of  the  French 

Oct.  14,  1747 

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French 
fleet  commanded  by  Con  flans,  in 
Quiberon  Bay ;  and  thus  prevents  a 
projected  invasion  of  England,  fought 

Nov.  20,  1759 

Keppel  took  3  French  frigates,  and  a 
fleet  of  merchantmen  -  -  Oct.  9,  1762 

Near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  between  admi- 
ral Rodney  and  admiral  Don  Lan- 
gara,  the  latter  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner,  losing  8  ships  Jan.  8,  1780 

At  St.  Jago ;  Mons.  Suflrein  defeated  by 
commodore  Johnston  April  16,  1781 

Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French  - 
going  to  attack  Jamaica,  took  10  ships 
of  the  line,  (1  sunk,  and  3  blown  up) 
and  sent  the  French  admiral,  count 
de  Grasse,  prisoner  to  England 

April  12,  1782 

The  British  totally  defeated  the  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain,  in  the  bay  of 
Gibraltar.— See  Gibraltar  Sept.  13,  1782 

Cape  St.  Vincent ;  the  Spanish  fleet  de- 
feated by  Sir  J.  Jervis,  and  4  line  of 
battle  ships  taken  -  Feb.  14,  1797 

Unsuccessful  attempt  on  Santa  Cruz ; 
admiral  Nelson  loses  his  right  arm ; 

July  24,  1797 

Camperdown;  the  Dutch  signally  de- 
feated by  admiral  Duncan,  and  15 
ships  of  war,  with  the  admiral  (De 
Winter),  taken  -  Oct.  II,  1797 

Nile  ;  Toulon  fleet  defeated  by  sir  Ho- 
ratio Nelson,  at  Aboukir ;  9  ships  of 


the  line  taken ,  2  burnt,  2  escaped, 

Aug.  1. 1798 

Gibraltar  bay  ;  engagement  between 
the  French  and  British  fleets  ;  the 
Hannibal  of  74  guns  lost  July  6,  1801 

Ofl'Cadiz  ;  sir  James  Saumarez  obtains 
a  victory  over  the  French  and  Span- 
ish fleets;  1  ship  captured,  fouzh'. 

Julyl2,l£01 

Sir  Robert  Calder  with  15  sail,  takes  2 
ships  (both  Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of 
the  l-rench  and  Spanish  combined 
fleeis.  ofl'Ferroi  -  July  22,  1805 

Ofl'  Trafalgar;  memorable  battle,  in 
which  lord  Nelson  defeated  the  fleeu 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  in  which 
he  received  his  mortal  wound. — (See 
Trafalgar)  -  •  Oct.  21,  1806 

Sir  R.  Sirachan,  with  4  sail  of  British, 
captures  4  French  ships  of  the  line, 
off  Cape  Ortegal  -  Nov.  4,  1806 

In  the  West  Indies ;  the  French  uefeat- 
ed  by  sir  T.  Duckworth ;  3  sail  of 
the  line  taken,  2  driven  on  shore 

Feb.  6,  1806 

Sir  John  Borlase  Warren  captures  the 
French  fleet  under  command  of  ad- 
miral Linois  -  -  March  13.  1806 

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage 
ofthe  Dardanelles.  See  Dardanelles, 

Feb.  19,  1907 

Copenhagen  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line, 
15  frigates,  and  31  other  vessels,  sur- 
renders to  lord  Cathcart  and  admiral 
Gambier.  (See  Copenhagen) iSepi  7,  1607 

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the 
Tagus,  surrenders  to  the  British, 

Sept.  3,  ISO) 

Algiers  bombarded  by  lord  Exmouth. 
See  Algiers  •  •  Aug.  27.  1816 

Navarino ;  the  British.  French,  and 
Russian  squadrons,  defeat  arid  anni- 
hilate the  Turkish  navy.  See  Nava- 
rino  •  •  •  Oct.  20,  1827 

Action  between  the  British  ships  Vnl- 
age  and  Hyacinth,  and  29  Chinese 
war  junks,  which  were  defeated 

Nov.  3,  1839 

Bombardment  and  fall  of  Acre.  The 
British  squadron  under  admiral  Stop- 
ford  achieved  this  triumph  with  tri- 
fling loss,  while  the  Egyptians  lost 
2000  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000 
prisoners.  See  Syria  -  Nov.  3,  1840 


NAVAL  BATTLES  OF  THK  UNITED  STATES. 


Paul  Jones,  in  the  Providence  priva- 
teer, takes  16  prizes         -  -  17  6 
His  descent  on  Whiiehaven        -  April  1778 
He  captures  the  British  frigate  Serapis 

Sept.  23.  1779 
Frigate  Philadelphia  taken  by  the  Tri- 

politans  ....  ig03 

—recaptured  by  Decal  ur  •         -  Feb.  1.  1804 
Tripoli  bombard  >.d  by  -ommodore  Pre- 


ble 


Aug.  1804 


Frigate  Chesapeake  fired  upon  by  the 
British  ship  Leopard,  for  refusing  to 
be  searched  ....  1807 

Frigate  President,  vs.  British  sloop 
Little  Belt  •  •  May  Hi,  181 1 


Constitution  captures  British  frigate 
Guerrriere  -  -  Aug.  13,  18.2 

Captain  Elliott  captures  two  British 
frigates  on  lake  Erie  -  -  Oct.  8,  1812 

Sloop  Wasp  captures  British  sloop  Fro 
lie.  Oct.  18 ;  both  vessels  captured  by 
British  74,  Poiciiere  -  Oct  20.  1812 

Frigate  United  States,  captain  Decaiuri 
captures  British  frigate  M;c--  'oniari  1912 

Constitution,  captain  Bainbriage,  cap- 
tures British  frigate  Java  Oct.  29,  1819 

Hornet,  captain  Lawrence,  captures 
British  ship  Peacock,  captain  Peake, 

Feb  23, 1811 


494 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS, 


[  NA> 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  U.  S.  continued. 

[Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays  block- 
aded by  British.} 

Frigate  Chesapeake  surrendered  to  the 
Briiirh  frigate  Shannon  .  June  1,  1813 

Sloop  Argus,  captured  by  British  sloop 
Pelican  •  -  -  Aug.  14,  1813 

E  :ii  Enterprise  captures  the  British 
brig  Boxer  -  •  -  Aug.  1813 

Fleet  on  lake  Erie,  commodore  Perry, 
captures  the  British  fleet  Sept.  10,  1813 

Fir  til  la,  commodore  Chauncey,  cap- 
tuies  British  flotilla  on  lake  Ontario. 

Oct.  5,  1813 

Frigate  Essex,  commodore  Pviter,  cap- 
tured by  frigate  Phcebe  and  sloop 
Cherub  -  -  -  March  28,  1814 

Sloop  Frolic,  commodore  Bainbridge, 
surrendered  to  British  frigate  Or- 
pheus .  .  •  April  21, 1814 


Sloop  Peacock,  captain  Warringum, 
captures  British  brig  Epervier 

April  29. 1814 

Sloop  Wasp,  captain  Blakeley,  cap- 
tures British  brig  Reindeer,  June  28,  1814 

Flotilla,  commodore  Macdonough,  vic- 
torious over  the  British  on  lake  Cham- 
plain  -  -  -  Sept.  11,  1814 

Frigate  President,  surrendered  to  the 
British  frigate  Endymion  Jan.  15,  181* 

Frisate  Constitution  captures  British 
brigs  Cyane  and  Levant,  off  Maileria 

Feb.  1818 

Sloop  Hornet,  commodore  Biddle,  cap- 
tures British  brig  Penguin,  off  Brazil, 

Feb.  23,  18  E 

U.  S.  naval  force  under  commodore 
Conner  bombards  Vera  Cruz  (jointly 
with  the  land  force  under  general 
Scott) 1847 


NAVARINO,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  combined  fleets  of  England.  France,  and 
Russia,  under  command  of  admiral  Codrington.  and  the  Turkish  navy,  in 
which  the  latter  was  almost  wholly  annihilated.  More  than  thirty  ships, 
many  of  them  four-deckers,  were  blown  up  or  burnt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks 
themselves,  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  Oct.  20, 
1827.  The  species  of  policy  which  led  to  this  attack  upon  Turkey,  was  that 
of  Mr.  Canning's  administration.  This  destruction  of  the  Turkish  naval 
power  was  characterized,  by  the  illustrious  duke  of  Wellington,  as  being  an 
"  untoward  event,"  a  memorable  phrase,  applied  to  it  to  this  day. 

NAVIGATION.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Phoenicians,  about  1500  B.  c.  The 
first  laws  of  navigation  originated  with  the  Rhodians,  !J16  B.  c.  The  first 
account  we  have  of  any  considerable  voyage  is  that  of  the  Phoenicians  sailing 
round  Africa  604  B.  c. — Blair.  On  the  destruction  of  Thebes  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  335  B.  c.,  its  commerce  passed  to  Alexandria,  and  subsequently 
the  Romans  became  the  chief  masters  of  commerce.  It  passed  successively 
from  the  Venetians,  Genoese,  and  Hanse  Towns,  to  the  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards ;  and  from  these  to  the  English  and  Dutch. 


Logarithmic  tables  applied  to  naviga- 
tion by  Gunter  -  •     A,  D  1620 


Middle  latitude  sailing  introduced  - 
Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood 
Hadley's  quadrant 
Harrison's  time-keeper  used 
Nautical  almanac  first  published 
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the 
compass      -  -  -  -     -  1820 

See  Compass,  Latitude,  Longitude,  tfc. 


1623 
1631 
1731 
1764 
1767 


Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass 

used  about  -  -  -  A.  D.  1420 

Variation  of  the  compass  discovered 

by  Columbus  -  -  -  - 1492 

That  the  oblique  rhumb  lines  are  spi 

rals,  discovered  by  Nonius  -  1537 

First  treatise  on  navigation  •  •  1545 

The  los;  first  mentioned  by  Bourne  1577 
Mercator's  chart  •  •  1599 

Davis's  quadrant,  or  back-staff,  for 

measuring  angles,  about         -  -  1600 

NAVIGATION,  INLAND,  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  An  official  report  of  U.  S; 
Engineers  in  1842  states  the  number  of  miles  of  the  rivers  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  navigable  for  steamboats,  16  674  miles ;  entire  length  of  lake  coast, 
of  which  2000  belong  to  British  possessions.  5000  miles.  The  steamboat 
tonnage  of  the  western  rivers  in  1846  was  249  055  tons.  Aggregate  value  of 
commerce  on  the  western  rivers.  0183  609,725.  Estimated  amount  of  lake 
tonnage,  $61,914.910.  [For  tonnage  of  ocean  shipping  at  different  periods, 
see  Shipping.] 

NAVIGATION,  INLAND,  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  Mr.  Nimmo.  in  his  evidence  be- 
fore the  Committee  on  the  state  of  Ireland,  in  1824,  said,  "  we  have  more 
inland  navigation  in  Britain  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put  together." 
The  total  length  of  the  inland  navigation  of  England,  including  as  well  th« 


WAV] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


495 


navigable  rivers  as  canals,  is  5300  miles.  See  Canals. — Haydn.  This  state- 
ment scarcely  agrees  with  the  preceding. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Oleron  were  decreed,  6  Richard  I.,  1194. 
See  Oleron.  The  first  navigation  act  was  passed  in  1381.  Another  and  more 
extensive  act  was  passed  in  1541.  Act  relating  to  the  trade  of  the  colonies 
passed  in  1646 ;  and  several  acts  followed  relating  to  navigation.  The  act 
regulating  the  navigation  of  the  river  Thames  was  passed  in  1786.  Naviga- 
tion Act.  for  the  encouragement  of  British  ships  and  seamen,  passed  4  Wil- 
liam IV.,  August  1833.  British  and  American  navigation  laws  repealed,  1849, 

NAVY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  ship  of  war  of  the  United  States 
was  built  under  the  superintendence  of  the  celebrated  John  Paul  Jones,  at 
Portsmouth.  N.  H.,  1781;  but  the  regular  navy  was  commenced  by  Act  of 
Congress,  authorizing  the  building  of  six  frigates,  March  30,  1794.  The 
Constitution  launched  at  Boston.  Constellation  at  Baltimore,  1797.  [See 
Naval  Battles.} 

NAVIES  OF  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA. 

COMPARATIVE   VIEW    OF   THE   NAVAL   FORCES   OP   THE   POWERS   OP  EUROPE 
AND   AMERICA,    1846. 


Relative  naval 

In  commission. 

Building,  ordina- 
ry, <fcc. 

Total. 

c 

• 

a 

IE 

^  'e. 

power  of  each  nation. 

d 

OS 

62 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

£ 

Z» 

Great  Britain, 

332 

4,583 

304 

13,098 

§636 

17,681 

40,000 

141 

France, 

215 

4,293 

131 

4,635 

346 

8,928 

27,554 

68 

Russia,  ... 

179 

5,896 

179 

5,896 

59000 

38 

Turkey,     - 
United  States, 

62 

47 

2,636 
1,155 

4 
30 

24 
1,190 

66 

77 

2,660 
2,345 

26820 

8724 

9 
5 

Egypt.       - 

35 

1,148 

3 

312 

38 

1,760 

1 

Holland, 

48 

302 

86 

1,344 

134 

1,646 

4 

Sweden,    ... 

330 

660 

50 

1,196 

380 

1,856 

2 

Denmark, 

96 

344 

12 

732 

108 

1,076 

Austria,     ... 

74 

686 

74 

686 

Brazil,    - 

31 

450 

11 

325 

42 

775 

8 

Sardinia,    ... 

11 

226 

4 

220 

15 

446 

2 

Spain,    ... 

21 

348 

21 

348 

4 

Two  Sicilies, 

17 

338 

17 

338 

Portugal, 

59 

Mexico 

23 

42 

23 

42 

•• 

COMPARATIVE   VIEW   OP   THE   COMMERCIAL   IMPORTANCE   OF   DIFFERENT   NATIONS. 


Nations,  in  the  order  of  their  commercial 
importance. 

No.  of  vessels 
in  commerce 
and  fisheries. 

Tonnage. 

No.  of  guns   3 
each  100,000 
tons  of  com- 
merce. 

United  Kinsdom  of  Great  Britain, 

23,898 
19,666 
13,782 
5,450 
1,528 
Not  known. 
9,174 
6,199 
2.220 
3,502 
3.036 
'798 
2,700 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 

3,007,581 
2,416,999 
839,606 
471,772 
241,676 
239,000 
213,193 
208.551 
182,01.10 
167,360 
153.408 
80,525 
80,000 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 

588 
97 
1.063 
224 
683 
2,466 
158 
321 
146] 
'266 
709 

Austria,          ....... 

Portugal,        ....... 
Spain,         

Mexico.       

496 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


{  NEM 


NAVY  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  fleet  of  galleys,  like  those  of  ;he  Danes, 
was  built  by  Alfred,  A.  D.  897.  The  number  of  galleys  had  increased  undei 
Edgar  to  350,  about  A.  D.  965.  A  formidable  fleet  was  equipped  by  the  pub- 
lic contribution  of  every  town  in  England,  in  the  rc:gn  of  Ethelred  II.,  1007, 
et  seq.,  when  it  rendezvoused  at  Sandwich  to  be  ready  to  oppose  the  Danes. 
From  this  period  fleets  were  occasionally  furnished  by  the  maritime  towns, 
and  the  Cinque  ports,  and  were  usually  commanded  by  the  king,  or  an  ad- 
miral under  him :  such  was  the  fleet  of  Edward  III.  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in 
1347  ;  it  consisted  of  40  ships,  badly  equipped,  under  no  public  fixed  regu- 
lations. The  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Royal  or  British  navy,  may 
therefore  be  placed  4  Henry  VIII.  1512.  when  the  first  Navy-office  was  ap- 
pointed, with  commissioners  to  manage  naval  affairs,  and  a  number  of  stem 
ships  of  war  began  to  be  permanently  kept  on  foot  by  the  crown. — Gibs<m's 
Camden.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  navy  consisted  of  1  ship  of  1200 
tons,  2  of  800  tons,  and  six  or  seven  smaller ;  the  largest  was  called  the 
Great  Harry.  Elizabeth's  fleet  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  1588, 
consisted  of  only  28  vessels,  none  larger  than  frigates.  James  I.  added  10 
ships  of  1400  tons  each,  and  64  guns,  the  largest  then  ever  buu*. — Gibson's 
Continuation  of  Camden. 

ACCOUNT    OP   THE   PROGRESSIVE    INCREASE   OP   THE    ROYAL    NAVY   OP  ENGLAND,    FROM    HEHRl 
VIH'S    REIGN   TO    THE   CLOSE   OF   THE   LAST   WAR,  1814. 


Yr. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men  voted 

Navy  estim. 

Yr. 

Ships. 

Tons.    Men  voted 

Navy  estim. 

1521 

16 

7,260 



no  account. 

1760 

412    1  321,134  |      70,000 

£3,227.143 

1578 

24 

10,506 

6,700 

no  account. 

1793 

498 

433,226       45,000 

5.525,331 

1603 

42 

17,055 

8,346 

no  account. 

1800 

767 

668,744 

135,000 

12,422.837 

1658 

157 

57,000 

21,910 

no  account. 

1808 

869 

t82£00 

143,800 

17,496,047 

I63S 

173 

101,392 

42,000 

no  account. 

1814 

901 

966,000 

146,000 

18,786,509 

1702 

272 

159.020 

40,000 

JBI,  056.9  15 

In  1814,  Great  Britair.  had  901  ships,  of  which  177  were  of  the  line ;  and  in 
1830  she  had  621  ships,  some  of  140  guns  each,  and  down  to  surveying  ves- 
sels of  2  guns  only.  Of  these  148  sail  were  employed  on  foreign  and  home 
service.  On  Jan.  1,  1841,  the  total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  commis- 
sion was  183. 

NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  A.  D.  728,  when,  like  that 
of  England  at  an  early  period,  it  consisted  of  Galleys ;  in  this  year  the 
French  defeated  the  Frison  fleet.  It  was  considerably  improved  under 
Louis  XIV.  at  the  instance  of  his  minister  Colbert,  about  1697.  The  French 
navy  was  in  perhaps  its  highest  splendor  about  1781 ;  but  it  became  grwtly 
educed  in  the  late  wars  against  England. 

NEBRASKA.  A  territory  of  the  United  States  as  yet  (1850)  unorganized,  oc- 
cupying 400,000  square  miles,  the  entire  space  between  the  Missouri  and 
White  Earth  Rivers  on  the  east,  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  the  49th 
parallel  lat.  on  the  north,  and  the  Kansas  and  Arkansas  rivers  on  the  south. 
First  traversed  by  Lewis  and  Clarke's  expedition,  in  1806,  and  partly  ex- 
plored by  Fremont,  on  his  way  to  Oregon,  in  1842. 

NEEDLES.  They  make  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  as  well  as  of  home 
trade  in  England,  German  and  Hungarian  steel  is  of  most  repute  for  nee- 
dles. The  first  that  were  made  in  England  were  fabricated  in  Cheapside, 
London,  in  ths  time  of  the  sanguinary  Mary,  by  a  negro  from  Spain^  but, 
as  he  would  not  impart  the  secret,  it  was  lost  at  his  death,  and  not  recovered 
again  till  1566,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  EHas  Growse,  a  German, 
taught  the  art  to  the  English,  who  have  since  brought  it  to  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection. — Stowe.  The  family  of  the  Greenings,  ancestors  of 
lord  Dorchester,  established  a  needle  manufactory  in  Bucks,  about  this 
time. — Anderson.  . 

NEMEAN  GAMES.     So  called  from  Nemaea,  where  they  were  celebrated, 


NEW  ]  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  497 

They  were  originally  instituted  by  the  Argives  in  honor  of  ArchemonML 
who  died  by  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  and  Hercules  some  time  after  renewed 
them.  They  were  one  of  the  four  great  and  solemn  games  which  were 
observed  in  Greece.  The  Argives,  Corinthians,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Cle- 
onae,  generally  presided  by  turns  at  the  celebration,  in  which  were  exhibited 
foot  and  horse-races,  chariot-races,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  contests  of  every 
kind,  both  gymnical  and  equestrian.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded  with  a 
crown  of  olives,  afterwards  of  green  parsley,  in  memory  of  the  adventure 
of  Archemorus.  whom  his  nurse  laid  down  on  a  sprig  of  that  plant.  They 
were  celebrated  every  third,  or  according  to  others,  every  fifth  year,  or 
more  properly  on  the  first  and  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  1226  B.  c.- 
Hcrodotus. 

NEPTUNE.  The  new  planet  predicted  by  Le  Verrier ;  discovered  by  Dr.  Gall* 
of  Berlin,  Sept.  23,  1846. 

\ESTORIANS.  A  sect  of  Christians,  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  some  timo 
bishop  of  Constantinople,  who,  by  the  general  strain  of  church  historians, 
is  represented  as  a  heretic,  for  maintaining  that  though  the  Virgin  Mary  wan 
the  mother  of  Jesus  Christ  as  man.  yet  she  was  not  the  mother  of  God,  foi 
that  no  human  creature  could  participate  that  to  another,  which  she  had-riol 
herself;  that  God  was  united  to  Christ  under  one  person,  but  remained  as 
distinct  in  nature  and  essence  as  though  he  had  never  been  united  at  all ; 
that  such  union  made  no  alteration  in  the  human  nature,  but  that  he  was 
subject  to  the  same  passions  of  love  and  hatred,  pleasure  and  pain,  &c.,  as 
other  men  have,  only  that  they  were  better  regulated,  and  more  properly 
applied  than  in  ordinary  men.  The  generality  of  Christians  in  the  Levant 
go  under  this  name ;  they  administer  the  sacrament  with  leavened  bread, 
and  in  both  kinds,  permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  use  neither  confirma- 
tion nor  auricular  confession.  &c.  Nestorius  died  A.  n.  439. — Du  Pin. 

VETHERLANDS.  They  were  attached  to  the  Roman  Empire  under  the  name 
of  Belgia,  until  its  decline  in  the  fifth  century.  For  several  ages  this  coun- 
try formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was 
governed  by  its  own  counts  and  earls;  and  afterwards  fell  to  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  and  next  to  the  house  of  Austria.  The  seventeen  provinces  were 
united  into  one  state,  in  1549.  For  the  late  history  of  the  Netherlands  see 
Holland  and  Belgium. 

VEVIS.  An  English  colony,  first  planted  by  the  English  in  1628.  This  island 
was  taken  by  the  French,  Feb.  14,  1782,  but  was  restored  to  the  English  at 
the  general  peace  in  the  next  year.  The  capital  of  this  island  (one  of  the 
Caribbees)  is  Charleston.  See  Colonies. 

NEW  ENGLAND.  The  confederation  of  the  northeastern  colonies  of  America 
under  this  name,  for  mutual  defence,  1643.  Sir  E.  Andros,  the  tyrannical  go- 
vernor of  New  England,  1686.  The  New  England  States  are  Maine,  New 
Hampshire.  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island.  Set 
these  respectively. 

SEW  HAMPSHIRE.  One  of  the  United  States ;  was  first  granted  to  Ferdi 
nandc  Gorges  in  1662 ;  first  settled  ;it  Dover  and  Portsmouth  in  1623.  It 
came  voluntarily  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  in  1641 ;  but  was 
made  a  separate  province  by  an  act  of  Charles  I.  in  1679.  It  was  several 
times  afterwards  connected  with  Massachusetts  until  1741,  since  which  it 
has  remained  a  separate  State.  Constitution  formed  in  1784,  and  amended, 
1792.  Population  in  1790  was  141,885;  in  1800,  138,858;  in  1830,  269,328- 
in  1840,  284  574. 

SEW  HOLLAND.  The  largest  known  land  that  does  not  bear  the  name  of  a 
continent.  When  this  vast  island  was  first  discovered  is  uncertain.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  north  and  west  coasts  were  traced 


498  THE    WORLD  S    i  ROGRESS.  j 

by  the  Dutch  ;  and  what  was  deemed,  till  lately,  the  south  extremity,  was 
discovered  by  Tasman,  in  1642.  Captain  Cook,  in  1770,  explored  the  east 
and  north-east  from  38°  south,  and  ascertained  its  separation  from  New 
Guinea ;  and,  in  1773,  captain  Furneaux,  by  connecting  Tasman's  discove- 
ries with  Cook's,  completed  the  circuit.  But  the  supposed  south  extremity, 
which  Tasman  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  found, 
in  1798,  to  be  an  island,  separated  from  New  Holland  by  a  channel  forty 
leagues  wide,  named  from  the  discoverer,  Bass  Strait.  Different  parts  of 
the  coast  have  been  called  by  the  names  of  the  discoverers,  &c.  The  east- 
ern coast,  called  New  South  Wales,  was  taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of 
Goorge  III.  of  England,  by  captain  Cook,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Bri- 
tish dominions.  See  New  South  Wales. 

NEW  JERSEY.  One  of  the  United  States;  first  settled  by  the  Dutch  from 
New  York,  at  Bergen,  1614-20.  A  colony  of  Swedes  and  Finns,  on  the  De- 
laware, 1627.  The  province  included  with  New  York  in  the  grant  by 
Charles  II.  to  the  duke  of  York  in  1664 ;  granted  by  the  duke  to  lord  Berkley 
and  sir  George  Cartaret,  who  established  a  government  in  1695.  Subdued 
by  the  Dutch  in  1672.  but  surrendered  by  them,  1674;  purchased  by  a 
company  of  English  emigrants,  who  formed  the  first  English  settlement  at 
Salem,  1674 ;  government  surrendered  to  the  crown  (in  consequence  of  diffi- 
culty about  titles.  &c.)and  accepted  by  queen  Anne,  1702  ;  continued  under 
royal  instead  of  proprietary  government  until  1776.  This  State  suffered 
much  in  the  revolution,  and  acted  an  important  part.  Adopted  the  Federal 
Constitution  by  unanimous  vote  in  1787.  Population  in  1732,  47,000;  in 
1790,  184,189;  in  1830,  320,779;  in  1840,  373,306. 

NEW  MEXICO,  according  to  Spanish  and  Mexican  authorities,  extends  from 
about  32°  to  42°,  N.  latitude,  and  from  23°  to  about  33°  long.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington— an  area  of  about  200  000  square  miles.  The  country  taken  posses- 
sion of  for  Spain,  by  Juan  de  Onate,  sent  by  count  de  Monterey,  viceroy  of 
Mexico,  in  1594.  A  great  massacre  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  pueblos  or 
fort,  by  the  Indians,  1680,  when  the  governor  retreated  from  Santa  F6,  and 
founded  Paso  del  Norte.  The  whole  country  reconquered  by  the  Spaniards 
after  a  war  of  ten  years ;  but  a  deadly  hatred  has  since  continued  between 
the  races.  New  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  with 
Mexico,  1848.  A  large  part  of  it  is  claimed  by  Texas,  and  the  boundary  is 
yet  (July  1850)  undecided. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  See  New  Holland.  The  eastern  coast  of  New  Hoi- 
land  was  explored  and  taken  possession  of  by  captain  Cook,  for  England, 
in  1770.  It  was  at  the  recommendation  of  this  illustrious  navigator  that 
the  design  of  a  convict  colony  here  was  first  formed.  Governor  Phillips,  the 
first  governor,  arrived  at  Botany  Bay  with  800  convicts.  January  20,  1788  : 
but  he  subsequently  preferred  Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the 
head  of  Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible  situation  for  the  capital. 

NEW  STYLE.  Ordered  to  be  used  in  England  in  1751 ;  and  the  ru*t  ear 
eleven  days  were  left  out  of  the  calendar— the  third  of  September.  f752, 
being  reckoned  as  the  fourteenth — so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Grego- 
rian Calendar,  which  see,  and  also  article  Calendar.  In  the  year  A.  D.  200, 
there  was  no  difference  of  styles ;  but  there  had  arisen  a  difference  of  ele- 
ven days  between  the  old  and  the  new  style,  the  latter  being  so  much  be- 
forehand with  the  former ;  so  that  when  a  person  using  the  old  style  dates 
the  1st  of  May,  those  who  employ  the  new,  reckon  the  12th.  From  this 
variation  in  the  computation  of  time,  we  may  easily  account  for  the  differ- 
ence of  many  dates  concerning  historical  facts  and  biographical  notices. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.  Its  institution  as  a  feast,  or  day  of  rejoicing,  is  th« 
oldest  on  authentic  record  transmitted  down  to  our  times,  and  still  observed 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  499 

The  feast  was  instituted  by  Numa,  and  was  dedicated  to  Janus  (who  pre- 
sided over  the  new  year),  January  1,  713  B.  c.  On  this  day,  the  Romans 
sacrificed  to  Janus  a  cake  of  new  sifted  meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine ; 
and  all  the  mechanics  began  something  of  their  art  or  trade  ;  the  men  of 
letters  did  the  same  as  to  books,  poems,  &c. ;  and  the  consuls,  though  cho- 
sen befcre,  took  the  chair  and  entered  upon  their  office  this  day.  After  the 
government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  the  consuls  marched  on 
New-year's  day  to  the  capitol,  attended  by  a  ciowd,  all  in  new  clothes,  when 
two  white  bulls  never  yoked  were  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  A  great 
deal  of  incense  and  other  perfumes  were  spent  in  the  temple ;  the  flamens, 
together  with  the  consuls,  during  this  religious  solemnity  offered  their  vows 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  empire  and  the  emperor,  after  having  taken  an 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  confirmed  all  public  acts  done  by  him  the  preceding 
year.  On  this  day  the  Romans  laid  aside  all  old  grudges  and  ill  humor, 
and  took  care  not  to  speak  so  much  as  one  ominous  or  untoward  word. 
The  first  of  January  is  more  observed  as  a  feast-day  in  Scotland  than  it  is 
in  England.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  chiefly  in  New  York, 
this  is  observed  as  a  holiday,  the  ladies  receiving  complimentary  visits  from 
the  other  sex.  This  custom  is  derived  from  the  Dutch  ;  but  is  also  observed 
in  Paris. 

NEW-YEAR'S  GIFTS.  Nonius  Marcellus  refers  the  origin  of  New-Year's  gifts 
among  the  Romans  to  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines.  who  having  consi- 
dered as  a  good  omen  a  present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated 
to  Strenia,  the  goddess  of  strength,  which  he  received  on  the  first  day  of 
the  new  year,  authorized  the  custom  afterwards  and  gave  these  gifts  the 
name  of  Strense,  747  B.  c.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  populace,  gentry, 
and  senators  used  to  send  him  new-year's  gifts,  and  if  he  was  not  in  town, 
they  carried  them  to  the  capitol.  From  the  Romans  this  custom  went  to 
the  Greeks,  and  from  the  heathens  to  the  Christians,  who  very  early  came 
into  the  practice  of  making  presents  to  the  magistrates.  Some  of  the  fa- 
thers wrote  very  strenuously  against  the  practice,  upon  account  of  the  immo- 
ralities committed  under  that  cover  and  protection  ;  but  since  the  govern- 
ments of  the  several  nations  in  Europe  became  Christian,  the  custom  is 
still  retained  as  a  token  of  friendship,  love,  and  respect.  It  is  well  observed 
in  the  United  States. 

NEW  YORK.  One  of  the  United  States.  The  river  Hudson  and  the  island  of 
Manhattan,  where  New  York  city  now  stands,  were  discovered  by  Henry 
Hudson,  an  Engl'sliiHan.  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch,  1609.  First  permanently 
settled  on  Manhattan  island  by  the  Dutch  in  1621 ;  surrendered  to  the  En- 

S'ish,  under  Richard  Nichols,  for  the  duke  of  York,  in  1664 ;  confirmed  to 
ngland  by  the  peace  of  Breda.  1667  ;  retaken  by  a  Dutch  expedition  in 
1673  ;  restored  to  the  duke  of  York  with  a  new  patent,  1674 ;  first  legisla- 
tive assembly,  1683 ;  Jacob  Leisler's  revolution,  1689 ;  episcopacy  esta- 
blished by  law.  1693 ;  negro  conspiracy,  1741 ;  colony  took  an  active  part  in 
French  war,  1756,  and  the  war  of  Independence  ;  city  captured  by  English, 
1776 ;  who  evacuated  it  Nov.  25, 1783 ;  State  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution 
by  30  to  35.  1788 ;  adopted  new  State  Constitution,  1846.  Population  in 
1732.  65,000;  in  1790,  340,820;  in  1810,  969,049;  in  1820, 1.372.812  ;  in  1840, 
2,428.921. 

NEW  YORK.  CITY  or.  Founded  by  the  Dutch,  1614 ;  fort  built  by  them  at 
S.  poini  of  the  island,  1623 ;  surrendered  to  the  English,  1664 ;  assessed 
value  of  all  the  property  in  the  town  in  1668,  was  .£78 .231 ;  city  taken  by 
the  British,  1776  ;  evacuated,  Nov.  25,  1783 ;  meeting  of  first  United  States 
Congress  here,  1786;  Washington  inaugurated  President  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  City  Hall  in  Wall-street.  April  30,  1789 ;  yellow  fever  pre- 
vailed here  in  1795  and  1806 ;  cholera  in  1832,  1834,  and  1849.  Great  fire  i» 


500  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [NEW 

the  business  part  of  the  city,  swept  over  40  acres,  and  destroyed  property 
valued  at  about  $20.000,000,  Dec.  16,  1835 ;  another  in  same  neighborhood, 
1846 ;  the  whole  district  rebuilt  and  improved  shortly  after ;  celebration 
of  the  completion  of  Croton  Aqueduct,  Oct.  14,  1842.  Population  in  1790, 
33,131 ;  in  1810,  96,373 ;  in  1830,  202,589  ;  in  1840,  312,710. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  CITY  OF.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1717 ;  conveyed  to 
the  Spanish,  1762;  recovered  by  the  Freich.  1800;  purchased  by  the 
United  States  in  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  1803.  The  battle  of,  between 
the  Americans  under  Gen.  Jackson,  and  the  British  under  Packenham,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  loss  of  3  000  killed  and  wounded,  the 
Americans  losing  only  7  killed  and  6  wounded,  Jan.  8,  1815.  Population 
in  1810,  was  17,242;  in  1830,  46,310;  in  1840,  102,193,  including  23,448 
slaves. 

NEWCASTLE,  ENGLAND.  The  first  coal  port  in  the  world.  The  coal-mines 
were  discovered  here  about  A.  D.  1234.  The  first  charter  which  was  granted 
to  the  townsmen  for  digging  coal  was  by  Henry  III.  in  1239 ;  but  in  1306, 
the  use  of  coal  for  fuel  was  prohibited  in  London,  by  royal  proclamation, 
chiefly  because  it  injured  the  sale  of  wood  for  fuel,  great  quantities  of  which 
were  then  growing  about  that  city ;  but  this  interdiction  did  not  long  conti- 
nue, and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having  been  dug  and  exported  from  this 
place  for  more  than  500  years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  called  it  Prima  Vista. 
June  24,  A.  D.  1494.  It  was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  sir  Henry  Gilbert, 
1583.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advantage  of  the 
English  in  the  fishery.  There  were  100  fishing  vessels  from  Spain,  50  from 
Portugal,  150  from  France,  and  only  15.  but  of  larger  size,  from  England,  in 
1577. — Hackluyt.  But  the  English  fishery  in  some  years  afterwards  had  in- 
creased so  much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire  aloae  employed  150  ships,  and 
sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  1625.  Nearly  1000  English  fa- 
milies reside  here  all  the  year ;  and  in  the  fishing  season,  beginning  in  May 
and  ending  in  September,  more  than  15,000  persons  resort  to  Newfoundland, 
which  may  be  esteemed  as  one  of  our  finest  nurseries  for  seamen.  New- 
foundland has  recently  obtained  the  privilege  of  a  colonial  legislation.  A 
bishopric  was  established  here  in  1839.  Appalling  fire  at  St.  John's ;  a  great 
portion  of  the  town  destroyed;  the  loss  estimated  at  .£1,000,000  sterling, 
June  9,  1846. 

*EWS.  The  origin  of  this  word  has  been  variously  defined.  News  is  a  fresh 
account  of  any  thing. — Sidney.  It  is  something  not  heard  before. — L' Es- 
trange. News  is  an  account  of  the  transactions  of  the  present  times. — Addi- 
son.  The  word  "news"  is  not,  as  many  imagine,  derived  from  the  adjective 
new.  In  former  times  (between  the  years  1595  and  1730)  it  was  a  prevalent 
practice  to  put  over  the  periodical  publications  of  the  day  the  initial  letters 
of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  thus ; — 


I 

importing  that  these  papers  contained  intelligence  from  the  four  quarters 
of  the  globe ;  and  from  this  practice  is  derived  the  term  Newspaper. 
NEWSPAPERS.  The  first  published  in  England,  which  might  truly  be  consi- 
dered  as  a  vehicle  of  GENERAL  INFORMATION,  was  established  by  sir  Roger 
L'Estrange,  in  1663;  it  was  entitled  the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  continued 
nearly  three  years,  when  it  ceased  on  the  appearance  of  *,he  Gazette.  A 
publication,  with  few  claims  however  to  the  character  of  a  newspaper,  had 


J  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  501 

previously  appeared ;  it  was  called  the  English  Mercury*  and  came  out  un. 
der  the  authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  so  early  as  1588,  the  period  of  th« 
Spanish  armada.  An  early  copy  of  this  paper  is  dated  July  23,  in  that  year. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  1622,  appeared  the  London  Weekly  Courant,  and 
in  the  year  1643  (the  period  of  the  civil  war)  were  printed  a  variety  of  pub- 
lications,  certainly  in  no  respect  entitled  to  the  name  of  newspapers,  of  which 
the  following  were  the  titles : — 


England's  Memorable  Accidents. 
The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer. 
The  Diurnal  of  Certain  Passages  in  Par- 
liament. 

The  Mercunus  Aulicus. 
The  Scotch  Intelligencer. 
The  Parliament's  Scout. 


The  Parliament's  Scout's  Discovery,  or 
Certain  Information. 

The  Mercurius  Civicus,  or  London's  in- 
telligencer. 

The  Country's  Complaint,  Sfc. 

The  Weekly  Account. 

Mercurius  Britannicus. 


A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette  was  published  August  22,  1642.  The 
London  Gazette  of  the  existing  series,  was  published  first  at  Oxford,  the 
court  being  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  1,  1665,  and  afterwards  at 
London,  Feb.  5,  1666.  See  Gazette.  The  printing  of  newspapers  and 
pamphlets  was  prohibited  31  Charles  I.,  1680. — ^cJmon's  Chron.  Newspa- 
pers were  first  stamped  in  1713.  No.  of  the  stamps  issued  : — 


In  1758  -  -     7,411,757 

In  1760  .   •   9,401,790 

In  1774  -  -    12,300,000 

In  1790  .   -   14,035,639 


In  1810  -   -  -20;172,837 

In  1820-  -   -21,862,186 

In  1825  -   -  -  26,950,693 

In  1830  -  •   -  30,158,741 


In  1835  •   •  -32,874,652 

In  1840  •  •   -  49.0,33,381 

In  1843  -   -  -  56.443,077 

In  1849  -  .   .  76,569,235 


In  1800  -  -  16,084,905 
The  total  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1849 
was  603,  viz :  160  in  London,  232  in  the  English  provinces,  117  in  Ireland, 
and  94  in  Scotland.  The  number  of  advertisements  inserted  in  the  London 
newspapers  in  1849  was  886,108.  paying  a  gross  duty  of  .£66,458  2s. ;  in  the 
English  provincial  newspapers,  834.729,  yielding  to  the  crown  a  revenue  of 
£62  604  13s.  §d. ;  in  the  Irish  papers,  220,524,  paying  £11,026  4s.,  and  in  the 
Scotch  papers,  2.409.11,  paying  in  duty  .£18,075  16s.  6d. 

NEWSPAPERS,  &c.  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  was  the  "  Boston  New* 
Letter"  in  1704.  which  was  continued  till  1774 ;  the  second  was  the  Boston 
Gazette,  1719 ;  the  third  the  American  Weekly  Mercury,  at  Philadelphia, 
started  one  day  after  the  last.  First  New  York  Gazette,  in  1725 ;  first 
newspaper  in  the  Carolinas  at  Charleston,  1731-2;  first  Rhode  Island  Ga- 
zette, at  Newport,  1732 ;  first  Virginia  Gazette,  at  Williamsburgh,  in  1736. 
In  1775.  there  were  in  all  the  colonies  37  newspapers ;  in  1810,  in  the  United 
States,  356 :  in  1828,  802 ;  in  1839,  1555.  See  Periodical  Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS  IN  FRANCE.  The  first  was  the  Gazette  de  France,  established 
by  Renaudot,  in  1631,  and  continued  with  few  interruptions  till  1827.,  when 
it  ceased  and  another  paper  assumed  its  name.  The  Moniteur,  commenced 
1789,  has  been  since  1800  the  official  journal  of  the  Government.  The  Con- 
stitulwnette  and  the  Journal  des  Debats  have  long  had  the  largest  circula- 
tion. There  were  374  newspapers  published  in  France  in  1832.  See  Peris 
odical  Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS,  IRISH.  The  first  Irish  newspaper  was  Pue's  Occurrences,  pub- 
lished in  1700 :  Faulkner's  Journal,  was  established  by  George  Faulkner,  "  a 
man  celebrated  for  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the  weakness  of  his  head," 
1728. — Supplement  to  Swift.  The  oldest  of  the  existing  Dublin  newspapers, 

*  The  full  title  is,  "No.  50,  The  English  Mercurie,  published  by  authorise,  for  the  preven'foa 
of  false  reports,  imprinted  by  Christopher  Barker,  her  highness's  primer,  No.  50."  It  describes 
Che  armament  called  the  Spanish  Armada,  giving  "  A  journal!  of  what  passed  since  the  21st  of  thit 
month,  between  her  Majestie's  fleet  and  that  of  Spayne,  transmitted  by  the  Lord  Highe  Admiral!  to 
the  I.ordes  of  council." 

(It  is  said  by  Mr.  Watts  of  the  British  Museum  (1850),  that  this  papei  was  a  forgery,  and  thaf 
.Tie  first  English  paper  was  the  Wrf-klr*  Vetoes,  published  by  Nathaniel  Butler  in  Ib22.) 


602  THE  .VORLD'S  PROGRESS  {  an 

is  the  Freeman's  Journal,  founded  by  the  patriot,  Dr.  Lucas,  about  the  year 
1765. —  Westminster  Review,  Jan.  1830.  The  Limerick  Chronicle,  the  oldest 
of  the  provincial  prints,  was  established  in  1768. — Idem. 

NEY,  MARSHAL,  HIS  EXECUTION.  Ney  was  the  duke  of  Elchingen,  and  prince 
of  the  Moskwa,  and  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  skilful  of  the  marshals  of 
France.  After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon.  5th  April.  1814,  he  took  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  king,  Louis  XVIII.  On  Napoleon's  return  to  France 
from  Elba,  he  marched  against  him  ;  but  his  troops  deserting,  he  regarded 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  lost,  and  opened  the  invader's  way  to  Paris. 
March  13,  1815.  Ney  led  the  attack  of  the  French  at  Waterloo,  where  he 
fought  in  the  midst  of  the  slain,  his  clothes  filled  with  bullet-holes,  and  five 
horses  having  been  shot  under  him,  unt.l  night  and  defeat  obliged  him  to 
fly.  But  though  he  was  included  in  the  decree  of  July  24. 1815,  which  guar- 
anteed the  safety  of  all  Frenchmen,  he  was  afterwards  sought  out,  and  taken 
in  the  castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  where  he  lay  concealed,  and  brought  to 
trial  before  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  The  12th  article  of  the  capitulation  of 
Paris,  fixing  a  general  amnesty,  was  quoted  in  his  favor,  yet  he  was  sentenced 
to  death,  and  met  his  fate  with  the  fortitude  which  such  a  hero  could  hardly 
fail  to  evince,  Aug.  16,  1815. 

NICENE  CREED.  A  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  composed  at  Nice  by 
the  first  general  council  held  there  in  the  palace  of  Constantino  the  Great. 
In  this  celebrated  council,  which  assembled  A.  D.  325,  the  Arians  were  con- 
demned. It  was  attended  by  318  bishops  from  divers  parts,  who  both  set- 
tled the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  time  for  observing  Easter. 

NILE,  BATTLE  OP  THE.  One  of  the  greatest  in  British  naval  history,  between 
the  Toulon  and  British  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  lord,  then  sir  Hora- 
tio Nelson.  This  engagement  took  place  near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
celebrated  river  Nile ;  nine  of  the  French  line-of-battle  ships  were  taken, 
two  were  burnt,  and  two  escaped,  August  1, 1798.  This  is  sometimes  called 
the  battle  of  Aboukir ;  it  obtained  the  conqueror  a  peerage,  by  the  title  of 
baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile ;  his  exclamation  upon  commencing  the  battle  was, 
"  Victory  or  Westminster-abbey !" 

NILE.  SOURCE  OP  THE.  This  great  river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon, 
hi  about  ten  degrees  of  N.  lat.,  and  in  a  known  course  of  1250  miles  receives 
no  tributary  streams.  The  travels  of  Bruce  were  undertaken  to  discover  the 
source  of  the  Nile ;  he  set  out  from  England  in  June,  1768 ;  on  the  14th  of 
Nov.  1770,  he  obtained  the  great  object  of  his  wishes,  and  returned  home  in 
1773.  This  river  overflows  regularly  every  year,  from  the  15th  of  June  to 
the  17th  of  September,  when  it  begins  to  decrease,  having  given  fertility  to 
the  land ;  and  it  must  rise  16  cubits  to  insure  that  fertility.  In  1829,  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile  rose  to  26  instead  of  22,  by  which  30,000  people  were 
drowned,  and  immense  property  lost. 

fflMEGUEN,  TREATY  op.  This  was  the  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between 
France  and  the  United  Provinces,  1678.  Nimeguen  is  distinguished  in  his- 
tory for  other  treaties  of  peace.  The  French  were  successful  against  the 
British  under  the  duke  of  York,  before  Nimeguen,  Oct.  28,  1794 :  but  were 
defeated  by  the  British,  with  the  loss  of  500  killed,  Nov.  8,  following. 

rflfRIC  ACID,  formerly  called  aquafortis,  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by 
Raymond  Lully,  an  alchemist,  about  A.  D.  1287 ;  but  we  are  indebted  to  Cav- 
endish, Priestley,  and  Lavoisier,  for  our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties. 
Mr.  Cavendish  demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid,  in  1786.  Nitrous  acid, 
nearly  similar  to  nitric,  was  discovered  by  Scheele,  in  1771.  Nitrous  gas 
was  accidentally  discovered  by  Dr.  Hales.  Nitrous  Oxide  G&s  was  discov- 
ered by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1776. 


NOR]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  503 

NOBILITY.  The  origin  of  nobility  is  referred  to  the  Goths,  who,  after  they 
had  seized  a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes  with  titles  of  honor,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  common  people.  The  right  of  peerage  seems  to 
have  been  at  first  territorial.  Patents  to  persons  having  no  estates  were  first 
granted  to  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  A.  D.  1095.  George  Neville,  duke  of 
Bedford  (son  of  John,  marquess  of  Montague),  ennobled  in  1470,  was  de- 
graded from  the  peerage  by  parliament,  on  account  of  his  utter  want  o/ 
property,  19  Edward  IV.  1478.  Noblemen's  privileges  were  restrained  in 
June  1773.  See  the  various  orders  of  nobility  through  the  volume;  see  also 
Peerage 

NOBILITY  OF  FRANCE  The  French  nobility  preceded  that  of  England,  and 
continued  through  a  long  line,  and  various  races  of  kings,  until  the  period 
of  the  memorable  revolution.  The  National  Assembly  decreed  that  hered- 
itary nobility  could  not  exist  in  a  free  state ;  that  the  titles  of  dukes,  counts, 
marquisses,  knights,  barons,  excellencies,  abbots,  and  others,  be  abolished ; 
that  all  citizens  take  their  family  names ;  liveries,  and  armorial  bearings, 
shall  also  be  abolished,  June  18,  1790.  The  records  of  the  nobility,  600  vol- 
umes, were  burned  at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV..  June  25, 1792.  A 
new  nobility  was  created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon.  1808.  The  hereditary 
peerage  was  abolished  in  that  kingdom,  December  27,  1831.  See  France 

NON-CONFORMISTS.  The  Protestants  in  England  are  divided  into  conform- 
ists and  non-conformists ;  or,  as  they  are  commonly  denominated,  churchmen 
and  dissenters.  The  former  are  those  who  conform  to  that  mode  of  worship 
and  form  of  church-government  which  are  established  and  supported  by  the 
state ;  the  latter  are  those  who  meet  for  divine  worship  in  places  of  their 
own.  The  first  place  of  meeting  of  the  latter,  in  England,  \^as  established 
at  Wandsworth,  near  London,  November  20,  1572.  The  name  of  non-con- 
formists was  taken  by  the  Puritans,  after  the  Act  of  Uniformity  had  passed, 
August  24,  A.  D.  1662,  when  2000  ministers  of  the  established  religion  re- 
signed, not  choosing  to  conform  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

NON-JURORS,  IN  ENGLAND.  Persons  who  suppose  that  James  II.  was  un- 
justly deposed,  and  who.  upon  that  account,  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to 
the  family  that  succeeded  him.  Among  this  class  of  persons  were  several 
of  the  bishops,  who  were  deprived  in  1690.  Non-jurors  were  subjected  to  a 
double  taxation,  and  were  obliged  to  register  their  estates,  May  1723. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.  Discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  It  was  settled  by 
the  British  in  1786,  when  a  few  British  merchants  in  the  East  Indies  formed 
a  settlement  to  supply  the  Chinese  market  with  furs ;  but  the  Spaniards,  in 
1789.  captured  two  English  vessels,  and  took  possession  of  the  settlement. 
The  British  ministry  made  their  demand  for  reparation,  and  the  affair  was 
amicably  terminated  by  a  convention,  and  a  free  commerce  was  confirmed  to 
England  in  1790. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  A  penal  colony  of  England.  It  was  discovered  in  1774, 
by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it  uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settle- 
ment was  made  by  a  detachment  from  Port  Jackson,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  island.  This  has  latterly  been  made  the  severest 
penal  colony  of  Great  Britain. 

NORMANDY.  Anciently  Neustria.  From  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury this  country  was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandinavians,  called 
Northmen  or  Normans,  to  purchase  repose  from  whose  irruptions  Charles 
the  Simple  of  France  ceded  the  duchy  to  their  leader  Rollo.  A.  D.  905  to  912, 
and  from  its  conquerors  it  received  its  present  name.  Rollo  was  the  first 
duke,  and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  France,  and  several  of  his  suc- 
cessors after  him,  till  William,  the  seventh  duke,  conquered  England.  IB 


504 


WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[NO* 


1066,  from  which  time  it  became  a  province  of  England,  till  it  was  lost  iu 
the  reign  of  king  John,  1204,  and  reunited  to  the  crown  of  France.  The 
English,  however,  still  keep  possession  of  the  islands  on  the  coast,  of  which 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  the  principal. 

NORTH-  WEST  PASSAGE.  The  attempt  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  was 
made  by  a  Portuguese  named  Cortereal,  about  A.  D.  1500.  It  was  attempted 
by  the  English  in  1553 ;  and  the  project  was  greatly  encouraged  by  queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1586,  in  which  year  a  company  was  associated  in  London,  and 
was  called  the  "  Fellowship  for  the  Discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage." 
The  following:  voyages  with  this  design,  were  undertaken,  under  British 
navigators,  in  the  years  respectively  stated  : — 


Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition  to 
find  a  north-west  passage  to  China, 
sailed  from  the  Thames'        May  20,  1553 
Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  attempt  w  find 

a  north-west  passage  to  China          -  1576 
Captain  Davis's  expedition  to  find  a 

north-west  passage      •  1585 

Barentz's  expedition  -  -        1594 

Weymouth  and  Knight's  •  •  1602  . 

Hudson's  voyages ;  the  last  undertaken 

(See  Hudson's  Bay.)  •  •  •  1610 

Sir  Thomas  Button's  -  -     -  1612 

Baffin's.— See  Baffin's  Bay      •  •  1616 

Foxe's  expedition     -  -          -     - 1631 

[A  number  of  enterprises  undertaken 

by  various  countries,  followed.] 
Middleton's  expedition  -  -  -  1742 

Moore's  and  Smith's  -  -  -     -  1746 

Heame's  land  expedition  -  -  1769 

Captain  Phipps,  afterwards  lord  Mul- 

grave,  his  expedition  -  -  -  1773  j 

Captain  Cook  in  the  Resolution  and 

Discovery        -  •  •     July  1776  ! 

Mackenzie's  expedition        -  -     -  1789 

Captain  Duncan's  voyage          •  •  1790 

The  Discovery,  captain  Vancouver,  re- 
turned from  a  voyage  of  survey  and 
discovery  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America  -  -  Sept.  24,  1795 

Lieut.  Kotzebue's  expedition    •     Oct.  1815 
Captain  Buchan's  and  lieut.  Franklin's 

expedition  in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent  1818 
Captain  Ross  and  lieut.  Parry,  in  the 

Isabella,  and  Alexander         -  •  1818 

Lieuts.  Parry  and  Liddon  in  the  ffecla 

and  Griper      •  »     •       May  4,  1819 

They  return  to  Leith  •      Nov.  3,  1820 

Capts.  Parry  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury 

and  Hecla  •  •       May  8,  1821 

Capt.  Parry's  third  expedition  with  the 

Hecla         •  •       May  8,  1824 

Capt.s.  Fianklin  and  Lyon,  after  having 
attempted  a  land  expedition,  again 
sail  from  Liverpool  -  Feb.  16,  1825 


Captain  Parry,  again  in  the  ffecla-, 
sails  from  Deptford  •  March  25,  1827 

And  returns   -  -  -       Oct.  6,  1827 

Capt.  Ross  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  re- 
turn from  his  arctic  expedit  -n,  after 
an  absence  of  'our  years,  ai.d  when 
all  hope  of  hu  return  had  been  near- 
ly abandoned  •  -  Oct.  18;  1833 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived 
at  Liverpool  from  their  perilous  Arc- 
tic Land  Expedition,  after  having 
visited  the  Great  Fish  River,  and  ex- 
amined its  course  to  the  Polar  Seas 

Sept.  8,  1835 

Captain  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in 
command  of  His  Majesty's  ship  Ter- 
ror, on  an  exploring  adventure  to 
Wager  River.  [Captain  Back,  in 
the  month  of  Dec.  1835,  was  award- 
ed, by  the  Geographical  Society,  the 
king's  annual  premium  for  his  polar 
discoveries  and  enterprise  June  21,  1836 

Dease  and  Simpson  traverse  the  inter- 
vening space  between  the  discover- 
ies of  Ross  and  Parry,  and  establish 
that  there  is  a  north-west  passage 

Oct.  1839 

Sir  John  Franklin  and  capt.  Crozier  in 
the  Erebus  and  Terror  leave  Eng- 
land -  -  -  May  24, 1845 

Capt.  Ross  returned  from  an  unsuccess- 
ful expedition  in  search  of  Franklin  1849 

Another  expedition  (one  sent  out  by 
lady  Franklin)  in  search  of  sir  John 
Franklin,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
sailed  from  England,  April-May  185C 

Still  another,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
the  Advance  and  Rescue,  liberally 
purchased  for  the  purpose  by  Henry 
Grinnell,a  New  York  merchant,  and 
manned  at  Government  cost  from  the 
U.  S.  navy,  under  command  of  lieut. 
de  Haven,  sailed  from  New  York 

May  I860 


NORTH  CAROLINA.  ONE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.     First  permanent  settle- 
ment at  Albemarle,  by  emigrants  from  Virginia,  who  fled  from  religious  per- 


*  The  gallant  sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  departure  from  Radcliffe,  on  his  faial  voyage  for 
discovering  the  north-east  passage  to  China.  He  sailed  with  great  pomp  by  Greenwich,  where  th« 
eourt  then  resided.  Mutual  honors  were  paid  on  both  sides.  The  council  and  courtiers  appeared 
at  the  windows,  ana  the  people  covered  the  chores.  The  young  king.  Edward  VI.,  alone  lost  th« 
noble  and  novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his  death-bed  ;  so  that  the  principal  object  of  the  parad* 
was  disappointed.  Sir  Hush  Willoughby  was  unfortunately  entangled  in  the  ice.  and  frozen  U 
ie*lh.  on  the  r,oa«-.t  of  tanlaiid  —  Hnrklni/t 


ITOL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  505 

secution,  about  1660.  The  district  granted  to  lord  Clarendon,  who  induced 
the  celebrated  John  Locke  to  prepare  a  constitution  for  it,  1663.  The  chioi 
magistrate  was  called  the  palatine,  and  there  was  an  hereditary  nobility. 
This  constitution  abolished,  as  defective,  1693.  The  two  Carolinas  purchas- 
ed by  the  crown  for  £17,500,  and  divided  into  North  and  South,  in  1720. 

NORWAY.  Until  the  ninth  century,  Norway  was  divided  into  petty  principali- 
ties, and  was  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe  except  by  the  piratical  ex- 
cursions of  its  natives.  It  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  A.  D.  1000.  The 
city  of  Bergen  was  founded  in  1069.  The  kingdom  was  united  to  Denmark 
in  1378 ;  and  the  three  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Denmark  and  Sweden  were 
united,  in  1439.  Pomerania  and  Rugen  were  annexed  to  Denmark  in  ex- 
change for  Norway,  in  1814,  and  on  Nov.  4,  in  that  year,  Charles  XIII.  was 
proclaimed  king  by  the  National  Diet  assembled  at  Christiana.  The  two 
countries  of  Sweden  and  Norway  have  since  then  been  termed  the  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula,  of  which  Bernadotte  was  crowned  king  by  the  title  of 
Charles  XIV.,  Feb.  5,  1818.  See  Sweden. 

NOTABLES  OP  FRANCE.  An  assembly  of  the  notabks  of  France  was  con- 
vened by  Calonne,  the  minister  of  Louis  XVI. ,  in  1788.  The  deranged  state 
of  the  king's  finances  induced  him  to  convoke  the  notables,  who  assembled 
Nov.  6,  when  Calonne  opened  his  plan,  but  any  reform  militated  too  much 
against  private  interest  to  be  adopted.  Calonne  not  being  able  to  do  any 
good,  was  dismissed,  and  soon  after  retired  to  England :  and  Louis,  having 
lost  his  confidential  minister,  Mons.  de  Vergennes,  by  death,  called  Mons. 
de  Brienne,  an  ecclesiastic,  to  his  councils.  In  the  end,  the  States  General 
were  called,  and  from  this  assembly  sprang  the  National  Assembly,  which 
see.  The  notaries  were  dismissed  by  the  king,  Dec.  12,  1788.  The  Spanish 
notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon  (conformably  with  a  decree  issued  by 
him  commanding  their  attendance,)  at  Bayonne,  May  25,  1808.  See  Spain. 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC.  They  were  first  appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  the  martyrs, 
in  the  first  century. — Du  Fresnoy.  This  office  was  afterwards  changed  to  a 
commercial  employment,  to  attest  deeds  and  writings,  so  as  to  establish  their 
authenticity  in  any  other  country. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  Settled  in  A.  D.  1622.  by  the  Scotch,  under  sir  William  Alex- 
ander, in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  from  whom  it  received  the  name 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more  than  once  changed 
rulers  and  proprietors,  nor  was  it  confirmed  to  England  till  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713.  It  was  taken  in  1745.  and  1758;  but  was  again  confirmed 
to  England  in  1760.  Nova  Scotia  was  divided  ii.to  two  provinces,  in  1784; 
and  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  August,  1787.  See  Baronets. 

NOVEMBER.  This  was  ancienly  the  ninth  month  of  the  year  (whence  its 
name)  but  when  Numa  added  the  months  of  January  and  February,  713 
B.  c..  the  Romans  had  it  for  the  eleventh,  as  it  is  now.  The  Roman  senators 
(for  whose  mean  servilities  even  Tiberius,  it  is  said,  often  blushed)  wished 
to  call  this  month  in  which  he  was  born,  by  his  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius 
Cassar.  and  Augustus ;  but  this  the  emperor  absolutely  refused,  saying, 
"  What  will  you  do,  conscript  fathers,  if  you  have  thirteen  Caesars  1 " 

NO VI,  BATTLE  OF.  in  which  the  French  army  commanded  by  Joubert  was  de- 
feated by  the  Russians  under  Suvvarrow,  with  immense  loss,  Aug.  15,  1799. 
Among  10  000  of  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,  and  several 
other  distinguished  officers.  A  second  battle  fought  here  between  the  Aus- 
trian and  French  armies,  when  the  latter  were  signally  defeated.  January  8, 
1800. 

MOLLIFICATION  OP  THE  LAWS  op  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  right 
22 


506  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS,  [OAI 

claimed  by  South  Carolina,  and  various  threats  held  out  by  the  legislature 
of  that  State,  in  1832.  Proclamation  of  president  Jackson  against  tho 
Nullifiers,  Dec.  10.  A  "State  Rights"  convention  at  Columbia,  S.  C., 
same  day.  Calhoun  resigned  the  office  of  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  Dec.  28, 1832.  Nullification  nullified  by  South  Carolina  convention  in 
consequence  of  3tr.  Clay's  compromise  tariff,  March  11,  1834. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  AND  SIEGE.  The  celebrated  war  of  Nurnantia  with  the 
Romans  was  commenced  solely  on  account  of  the  latter  having  given  refuge 
to  Ihe  Sigidians,  their  own  allies,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
141  B.  c. — Livy.  It  continued  for  fourteen  years ;  and  though  Numantia 
was  unprotected  by  walls  or  towers,  it  bravely  withstood  the  siege.  The 
inhabitants  obtained  some  advantages  over  the  Roman  forces  till  Scipio  Af- 
ricanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war,  and  to  see  the  destruction  of  Nu- 
mantia. He  began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  60  000  men,  and  was  bravely 
opposed  by  the  besieged,  who  were  not  more  than  4000  men  able  to  bear 
arms.  Both  armies  behaved  with  uncommon  valor,  and  the  courage  of  the 
Numantines  was  soon  changed  into  despair  and  fury.  Their  provisions  be- 
gan to  fail,  and  they  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  afterwards  on 
that  of  their  dead  companions,  and  at  last  were  obliged  to  draw  lots  to  kill 
and  devour  one  another ;  and  at  length  they  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  all 
destroyed  themselves,  B.  c.  133,  so  that  not  even  one  remained  to  adorn  the 
triumph  of  the  conqueror. 

NUNCIO.  A  spiritual  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Rome  to  Catholic  states.  In 
early  times  they  and  legates  ruled  the  courts  of  several  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Germany,  France,  and  even  England.  The  pope  deputed  a  nuncio  to  the 
Irish  rebels  in  1645.  The  arrival  in  London  of  a  nuncio,  and  his  admission 
to  an  audience  by  James  II.,  1687,  is  stated  to  have  hastened  the  Revolu- 
tion. 

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have  been  that  to  which  the  sister  of 
St.  Anthony  retired  at  the  close  of  the  third  century.  The  first  founded  in 
France,  near  Poitiers,  by  St.  Marcellina,  sister  to  St.  Martin,  A.  D.  360. — Du 
Fresnoy.  The  first  in  England  was  at  Folkstohe,  in  Kent,  by  Eardbald, 
king  of  Kent,  630. — Dugdale's  Monasl-icon  Anglicanum.  See  articles  Abbeys 
and  Monasteries.  The  nuns  were  expelled  from  their  convents  in  Germany, 
in  July,  1785.  They  were  driven  out  of  their  convents  in  France,  in  Jan., 
1790. 

0. 

GATES  TITUS  HIS  PLOT.  This  Oates  was  a  wicked  man,  at  one  time  chap- 
lain of  a  ship  of  war.  Being  dismissed  the  service  for  his  immoral  conduct, 
he  became  a  lecturer  in  London ;  and.  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  in- 
vented a  pretended  plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.,  of  which  several  persons, 
Catholics,  were  accused,  and  upon  false  testimony,  convicted  and  executed, 
A.  D.  1678  Oates  was  afterwards  tried  for  perjury,  (in  the  reign  of  Jamea 
IT.)  and  being  found  guilty,  he  was  fined,  put  in  the  pillory,  publicly  whip- 
ped from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  1685 ; 
but  was  pardoned,  and  a  pension  granted  him,  1689. 

OATHS.  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial  proceedings  was  introduced 
by  the  Saxons  into  England,  A.  D.  600.— Rapin.  That  administered  to  a 
judge  was  settled  1344.  Of  supremacy,  first  administered  to  British  sub- 
jects, and  ratified  by  parliament,  26  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  Of  allegiance,  first 
framed  and  administered  3  James  I.,  1605.— Stowe's  Chron.  Of  abjuration, 
being  an  obligation  to  maintain  the  government  of  king,  lords,  and  com- 
mons, the  Church  of  England,  and  toleration  of  Protestant  dissenters,  and 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  507 

abjuring  all  Roman  Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown,  13  William  JII.  1701. 
Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so  early  as  A.  D.  528;  and  the  words  "  So 
help  me  God  and  all  saints,"  concluded  an  oath  until  1550. 

OATHS,  ANCIENT.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  looked  upon  the  infringement  of 
an  oath  with  still  greater  abhorrence  than  Christians  ;  they  permitted  oaths 
to  be  taken  upon  every  object  in  which  the  person  who  swore  had  a 
decided  and  sincere  belief,  upon  all  kinds  of  animals,  fruits,  and  vegetables, 
the  stars,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  other  things,  without  rendering  the  oaths 
less  binding  than  if  they  had  been  sworn  by  Jupiter.  Jaques  Lydius  has 
left  us  a  long  catalogue  of  the  numerous  objects  by  which  the  ancients 
swore.  It  was  usual  with  them  to  swear  by  what  they  held  most  dear ;  aa, 
for  instance,  by  their  own  heads,  by  that  of  their  friend,  or  by  those  per- 
sons whom  they  loved  most  tenderly.  The  most  sacred  oath  far  abovt 
any  other  was  by  the  eyes  of  their  mistress,  by  her  kisses,  by  her  hair. — 
Ovid,  fyc. 

OBELISK.  The  first  mentioned  in  history  was  that  of  Rameses,  king  of 
Egypt,  about  1485  B.  c.  The  Arabians  call  them  Pharaoh's  needles,  and 
the  Egyptian  priests  the  fingers  of  the  sun ;  they  differed  very  much  as  to 
their  costliness,  magnitude  and  magnificence.  Several  were  erected  at  Rome , 
one  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martius,  on  the 
pavement  of  which  was  a  horizontal  dial,  that  marked  the  hour,  about 
14  B.  c. 

OBSERVATORIES.  The  first  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  top  of  the 
temple  of  Belus  at  Babylon.  On  the  tomb  of  Osymandias,  in  Egypt,  was 
another,  and  it  contained  a  golden  circle  200  feet  in  diameter:  that  at 
Benares  was  at  least  as  ancient  as  these.  The  first  in  authentic  history  was 
at  Alexandria,  about  300  B.  c.  The  first  in  modern  times  was  at  Cassel, 
1561.  The  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  was  founded  by  Charles  II.  A.  D. 
1675 ;  and  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  all  English  astronomers  mak« 
their  calculations. 


First  modern  meridional  instrument, 

by  Copernicus  -  -  -     A.  D  1540 

First  observatory  at  Cassel  -  -  1561 

Tycho  Brahe's,  at  Uranibourg  -  1576 

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen  1657 

Royal  (French)    -  -  •  1667 

Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  -  1675 

Observatory  at  Nuremberg       •  1678 

At  Utrecht     ....  1690 


Berlin,  erected  under  Leibnitz's  direc 

lion        .... 
At  Bologna  « 

At  Petersburg^     - 
Oxford,  Dr.  Raddiffe 
Dublin,  Dr.  Andrews    • 
Cambridge,  England 
Cambridge,  Mass.  .  « 

New  Haven   ... 
Cincinnati  ... 


171' 

171* 
1725 
1772 
1783 
1824 


OCTOBER.  The  eighth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus,  as  its  name  imports, 
and  the  tentL  in  the  year  of  Numa,  713  B.  c.  From  this  time  October  has 
still  retained  its  first  name,  in  spite  of  all  the  different  appellations  which 
the  senate  and  Roman  emperors  would  have  given  it.  The  senate  ordered 
it  to  be  called  Faustinus,  in  honor  of  Faustina,  wife  of  Antoninus  the 
emperor ;  Commodus  would  have  had  it  called  Invictus ;  and  Domitiau 
Domitianus.  October  was  sacred  to  Mars. 

ODES  are  nearly  as  old  as  the  lyre ;  they  were  at  first  extempore  compositions 
accompanying  this  instrument,  and  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods.  Perhaps 
the  most  beautiful  and  sublime  odes  ever  written,  as  well  as  the  oldest,  are 
those  of  the  royal  prophet  Isaiah,  on  the  fall  of  Babylon,  composed  about 
757  B.  c.  The  celebrated  odes  of  Anacreon  were  composed  about  532  B.  c. ; 
and  from  his  time  this  species  of  writing  became  usual.  Anciently  odea 
were  divided  into  Strophe,  Antistrophe,  and  Epode.  This  species*  of  writing 
is  that  of  our  court  poets  at  this  day. 

OGYGES,  DELUGE  OF.  The  Deluge  so  called,  from  which  Attica  lay  waste 
200  years,  occurred  1764  B.  c.  Many  authorities  suppose  this  to  be  no  other 


508  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  OM» 

than  the  uni/ersal  deluge ;  but  according  to  some  writers,  if  it  at  all  oc- 
curred, it  arose  in  the  overflowing  of  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  country. 
See  Deluge.  • 

OHIO.  One  of  the  United  States.  First  permanently  settled  at  Marietta, 
April  1788 ;  second  settlement  was  Symmes's  purchase,  6  miles  below  Cincin- 
nati, 1789  ;  third  by  French  emigrants  at  Gallipolis,  1791 ;  fourth  by  New 
Englanders,  at  Cleveland  and  Comeant,  1796.  First  territorial  legislature 
met  at  Cincinnati,  1799.  The  Western  Reserve,  under  jurisdiction  of  Con- 
necticut, was  sold  by  that  State  for  the  benefit  of  her  "  School  fund  "  in 
1800.  Ohio  formed  her  State  Constitution  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union, 
1802.  Population  in  1790,  was  3,000;  in  1800,  45,365;  in  1810,  230,760;  in 
1830,  937,637 ;  in  1840,  1,519,467. 

OIL.  It  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as  the  epoch  of  Abraham, 
about  1921  B.  c.  It  was  the  staple  commodity  of  Attica,  and  a  jar  full  was 
the  prize  at  the  Panathenaean  games.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  to 
anoint  with  oil  persons  appointed  to  high  offices,  as  the  priests  and  kings, 
Psalm  cxxxiii.  2 ;  1  Sam.  x.  1 ;  xvi.  13.  The  anointing  with  this  liquid 
seems  also  to  have  been  reckoned  a  necessary  ingredient  in  a  festival  dress; 
Ruth,  iii.  3.  The  fact  that  oil,  if  passed  through  red-hot  iron  pipes,  will  be 
resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to  chemists ;  and  after  the 
process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made  apparent.  Messrs.  Taylor  and  Mar- 
tineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil-gas  on  a  large  scale. 

Ol.BERS.    The  asteroid  of  this  name  was  discovered  by  M.  Olbers,  in  1802. 

OLYMPIADS.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by  the  celebrated  era  of  the  Olym- 
piads, which  date  from  the  year  776  B.  c.,  being  the  year  in  which  Corosbus 
was  successful  i^.  the  Olympic  games.  This  era  differed  from  all  others  in 
being  reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years  instead  of  single  years.  Each  pe- 
riod of  four  years  was  called  an  Olympiad,  and  in  marking  a  date,  the  year 
and  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned.  The  second  Olympiad  began,  in 
772 ;  the  third,  in  768 ;  the  fourth,  in  764 ;  the  fifth,  in  760 ;  the  10th  in 
740,  &c. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  These  games,  so  famous  among  the  Greeks,  were  insti- 
tuted in  honor  of  Jupiter.  They  were  holden  at  the  beginning  of  every 
fifth  year,  on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  near  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
now  the  Morea,  to  exercise  their  youth  in  five  kinds  of  combats.  Those 
who  were  conquerors  in  these  games  were  highly  honored  by  their  coun- 
trymen. The  prize  contended  for  was  a  crown  made  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
wild  olive,  appropriated.to  this  use.  The  games  were  instituted  by  Pelops, 
1307  B.  c.  They  are  also  ascribed  to  an  ancient  Hercules ;  and  were  revived 
by  Iphytus  among  the  Greeks.  884  v.c.—Dufresnoy. 

)MENS.  See  Augury.  Amphictyon  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having 
drawn  prognostications  from  omens,  1497  B.  c.  Alexander  the  Great  is  said 
to  have  had  these  superstitions ;  and  also  Mithridates  the  Great,  cele- 
brated for  his  wars  with  the  Romans,  his  victories,  his  conquest  of  twenty- 
four  nations,  and  his  misfortunes.  At  the  birth  of  this  latter  there  were 
seen,  for  seventy  days  together,  two  large  comets,  whose  splendor  eclipsed 
that  of  the  noonday  sun,  occupying  so  vast  a  space  as  the  fourth  part  of 
the  heavens ;  and  this  omen,  we  are  told,  directed  all  the  actions  of  Mithri- 
dates throughout  his  life,  so  much  had  superstition  combined  with  nature 
to  render  him  great,  135  B.  c. — Justin. 

OMNIBUSES.  These  vehicles,  of  which  there  are  nearly  4000  in  the  Londou 
circuit,  were  introduced  there  by  an  enterprising  coach  proprietor  named 
Shillibeer,  and  first  licensed  at  Somerset  house  in  July,  1829.  They  pro- 
bably  originated  in  Paris,  where  they  are  now  also  very  numerous.  Jn  Ne\» 


OFT  J 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


509 


York,  Boston,  &c.,  they  were  common  as  early  as  1830.  There  were  465 
licensed  in  New  York  in  1849. 

OPERA.  Octavio  Rinuccini.  of  Florence,  was  the  inventor  of  operas,  or  of 
the  custom  of  giving  musical  representations  of  comedy,  tragedy,  and  othef 
dramatic  pieces.  Emelio  de  Cavalero.  however,  disputed  this  honor  with 
him,  A.  D.  1590. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Among  the  Venetians,  opera  was  the 
chief  glory  of  their  carnival.  About  the  year  1669,  the  abbot  Perrin  ob- 
tained a  grant  from  Louis  XIV.  to  set  up  an  opera  at  Paris,  where,  in  1672. 
was  acted  Pomona.  Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  a  species  of  opera  in 
London,  in  1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera  was  at  York-build- 
ings, in  1692.  The  first  at  Drury-lane  was  in  1705.  The  operas  of  Handel 
were  performed  in  1735,  and  they  became  general  in  several  of  the  theatres 
*  few  years  after.  Among  the  favorite  performances  of  this  kind  was  Gay's 
Beggar's  Opera,,  first  performed  in  1727.  It  ran  for  sixty-three  successive 
nights,  but  so  often  offended  the  persons  in  power,  ihat  the  lord-chamberlain 
refused  to  license  for  performance  a  second  pa-t  of  it,  entitled  "  Polly." 
This  resentment  induced  Gay's  friends  to  come  forward  on  its  publication 
with  so  handsome  a  subscription,  that  his  profits  amounted  to  1200/., 
whereas  the  Beggar's  Opera  had  gained  him  only  400/. — Life  of  Gay. 

OPORTO.  By  nature  one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities  in  Europe  ;  the  great 
mart  of  Portuguese  wine  known  as  "  Port."  A  chartered  company  for  the 
regulation  of  the  Port-wine  trade  was  established  here  in  A.D.  1756.  See 
article  Wines.  The  French  under  marshal  Soult  were  surprised  here  by 
lord  Wellington,  and  defeated  in  an  action  fought  May  11,  1809.  The  Mi- 
guelites  attacked  Oporto,  and  were  repulsed  by  the  Pedroites,  with  conside- 
rable loss,  Sept.  19,  1832.  See  Portugal. 

OFflCS.  As  a  science,  optics  date  their  origin  a  little  prior  to  the  time  of 
Alhazen,  an  Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished  early  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  has  advanced  rapidly  since  the  time  of  Halley.  and  is  now  one  of 
our  most  flourishing  as  well  as  useful  sciences. 


Burning  lenses  known  at  Athens  at 
least  -  -  -  -  B.  c.  424 

Two  of  the  leading  principles  known 
to  the  Platonists  -  •  -  -  300 

First  treatise  on,  by  Euclid,  about        -    280 

The  magnifying  power  of  convex  glass- 
es and  concave  mirrors,  and  the  pris- 
matic colors  produced  by  angular 
glass,  mentioned  bySeneca,  about  A.D.  50 

Treatise  on  Optics,  by  Ptolemy      •     •    120 

Greatly  improved  by  Alhazen  -  -  1108 

Hints  for  spectacles  and  telescopes  giv- 
en by  Roger  Bacon  about  -  -  1280 

Spectacles  (said  to  have  been)  invented 
by  Salvinus  Armatus,  of  Pisa,  before  1300 

Camera  obscura  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Baptista  Porta  -  -  1560 

Telescopes  invented  by  Leonard  Digges, 
about  -  -  -  •  -  1571 

Telescope  made  by  Jan?**  (who  is  said 
also  to  have  invenV-c  the  :-icro- 
scope).  about  ....  K09 

[The  same  instrument  construued  by 
Galileo,  without  using  the  produc- 
tion of  .[ansen] 

Astronomical  telescope  suggested  by 
Kepler  -  -  -  -  1611 

Microscope,  according  to  Huygens,  in. 
vented  by  Drebbel,  about  -  - 1621 


[Jansen  and  Galileo  have  also  been 

stated  to  be  the  inventors.] 
Cassegrainian  reflector  -  -  •  1621 

Law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snell- 

ius,  about    -  -  -          A.  D.  1624 

Reflecting  telescope,  James  Gregory   -  1663 

Newton    -  -  1666 

Motion  and  velocily  of  light  discovered 

by  Roemer,  and  after  m'm  by  Cassini  1667 
[Its  velocity  demonstrated  to  be   190 

millions  of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes.] 
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartho- 

linus 1669 

Newton's  discoveries     -  -  -  1674 

Telescopes    with    a    single    lens,    by 

Tschirnhausen,  about       -  -     -  1690 

Polarization  of  light,  Huygens,  about  -  1692 
Structure  of  the  eye  explained  by  Petit, 

about 1700 

Achromatic  telescope  constructed  by 

Mr.  Hall  (but  not  made  public)  in    -  '.733 
Constructed  by  Dollond.   most  likely 

without  any  knowledge  of  Hall's      •  i757 
Herschel's  great  reflecting  telescope. 

erected  at  Slough  -  -  -     -  1789 

Camera  lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston)  •  1807 

Ramage's  reflecting  telesccpe  erected 

at  Greenwich        -          •  -     - 1820 


OPTIC  NERVES.  The  discoverer  of  the  optic  nerves  is  reputed  to  have  been 
N.  Varole,  a  surgeon  *nd  physician  of  Bologna,  about  A.  n.  1538. — Nouv 
l>Lct. 


510  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ORD 

ORACLES.  The  most  ancient  oracle  was  that  of  Dodona ;  but  the  most  fa- 
mous was  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  1263  B.  c.  See  Delphi.  The  heathen  oracle? 
were  always  delivered  in  such  dubious  expressions  or  terms,  that  let  what 
would  happen  to  the  inquirer,  it  might  be  accommodated  or  explained  to 
mean  the  event  that  came  to  pass.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  several 
sorts  of  oracles ;  as  first,  those  that  were  delivered  viva  voce,  as  when  God 
spoke  to  Moses ;  secondly,  prophetical  dreams,  as  those  of  Joseph  ;  thirdly, 
visions,  as  when  a  prophet  in  an  ecstasy,  being  properly  neither  asleep  not 
awake,  had  supernatural  revelations ;  fourthly,  when  they  were  accompanied 
with  the  ephod  or  the  pectoral  worn  by  the  high  priest,  who  was  indued 
with  the  gift  of  foretelling  future  things,  upon  extraordinary  occasions ; 
fifthly,  by  consulting  the  prophets  or  messengers  sent  by  God.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  Christianity,  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  very  common ;  but 
it  immediately  afterwards  ceased. — Lempiiere ;  Pardon. 

ORANGE,  HOUSE  OF.  This  illustrious  house  is  as  ancient  as  any  in  Europe, 
and  makes  a  most  distinguished  figure  in  history.  Otho  I.,  count  of  Nas- 
sau, received  the  provinces  of  Guelderland  and  Zutphen  with  his  two  wives, 
and  they  continued  several  hundred  years  in  the  family.  Otho  II.  count  of 
Nassau  Dilembourg,  who  died  in  1369,  got  a  great  accession  of  territories 
in  the  Low  Countries  by  his  wife  Abelais.  daughter  and  heiress  of  Godfrey 
count  of  Vianden ;  and  his  grandson  Gilbert,  having  married  Jane,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Philip,  baron  of  Leek  and  Breda,  added  these  to  his  other 
domains  in  1404.  The  title  of  prince  of  Orange  came  first  into  the  Nassau 
family  by  the  marriage  of  Claude  de  Chalons  with  the  count  of  Nassau 
in  1530.  William  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III.  of  England, 
landed  at  Torbay,  with  an  army,  Nov.  5,  1688,  and  was  crowned  with  his 
queen,  the  princess  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.,  April  11,  1689. 

ORATORIOS.  Their  origin  is  ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri.  The  first  oratorio 
in  London  was  performed  in  Lincoln's-Inn  theatre,  in  Portugal-street,  in 
1732. 

ORCHARDS.  As  objects  of  farming  or  field  culture,  orchards  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  adopted  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
although  they  had  doubtlessly  existed  in  Great  Britain  for  many  ages  pre- 
viously, as  appendages  to  wealthy  religious  establishments. — London. 

ORDEAL.  The  ordeal  was  known  among  the  Greeks.  With  us  it  is  a  term 
signifying  the  judiciary  determination  of  accusations  for  criminal  offences 
by  fire  and  water.  It  was  introduced  into  England  with  other  superstitions 
taken  from  the  codes  of  the  Germans.  That  by  fire  was  confined  to  the 
upper  classes  of  the  people,  that  of  water,  to  bondsmen  and  rustics.  Hence 
the  expression  of  going  through  fire  and  water  to  serve  another.  Women 
accused  of  incontinency  formerly  underwent  the  ordeal,  to  prove  their  in- 
nocence. A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty,  might  choose  whether  he  would 
put  himself  for  trial  upon  God  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as  at  this 
day,  or  upon  God  only ;  and  then  it  was  called  the  judgment  of  God,  pre- 
suming lie  would  deliver  the  innocent.  The  accused  were  to  pass  bare- 
footed and  blindfold  over  nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  or  were  to  carry 
burning-irons  in  their  hands  ;  and  accordingly  as  they  escaped,  they  were 
judged  innocent  or  guilty,  acquitted  or  condemned.*  The  ordeal  was  used 
from  Edward  the  Confessor's  time  to  that  of  Henry  III.  It  was  abol- 


'  The  water  ordeal  was  performed  in  either  hot  or  cold :  in  cold  water,  the  parties  suspected 
were  adjudged  innocent,  if  their  bodies  were  borne  up  by  the  water,  contrary  to  the  course  (X 
i»ture ;  in  hot  water,  they  were  to  put  their  bare  arms  or  le^s  into  scalding  water,  which  if  t>»* 
brought  otil  without  hurt,  they  were  taken  to  be  innocent  of  the  crime. 


ORB.  J  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  511 

ished  by  a  royal  proclamation,  45  Henry  III..  1261. — Law  Diet.    Rymer't 
f'cedcra. 

ORDINATION.  In  the  ancient  church  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and 
absolute  ordination ;  but  every  one  ordained  had  a  church  whereof  he  waa 
to  be  clerk  or  priest.  In  the  twelfth  century,  they  grew  more  remiss,  and 
ordained  without  any  title  or  benefice.  The  church  of  Rome  is  episcopal ; 
and  the  Church  of  England  so  far  acknowledges  the  validity  of  the  ordina- 
tion of  that  church,  that  a  Catholic  priest  is  only  required  to  abjure  its  pe- 
culiar distinctions,  and  he  can  officiate  without  re-ordination. 

OREGON.  Territory  of  the  United  States,  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America. 
First  visited  by  the  Spaniards  under  Juan  de  Fuca.  1592 ;  by  sir  Francis 
Drake,  1578;  by  Vancouver.  1792.  The  Columbia  river  discovered  and  en- 
tered by  Capt.  Gray,  of  merchant  ship  Columbia  of  Boston,  United  States, 
May  7, 1792 ;  overland  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  sent  out  by  Jefferson, 
1804-5-6.  Missouri  Fur  Company  established  at  St.  Louis,  1808 ;  Pacific  Fur 
Company  (J.  J.  Astor)  at  New  York.  1810 ;  Astoria  founded  it  the  mouth  ol 
the  Columbia,  by  Astor's  colony,  1811 :  sold  to  the  N.  W.  Company,  1813: 
occupied  by  the  British  until  restored  by  treaty  of  Ghent,  1815 ;  operations  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  (English)  commenced  1821 ;  the  territory  divi- 
ded at  the  49th  parrallel  oflat.,  leaving  all  north  of  that  line,  with  the  whole 
of  Vancouver's  island  to  Great  Britain,  remainder  to  the  United  States,  by  Mr. 
McLane's  treaty,  signed  at  London,  ratified  by  the  Senate,  41  to  14,  June  18, 
1846.  Population  at  that  time  about  20.000.  Territorial  government  esta- 
blished by  the  U.  S.  Congress,  Aug.  2-13,  1848. 

ORGANS.  The  invention  of  the  organ  is  attributed  to  Archimedes,  about 
220  B.  c. ;  but  the  fact  does  not  rest  on  sufficient  authority.  It  is  also  at- 
tributed to  one  Ctesibius,  a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  100  B.  c.  The 
organ  was  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Greek  empire,  and  was  first  applied 
to  religious  devotions,  in  churches,  in  A.  D.  658. — BeUarmine.  Organs  were 
used  in  the  Western  churches  by  pope  Vitalianus,  in  658. — Ammonius.  It 
is  affirmed  that  the  organ  was  known  in  France  in  the  time  of  Louis  I.,  815, 
when  one  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  priest.  St.  Jerome  mentions  an 
organ  with  twelve  pairs  of  bellows,  which  might  have  been  heard  a  mile 
oft';  and  another  at  Jerusalem  which  might  have  been  heard  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  The  organ  at  Haerlem  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe;  it  has  60 
stops,  and  8000  pipes.  At  Seville  is  one  with  100  stops,  and  5300  pipes. 
The  organ  at  Amsterdam  has  a  set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human 
voices. 

ORGANS  IN  ENGLAND.  That  at  York-minster  is  the  largest ;  and  the  organ  in  the 
Music-hall,  Birmingham,  the  next;  both  equal,  perhaps,  to  that  atHarlaem. 

ORKNEY  AND  SHETLAND  ISLES.  These  islands  were  ceded  by  Denmark 
to  Scotland  in  A.  D.  839.  and  were  confirmed  to  James  III.,  for  a  sum  of 
money,  in  1468.  The  Orkneys  were  the  ancient  Orcades;  and  united  with 
Shetland,  they  now  form  one  of  the  Scotch  counties.  The  bishopric  of 
Orkney  was  founded  by  St.  Servanus  early  in  the  fifth  century,  some  affirm 
by  St.  Colm.  It  ended  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  about 
1689. 

ORLEANS,  SIEGE  OP,  by  the  English,  under  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Salisbury, 
Oct.  12,  1428.  The  city  was  bravely  defended  by  Gaucour,  the  more  so  as 
its  fall  would  have  ruined  the  cause  of  Charles  VI..  king  of  France ;  and  it 
was  relieved  and  the  siege  raised,  by  the  intrepidity  and  heroism  of  Joan 
of  Arc,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  April  29,  1429.  Siege 
of  Orleans,  when  the  duke  of  Guise  was  killed,  1563. 

ORRERY.    The  employment  of  planetary  machines  to  illustrate  and  expiate 


512  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ov> 

the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the 
construction  of  the  clepsydra?  and  other  horological  automata.  Ptolemj 
devised  the  circles  and  epicycles  that  distinguish  his  system  about  A.  D.  130. 
The  planetary  clock  of  Fine"e,  was  begun  A.  D.  1553.  The  planetarium  of 
Be  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650.  The  Orrery,  so  called,  was  invented  by 
Charles,  earl  of  Orrery ;  but  perhaps  with  more  justice  it  is  ascribed  to  Mr. 
Rowley  of  Lichh'eld,  whom  his  lordship  patronized,  1670.  This  Orrery  ha/ 
been  greatly  improved  of  late  years. 

OSTEND.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  long  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spa- 
niards, from  July  1601  to  September  1604.  when  it  surrendered  by  an  honor- 
able capitulation.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  the  French  seized 
Ostend ;  but,  in  1706,  after  the  battle  of  Ramilies.  it  was  retaken  by  the 
allies.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1745.  but  restored  in  1748.  In 
the  war  of  1756,  the  French  garrisoned  this  town  for  the  empress-queen 
Maria  Theresa.  In,  1792.  the  French  once  more  took  Ostend.  which  they 
evacuated  in  1793,  and  repossessed  in  1794. 

OSTRACISM.  From  the  Greek  word  Ostracon,  an  oyster ;  a  mode  of  proscrip- 
tion at  Athens,  where  a  plurality  of  ten  voices  condemned  to  ten  years' 
banishment  those  who  were  either  too  rich,  or  had  too  much  authority,  for 
fear  they  might  set  up  for  tyrants  over  their  native  country,  but  without 
any  confiscation  of  their  goods  or  estate.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  been 
first  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippias ;  by  others  it  is  ascribed  to  Clys- 
thenes,  about  510  B.  c.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of  those  whom  they 
most  suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they  put  into  an  urn  or  box,  and 
presented  it  to  the  senate.  Upon  a  scrutiny,  he  whose  name  was  oftenest 
written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  he  banished,  ab  arts  et  focis.  But 
this  law  at  last  was  abused,  and  they  who  deserved  best  of  the  common- 
wealth fell  under  the  popular  resentment,  as  Aristides  noted  for  his  justice, 
Miltiades  for  his  victories,  &c.  It  was  abolished  by  ironically  proscribing 
Hyperbolus.  a  mean  person. 

OTAHEITE,  OR  TAHITI.  Discovered  in  1767,  by  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the 
Third  Island.  Captain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768,  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus ;  sailed  round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  staid  three  months  :  it 
was  visited  twice  afterward  by  that  celebrated  navigator.  See  Cook.  Omai, 
a  native  of  this  island,  was  brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and 
carried  back  by  him,  in  his  last  voyage.  In  1799,  king  Pomare  ceded  the 
district  of  Mataivai  to  some  English  missionaries.  Queen  Pomare  com- 
pelled to  place  herself  under  the  protection  of  France,  Sept.  9,  1843.  She 
retracts,  and  Otaheite  and  the  neighboring  island  are  taken  possession  of  by 
admiral  Dupetit-Thouars  in  the  name  of  the  French  king,  NOT.  1843.  Sei- 
zure of  Mr.  Pritchard,  the  English  consul,  March  5,  1844. 

OTTERBURN.  BATTLE  OF,  fought  in  1388,  between  the  English  under  the  earl 
of  Northumberland  and  his  two  sons,  and  the  Scots  under  sir  William  Dou- 
glas, who  was  slain  by  Henry  Percy  surnamed  Hotspur ;  but  the  Scots  ob- 
tained the  victory,  and  the  two  Percies  were  made  prisoners.  On  this  battle 
the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  is  founded. —  Wahingham. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  founded  by  Othman  [. 
on  the  ruin  of  the  empire  of  the  eastern  Greeks,  A.  D.  1293.  See  Turkey. 

OVATION.  An  inferior  triumph  which  the  Romans  allowed  the  generals  of 
their  army  whose  victories  were  not  considerable.  He  who  was  thus  re- 
warded, entered  the  city  with  a  myrtle  crown  upon  his  head,  that  tree  being 
consecrated  to  Venus ;  wherefore  when  Marcus  Crassus  was  decreed  the 
honor  of  an  ovation,  he  particularly  desired  it  as  a  favor  of  the  senate  to  bo 
allowed  a  laurel  crown  instead  of  a  myrtle  one.  This  triumph  wag  called 
ovation,  because  the  general  offered  a  sheep  when  he  came  to  the  capital. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DAIES. 


513 


whereas  in   the    great  triumph  he  offered  a  bull.     Publius  Posthumiui 
Tubertus  w  as  the  first  who  was  decreed  an  ovation,  503  B.  c. 

OWHYHEE  OR  HAWAII,  ONE  OF  THE  SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  Discovered  bj 
captain  Cook  in  1778.  Here  this  illustrious  seaman  fell  a  victim  to  a  sudden 
resentment  of  the  natives.  A  boat  having  been  stolen  by  one  of  the  island- 
ers, the  captain  went  on  shore  to  seize  the  king,  and  keep  him  as  a  hostage 
till  the  boat  was  restored.  The  people,  however,  were  not  disposed  to  sub- 
mit to  this  insult ;  their  resistance  brought  on  hostilities,  and  captain  Cook 
and  some  of  his  companions  were  killed,  Feb.  14,  1779. 

0  XFORD  UNIVERSITY.  This  university  is  supposed  by  some  to  hav^  been 
a  seminary  for  learning  before  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  that  it  owed  its  re- 
vival and  consequence  to  his  liberal  patronage.  Others  state  that  though 
the  university  is  ascribed  to  Alfred,  yet  that  no  regular  institution  deserving 
the  name  existed  even  at  the  period  of  the  Norman  conquest. 

bishop  of  Winchester ;  first  called  St. 
Mary  of  Winchester         -  -     -  1375 

Oriel    College.      King    Edward    II.  ; 

Adam  de  Brom,  archdeacon  of  Stow  1334 
Pembroke.    Thos.   Teesdale.    and  R. 

Whitwick,  clerk          -  -  1620 

Queen's  College.  Robert  Eglesfield, 
clerk,  confessor  to  queen  Philippa, 
consort  of  Edward  111.  -  -  -  1340 

St.  John's.    Sir  Thomas  White  -  1557 

Trinity.    Sir  Thomas  Pope  -     -  155< 

University.    Said  to  have  been  founded 
by  king  Alfred,  872 ;  founded  by  Wil- 
liam of  Durham          -  -  -  117V 
Wadham.      Nicholas  Wadham,    and 

Dorothy  his  wife   -  -  -     -  16'2 

Worcester.  Sir  Thomas  Coke  of  Bent- 
ley  in  Worcestershire ;  it  was  orig- 
inally called  Gloucester  College  •  1714 

HALLS. 

St.  Albans  ....  1547 

St.  Edmund's  -  -  -     -  1269 

St.  Mary's  ....  1616 

St.  Mary  Magdalen   •  -  -     -  1602 

New  Inn  Hall      ....  1392 

important  agents  in  the  chemical 
of  art,  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley, 


COLLEGES. 

All  Souls'  College,  founded  by  Henry 
Chichely.  abp.  of  Canterbury  A.  D.  1437 

Baliol.  John  Baliol,  knt.,  and  Deborah 
his  wife ;  he  was  father  to  Baliol  king 
of  the  Scots  •  -  -  -1263 

Brazen-nose.  William  Smith,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  and  Sir  Richard  Sutton  -  1509 

Christ  Church.  Cardinal  Wolsey,  1525 ; 
and  afterwards  by  Henry  VIII.  -  - 1532 

Corpus  Christi.  Richard  Fox,  bishop 
of  Winchester  ....  1516 

Exeter.  Walter  Stapleton,  earl  of  Ex- 
eter -  1314 

Hertford  College ....  1312 

Jesus  College.  Dr.  Hugh  Price ;  queen 
Elizabeth  -  -  -  -  •  1571 

Lincoln  College.  Richard  Fleming, 
1427 ;  finished  by  Rotheram,  bishop 
of  Lincoln  ....  1475 

Magdalen.  Waynflete.  bishop  of  Win- 
chester -  -  -  -  1458 

Merton  College.  Walter  de  Merton, 
bishop  of  Rochester  -  -  -  1274 

New  College.    William  of  Wykeham, 

OXYGEN  AIR  OR  GAS.  One  of  the  most 
phenomena  of  nature,  and  the  processes 
Aug.  1774. 

P. 


PADLOCKS.  This  species  of  lock  was  invented  by  Bechar  at  Nuremberg  in 
A.  D.  1540. 

PAGANISM.  Pagans,  in  the  Scriptures  called  the  heathen,  idolaters  and  gen- 
tiles, are  worshippers  of  idols,  not  agreeing  in  any  set  form  or  points  of  be- 
lief, except  in  that  of  one  God  supreme,  in  which  point  all  travellers  assure 
us  they  concur,  and  their  having  gods  is  a  demonstrative  proof  of  that  be- 
lief. Constantine  ordered  the  Pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed  throughout 
the  Roman  empire,  A.  D.  331 ;  and  Paganism  was  finally  overthrown  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  about  390. —  Tillemont. 

PAINTING.  An  art,  according  to  Plato,  of  the  highest  antiquity  in  Egypt. 
Osymandyas  (See  Egypt}  causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  painting 
2100  B.  c. — Usher.  Pausias  of  Sicyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustic,  a 
method  of  burning  the  colors  into  wood  or  ivory.  335  B.  c.  The  ancients 
considered  Sicyon  the  nursery  of  painters.  Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  grotesque.  332  B.C. —  PUny.  The  art  wa» 
22* 


514  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

introduced  at  Rome  from  Etruria.  by  Quintus  Fabius,  *ho  on  that  account 
was  styled  Pictor,  291  B.  c. — Lity*  The  first  excellent  pictures  were 
brought  from  Corinth  by  Mummius,  146  B.  c.  After  the  death  of  Augustus, 
not  a  single  painter  of  eminence  appeared  for  several  ages ;  Ludius,  who 
was  very  celebrated,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  last,  about  A.  D.  14.  Paint. 
ing  on  canvas  seems  to  have  been  known  at  Rome  in  A.  D.  66.  Bode,  the 
Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735,  knew  something  of  the  art.  It  revived 
about  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  and  Giovanni  Cimabue,  of  Florence,  ia 
awarded  the  honor  of  its  restoration.  It  was  at  once  encouraged  and  gen- 
erously patronized  in  Italy.  John  Van  Eyck,  of  Bruges,  and  his  brother 
Hubert,  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting  in 
oil,  1416. — Du  Fresnoy.  Paulo  Uccello  was  the  first  who  studied  perspec- 
tive. The  earliest  mention  of  the  art  in  England,  is  A.  D.  1523,  about  which 
time  Henry  VIII  patronized  Holbein,  and  invited  Titian  to  his  court. 

PAINTING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  practising  artist  of  celebrity 
was  John  Watson  (born  in  Scotland.  1685),  who  commenced  painting  por- 
traits in  New  Jersey,  1715.  Nathaniel  Smybert,  of  Edinburgh,  began  in 
Boston,  1728.  Benjamin  West  was  the  first  native  American  artist ;  born  in 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  1708 :  painted  his  first  portrait  in  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  1753.  John  Singleton  Copley,  born  in  Boston,  1738 ;  first  painted  in 
1760:  he  was  the  father  of  lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Britain. 
Chas.  W.  Peale  (born  in  Maryland,  1741),  Gilbert  Charles  Stuart  (Rhode 
Island,  1754),  John  Trumbull  (Connecticut,  1756).  William  Dunlap  (New 
Jersey,  1766),  E.  G.  Malbone  (Rhode  Island,  1777),  were  the  next  artists 
in  succession  in  the  United  States.  See  Dunlap's  Arts  of  Design,  &c. 

PALATINE.  A  German  dignity.  William  the  Conqueror  made  his  nephew, 
Hugh  D'Abrincis,  count  palatine  of  Chester,  with  the  title  of  earl,  1070. 
Edward  III.  created  the  palatine  of  Lancaster,  1376.  See  Lancaster,  Duchy 
of.  The  bishoprics  of  Ely  and  Durham  were  also  made  county  palatines. 

PALATINES  AND  SUABIANS.  About  7000  of  these  poor  Protestants,  from 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  driven  from  their  habitations  by  the  French,  arrived 
in  England,  and  were  encamped  on  Blackheath  and  Camberwell  common ;  a 
brief  was  granted  to  collect  alms  for  them.  500  families  went  under  the 
protection  of  the  government  to  Ireland,  and  settled  chiefly  about  Limerick, 
where  parliament  granted  them  24  000£.  for  their  support.  3000  were  sent 
to  New  York  and  Hudson's  Bay,  but  not  having  been  received  kindly  by  the 
inhabitants,  they  went  to  Pennsylvania,  and  being  there  greatly  encouraged 
by  the  Quakers,  they  invited  over  some  thousands  of  German  and  Swiss 
Protestants,  who  soon  made  this  colony  more  flourishing  than  any  other,  7 
Anne.  1709. — Anderson. 

PALLADIUM.  The  statue  of  Pallas,  concerning  which  ancient  authors  disa- 
gree. Some  say  it  fell  from  heaven,  near  the  tent  of  Ilns,  as  he  was  build- 
ing Ilium  ;  but  on  its  preservation  depended  the  safety  of  Troy ;  which  the 
oracle  of  Apollo  declared  should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  palladium 
was  found  within  its  walls.  This  fatality  being  made  known  to  the  Greeks, 
they  contrived  to  steal  it  away  during  the  Trojan  war,  1184  B.  c.,  though 
some  maintain  that  it  was  only  a  statue  of  similar  size  and  shape,  and  that 
the  real  palladium  was  conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by  ^Eneas,  1183  B.C., 

*  Parrhasiuscf  Epheaus  and  Zeuxis  were  cotemporary  painters.  These  artists  once  contended 
for  pre-eminence  in  their  profession,  ami  when  they  exhibited  their  respective  pieces,  the  bird* 
came  to  peck  the  grapes  which  Zeuxis  had  painted.  Parrhasius  then  produced  his  piece,  and 
Zeuxis  said.  "Remove  the  curtain,  that  we  may  see  the  painting."  The  curtain  itself  was  ths 
painting,  ami  Zeuxis  acknowledged  himself  to  be  conquered,  exclaiming,  ll  Zeuxis  has  dec^ivei 
the  birds;  but  Parrhasius  lias  deceived  Zeuxis!"  Panhasius  dressed  in  a  purple  robe,  ruid  wore 
ft  crown  of  gold,  railing  himself  king  of  painters,  415  B.  c. — Plutarch. 


TAP]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  515 

and  preserved  by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest  secrecy  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  and  esteemed  the  destiny  of  Rome. 

PALM  SUNDAY.  When  Christ  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jurusalem, 
multitudes  of  the  people  who  were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took 
branches  of  the  palm-tree,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  with  acclamations 
and  hosannas,  A.  D.  33.  In  memory  of  this  circumstance  it  is  usual,  in  popish 
countries,  to  carry  palms  on  the  Sunday  before  Easter ;  hence  called  Palm 
Sunday.  Conquerors  were  not  only  accustomed  to  carry  palm-trees  in  their 
hands ;  but  the  Romans,  moreover,  in  their  triumphs,  sometimes  wore  toga 
palmata,  in  which  the  figures  of  the  palin-trees  were  interwoven. 

PALMYRA,  RUINS  OP,  in  the  deserts  of  Syria,  discovered  by  some  English 
travellers  from  Aleppo,  A.  D.  1678.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra,  which  are  chiefly 
of  wJ  ite  marble,  prove  it  to  have  been  more  extensive  and  splendid  than 
eveii  Rome  itself.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Tadmor  in  the  wilder- 
ness built  by  Solomon.  Zenobia,  the  queen  of  Palmyra,  resisted  the  Roman 
power  in  the  time  of  Aurelian,  who  having  made  himself  master  of  the 
place,  caused  all  the  inhabitants  to  be  destroyed,  and  gave  the  pillage  of  the 
city  to  the  soldiers.  The  stupenduous  ruins  of  this  city  were  visited,  in 
1751,  by  Mr.  Wood,  who  published  an  account  of  them  in  1753.  Mr.  Bruce, 
on  ascending  a  neighboring  mount,  was  struck  with  the  most  magnificent 
sight  which,  he  believes,  ever  mortal  saw :  the  immense  plains  below  were 
so  covered  with  the  grandest  buildings  (palaces  and  temples),  they  seemed 
to  touch  one  another. 

PALO-ALTO,  BATTLE  OF.     See  Battles. 

PANDECTS.  A  digest  of  the  civil  law  made  by  order  of  Justinian,  about  A.  D. 
604.  These  pandects  were  accidentally  discovered  at  Amalfi,  A.  D.  1137; 
they  were  removed  from  Pisa  in  1416 ;  and  are  now  preserved  in  the  library 
of  Medici  at  Florence,  as  the  Pandect<z  Florentince. 

PANORAMA,  This  ingenious  and  useful  species  of  exhibition  is  the  invention 
of  Robert  Barker.  Panoramas  are  bird's-eye  views  painted  in  distemper 
round  the  wall  of  a  circular  building,  with  a  striking  resemblance  to  reality. 
In  1788.  Mr.  Barker  exhibited  at  Edinburgh  a  view  of  that  city,  being  the 
first  picture  of  the  kind.  He  then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in  Lon- 
don, having  adopted  the  name  of  '  Panorama,'  to  attract  notice,  and  was 
ultimately  enabled  to  build  commodious  premises  in  Leicester-square  for 
that  purpose.  He  died  1806.  The  panorama  of  the  Mississippi,  by  Banvard, 
a  self-taught  American  artist,  was  a  gigantic  undertaking,  without  precedent 
in  dimensions,  completed  about  1846 ;  since  which  numerous  similar  works 
have  been  achieved. 

PANTHEON  AT  ROME.  A  temple  built  by  Augustus  Caesar,  some  say  by 
Agrippa,  his  son-in-law,  25  B.  c.  It  was  in  a  round  form,  having  niches  in 
the  wall,  w';iere  the  particular  image  or  representation  of  a  particular  god 
was  set  up ;  the  gates  were  of  brass,  and  beams  covered  with  gilt  brass,  and 
the  roof  covered  with  silver  plate.  Pope  Boniface  III.  dedicated  it  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  all  the  saints,  by  the  name  of  St.  Mary  de  la  Rotunda. 

PANTOMIMES.  They  were  representations  by  gestures  and  attitudes  among 
the  ancients.  They  were  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and 
Bathyllus,  22  B.  c. ;  and  were  then  considered  as  the  most  expressive  part  of 
stage  performances. —  Usher.  Pantomime  dances  were  introduced  about  the 
same  time. — Idem.  Representation  by  gesture  and  action  only,  is  contem- 
poraneous with  our  stage. 

PAPER.  See  Papyrus.  Paper  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  China.  17(J 
B.C.  It  was  first  made  of  cotton,  about  A. D.  1000;  and  of  rags  in  J319. 
White  coarse  paper  was  made  by  sir  John  Speilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford. 


516  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  1IA* 

in  England,  33  Eliz.,  1590;  and  here  the  first  paper-mills  were  elected, — 
Stowe.  Paper  for  writing  and  printing,  manufactured  in  England,  and  an 
act  passed  to  encourage  it,  2  William  III.,  1690 ;  before  this  time  we  paid 
for  these  articles  to  France  and  Holland  100.000Z.  annually.  The  French 
refugees  taught  our  people,  who  had  made  coarse  brown  paper  almost  ex- 
clusively, until  they  came  among  us.  White  paper  was  first  made  by  us  in 
1690. — Anderson.  Paper-making  by  a  machine  was  first  suggested  by  Louia 
Robert,  who  sold  his  model  to  the  celebrated  M.  Didot,  the  great  printer. 
The  latter  brought  it  to  England,  and  here,  conjointly  with  M.  Fourdrinier, 
he  perfected  the  machinery.  M.  Fourdrinier  obtained  a  patent  for  manufac- 
turing paper  of  an  indefinite  length,  in  1807  ;  it  had  previously  been  made 
tediously  by  the  hand.  A  sheet  of  paper  was  made  13.800  feet  long,  and 
four  feet  wide,  at  Whitehall-mills,  Derbyshire,  in  1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  Stamped  paper  for  this  purpose  was  first  made  in  Spain 
and  Holland,  about  A.  D.  1555.  Made  of  Velvet  and  floss  for  hanging  apart- 
ments,  about  1(520.  The  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved 
in  this  country  from  early  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  and  it  has  now  been 
brought  to  such  perfection  that  rich  stained  paper  is  made  at  twelve  sh!)- 
lings  for  one  yard,  and  the  common  kinds  a  dozen  yards  for  one  shilling. 

PAPYRUS,  the  reed  from  which  was  made  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt  and 
India,  used  for  writings  until  the  discovery  of  parchment  about  190  B.  c. 
Ptolemy  prohibited  the  exportation  of  it  from  Egypt,  lest  Eumenes  of  Per- 
gamus  should  make  a  library  equal  to  that  of  Alexandria.  A  manuscript 
of  the  Antiquities  of  Josephus  on  papyrus  of  inestimable  value  was  among 
the  treasures  seized  by  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  sent  to  the  National  Library 
at  Paris ;  but  it  was  restored  in  1815.  tf'5" 

PARCHMENT.  Invented  for  writing  books  by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attalus), 
of  Pergamus,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  library  at  Pergamus,  formed  on 
the  model  of  the  Alexandrian,  about  190  B.  c.  Parchment-books  from  this 
time  became  those  most  used,  and  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  oldest  in  the 
world  are  written  on  the  skins  of  goats.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the 
Persians,  and  others,  are  said  to  have  written  all  their  records  on  skins  long 
before  Eumenes's  time. 

PARDONS.  General  pardons  were  proclaimed  at  coronations ;  first  by  Edward 
III.,  in  1327.  The  king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a  lege 
sues  dignitatis ;  and  no  other  person  has  power  to  remit  treason  or  felonies, 
stat.  27  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  In  democracies  there  is  no  power  of  pardoning ; 
hence  Blackstone  mentions  this  prerogative  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages of  a  monarchy  above  any  other  form  of  government.  But  the  king 
cannot  pardon  a  nuisance  to  prevent  its  being  abated ;  or  pardon  where  pri- 
vate justice  is  concerned. — Blackstone.  A  pardon  cannot  follow  an  impeach- 
ment of  the  House  of  Commons. — Haydn.  In  the  United  States,  the  par- 
doning power  is  vested  in  the  governors  of  the  several  states — a  practice 
which  upsets  Blackstone's  t/teory. 

PARIAN  MARBLES.  The  chronology  of  the  Parian  Marbles  was  composed 
264  B.  c.  The  Parian  Marbles  were  discovered  in  the  Isle  of  Pares,  A.  D. 
1610.  They  were  brought  to  England,  and  were  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oxford,  by  Thomas  Howard,  lord  Arundel,  whence  they  are  called  the 
Arundelian  Marbles,  which  see. 

PARIS.  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  Paris  was  only  a  miserable  town- 
ship. It  began  to  be  called  the  city  of  the  Parisii,  A.  D.  380.  Clovis  fixed 
upon  it  as  the  capital  of  his  states  in  507.  This  city  was  several  times  ra- 
vaged by  the  Normans ;  and  in  1420  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  held  it 
fifteen  years.  More  than  50,000  persons  died  of  famine  and  plague  in  1438, 
when  the  hungry  wolves  entered  the  city  and  coimnittr.d,  we  are  told,  great 


PAR]  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  517 

devastation.    The  events  in  connection  with  this  great  city  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  heads. 

The  Luxembourg,  by  Mary  of  Medicis  - 1591 
Hospital  of  Invalids       ...  1595 


St.  Denia  founded        •           •        A.  r<  613 

Rebuilt         ....  1231 

Church  of  Notre  Dame  built    -  1270 

The  Louvre  built  (see  Louvre)     •  1522 

Hotel  de  Ville      -           -           -  1533 

The  Boulevards  commenced          •  1536 

Fountain  of  the  Innocents          -  1551 

The  Tuileries  built  (see  Tuileries)  1564 

The  Pont  Neuf  begun         -           •  1578 


The  H6tel  Dieu  founded     •  .      .  160o 

The  Palais- Royal  built  -  -           -  1610 

The  Val-de-Grace     -           .  .      .  1645 

Arch  of  St.  Denis  erected  •           -1673 

The  Palace  of  the  Deputies  •      -  1729 

The  Military  School       -  •           •  1751 
The  Pantheon ;  St.  Genevier*       •      •  1761 


Fortifications  of  Paris,  a  continuous  wall  embracing  both  banks  of  the  Seine, 
and  detached  forts,  with  an  enceinte  of  15^  leagues,  were  commenced  in  Dec. 
1840.  and  completed  March.  1846,  at  an  expense  exceeding  .£5,000,000  ster- 
ling. See  France. 

PARK,  MUNGO,  H.TS  TRAVELS.  This  enterprising  traveller  set  sail  on  his  first 
voyage  to  Africa,  under  the  patronage  of  the  African  Society,  to  trace  the 
source  of  the  river  Niger,  May  22,  1795;  and  returned  Dec.  22,  1797,  after 
having  encountered  great  dangers,  without  his  journey  through  intertrooi- 
cal  regions  having  enabled  him  to  achieve  the  great  object  of  his  ambition. 
He  again  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  his  second  voyage,  Jan.  30,  1804,  ap- 
pointed to  a  new  expedition  by  government ;  but  never  returned.  The  ac- 
counts of  his  murder  on  the  Niger  were  a  long  time  discredited ;  unhappily 
however,  they  were  at  length  too  well  authenticated  by  later  intelligence. 
It  appears  that  Park  and  his  party  were  attacked  by  the  natives  at  Boussa, 
and  all  killed,  with  the  exception  of  one  slave. 

PARKS.  The  Remans  attached  parks  to  their  villas.  Fulvius  Lupinus,  Pom- 
pey,  and  Hortensius,  among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the  first 
great  park  of  which  particular  mention  is  made,  was  that  of  Woodstock, 
formed  by  Henry  I.,  1125.  The  parks  of  London  are  in  a  high  degree  essen- 
tial to  the  health  of  its  immense  population,  St.  James's  Park  was  drained 
by  Henry  VIII..  1537.  It  was  improved,  planted,  and  made  a  thoroughfare 
for  public,  use  1668.  The  Green  Park  forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  Hyde  Park,  the  sheet  of  water  called  the  Serpentine  River 
although  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  was  made  between  1730  and  1733, 
by  order  of  queen  Caroline,  consort  of  George  II.  This  queen  once  inquired 
of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  the  earl  of  Chatham),  how  much  it  would 
cost  to  shut  up  the  parks  as  private  grounds.  He  replied,  "Three  crowns, 
your  majesty."  She  took  the  hint,  and  the  design  was  never  afterwards  enter- 
tained. 

PARLIAMENT,  IMPERIAL,  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  It  derives  its  origin 
from  the  Saxon  general  assemblies,  called  Wittenagemots ;  but  their  constitu- 
tion totally  differed,  as  well  as  the  title,  which  is  more  modern,  and  is  taken 
from  parler  la  ment,  which  in  the  Norman  law-style  signifies  to  speak  one's 
mind.  This  at  once  denotes  the  essence  of  British  parliaments.  The  name 
was  applied  to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  state  under  Louis  VII.  of  France, 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  it  is  said  not  to  have  appeared 
in  our  law  till  its  mention  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I.,  3  Edward  I.,  A.  o. 
1272;  and  yet  Coke  declared  in  his  Institutes,  and  spoke  to  the  same  effect, 
when  speaker  (A.  D.  1592).  that  this  name  was  used  even  in  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  1041.  The  first  summons  by  writ  on  record  was  di- 
rected to  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  7  John,  1205.  The  first  clear  account  wo 
have  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  a  house  of  commons,  was 
in  the  43rd  Henry  III.,  1258,  when  it  was  settled,  by  the  statutes  at  Oxford, 
that  twelve  persons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three 
parliaments,  which  by  the  sixth  statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly. — Burton's 
Annals.  The  general  representation  by  knights,  citizens,  and  burgesses,  took 


518  I'Ht,    WORLDS)    fKUURESS..  ^l-O 

place  49  Henry  111.,  1265. — Dngdale's  Summonses  to  Parliament,  edit.  1686. 
The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parliament  are  so  transcendent  and  absolute, 
that  it  cannot  be  confined,  either  for  causes  or  persons,  within  any  bounds. 
It  hath  sovereign  and  uncontrollable  authority  in  making  and  repealing 
laws.  It  can  regulate  or  new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown,  as  was  done 
in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  William  III.  It  can  alter  and  establish  the 
religion  of  the  country,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward 
VI..  Mary,  and  Elizabeth. — Sir  Edward  Coke. 

PARMA.  Formed  by  the  ancient  Etrurians.  It  was  made  a  duchy  (with  Pla- 
centia)  A.  D.  1545.  It  fell  to  Spain  by  Phillip  V.'s  marriage  with  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  1714.  The  duke  of  Parma  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Tuscany, 
with  the  title  of  king  of  Etruria,  in  Feb.  1801,  Parma  was  afterwards  uni- 
ted to  France  (with  Placentia  and  Guastalla) ,  and  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
was  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa,  the  ex-empress,  by  the  treaty  of  Fontaine- 
bleau,  April  5,  1814.  Battle  of  Parma :  the  confederates,  England,  France, 
and  Spain,  against  the  emperor;  indecisive,  both  armies  claiming  the  victory, 
June  29,  1734.  Great  battle  of  Parma,  in  which  the  French,  under  Macdon- 
ald,  were  defeated  by  Suvvarrow,  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men.  and  four 
generals,  July  12.  1799.  Maria  Louisa  died  Dec.  17,  1847,  and  the  duke  of 
Lucca  succeeds  by  previous  compact.  The  new  duke  refuses  petitions  for 
reforms;  Parma  occupied  by  Austrian  soldiers,  Dec.  21,  1847.  The  people 
revolt ;  barricades,  and  slaughter,  March  20.  The  duke  appoints  a  regency ; 
flees ;  is  brought  back ;  the  duchy  proclaimed  to  be  annexed  to  Piedmont, 
March  20,  1848.  The  duke  promises  to  join  the  league  against  Austria  and 
is  then  liberated,  April  1,  1848,  but  is  deposed,  April  9. 

PARRICIDE.  There  was  no  law  against  it  in  ancient  Rome,  such  a  crime  not 
being  supposed  possible.  About  500  years  after  Numa's  reign,  L.  Ostius 
having  killed  his  father,  the  Romans  first  scourged  the  parricide ;  then  sewed 
him  up  in  a  leathern  sack  made  air-tight,  with  a  live  dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and 
an  ape,  and  thus  cast  him  into  the  sea.  The  old  Egyptians  used  to  run  sharp 
reeds  into  every  part  of  the  bodies  of  parricides;  and  after  having  thus 
wounded  them,  threw  them  upon  a  heap  of  thorns,  and  set  fire  to  them.  In 
France,  before  the  execution  of  the  criminal,  the  hand  was  cut  off. 

PARTHIA.  The  Parthians  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being 
exiled,  as  their  name  implies,  from  their  own  country,  settled  near  Hyrcania. 
Arsases  laid  the  foundation  of  an  empire  which  ultimately  extended  over 
all  Asia,  250  B.  c. ;  and  at  one  time  the  Parthians  disputed  the  empire  of  the 
world  with  the  Romans,  and  could  never  be  wholly  subdued  by  that  nation, 
who  had  seen  no  other  people  upon  earth  unconquered  by  their  arms.  The 
last  king  was  Artabanus  V.,  who  being  killed  A.  D.  229,  his  territories  were 
annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia,  under  Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  between  England  and  Holland, 
for  regulating  the  Spanish  succession,  was  signed  Oct.  11,  1698 ;  and  the 
second  (between  France,  England,  and  Holland,  declaring  the  archduke 
Charles  presumptive  heir  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  Joseph  Ferdinand  hav- 
ing died  in  1699),  March  13.  1700.  Treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland :  the 
first  was  a  secret  convention  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  Feb,  17, 1772 ;  the 
second,  between  the  same  powers  and  Austria,  Aug.  5.  same  year;  the  third 
was  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Nov.  25,  1795.  There  were  other 
similar  treaties  relating  to  Poland,  but  not  under  this  name. 

PASQUINADES.  This  name,  which  is  given  to  humorous  libels,  originated  in 
this  way : — At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Rome,  a  number  of 
idle  persons  used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  the  pleasant  sallies  of  Pasquin,  and 
to  relate  little  anecdotes  in  their  turn,  and  indulge  then*  selves  in  raillery  at 
the  expense  of  *he  ptssers-bf.  After  the  cobbler's  death  in  the  sixteenth 


_  o±  DATES.  519 

century,  the  statue  of  a  gladiator  was  found  near  his  stall,  to  which  the  peo- 
ple gave  his  name,  and  on  which  the  wits  of  the  time  affixed  their  lampoons 
upon  the  state,  and  their  satirical  effusions  on  their  neighbors,  secretly  at 
night.  Small  poems,  and  writings  of  a  similar  kind,  from  this  obtained  the 
name  of  Pasquinades,  about  A.  D.  1533. 

PASSOVER.  A  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  1491  B.  c.,  in  commem- 
oration of  their  coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because  the  night  before  their  de- 
parture, the  destroying  angel,  who  put  to  death  the  first-born  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, passed  over  the  houses  of  the  Hebrews  without  entering  them :  they 
being  marked  with  the  blood  of  the  lamb  that  was  killed  the  evening  before, 
and  which  for  this  reason  is  called  the  Paschal  Lamb.  It  was  celebrated  in 
the  new  Temple,  April  18,  515  B.  c. —  Usher. 

PATAY,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  the  renowned  and  ill-fated  Joan  of  Arc  (the 
Maid  of  Orleans)  signally  defeated  the  English,  June  10,  1429.  Talbot  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  the  valiant  Fastolfe  was  forced  to  fly.  In  consequence 
of  this  victory,  Charles  of  France  entered  Rheims  in  triumph,  and  was 
crowned  July  17,  same  year,  Joan  of  Arc  assisting  in  the  ceremony  in  full 
armor,  and  holding  the  sword  of  state.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 

PATENTS.  Licenses  and  authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patents  granted 
for  titles  of  nobility,  were  first  made  A.  D.  1344,  by  Edward  III.  They  were 
first  granted  for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591,  about 
which  time  the  property  and  right  of  inventors  in  arts  and  manufactures 
were  secured  by  letters  patent. 

PATRIARCHS.  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of  dioceses.  The  dignity 
among  the  Jews  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Nerva,  A.  D.  97.  In  the  Christian 
church  it  was  first  conferred  on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  The  Latin  church  had  no  pa- 
triarchs till  the  7th  century. 

PAUL'S,  ST.,  CATHEDRAL,  LONDON.  The  noblest  Protestant  church  in  the 
world.  The  best  authority  that  exists  illustrative  of  the  origin  of  this  church 
is  its  great  restorer,  sir  Christopher  Wren.  His  opinion,  that  there  had  been 
a  church  on  this  spot,  built  by  the  Christians  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
was  confirmed  when  he  searched  for  the  foundations  for  his  own  design.  He 
explodes  the  notion  of  there  having  been  a  temple  of  Diana.  The  first  church 
is  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  during  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  and 
to  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Constantine.  This  was  demolished  by 
the  pagan  Saxons,  and  restored  by  Sebert  in  603.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
great  conflagration  in  1086,  after  which  Mauritius,  then  bishop  of  London, 
commenced  the  magnificent  edifice  which  immediately  preceded  the  present 
cathedral.  St.  Paul's  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  memorable  fire  of  1666 ; 
and  the  first  stone  of  the  present  edifice  was  laid  June  21,  1675,  and  the 
whole  was  completed  in  1710-11,  under  the  illustrious  architect  sir  Christo- 
pher Wren. 


Length  of  St.  Paul's,  within       -     500  feet. 
Its  greatest  breadth          -  -     223 

Height  from  the  ground       •      •     340 


Length  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome       •    669  feet. 
Its  greatest  breadth  within     -      -    442 
Height  from  the  ground    •  •    432 


PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  paved 
their  towns  with  stones.  The  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus  had  pave- 
ment in  many  of  their  streets ;  but  the  Appian  Way  was  a  paved  road,  and 
was  constructed  312  B.  c.  In  England  there  were  few  paved  streets  before 
Henry  VII.'s  reign.  London  was  first  paved  about  the  year  1533.  V»Tcod 
pavement  commenced  in  1839;  but  was  generally  disused  in  1847. 

PAVIA.  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  and  Imperialists,  when  the  former 
were  defeated,  and  their  king,  Francis  I.,  after  fighting  with  ht  roic  valor, 


520  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  PEI 

and  killing  seven  men  with  his  own  hand,  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender 
himself  prisoner.  Francis  wrote  to  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  regent  of 
the  kingdom  in  his  absence,  the  melancholy  news  of  his  captivity,  conceived 
in  these  dignified  and  expressive  terms: — Tout  est  perdu,  madame,  fors 
I'honneur ;  Feb.  24,  1525.  Collision  between  the  students  and  the  Austrian 
soldiers,  10  killed  and  40  wounded,  Jan.  8,  1848. 

PAWNBROKERS.  The  origin  of  borrowing  money  by  means  of  pledges  de- 
posited with  lenders  is  referred,  as  a  regular  trade,  to  Perousa,  in  Italy,  about 
A.  D.  1458  ;  and  soon  afterwards  in  England.  The  business  of  pawnbrokera 
was  regulated  30  George  II.,  1756.  Licenses  were  issued  24  George  III., 
1783.  In  London  there  are  334  pawnbrokers ;  and  in  England,  exclusively 
of  London,  1127. 

PEARLS.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  embarrassed  both  ancient  and  mo- 
dern naturalists  to  explain,  and  has  given  occasion  to  a  number  of  vain  and 
absurd  hypotheses.  M.  Reaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that  pearls  are  formed 
like  other  stones  in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at 
80.0002.  sterling.  One  which  was  brought,  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.  of  the  size 
of  a  pigeon's  egg,  was  valued  at  14,400  ducats,  equal  to  13,9962.  A  pearl 
spoken  of  by  Boetius,  named  the  Incomparable,  weighed  thirty  carats,  equal 
to  five  pennyweights,  and  was  about  the  size  of  a  muscadine  pear.  The 
pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier  as  being  in  possession  of  the  emperor  of 
Persia  was  purchased  of  an  Arab  in  1633,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal  to 
110,4002. 

PEERS.  The  first  of  the  present  order  created  in  England  was  William  Fitz 
Osborn,  as  earl  of  Hereford,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1066.  The  first 
peer  who  was  created  by  patent  was  lord  Beauchamp  of  Holt  Castle,  by 
Richard  II..  in  1387.  In  Scotland,  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus  by 
Malcolm  III.,  1037.  In  Ireland,  sir  John  de  Courcy  was  created  baron  of 
Kinsale,  &c.,  in  1181 ;  the  first  peer  after  the  obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by 
Henry  II.  The  house  of  lords  consisted  of,  viz  : — 

At  the  death  of  George  III.  .    339  peers. 
At  the  death  of  George  IV.    -       396 

At  the  death  of  William  IV.  .    456 
In  10th  Victoria,  1&47     -       -       454 


At  the  death  of  Charless  II.        •    176  peers. 

At  the  death  of  William  HI.  -        192 
At  the  death  of  Anne       -         -    209 

At  the  death  of  George  I.  -       216 


At  the  death  of  George  IL         •    229 

PELAGIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain.  The  sect 
maintained,  1.  That  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  he  had 
sinned  or  not,  would  certainly  have  died.  2.  That  the  consequences  of 
Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his  own  person.  3.  That  new-born  infants  are 
in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the  fall.  4.  That  the  law  qualified 
men  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal  promises  with 
the  gospel.  5.  That  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead  does  not  follow  in 
virtue  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection,  &c.  This  sect  appeared  A.  D.  400  at 
Rome,  and  in  Carthage  about  412. 

PELEW  ISLANDS.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  wreck  here  of  the  East  India  Company's  packet  Antelope,  captain  Wii- 
son,  1783.  The  king.  Abba  Thule,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince 
Lee  Boo,  his  son,  to  England,  where  he  arrived  in  1784.  and  died  soon  after 
of  the  small-pox ;  and  the  East  India  Company  erected  a  monument  ovei 
his  grave  in  the  Rotherhithe  churchyard. 

PELOPONNESIAN  WAR.  The  celebrated  war  which  continued  for  twenty- 
seven  years  between  the  Athenians  and  the  inhabitants  of  Peloponnesus, 
with  their  respective  allies.  It  is  the  most  famous  and  the  most  interesting 
of  all  the  wars  which  happened  between  the  inhabitants  of  Greece.  II 
B.  c..  and  ended  404  B.  c. 


PER  J  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES.  521 

PENAL  LAWS,  AFFECTING  ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  laws  enacted  against 
Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain  were  very  severe ;  and  even  up  to  the 
period  of  passing  the  Emancipation  Bill  many  of  them  remained  unre- 
pealed.  All  the  laws  there  against  Roman  Catholics  were  repealed  by  the 
Relief  Bill,  passed  April  13,  1829. 

PENANCE.  Called  by  the  Jews  Thejouvtha.  Penance,  they  said,  consisted 
in  the  love  of  God  attended  with  good  works.  They  made  a  confession 
upon  the  day  of  expiation,  or  some  time  before  ;  and  had  stated  degrees  of 
penance  in  proportion  to  the  crimes  committed.  Penance  was  introduced 
into  the  Romish  church  A.  D.  157.  In  our  canon  law,  penance  is  chiefly  ad- 
judged to  the  sin  of  fornication. 

PENDULUMS  FOR  CLOCKS.     Affirmed  to  have  been  adapted  by  Galileo  the 
younger,  about  A.  D.  1641.     Christian  Huygens  contested  the  priority  of  thin 
discovery :  the  latter  brought  clocks  with  pendulums  to  perfection,  1656.- 
Dufresnoy. 

PENITENTS.  There  are  various  orders  of  penitents,  Magdalens,  Magdalen- 
ettes,  &c.  The  order  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  was  founded  at  Mar- 
seilles, about  A.  D.  1272.  The  Penitents  of  the  Name  of  Jesus  was  a  con- 
gregation of  religious  in  Spain  who  had  led  a  licentious  life,  formed  about 
1550.  The  Penitents  of  Orvieto  were  formed  into  an  order  of  nuns  about 
1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  United  States.  Granted  by  James  II.  to  William 
Penn.  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  1681.  (Previously  settled  by  Swedes 
and  Fins,  and  conquered  by  the  Dutch  in  1654.)  A  tract  of  20,000  acren 
sold  by  Penn  for  £400  to  a  colony  which  formed  a  settlement  at  Philadelphia. 
The  colony  governed  by  proprietors  until  the  revolution  of  1776,  when  the 
legislature  purchased  it,  paying  the  proprietors  .£130,000  in  lieu  of  quit- 
rents.  Battles  of  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and  other  important  ac- 
tions in  this  State  in  the  war  of  independence.  See  Philadelphia.  Federal 
Constitution  adopted  in  convention,  Dec.  13,  1787,  by  46  to  23.  Continental 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  in  1774.  United  States  Congress,  1790  to  1800, 
when  it  was  removed  to  Washington.  Population  of  State  in  1732,  30,000; 
1790,  434,373;  in  1800,  602,545;  in  1820,  1,049,13;  in  1840,  1,724,033. 

PENNY-POST.  First  set  up  in  London  and  its  suburbs  by  a  Mr.  Murray,  up- 
holsterer. A.  D.  1681.  Mr.  Murray  afterwards  assigned  his  interest  in  the 
undertaking  to  Mr.  Dockwra,  a  merchant,  1683 ;  but  on  a  trial  at  the  King's 
Bench  bar  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  was  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  duke 
of  York  as  a  branch  of  the  general  post,  and  was  thereupon  annexed  to 
the  revenue  of  the  crown. — Delaune,  1690.  This  institution  was  considera- 
bly improved  in  and  round  London,  July  1794.  et  seq.,  and  was  made  a  two- 
penny-post. A  penny  post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin  in  1774.  See  Post- 
office. 

PENTECOST.  It  literally  signifies  the  ordinal  number  called  the  fiftieth ;  and 
in  the  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  so  called  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty 
days  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  Lev.  xxiii.  15,  It  is  called  the  feast 
of  weeks,  Exod.  xxxiv.  22.  because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the 
Pasoover. 

PERFUMERY.  Many  of  the  wares  coming  under  this  name  were  known  to 
the  ancients,  and  the  Scriptures  abound  with  instances  of  the  use  of  incenses 
and  perfumes.  No  such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in  1763. 
— Creech,.  A  stamp  tax  was  laid  on  various  articles  of  perfumery  in  Eng- 
gland  and  the  vendor  was  obliged  to  take  out  a  license,  in  1786.  At  the  cor- 
ner of  Beaufort  Buildings,  in  the  Strand,  resided  Lilly  the  perfumer,  men- 
tioned in  the  Spectator. — Leigh. 


522  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  PES 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE.     See  Reviews  and  Magazines. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY.  The  philosophy  taught  by  Aristotle  about 
342  B.  c.  Like  Plato,  who  taught  in  a  shady  grove  called  Academia,  Aris- 
totle chose  a  spot  of  a  similar  character  at  Athens,  adjacent  to  the  same 
river,  where  there  were  trees  and  shades :  this  spot  was  denominated  the 
Lyceum ;  and  as  he  usually  walked  while  he  instructed  his  pupils,  his  philo- 
sophy was  called  Peripatetic. 

PERJURY.  In  some  countries  this  crime  was  punished  with  death.  The  early 
Romans  at  first  punished  it  by  throwing  the  offender  headlong  from  the 
Tarpeian  precipice ;  but  that  penalty  was  afterwards  altered,  upon  a  suppo- 
sition that  the  gods  would  vindicate  their  own  honor  by  some  remarkable 
judgment  upon  the  offender.  The  Greeks  set  a  mark  of  infamy  upon 
them.  After  the  empire  became  Christian,  and  if  any  one  swore  falsely 
upon  the  gospels,  he  was  to  have  his  tongue  cut  out.  The  canons  of  the 
primitive  church  enjoined  eleven  years'  penance;  and  in  some  states  the 
false-swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment  he  charged  upon  the  innocent. 
In  England,  perjury  was  punished  with  the  pillory.  1563. 

PERONNE,  TREATY  OF.  Louis  XI.  of  France  having  placed  himself  in  the 
power  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  forced  to  sign  a  treaty  at  Peronne.  con- 
firming those  of  Arras  and  Conflans,  with  some  other  stipulations  of  a  re- 
strictive and  humiliating  character,  A.  D.  1468. 

PERSECUTIONS,  GENERAL,  OP  THE  CHRISTIANS.  Historians  usually  reckon 
ten.  The  first  under  Nero,  who  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw  the  odium 
of  the  act  upon  the  Christians.  Multitudes  of  them  were,  in  consequence, 
massacred.  Some  were  wrapped  up  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn 
and  devoured  by  dogs ;  others  were  crucified,  and  numbers  burned  alive, 
A.  D.  64.  The  2nd,  under  Domitian,  A.  D.  95.  The  3rd,  in  the  reign  of  Tra- 
jan, A.  D.  100.  The  4th,  under  Adrian,  118.  The  5th,  under  the  emperor 
Severus,  197.  The  6th,  under  Maximinus,  235.  The  7th,  under  Decius, 
more  bloody  than  any  preceding.  They  were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  plundered  and  put  to  death  by  torments,  the  rack,  and  fire.  The 
8th,  under  Valerian,  257.  The  9th,  under  Aurelian,  272.  The  10th,  under 
Dioclesian.  In  this  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  houses  filled  with 
Christians  were  set  on  fire,  and  droves  of  them  were  bound  together  with 
ropes  and  cast  into  the  sea.  See  Massacres. 

PERSECUTIONS  OF  THE  JEWS.    See  articles  Jews  and  Massacres. 

PERSECUTION  OF  THE  PROTESTANTS.  In  Franconia,  where  a  multitudo 
of  Luther's  followers  were  massacred  by  William  de  Furstemberg,  1525.— 
Du  Fresiwy.  In  England  when  Cranmer.  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  La- 
timer  and  Ridley,  prelates,  and  300  Protestants,  were  burned  alive,  and  great 
numbers  perished  in  prison,  3  Mary,  1556. —  Warner's  Eccles.  Hist.  Of  the 
Protestants  in  France,  when  numbers  perished  ;  their  assemblies  were  pro- 
hibited, their  places  of  worship  pulled  down,  and  sentence  to  the  galleys 
proclaimed  against  all  who  harbored  them,  1723.  Executions  of  the  Pro- 
testants at  Thorn,  when  great  numbers  were  put  to  death  under  pretence  of 
their  having  been  concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  procession,  1724. 
See  Massacres  and  Bartholomew. 

PERSIAN  EMPIRE.  The  country  which  gave  name  to  this  celebrated  empire 
was  originally  called  Elam,  and  received  the  appellation  of  Persia  from  ter- 
seus.  the  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  who  settled  here,  and  perhaps 
established  a  petty  sovereignty.  But  long  before  his  time,  it  was  subject 
to  independent  princes.  Persia  was  at  length  included  in  the  first  Assyrian 
monarchy ;  and  when  that  empire  was  dismembered  by  Arbaces,  &c.,  it 
appertained  to  the  kingdom  of  Media.  Persia  was  partly  conquered  from 
the  Greeks,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Parthians  for  nearly  500  years,  when 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


523 


Artaxerxes,  a  common  soldier,  became 
monarchy,  A.  D.  229. 

Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  founder  of 
the  Magi. — fustin  •  B.  c.  2115 

Zoroaster  II.,  Persian  philosopher,  ge- 
nerally confounded  with  the  king  of 
Bactria.— Zanthua  •  ...  t  - 1082 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia     -  -  •    560 

Lydia  conquered  by  the  Persians  -  548 
Cyrus  becomes  master  of  all  Asia  •  536 
Oambyses  conquers  Egypt  (which  see)  525 
Darius  made  king  of  Persia  -  -  522 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians  .  .      .    512 

Conquest  of  Ionia ;  Miletus  destroyed  -   498 
Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  GOO  sail,  with 
an  army  of  300,000  soldiers,  to  invade 
the  Peloponnesus        ...    490 
The  troops  advance  towards  Athens,  but 
are  met  in  the  plains  of  Marathon,  by 
Miltiades,  at  the  head  of  10,000  Athe- 
nians.— See  Marathon  -  -   490 
Xerxes  enters  Greece  in  the  spring  of 
this  year,  at  ihe  head  of  an  immense 
force.    The  battle  of  Thermopylae    -   480 
Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost 
200,000  of  his  troops,  and  is  defeated 
in  a  naval  engagement  off  Salamis  •    480 
Cymon,  son  of  Miltiades,  with  a  fleet  of 
250  vessels,  takes  several  cities  from 
the  Persians,  and  destroys  their  navy, 
consisting  of  340  sail,  near  the  island 
of  Cyprus        .... 
Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Mith- 


470 

465 


ridates,  the  eunuch  -  B.  c. 

The  assassin  is  put  to  death  in  a  horrible 

manner     •  465 

leign  of  Artaxerxes  -  -      -    464 

Oyprus  taken  from  the  Persians  -  449 

Memorable  retreat  of  the  Greeks.    See 

article  Retreat      -  •  -      -    401 


the  founder  of  the  second  Persian 


The  sea-fight  near  C'nidus         -  -   394 

The  Sidonlans  being  besieged  by  the 
Persians,  set  fire  to  their  city,  and  perish 
in  the  flames  -  -    351 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia ;  first 
battle  in  Phrygia,  near  the  river  Gra- 
nicus  •  -  -  -  334 

[For  the  exploits  of  Alexander  *n  Per- 
sia, see  the  article  Moccdon.] 
Murder  of  Darius  by  Bessus,  who  is 

torn  in  pieces        -  -  -          331 

Alexander  founds  the  third  or  Grecian 

monarchy         ....    331 
Alexander,  in  a  moment  of  intoxication, 
at  the  instance  of  his  mistress  Thais, 
sets  fire  to  the  palace  of  Pereepolis  -    330 
[The  riches  of  this  town,  whose  ruins, 
even  as  they  exist  at  this  day,  are  of 
indescribable  magnificence,  were  so 
immense  that  20,000  mules  and  5000 
horses  were  laden  with  the  spoils.] 
Persia  was  partly  reconquered  from  the 
Greeks,  and   remained  tributary  to 
Parthia  for  near  five  hundred  years, 
till  about  -  -  -    A  D.    250 

Artaxerxes  I.  of  this  new  empire,  a 
common  soldier,  restores  to  Persia  its 
ancient  title      ....    229 
Reign  of  Sapor,  conqueror  and  tyrant  •   238 
He  is  assassinated  -  -  -    273 

Hormisdas  reigns     -  -  -      -   273 

Reign  of  Sapor  II.  (of  70  years),  a  cruel 

arid  successful  tyrant  -  -  -    310 

Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens   651 
It  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Tamer- 
lane, by  the  defeat  of  Bajazet  -  1402 
Reign  of  Thamas  Kouli  Khan        -      -1732 
He  carried  the  Persian  arms  into  India, 
which  he  ravaged.    See  India         -  1738 


In  1747,  Ahmed  Abdalla  founded  the  kingdom  of  Candahar.  In  1779,  com- 
petitors for  the  throne  of  Persia  sprung  up  and  caused  a  period  of  slaughtei 
and  desolation  till  1794,  when  Mahomed  Khan  became  sole  monarch. 

PERU.  First  visited  in  A.  D.  1513,  and  soon  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Spa- 
niard i,  whose  avarice  led  to  the  most  frightful  crimes.  The  easy  conquest 
of  th..3  country  has  not  its  parallel  in  history.  Pizarro,  in  1530,  and  others, 
with  i  ne  vessel,  112  men,  and  four  horses,  set  out  to  invade  South  America, 
which  however,  not  succeeding,  he  again  in  1631,  embarked  with  three 
small  vessels,  140  infantry,  and  thirty-six  horses ;  with  these,  and  two  re- 
inforcements of  thirty  men  each,  he  conquered  the  empire  of  Peru,  and  laid 
the  fouidation  of  that  vast  power  which  the  Spaniards  enjoy  in  the  New 
World.  Pizarro's  expedition,  1524.  Peru  remained  in  subjection  to  the 
Spaniards  (who  murdered  the  Incas  and  all  their  descendants)  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  throw  off  the  oppressive  yoke  till  1782 ;  but  the  in- 
dependence of  the  country  was  completely  achieved  in  1826.  The  now 
Peruvian  constitution  was  signed  by  the  president  of  the  Republic,  March 
21,  1828. 

PETER-PENCE.  Presented  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at 
Rome,  for  the  endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  A.  D.  725.  So  called, 
because  agreed  to  be  paid  on  the  feast  of  St.  Peter.  The  tax  was  levied  on 
all  families  possessed  of  thirty  pence  yearly  rent  in  land,  out  of  which  they 
paid  one  penny.  It  was  confirmed  by  Offa,  777,  and  was  afterwards  claimed 


524  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  TWA 

by  the  popes,  as  a  tribute  from  England,  and  regularly  collected,  till  sup- 
pressed by  Henry  VIII. — Camden. 

PETER,  THE  WILD  BOY.  A  savage  creature  found  in  the  forest  of  Herts- 
wold,  electorate  of  Hanover,  when  George  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting. 
He  was  found  walking  on  his  hands  and  feet,  climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel, 
and  feeding  on  grass  and  moss,  November  1725.  At  this  time  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  thirteen  years  old.  The  king  caused  him  to  taste  of  all  the 
dishes  at  the  royal  table  ;  but  he  preferred  wild  plants,  leaves,  and  the  bark 
of  trees,  which  he  had  lived  on  from  his  infancy.  No  human  efforts  of  the 
many  philosophic  persons  about  the  court  could  entirely  vary  his  savage 
habits,  or  cause  him  to  utter  one  distinct  syllable.  He  died  in  Feb.  1786, 
at  the  age  of  72.  Lord  Monboddo  presented  him  as  an  instance  of  the  hy- 
pothesis that  "  man  in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  mere  animal." 

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ST.,  AT  ROME.  Originally  erected  by  Constantino.  About 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  Nicholas  VI.  commenced  the  present  mag- 
nificent pile,  which  was  not  completed  under  numerous  succeeding  popes, 
until  A.  D.  1629.  The  front  is  400  feet  broad,  rising  to  a  height  of  180  feet, 
and  the  majestic  dome  ascends  from  the  centre  of  the  church  to  a  height  of 
324  feet :  the  length  of  the  interior  is  600  feet,  forming  the  most  spacious 
hall  ever  constructed  by  human  hands.  See  Paul's,  St. 

PETERSBURGH.  The  new  capital  of  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  first  began 
this  city,  in  1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some  wretched 
wooden  hovels.  In  1710,  the  count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house  of  brick ; 
and  the  next  year,  the  emperor,  with  his  own  hand,  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
house  of  the  same  materials.  From  these  small  beginnings  rose  the  imperial 
city  of  Petersburgh ;  and  in  less  than  nine  years  after  the  wooden  hovels 
were  erected,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  from  Moscow  to  this  place. 
Here,  in  1736,  a  fire  consumed  2000  houses ;  and  in  1780,  another  fire  con- 
sumed 11.000  houses ;  this  last  fire  was  occasioned  by  lightning.  Again,  in 
June  1796.  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and  100  vessels  were  destroyed. 
The  winter  palace  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29,  1837.  See  Russia. 

PETERSBURGH,  PEACE  OF,  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  the  former  restoring 
all  her  conquests  to  the  latter,  signed  May  5. 1762.  TREATY  OF  PETERSBURGH, 
for  the  partition  of  Poland,  (see  article  Partition  Treaties,)  Aug.  5,  1772 
TREATY  OF  PKTERSBURGH,  for  a  coalition  against  France,  Sept.  8,  1805. 
Treaty  of  alliance,  signed  at  St.  Petersburgh,  between  Bernadotte,  prince 
royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  emperor  Alexander ;  the  former  agreeing  to  join 
in  the  campaign  against  France,  in  return  for  which  Sweden  was  to  receive 
Norway,  March  24  1812. 

PETRARCH  AND  LAURA.  Two  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  celebrated  for  the  exquisite  and  refined  passion  of  the  for- 
mer for  the  latter,  and  the  great  genius  and  virtue  of  both.  The  chief  subject 
of  Petrarch's  enchanting  sonnets  was  the  beautiful  Laura.  He  was  crowned 
with  laurel,  as  a  poet  and  writer,  on  Easter-day,  April  8,  1341 ;  and  died  at 
Arqua,  near  Padua,  July  18,  1374.  Laura  died  April  6,  1348. 

PHALANX  A  troop  of  men  closely  embodied  — Milton.  The  Greek  phalanx 
consisted  of  rtOOO  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields  joined,  and  spears 
crossing  each  other.  The  battalion  formed  by  Philip  of  Macedon  was  called 
the  Macedonian  phalanx,  and  was  instituted  by  him  360  B.  c. 

PHARISEES.  They  were  a  famous  sect  among  the  Jews ;  so  called  from  a  He- 
brew word  which  signifies  to  separate  or  set  apart,  because  they  pretended 
to  a  greater  degree  of  holiness  and  piety  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews.  The 
admirable  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  Publican  is  levelled  against  spiri 
tual  pride,  and  to  recommend  the  virtue  of  humility. — Luke  xviii.  9. 


PHI  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  525 

PHAROS  AT  ALEXANDRIA,  called  the  Pharos  of  Ptoiemy  Philadelphus,  and 
esteemed  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  a  tower  built  of  white 
marble,  and  could  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100  miles.  On  the  top,  fires 
were  constantly  kept,  to  direct  sailors  in  the  bay.  The  building  of  this 
.ower  ( ost  800  talents,  which  are  equivalent  to  above  165,100Z.  English,  il 
Attic ;  or  if  Alexandrian,  double  that  sum.  There  was  this  inscription  upon 
it — "King  Ptolemy  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors;"  but 
Sostratus  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim  all  the  glory,  engraved  his  own 
name  upon  the  stones,  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollow  with  mortar,  and  wrote 
the  above  inscription.  When  the  mortar  had  decayed  by  time,  Ptolemy's 
name  disappeared,  and  the  following  inscription  then  became  visible; — 
"  Sostratus  the  Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for 
<he  benefit  of  sailors."  About  280  B.  c. 

FHARSALIA.  BATTLE  OF,  between  Julius  Cassar  and  Pompey,  in  which  the  for- 
mer obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory,  glorious  to  Caesar  in  all  its 
consequences.  Caesar  lost  about  200  men,  or,  according  to  others  1200. 
Pompey's  loss  was  15.000,  or  25.000  according  to  others,  and  24,000  of  his 
army  were  made  prisoners  of  war  by  the  conqueror,  May  12.  48  B.  c.  After 
this  defeat,  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  treacherously  slain,  by  or- 
der of  Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his  body  thrown  naked  on 
the  strand,  exposed  to  the  view  of  all  those  whose  curiosity  led  them  that 
way,  till  it  was  burnt  by  his  faithful  freedman  Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA,  CITY  OF.  First  surveyed  and  regulated  by  the  English  colo- 
ny under  Penn's  grant,  in  1682.  [The  Swedes  had  settled  on  Delaware  bay 
in  1627.]  Named  after  a  city  in  Asia-Minor  and  first  laid  out  with  a  view 
to  rival  ancient  Babylon  in  extent ;  but  the  plan  was  restricted  to  its  pre- 
sent limits  by  the  charter  of  1701.  First  or  ';  Continental"  Congress  at 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  5. 1774.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  adopted,  July 
4,  1776,  in  the  State  House,  still  standing  in  Chesnut-street.  The  city  taken 
by  the  British,  Sept.  26,  1777 ;  evacuated  by  them,  June  18,  1778.  Conven- 
tion met  here,  May  17,  1787,  and  on  17th  of  Sept.  following,  agreed  on  a 
constitution  for  the  United  States.  Yellow  fever  raged,  1793  and  1798. 
Congress  removed  to  Philadelphia.  1800.  United  States  Bank  established 
here.  1816.  United  States  Mint,  in  1792.  Girard  College  opened,  1846. 
Population  in  1732,  12000;  in  1790,  42,000;  in  1810,  96664;  in  1830, 
167,811 ;  in  1840,  220,423. 

PHILIPPI,  BATTLE  OF,  between  Octavius  Caesar  and  Marc  Antony  on  one  side, 
and  the  republican  forces  under  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  which  the  former 
obtained  the  victory.  Two  battles  were  fought:  in  the  first,  Brutus,  who 
commanded  the  right  wing,  defeated  the  enemy ;  but  Cassius,  who  had  care 
of  the  left,  was  overpowered,  and  he  ordered  his  freedman  to  run  him 
through  the  body.  In  the  second  battle,  the  wing  which  Brutus  command- 
ed obtained  a  victory ;  but  the  other  was  defeated,  and  he  found  himself 
surrounded  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He  however  made  his  escape,  and 
soon  after  fell  on  his  sword.  Both  battles  were  fought  in  October,  42  B.C. 
— Bossuet. 

PHILIPPICS.  This  species  of  satire  derives  its  name  from  the  orations  of  De- 
mosthenes against  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  and  from  Cicero's  Orations  (the 
second  of  which  WHS  called  divine  by  Juvenal)  against  Marc  Antony,  which 
latter  cost  Cicero  his  life,  43  B.  c. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  A.  D.  1519.  In  this  archi- 
pelago the  illustrious  circumnavigator  Magellan,  like  the  still  more  illustri- 
ous Cook  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish,  in  1521. 

PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  the  reason  of  things,  in  opposition  to  his- ' 
tory,  which  is  only  the  Knowledge  of  facts  ;  or  t«  mathematics,  which  isth«  / 


526  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [PHI 

knowledge  of  the  quantity  of  things ; — the  hypothesis  or  system  upon  which 
natural  effects  are  explained. — Locke.  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the  name  of 
philosopher  (such  men  having  previously  been  called  sages),  about  528  B.  c. 
See  Moral  Philosophy.  Philosophers  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and  their 
schools  suppressed,  by  Domitian,  A.  D.  83. —  Univ.  Hist.  Philosophy  has 
undergone  four  great  changes: — 1.  A  total  subserviency  to  priestcraft  and 
superstition,  by  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians.  2.  A  commixture  of  reason 
and  poetry,  by  the  Greeks.  3.  A  mechanical  system,  introduced  by  Coper- 
nicus and  Galileo;  and,  4.  A  system  of  poetical,  verbal,  and  imaginary  causa- 
tion, taught  oy  Newton,  Lavoisier,  &c.  The  world,  at  present,  are  divided 
between  the  two  last. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.  By  this  name  is  usually  meant  a  powder,  which 
some  wise  heads  among  the  chemists  imagined  had  the  virtue  of  turning  all 
imperfect  metals  into  silver  and  gold — all  metals  but  these  being  so  consid- 
ered. Kircher  observes,  with  truth,  that  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  per- 
petual motion,  the  inextinguishable  lamp,  and  the  philosopher's  stone,  have 
cracked  the  brains  of  philosophers  and  mathematicians  for  a  long  time, 
without  any  useful  result.  For  a  remarkable  case  of  folly  and  imposition  in 
relation  to  this  subject,  see  Alchemy. 

PHOSPHORUS.  It  was  discovered  in  the  year  1667,  by  Brant,  who  procured 
it  from  urine ;  and  Scheele  soon  after  found  a  method  of  preparing  it  from 
bones.  The  discovery  was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunckell,  a  Saxon  chemist, 
1670,  and  by  the  hon.  Mr.  Boyle,  about  the  same  time. — Nouv.  Diet.  Phos- 
phoric acid  is  first  mentioned  in  1743.  but  is  said  to  have  been  known  ear- 
lier ;  the  distinction  was  first  pointed  out  by  Lavoisier,  in  1777.  Canton's 
phosphorus  is  so  called  from  its  discoverer,  1768.  Protophosphurated  hy- 
drogen was  discovered  by  sir  Humphrey  Davy  in  1812. 

PHRENOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  mind,  and  of  animal  propensities,  a  mod- 
ern doctrine,  started  by  Dr.  Gall,  in  1803.  See  Craniology.  Dr.  Spur/.heim 
improved  the  science  in  1815,  and  it  has  now  many  professors ;  and  a  Phre- 
nological Society  has  been  established  in  London. 

PHYSIC.  Reason  and  chance  led  early  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  of  cer- 
tain herbs.  The  sea-horse  drawing  blood  from  his  body  by  means  of  a  reed 
to  relieve  himself  from  plethora,  taught  men  the  art  of  artificial  blood-let- 
ting.— Pliny.  In  fabulous  history  it  is  mentioned  that  Polydius  having  seen 
a  serpent  approach  the  wounded  body  of  another  with  an  herb,  with  which 
he  covered  it,  restored  the  inanimate  body  of  Glaucus  in  the  same  manner. 
— Hyginus.  Egypt  appears  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  healing  art ;  "  and 
the  priests,"  says  Cabanus,  "  soon  seized  upon  the  province  of  medicine, 
and  combined  it  with  their  other  instruments  of  power."  From  the  hands 
of  the  priests,  medicine  fell  into  those  of  the  philosophers,  who  freed  it 
from  its  superstitious  character.  Pythagoras  endeavored  to  explain  the 
formation  of  diseases,  the  order  of  their  symptoms,  and  the  action  of  medi- 
cine, about  529  B.  c.  Hippocrates,  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  medicine 
and  the  founder  of  the  science,  flourished  about  422  B.  c.  Galen,  born  A.  D. 
131,  was  the  oracle  of  medical  science  for  nearly  1500  years.  The  discovery 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  by  Dr.  Harvey,  furnished  an  entirely  new 
system  of  physiological  and  pathological  speculation,  1628. 

PHYSICS.  Well  described  as  a  science  of  unbounded  extent,  and  as  reaching 
from  an  atom  to  God  himself.  It  is  made  to  embrace  the  entire  doctrine  of 
the  bodies  and  existences  of  the  universe  ;  their  phenomena,  causes,  and 
effects.  Mr.  Locke  would  include  God,  angels,  and  spirits,  under  this  term. 
The  origin  of  physics  is  referred  to  the  Brachmans,  magi  anu  Hebrew  and 
Egyptian  priests.  From  these  it  was  derived  to  the  Greek  sages,  particu- 
larly Thales,  who  first  professed  the  study  of  nature  in  Greece,  about  695 


PIO  '  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  527 

B.  c.      Hence,  it  descended  to  the  Pythagoric,  Platonic,  and  Peripatetic 
schools ;  and  from  these  to  Italy  and  the  rest  of  Europe. 

PHYSIOLOGY.  In  connection  with  natural  philosophy,  and  that  part  of  phy- 
sics which  teaches  the  constitution  of  the  body,  so  far  as  it  is  in  its  healthy 
or  natural  state,  and  to  that  purpose  endeavors  to  account  for  the  reason  oi 
the  several  functions  and  operations  of  the  several  members.  Sometimes  it 
is  limited  to  that  part  of  medicine  which  particularly  considers  the  struc- 
ture and  constitution  of  human  bodies,  with  regard  to  the  cure  of  diseases. 
Its  date  is  referred  to  the  same  time  with  physics,  which  see. 

PHYSIOGNOMY.  This  is  a  science  by  which  the  dispositions  of  mankind  are 
discovered,  chiefly  from  the  features  of  the  face.  The  origin  of  the  term  ia 
referred  to  Aristotle ;  Cicero  was  attached  to  the  science.  It  became  a 
fashionable  study  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  in  the 
last  century,  the  essays  of  Le  Cat  and  Pernethy  led  to  the  modern  system. 
Lavater's  researches  in  this  pursuit  arose  from  his  having  been  struck 
with  the  singular  countenance  of  a  soldier  who  passed  under  a  window  at 
which  he  and  Zimmerman  were  standing ;  published  1776. 

PIANO-FORTE  Invented  by  J.  C.  Schroder,  of  Dresden,  in  1717  ;  he  present- 
ed a  model  of  his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony ;  and  some  time  after, 
G.  Silverman.  a  musical-instrument  maker,  began  to  manufacture  piano-fortes 
with  considerable  success.  The  invention  has  also  been  ascribed  to  an  in- 
strument-maker of  Florence.  The  square  piano-forte  was  first  made  by 
Freiderica,  an  organ-builder  of  Saxony,  about  1758.  Piano-fortes  were 
made  in  London  by  M.  Zumpie,  a  German,  1766 ;  and  have  been  since 
greatly  improved  by  others  here. 

PICHEGRU'S,  MOREAITS,  AND  GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable 
conspiracy  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte  detected,  and  Georges  and  Moreau 
arrested  at  Paris,  February  23,  1804.  Pichegru,  when  captured,  was  con- 
fined in  the  Temple,  where  he  was  found  strangled  on  the  morning  of  the 
6th  April  following.  For  the  particulars  relating  to  this  conspiracy,  see  ar- 
ticle Georges,  &c. 

PICQUET,  THE  GAME  OF,  the  first  known  game  upon  the  cards,  invented  by 
Joquemin,  and  afterwards  other  games,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI. 
of  France,  who  was  at  the  time  in  feeble  health,  1390. — Mezerai.  See  ar- 
ticle Cards. 

PICTS.  A  Scythian  or  German  colony,  who  landed  in  Scotland  much  about 
the  time  that  the  Scots  began  to  seize  upon  the  Ebudae,  or  Western  Isles. 
They  afterwards  lived  as  two  distinct  nations,  the  Scots  in  the  highlands 
and  the  isles,  and  the  Picts  in  that  now  called  the  lowlands.  About  A.  D 
838  to  843,  the  Scots  under  Kenneth  II.  totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized 
all  their  kingdom,  and  extended  the  limits  as  far  as  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTURES.  Bularchus  was  the  first  who  introduced,  at  least  among  the 
Greeks,  the  use  of  many  colors  in  one  picture.  One  of  his  pictures  was 
purchase  1  by  the  king  of  Lydia  for  its  weight  in  gold  ;  he  flourished  740  B.  c. 
See  Painting. 

PIGEON,  THE  CARRIER.  The  courier  pigeons  are  of  very  ancient  use.  Tho 
ancients  being  destitute  of  the  convenience  of  posts,  were  accustomed  when 
they  took  a  long  journey,  and  were  desirous  of  sending  back  any  news  with 
uncommon  expedition,  to  take  some  pigeons  with  them.  When  they  thought 
proper  to  write  to  their  friends,  they  let  one  of  these  birds  loose,  with  let- 
ters fastened  to  its  neck :  the  bird,  once  released,  would  never  cease  its 
flight  till  it  arrived  at  its  nest  and  young  ones.  Taurosthenes  announced  to 
his  father  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  by  sending  to  him  at  ^Egina  a 


528  THE  WOKLD'S  PROGRESS.  [pit 

pigeon  stained  with  purple. — Ovid.  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corresponded  by 
means  of  pigeons  at  the  siege  of  Modena.  In  modern  times,  the  most  noted 
were  the  pigeons  of  Aleppo,  which  served  as  couriers  at  Alexandretta  and 
Bagdad.  Thirty- two  pigeons  sent  from  Antwerp  were  liberated  from  Lon- 
don at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  and  on  the  same  day  at  noon,  one  of  them 
arrived  at  Antwerp ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  a  second  arrived;  the 
remainder  on  the  following  day,  Nov.  23,  1819. — Phillips. 

PILGRIMAGES.  They  began  to  be. made  about  the  middle  ages  of  the  church, 
but  they  were  most  in  vogue  after  the  close  of  the  llth  century.'  Many 
licenses  were  granted  to  captains  of  English  ships  to  carry  pilgrims  abroad, 
7  Henry  VI.,  1428. 

PILLORY.  A  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,  in  order  to  render  them  infa- 
mous, and  make  them  a  public  spectacle,  for  every  one  to  see  and  know, 
that  they  might  avoid  and  refuse  to  have  any  commerce  or  dealings  with 
them  for  the  future.  This  punishment  was  awarded  against  persons  con- 
yicted  of  forgery,  perjury,  libelling,  &c.  In  some  cases  the  head  was  put 
through  a  hole,  the  hands  through  two  others,  the  nose  slit,  the  face  branded 
with  one  or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  cut  off.  It  was  in  use  in  En- 
gland in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  1256.  Many  persons  died  in  the  pillory, 
by  being  struck  with  stones  by  the  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs  and 
putrid  offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a  punishment  in  all  cases  except  perjury, 
in  1815-16.  The  pillory  was  totally  abolished  by  act  1  Victoria,  June 
1837. 

PINS.  As  an  article  of  foreign  commerce,  pins  are  first  mentioned  in  the  sta- 
tutes A.  D.  1483.  Those  made  of  brass  wire  were  brought  from  France 
in  1540,  and  were  first  used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard, 
queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Before  the  invention  of  pins,  both  sexes  used  ri- 
bands, loop-holes,  laces  with  points  and  tags,  clasps,  hooks  and  eyes,  and 
skewers  of  brass,  silver,  and  gold.  They  were  made  in  England  in  1543. — 
Stowe. 

PISA,  LKANINO  TOWER  OF.  This  celebrated  tower,  likewise  called  Campanile, 
on  account  of  its  having  been  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells, 
stands  in  a  square  close  to  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  It  is  built  entirely  of 
white  marble,  and  is  a  beautiful  cylinder  of  eight  stories,  each  adorned  with 
a.  round  of  columns,  rising  one  above  another.  It  inclines  so  far  on  one  side 
from  the  perpendicular,  that  in  dropping  a  plummet  from  the  top,  which  is 
188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet  from  the  base.  Much  pains  have 
been  taken  by  connoisseurs  to  prove  that  this  was  done  purposely  by  the 
architect ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  inclination  has  proceeded  from  another 
cause,  namely,  from  an  accidental  subsidence  of  the  foundation  on  that 
side. 

PISTOLS.  These  are  the  smallest  sort  of  fire-arms,  carried  sometimes  on  the 
saddle-bow,  sometimes  in  a  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket 
&c. — Pardon.  The  pistol  was  first  used  by  the  cavalry  of  England,  in 
1544. 

1'ITCAIRN'S  ISLAND.  A  small  solitary  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by 
Cook  in  1773,  and  noted  for  being  colonized  by  ten  mutineers  from  the 
ship  Bounty,  captain  Bligh,  in  1789,  from  which  time,  till  1814,  they  (or 
rather  their  descendants)  remained  here  unknown.  See  Mutiny  of  the 
Bounty. 

PITT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  The.  first  administration  of  this  illustrious  states- 
man was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of  the  Coalition  ministry  (which  see),  Dec. 
27,  1783.  His  second  administration  was  formed  May  12,  1804.  The  right 
honorable  William  Pitt  was  son  of  the  great  earl  of  Chatham.  He  died 


] 


DICTIONAHY    OF    DATES. 


529 


Jan.  23,  1806.  Mr.  Pitt  was  a  minister  of  commanding  powers,  and  still 
loftier  pretensions .  and  he  departed  life  in  possession  of  the  esteem  of  a 
large  portion  of  his  countrymen.  A  public  funeral  was  decreed  to  his  ho- 
nor by  parliament,  and  a  grant  of  .£40,000  to  pay  his  debts. 

PIUS.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  emperor  Antoninus  Titus,  thence  called 
Antoninus  Pius,  on  account  of  his  piety  and  virtue.  A.  D.  138.  This  name 
was  also  given  to  a  son  of  Metellus.  because  he  interested  himself  so  warm- 
ly to  hav«  his  father  recalled  from  banishment.  The  name  of  Pius  has  also 
been  taken  by  nine  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  the  first  of  whom  assumed  it  in 
A.  D.  142. 

PRAGUE.  ''The  offspring  of  inclement  skies,  and  of  legions  of  putrifying^ 
locusts." — Thomson.  The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  occurred  767  B.  c.  Petavius.  At  Carthage  the  plague  was  so  terrible 
that  the  people  sacrificed  their  children  to  appease  the  gods,  534  B.  c. — JJa- 
ronius.  At  Rome  prevailed  a  desolating  plague,  carrying  off  a  hundred 
thousand  persons  in  and  round  the  city,  461  B.  c.  At  Athens,  whence  it 
spread  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful  devastation,  430  B.  c. 
Another  which  raged  in  the  Greek  islands,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  destroyed 
2000  persons  every  day,  188  B.  c.  Pliny. 


At  Rome,  a  most  awiul  plague ;  10,000  per- 
sons perish  daily,  A.  D.  78. 

The  same  fatal  disease  again  ravaged  the 
Roman  empire,  A.  D.  167. 

In  Britain,  a  plague  raged  so  formidably, 
and  swept  away"  such  multitudes,  that  the 
living  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  bury  the 
dead^  A.D.  430. 

A  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  558,  ex- 
tended all  over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  is 
said  did  not  cease  for  many  years.  Univ. 
Hist. 

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  in- 
habitants perished,  A.  D.  746. 

[This  plague  raged  for  three  years,  and  was 
equally  fatal  in  Calabria,  Sicily,  and 
Greece.] 

At  Chichester  in  England,  an  epidemical 
disease  carried  off  34,000  persons,  772. — 
Will.  Malms. 

In  Scotland,  40,000  persons  perished  of  a 
pestilence,  A.  D.  954. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality,  A.  D.  1094 ; 
and  in  Ireland,  1095. 

Again  in  London  :  it  extended  to  cattle, 
fowls,  and  other  domestic  animals,  1111. 
— Holings. 

In  Ireland :  after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry 
II.  was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  1172. 

Again  in  Ireland,  when  a  prodigious  number 
perished,  1204. 

A  general  plague  raged  throughout  Europe, 
causing  a  most  extensive  mortality.  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland  suffered  grievously.  In 
London  alone,  200  persons  were  buried 
daily  in  the  Charterhouse  yard. 

In  Paris  and  London  a  dreadful  mortality 
prevailed  in  1362  and  1367;  and  in  Ire- 
land, in  1370. 

A  great  pestilence  in  Ireland,  called  the 
fourth,  destroyed  a  great  number  of  the 
'people,  1383. 

80,000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  pesti- 
lence in  London,  1407. 

Again  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  fam- 
ine ;  great  numbers  died,  1466 ;  aijd  Dub- 
lin was  wasted  by  a  plague,  1470. 

23 


An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471  ;  ano 
throughout  England  a  plague  which  de- 
stroyed more  people  than  the  continnai 
wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding  years,  147S. 
— Rapin ;  Salmon. 

The  awful  Sudor  Anglicuz,  or  sweating 
sickness,  very  fatal  at  London,  1485. — 
Deluunn. 

The  plague  at  London  so  dreadful  that  Hen- 
ry VII.  and  his  court  removed  to  Calais, 
1500.— Stowe. 

Again,  the  sweating  sickness  (mortal  in 
three  hours).  In  most  of  the  capital 
towns  in  England  half  the  inhabitants 
died,  and  Oxford  was  depopulated,  9  II. 
VIIL,  1517.— StuwK. 

Limerick  was  visited  by  a  plague,  when 
many  ihousands  perished,  1522. 

A  pestilence  throughout  Ireland,  1525 ;  and 
the  English  Sweat,  15-8 ;  and  a  pestilence 
in  Dublin,  1575. 

30,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in 
London  alone,  1603-1604.  It  was  also 
fatal  in  Ireland. 

200,000  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Constan- 
tinople, in  1611. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality  prevailed.  a»d 
35,417  persons  perished,  1025. 

In  France,  a  general  mortality ;  at  Lyons 
60,000  persons  died,  1632. 

The  plague,  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Na- 
ples (being  introduced  by  a  transport  with 
soldiers  on  board),  raged  with  such  vio- 
lence as  to  carry  off  400.000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants in  six  months,  1656. 

Memorable  plague  which  carried  off  68,598 
persons  in  London,  1065. 

[Fires  were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  j  urify 
the  air  for  three  days;  and  it  is  thought 
the  infection  was  not  totally  destioyed  till 
the  great  conflagration  of  1666.] 

60,000  persons  persons  perished  of  the 
plague  at  Marseilles  and  neighborhood 
brousht  in  a  ship  from  the  Levant,  17^0. 
One  of  the  most  awful  plagues  that  evei 
raged,  prevailed  in  Syria,  1760. — Abb. 
Monti 


530  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  PL.* 

PLAGUE,  continued. 


In  Persia,  a  fatal  pestilence,  which  earned 

off  80,000  of  the  inhabitants  ol  Bassorah, 

1773. 
In  Egypt,  more  than  800,000  persons  died 

of  plague,  1792. 
In  Barbary,  3000  died  daily;   and  at  Fez 

217,000  perished,  1799. 


bers  were  carried  off  by  a  pestilent  di» 
ease  in  1804  and  1805. 

Again,  at  Gibraltar,  an  epidemic  fever,  much 
resembling  the  plague,  caused  grtat  mor- 
tality. \S28. 

The  Asiatic  cholera  (see  Cholera)  1832, 
1834,  1849. 


In  Spain,  and  at  Gibraltar,  immense  num- 

PLAGUES  OF  EGYPT.  The  refusal  of  the  king  to  hearken  to  Moses,  although 
he  had  performed  many  miracles  to  prove  his  divine  mission,  brings  a  d'splay 

•  of  wrath  upon  the  land,  in  ten  awful  instances,  which  are  denominated  the 
plagues  of  Egypt.  1492  B.  c,  In  this  year  the  king,  named  by  some  Amen- 
ophis,  by  others  Cherres.  is,  with  his  whole  army,  overwhelmed  in  the  Red 
Sea. —  Usher.  Biair,  Lenglet. 

PLANTAGENET,  HOUSE  or.  A  race  of  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Homy 
II.  to  Richard  III.,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (which  see),  1485.  Anti- 
quaries are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  origin  of  this  appellation ;  and  the 
best  derivation  they  can  find  for  it  is,  that  Fulk,  the  first  earl  of  Anjou,  of 
that  name,  being  stung  with  remorse  for  some  wicked  action,  went  on  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem,  as  a  work  of  atonement;  where  being  scourged  with 
broom  twigs,  growing  on  the  spot,  he  took  the  surname  of  Plantagenet,  or 
Broom-stalk,  which  was  retained  by  his  posterity. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  for  moulds,  figures,  statuary,  &c.  The  method  of  tak- 
ing likenesses  by  its  use  was  first  discovered  by  Andrea  Verrochio,  about 
A.  D.  1466.  This  gypsum  was  first  found  at  Montmartre,  a  village  near  Paris, 
whence  it  obtained  its  name. 

PLAT^EA,  BATTLE  OF.  between  Mardonius  the  commander  of  Xerxes  king  of 
Persia  and  Pausanias  the  Lacedaemonian,  and  the  Athenians.  The  Persian 
army  consisted  of  300  000  men,  3000  of  which  scarce  escaped  with  their 
lives  by  flight.  The  Grecian  army,  which  was  greatly  inferior,  lost  but  few 
men ;  and  among  these,  ninety-one  Spartans,  fifty-two  Athenians,  and  sixteen 
Tegeans,  were  the  only  soldiers  found  in  the  number  of  the  slain.  The 
plunder  which  the  Greeks  obtained  in  the  Persian  camp  w  as  immense.  Pau- 
sanias received  a  tenth  of  all  the  spoils,  on  account  of  his  uncommon  valor 
during  the  engagement,  and  the  rest  were  rewarded  each  according  to  their 
respective  merit.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  22d  September,  the  same 
day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale,  479  B.  c. ;  and  by  it  Greece  was  totally  deliver- 
ed for  ever  from  the  continual  alarms  to  which  she  was  exposed  on  account 
of  the  Persian  invasions  and  from  that  time  none  of  the  princes  of  Persia 
dared  to  appear  with  a  hostile  force  beyond  the  Hellespont. 

PLATE.  The  earliest  use  of  plate  as  an  article  of  luxury  cannot  be  precisely 
traced.  In  England,  plate,  with  the  exception  of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in 
public  houses  by  statute  8  William  III.,  1696.  The  celebrated  Plate  Act 
passed  in  May  1756.  This  act  was  repealed  in  1780.  The  act  laying  a  duty 
upon  plate  passed  in  1784. 

PLATINA.  This  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,  and  harder  than  silver  and 
gold.  The  name  which  is  given  to  it  originated  with  the  Spaniards  from 
the  word  Plata,  signifying  silver,  it  would  seem  on  account  of  its  silvery 
color.  It  was  unknown  in  Europe  until  A.  D.  1748.  when  Don  Antonio 
Ulloa  announced  its  existence  in  the  narrative  of  his  voyage  to  Peru.— 
Greig. 

PLATTSBURGH.  JN  LAKE  CHAMPLAIN,  NKW  YORK,  BATTLE  OF;  14.000  British 
troops  under  sir  George  Prevost  repulsed,  Sept.  11,  1814.  The  British  fleet 
on  the  lake  captured  l>\  Macdonough,  at  same  time. 


POE  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  531 

PLAYS.  Tragedy,  comedy,  satire,  and  pantomime  were  performed  in  Greec* 
and  Rome.  Plays  became  a  general  and  favorite  pastime  about  165  B.  c. ; 
but  they  were  performed  on  occasions  of  festivity  some  ages  before.  The 
Trojan  plays  consisted  of  horse-races  and  exercises  of  the  youth,  under  a 
proper  head  or  captain,  wherein  the  utmost  dexterity  was  practised.  The 
plays  of  Ceres  were  instituted  to  please  the  ladies,  who  from  the  12th  to  the 
20th  of  April  were  clad  in  white,  and,  in  imitation  of  that  goddess,  went 
with  a  torch  in  their  hands  as  if  in  search  of  her  daughter  Proserpine.  The 
plays  of  Flora  were  so  offensive,  that  they  were  forced  to  be  put  down. 
The  funeral  plays  were  plays  in  honor  of  the  dead,  and  to  satisfy  their 
ghosts.  There  were  numerous  institutions  under  the  name  of  plays.  Plays 
were  first  acted  in  England  at  Clerkenwell,  A.  D.  1397.  The  first  company 
of  players  that  received  the  sanction  of  a  patent  was  that  of  James  Burbage, 
and  others,  the  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  from  queen  Elizabeth,  in 
1574.  In  England  plays  were  subjected  to  a  censorship  in  1737.  See 
Drama. 

PLEADINGS.  In  the  early  courts  of  judicature  in  England,  pleadings  were 
made  in  the  Saxon  language  in  A.  D.  786.  They  were  made  in  Norman- 
French  from  the  period  of  the  Conquest  in  1066 ;  and  they  so  continued  un- 
til the  36th  of  Edward  III.  1362.  Cromwell  ordered  all  law  proceedings  to 
DC  taken  in  English  in  1650.  The  Latin  was  used  in  conveyancing  in  the 
courts  of  law  till  1731. 

POET  LAUREAT.  Seldcn  could  not  trace  the  precise  origin  of  this  office. 
The  first  record  we  have  of  poet-laureat  in  England  is  in  the  35th  Henry  III. 
1251.  The  laureat  was  then  styled  the  king's  versifier,  and  a  hundred  shil- 
lings were  his  annual  stipend. —  Warton;  Maddox,  Hist.  Exc/i.  Chaucer,  on 
his  return  from  abroad,  assumed  the  title  poet-laureat;  and  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  Richard  II.,  1389,  he  obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of 
wine.  James  I.,  in  1615.  granted  to  his  laureat  a  yearly  pension  of  100 
marks;  and  in  1630.  this  stipend  was  augmented  by  letters  patent  of  Charles 
I.  to  1(KM.  per  annum,  with  an  additional  grant  of  one  tierce  of  Canary 
Spanish  wine,  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly. 

NAMES  OF  PERSONS  WHO  FILLED  THE  OFFICE  FROM  THE  REION  OF  ftUEEN  ELIZABETH. 

Elizabeth  appointed  Edmund  Spenser,       _  [  Nahum  Tate,  died  -     A.  D.  1716 

The  rev.  Laurence  Eusden,  died          -  1730 
Col  ley  Cibber,  died  -  -  -     -  1757 

William  Whitehead,  died         -  -  1785 

Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Warton,  died     -     -  1790 
Henry  James  Pye,  died  -  -  -1813 

Dr.  Robert  Southey,  died    -  March  21,  1843 
William  Wordsworth,  died  -     -  1850 

The  present  laureate  is  Tennyson. 
POETRY.  The  oldest,  rarest,  and  most  excellent  of  the  fine  arts,  and  highest 
species  of  refined  literature.  It  was  the  first  fixed  form  of  language,  and 
the  earliest  perpetuation  of  thought.  It  existed  before  music  in  melody, 
and  before  painting  in  description. — Hazlitt.  The  exact  period  of  the  in- 
veption  of  poetry  is  uncertain.  In  Scriptural  history,  the  song  of  Moses  on 
the  signal  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  and  their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea, 
is  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  piece  of  poetry  in  the  world,  and  is  very  sub- 
lirno. — Exodus  xv.  Orpheus  of  Thrace  is  the  earliest  author,  and  is  deemed 
the  inventor  of  poetry  (at  least  in  the  western  part  of  the  world),  about  1249 
B.  c.  Homer,  the  oldest  poet  whose  works  have  descended  to  us.  flourished 
about  907  B.  c. — Parian  Marb.  Iambic  verse  (which  see}  was  introduced  by 
Archilochus.  700  B.  c. — Du  Fresnmj.  For  odes,  see  article  Odea.  We  are 
told  that  poetry  (or  more  properly  the  rules  of  poetry)  was  first  brought  to 
England  by  Aldhelmi  or  Adelmus,  abbot  of  Malmsbury,  about  the  close  of 
the  seventh  century. 


who  died  -  -  -  A.  D  1598 

Samuel  Daniel,  died  -; "-.  »  .,  •  1619 

Ben  Jonson,  died  •  •  1637 

Sir  William  Davenant,  died  •  1668 

John  Dryden ;  he  was  deposed  at  th 

revolution  ...  1688 

Thomas  Shadwell,  died  -  -  1692 


532 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


{ 


POISONING.  A  number  of  Roman  ladies  formed  a  conspiracy  for  poisoning 
their  husbands,  which  they  too  fatally  carried  into  effect.  A  female  slave 
denounced  170  of  them  to  Fabius  Maxim  us,  who  ordered  them  to  be  pub- 
licly executed,  331  B.  c.  It  is  said  that  this  was  the  first  public  knowledge 
they  had  of  poisoning  at  Rome.  Poisoning  was  made  petty  treason  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  punished  by  boiling  to  death  (of  which  there  were  some  re- 
markable instances)  23  Henry  VIII.  1532.  See  article  Boiling  to  Death,. 

POITIERS,  BATTLE  OF,  in  France,  between  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  Jchn 
king  of  France,  in  which  the  English  arms  triumphed.  The  standaid  ol 
France  was  overthrown,  and  many  of  her  distinguished  nobility  were  slain. 
The  French  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to  London,  through 
which  he  was  led  amidst  an  amazing  concourse  of  spectators.  Two  I  ings, 
prisoners  in  the  same  court  and  at  the  same  time,  were  considered  as  glo- 
rious achievements ;  but  all  that  England  gained  by  them  was  only  glory, 
Sept.  19,  1356.— Carte. 

POLAND.  Anciently,  the  country  of  the  Vandals,  who  emigrated  from  it  tc 
invade  the  Roman  empire.  It  became  a  duchy  under  Lechus  I.  A.  D.  550; 
and  a  kingdom  under  Boleslaus  A.  D.  999.  Poland  was  dismembered  by  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  the  empress  of  Russia,  and  king  of  Prussia,  who  seiz- 
ed the  most  valuable  territories  in  1772.  It  was  finally  partitioned,  and  its 
political  existence  annihilated,  by  the  above  powers,  in  1795.*  The  king 
formally  resigned  his  crown  at  Grodno,  and  was  afterwards  removed  to  Pe- 
tersburgh,  where  he  remained  a  kind  of  state  prisoner  till  his  death  in 
1798.  With  him  ended  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 


Piastus,  a  peasant,  is  elected  to  the  du- 


st-.< 


992 


cal  dignity        -  -  -     A.  p. 

[Piastus  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and  his 
reign  was  so  prosperous  that  every 
succeeding  native  sovereign  was  call- 
ed a  Piast.] 

Introduction  of  Christianity 
Red  Russia  added  to  Poland      •  -  1059 

Boleslaus  II.  murders  the  bishop  of 
Cracow  with  his  own  hands ;  his 
kingdom  laid  under  an  interdict  by 
the'pope,  and  his  subjects  absolved 
of  their  allegiance  -  -  -1080 

He  flies  to  Hungary  for  shelter;  but  is 
refused  it  by  order  of  Gregory  VII., 
and  he  at  length  kills  himself  -  1081 

Uladislaus  deposed         -  -  -1102 

Premislaus  assassinated-  -  -  1295 

Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king-  -  1370 

War  against  the  Teutonic  knights       -  1447 
The  Wallachians  treacherously  carry 
off  100,000  Polew,  and  sell  them  to 
the  Turks  as  slaves     •  -  -  1498 

Splendid  reign  of  Sigismund  II.  -  1548 

Stephen  forms  a  militia  composed  of 
Cossacks,  a  barbarous  race,  on  whom 
he  bestows  the  Ukraine  -  -  1575 


Abdication  of  John  Casimir      -  -  1669 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn  -  1724 
Stanislaus'  unhappy  reign  begins  -  1763 
He  abolishes  torture  -  •  - 1770 

An    awful    pestilence    sweeps    away 

250,000  of  the  people  -  -  -1770 

The  evils  of  civil  war  so  weaken  the 
kingdom,  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the 
royal  plunderers,  the  empress  of 
Russia,  emperor  of  Austria,  and  king 
of  Prussia  ....  1772 
The  first  partition  treaty  Feb.  17,  1772 

The  public  partition  treaty  Aug.  5,  1772 
A  new  constitution  is  formed  by  the 

virtuous  Stanislaus     -  -May 3,  1791 

[The  royal  and  imperial  spoliators,  on 
various  pretexts,  pour  their  armies 
into  Poland,  1792,  et  seq.] 
The  brave  Poles,  under  Poniatowski 
and  Kosciusko,  several  times  contend 
successfully  against  superior  armies, 
but  in  the  end  are  defeated.  Kosci- 
usko, wounded  and  taken,  is  carried 
prisoner  to  Russia  -  •  •  1794 

Suwarrow's  victories  and  massacres  -  1794 
Battle  of  Warsaw  -  Oct.  12,  1794 

[Here  Suwarrow  subsequently  butch- 


POL  1 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


533 


POLAND,  continued. 

em  30,000  Potss  of  all  ages  and  condi- 
tions in  cold  blood.] 

Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia  •  •  1793 

Stanislaus  resigns  his  crown ;  final  par- 
tition of  his  kingdom  -          Nov.  25,  1795 
Kosriusko  set  at  liberty  Dec.  25,  1796 

Stanislaus   dies   at    St.    Petersburgh, 

Feb.  12,  1798 

Treaty  of  Tilsit  (.which  see)      -  July  7,  1807 
[The  central  provinces  form  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  between  1807  and  1813.] 
General  Diet  at  Warsaw  -  June,  1812 

New  constitution  -  •    Nov.  1815 

Polish  Diet  opened         -  -    Sept.  1820 

Revolution  commenced  at  Warsaw ; 
the  army  declare  in  favor  of  the  peo- 
ple -  -          Nov.  29.  1830 
The  Diet  declares  the  throne  of  Poland 

vacant  -  -  -  Jan.  25,  1831 

Battle  of  Growchow,  near  Praga:  the 


Russians  lose  70tO  men  ;  the  Poles, 
who  keep  the  field,  2000         Feb.  20, 1881 
Battle  of  Ostrolenka ;  signal  defeat  of 

the  Russians    -  -  May  26,  1831 

The  Russian,  Diebitsch,  dies   June  10,  1831 
Grand  Duke  Constantino  dies.  June  27,  1831 
Battle  of  Winsk  (see  Winsk)  July  14,  1831 
Warsaw  taken  (see  Warsaw)  Sept.  8,  183) 
[This  last  fatal  event  terminated  the 
nemorable  and  glorious,  but  unfor- 
lunate  struggle  o(  the  Poles.] 
Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
decreeing  that  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
shall  henceforth  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  Russian  empire  Feb.  26,  1832 

A  powerful  insurrection ;  40,000  march 

on  Cracow,  but  are  defeated,  Feb.  23,  1846 
Cracow  occupied  by  the  Austrians,  and 
the  treaty  which  had  made  it  inde- 
pendent, declared  abrogated,  Nov.  16,  1846 
Unsuccessful  revolt  at  Cracow,  Apr.  25,  1848 


DUKES   AND  KINGS   OP  POLAND. 


1295  Premislaus,  great  duke  of  Poland,  as- 

sassinated. 

1296  Uladislaus  IV.,  surnamed  Loeticus; 

he  refused  the  title  of  king :  deposed 
1300  Winceslaus. 
1306  Uladislaus  IV.,  again. 
1333  Casimir  the  Great,   kiHed  by  a  fall 

from  his  horse,  while  hunting. 
1370  Lewis,  king  of  Hungary,  succeeded  by 

his  daughter, 

1383  Hedwigis,  who  married,  in 
1335  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  em 

braced  the  Christian  religion,  and 

took  the  name  of 
Uladislaus  V.  ;   united  Lithuania  to 

Poland. 

1434  Uladislaus  VI.,  killed  in  battle. 
1444  Boleslaus,  duke  of  Massovia. 
1447  Casimir  IV. 
1492  John  Albert. 

1502  Alexander,  prince  of  Livonia. 
1507  Sjgismund  I. 

1548  Sigismund  II.,  Augustus,  chose 
1573  Henry  of  Valois,  duke  of  Anjou,  sue 

ceeding  to  the  French  throne. 
1576  Stephen  Battory,  prince  of  Transyl- 
vania. 
1587  Sigismund  III.,  son   to  the   king  o» 

Sweden. 

1632  Uladislaus  VII. 
1648  John  Casimir,  abdicated. 
1669  Michael  Koribert  Wiesnown. 
1674  Juhn  Sobieski,  died  in  1697.    An  inter 

regnum  for  a  year. 
1693  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  forced  to  r» 

sign. 
1704  Stanislaus  I.,  Leczinsky,  forced  to  re 

lire  in  1710. 

1710  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  again. 
1733  Stanislaus  I.,  again. 
1733  Frederick  Augustus  III. 
1764  Su»i>«:';ausAugustus  resigns  the  crown 

So  late  as  the  13th  century,  the  Poles  retained  the  custom  of  killing  old  met 
when  past  labor,  and  such  children  as  were  born  imperfect. 

POLAR    REGIONS.     For  voyages  of  discovery  to  the,  see  Nffrth-west  Ptu 
tcge. 


t   9.    550  Lechus  I.     His    posterity   held    the 

dukedom  for  about  150  years. 
700  Cracus  I. 
1  "  Cracus  II.,  assassinated  by  his  brother. 

*  Lechus  II.,  deposed. 
750_Venda,  drowned  herself. 
760"  Premislaus.  who  on  being  elected  was 

named  Lescus  or  Less. 
804  Lescus  II.,  killed  by  the  French. 
810  Lescus  III. 
015  Popiel  I. 
830  Popiel  II. 

842  Piastus.  a  country  peasant 
861  Zemovitus. 
892  Lescus  IV. 
913  Zemomislaus. 

964  Miecislaus.  surnamed  the  Blind. 
999  Boleslaus  I.,  surnamed  the  Intrepid. 
1025  Miecislaus  II.,  went  mad. 
1041  Casimir  the  Pacific. 
1058  Boleslaus  II.,  killed  himself. 
;082  Uladislaus,  gumamed  Humanus. 
1102  Boleslaus  III.,  surnamed  Wry-moulh. 
1.40  Uladislaus  II.,  fled. 
1U6  Boleslaus  IV.,  the  Curled. 
1173  Miecislaus  III.,  deposed. 
1178  Casimir  II.,  surnamed  the  Just. 
i!94  Lescus  V.,  relinquished. 
1200  Miecislaus  IV.,  whose  tyranny  in  a 
few  months  restored  Lescus  V. ;  but 
for  bad  conduct  he  was  again  forced 
to  relinquish  the  government. 
1203  Uladislaus  III. ;  he  voluntarily  retired. 
1206  Lescus  V.,  a  third  time,  being  chosen 
by  the  nobles,  assassinated ;   suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  an  infant. 
1228  Boleslaus  V.,  the  Chaste. 
1279  Lescus  VI.,  surnamed  the  Black,  son 
of  Conrad,  brother  of  Lescus  V., 
died  1289.     An  interregnum  of  five 
years,  when  the  Poles  chose 


534  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  POM 

POLE  STAR.  A  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of  the  con- 
stellation called  the  Little  Bear;  its  nearness  to  the  North  Pole  causes  it  ne- 
ver to  set  to  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  therefore  it  is  called  the 
seaman's  guide.  The  discovery  of  the  Pole  Star  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese 
to  their  emperor  Hong  Ti,  the  grandson  (they  say;  of  Noah,  who  reigned 
and  flourished  1970  B.  c. —  Univ.  Hist. 

POLICE.  That  of  London  has  been  extended  and  regulated  at  various  pe- 
riods. Its  jurisdiction  was  extended  27  Elizabeth  1585,  and  16  Charles  I. 
1640 ;  and  the  system  improved  by  various  acts  in  subsequent  reigns.  The 
London  police  grew  out  of  the  London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  The 
London  police  was  remodelled  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  si*:  ute, 
June  19,  1829.  Some  advance  has  been  made  since  1840,  in  intioduchig  a 
suitable  police  in  New  York  and  other  large  cities  of  the  United  States ;  but 
we  are  yet  very  far  behind  London  in  this  matter.  Probably  no  city  in  the 
world,  large  or  small,  is  so  well  provided  as  London  with  an  efficient  and 
useful  police  force ;  a  force  which  not  only  detects  and  prevents  crime,  but 
preserves  order,  quiet,  and  public  convenience,  in  an  admirable  manner. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  or  improvement  of  the  condition  of  mankind.  A 
•  science  justly  viewed  as  the  great  high-road  to  public  and  private  happiness. 
Its  history  may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  Wealth 
of  Nations.  1776. 

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as  a  man  well  versed  in  policy,  or 
the  well  regulating  and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom ;  a  wise  and  cun- 
ning man. — Pardon.  The  term  was  first  used  in  France  about  A.  D.  1569. — 
Henault. 

POLL-TAX.  The  tax  so  called  was  first  levied  in  England  A.  D.  1378.  The  re- 
bellion (>f  Wat  Tyler  sprung  from  this  impost  (see  Tyler),  1381.  It  was 
again  levied  in  1513.  By  the  18th  Charles  II.  every  subject  was  assessed 
by  the  head,  viz. — a  duke  1001.,  a  marquis  80/.,  a  baronet  SOL,  a  knight  201., 
an  esquire  101.,  and  every  single  private  person  12d.,  1667.  This  grievous 
impost  was  abolished  by  William  III.  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

POLYGAMY.  Most  of  the  early  nations  of  the  world  admitted  polygamy. 
It  was  general  among  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is  still  so  among  the  Turks  and 
Persians.  In  Medea  it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven 
wives.  Among  the  Romans,  Marc  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who 
took  two  wives;  and  the  practice  became  frequent  until  forbidden  by  Arca- 
dius  A.  D.  393.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  punished  this  offence  with  death. 
In  England,  by  statute  1  James  1.  1603,  it  was  made  felony,  but  with  bene- 
fit of  clergy.  This  offence  is  now  punished  with  transportation.  See 
Marriages.  Polygamy  forms  an  article  of  the  Mormon  Creed. 

POLYGLOT.  The  term  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  denoting  "  many  lan- 
guages," and  it  is  chiefly  used  for  the  Bible  so  printed.  The  Polyglot  Bible 
termed  the  Comptutensian  Polyglot,  in  6  vols.  folio,  was  printed  A.  D.  1511-17  r. 
the  first  edition  at  the  expense  of  the  celebrated  cardinal  Ximenes.  Three  co- 
pies of  it  were  printed  on  vellum.  Count  MacCarthy,  of  Toulouse,  paid  483J. 
for  one  of  these  copies  at  the  Pinelli  sale.  The  second  Polyglot  was  printel 
at  Antwerp,  by  Montanus,  8  vols.  folio,  in  1569.  The  third  was  printed  at  Pa- 
ris, by  Le  Jay,  h.  10  vo's.  folio.  1628-45.  The  fourth  in  London,  printed  by 
Bryan  Walton,  in  t  vols.  folio,  \Qbl.-Brujiet. 

POMPEII,  RUINS  OF.  This  ancient  city  of  Campania  was  partly  demolished 
by  an  earthquake  in  A.  D.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  was  swallowed 
up  by  an  awful  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  on  the 
night  of  the  24th  of  August.  A.  D.  79.  Many  of  the  principal  citizens  happen- 
ed at  the  time  to  be  assembled  at  a  theatre  where  public  spectacles  we*e 


for] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


535 


exhibited  The  ashes  buried  the  whole  city,  and  covered  the  surrounding 
country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries,  a  countryman,  as  he  was  turning 
up  the  ground,  accidentally  found  a  bronze  figure ;  and  this  discovery  attract- 
ing the  attention  of  the  learned,  further  search  brought  numerous  produc- 
tions to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was  once  more  shone  on  by  the  sun. 
Different  monarchs  have  contributed  their  aid  in  uncovering  the  buried 
city ;  the  part  first  cleared  was  supposed  to  be  the  main  street,  A.  D.  1750. 
"ONDICHERRY.  Formerly  the  capital  of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by 
the  French  in  1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  and 
was  beseigcd  by  the  English  in  1748.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  forces  in 
January  1761,  and  was  restored  in  1763.  Pondicherry  was  once  more  cap- 
tured by  the  British,  August  23,  1793 ;  and  finally  in  1803. 
K.VNTUS,  The  early  history  of  this  country  (which  seems  to  have  been  but  a 
portion  of  Cappadocia,  and  received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  tc  the  Pon- 
tus, Kuxinus}  is  very  obscure.  Artabazes  was  made  king  of  Pontus  Dy  Darius 
Hystaspcs.  His  successors  were  little  more  than  satraps  or  lieutenants  o* 
tLe  kings  of  Persia,  and  are  scarcely  known  even  by  name. 

Tigranes  ravages  Cappadocia          B.  c.    9f 
Mithridaies  enters  Bilhynia,  and  makes 
himself  master  of  many  Roman  pro- 
vinces, and  puts  80,000  Romans  to 
death      -  -  -  -  -    8t 

Archelaus  defeated  by  Sylla,  at  Chaero- 

nea ;  100,000  Cappadocians  slain       -    85 
Victories  and  conquests  of  Mithridates 

up  to  this  time    -         -  -  -74 

The  fleet  of  Mithridates  defeats  that  un- 
der Lucullus,  in  two  battles         -      -    Ti 
Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus          -    t/& 
Mithridaies  defeats  Fab^is   -  -    68 

But  is  defeated  by  Pompey  -    65 

Mithridates  stabs  himself,  and  dies       -    63 
Reign  of  Pharnaces          -  -  -    63 

BatUe  of  Zela  (see  Zeld)  •  Pharnaces 

defeated  by  Caesar       -  -  -47 

Darius  reigns  -  -  -    39 

Polemon,  son  of  Zeno.  reigns     -  -    36 

Polemon  II.  succeeds  his  lather    -  A.  B.    33 


Artabazes  made  king  of  Pontus  by  Da- 
rius Ilystaspes  -  -  -    B.  c.  487 
Reign  of  ?4rthridates  I.          -  -      -  383 
Ariobarzanes  invades  Pontus     -  -  363 
Mithridates  II.  recovers  it     -           •      -  336 
Mithridates  III.  reigns     -           •  -  301 
Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns         -            -      -  266 
Mithridates  IV.  is  besieged  in  his  capi- 
tal by  the  Gauls,  <kc.    -           -  -252 
Mithridates  makes  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack upon  the  free  city  of  Sinope,  and 
is  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  the 
Rhodians           -           -           -  -  219 
Reign  of  Pharnaces  ;  he  takes  Sinope, 
and  makes  it  the  capital  of  his  king- 
dom        -           -           -           .  -  183 
Reign  of  Mithridates  V.        -           -      -  157 
He  is  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court  123 
Mithridates  VI.,  surnamed  the  Great,  or 
Eupator,  receives  the  diadem  at  12 
years  of  age       ....  123 
Marries  Laodice,  his  own  sister       -      -115 
She  attempts  to  poison  him ;  he  puts 

her  and  her  accomplices  to  death       -  112 
Mithridates  makes  a  glorious  campaign ; 
conquers    Scythia,    Bosphorus,  Col- 
chis, and  other  countries         -  -  111 
He  enters  Cappadocia          •           -      -    97 
His  war  with  Rome        -           •  -    89 


Mithridates  VII.  reigns 

Pontus  afterwards  became  a  Roman 
province,  under  the  emperors. 

Alexis  Comnenus  founded  a  new  empire 
of  the  Greeks  at  Trebisond,  in  this 
country,  A.  i>.  1204,  which  continued 
till  the  Turks  destroyed  it  in  1459. 


/OOR  LAWS.  The  poor  of  England  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  subsisted  as 
the  poor  of  Ireland  do  to  this  day,  entirely  upon  private  benevolence.  By 
an  ancient  statute.  23  Edward  III.  1348,  it  was  enacted  that  none  should 
give  alms  to  a  beggar  able  to  work.  By  the  common  law.  the  poor  were  to 
be  sustained  by  '•  parsons,  rectors  of  the  church,  and  parishioners,  so  that 
none  should  die  for  default  of  sustenance ;"  and  by  statute  15  Richard  II. 
impropriators  were  obliged  to  distribute  a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor  But  no 
compulsory  law  was  enacted  till  the  27th  Henry  VIII..  1535.  The  origin  of 
the  present  system  of  poor  laws  is  referred  to  the  43d  of  Elizabeth,  ".600. 


£188.811 

665,562 

819,000 
1,556,804 
2,184,950 
4,952,421 

POPE.  This  title  was  originally  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  first  adopted  by  Hy- 
geuus,  A.  D.  138;  and  pope  Boniface  III.  procured  Phc:as    emperor  of   th« 


In  1580,  the  Poor  Rates  were 
1680,  they  amounted  to 
1698,  they  amounted  to     • 
1760,  they  amounted  to 
1785.  they  amounted  to 
1802,  they  amounted  to 


In  1815,  the  Poor  Rates  were 
18'20,  they  amounted  to 
1830,  they  amounted  to 
1835,  they  amounted  to 
1840.  they  amounted  to 
1845,  they  amounted  to 


x-5,418.845 
7,32'J.594 
8,111/122 
6,356,345 
5,468/;99 
5,54%650 


636 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


F  POP 


East,  to  confine  it  to  the  prelates  of  Rome,  606.  By  the  connivance  of  Pho- 
cas  also,  the  pope's  supremacy  over  the  Christian  church  was  established.  The 
custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  toe  was  introduced  in  708.  The  first  sovereign 
act  of  the  popes  of  Rome  was  by  Adrian  I.,  who  caused  money  to  be  coined 
with  his  name,  780.  Sergius  II.  was  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name, 
on  his  election  in  844.  Some  contend  that  it  was  Sergius  I.  and  others  John 
XII.  or  XIII.  See  Names.  John  XVIII. ,  a  layman,  was  made  pope  1024.  The 
first  pope  who  kept  an  army  was  Leo  IX.  1054.  Gregory  VII.  obliged  Henry 
IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days  in  the  depth  of  winter,  bare- 
footed, at  his  castle  gate,  to  implore  his  pardon,  1077.  The  pope's  authority 
was  firmly  fixed  in  England  1079.  Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the 
pope  were  introduced  19  Stephen,  1154. —  Vuier's  Statutes.  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land held  the  stirrup  of  pope  Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse.  1161;  and 
also  for  Becket,  1170.*  Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  VI.'s  crown 
off  his  head  while  kneeling,  to  show  his  prerogative  of  making  and  unmak- 
ing kings,  1191.  The  pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom  oi 
Sngland,  1226.  The  papal  seat  was  removed  to  Avignon,  in  France,  in  1308, 
for  seventy  years.  The  Holy  See's  demands  on  England  were  refused  by 
parliament,  1363.  Appeals  to  Rome  from  England  were  abolished  1533. — 
Viner.  The  words  "  Lord  Pope"  were  struck  out  of  all  EngHsh  books.  1541. 
The  papal  authority  declined  about  1600.  Kissing  the  pope's  toe  and  other 
ceremonies,  were  abolished  by  Clement  XIV.  1773.  The  pope  became  des- 
titute of  all  political  influence  in  Europe,  1787.  Pius  VI.  was  burnt  in  effigy 
at  Paris  1791.  He  made  submission  to  the  French  republic,  1796.  Was 
expelled  from  Rome,  and  deposed,  February  22.  1798,  and  died  at  Valence, 
August  19,  1799.  Pius  VII.  was  elected  in  exile,  March  13,  1800.  Wag 
dethroned  May  13.  1809.  Remained  a  prisoner  at  Fontainebleau  till  Napo- 
leon's overthrow ;  and  was  restored  May  24,  1814.  Pope  Pius  IX.  elected 
June  1846,  decrees  a  senate  of  100,  Oct.  2.  1847.  Riot  at  Rome,  new  ministry, 
May  1,  1848.  Count  Rossi,  the  pope's  prime  minister,  assassinated  Nov. 
16.  1848.  Attack  of  the  people  on  the  Quirinale ;  the  pope  yields  and 
grants  a  liberal  ministry,  Nov.  16.  After  being  a  prisoner  in  his  palace 
for  a  week,  the  pope  escapes  in  disguise  of  a  servant  to  Mola-di-Gaeta,  Nov. 
24,  and  thence  goes  to  Portici.  near  Naples.  Roman  republic  proclaimed 
Feb.  9,  1849.  See  Rome.  The  pope  returned  to  Rome,  April  1850.  See 
Italy ;  Rome;  Reformation,  fyc. 


POPES    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 


1513  Leo  X.  ;  his  grant  of  indulgences  for 
crime  led  to  the  reformation. 

1522  Adrian  VI. 

1523  Clement  VII. ;  denounced  Henry  VIII. 

of  England. 

1534  Paul  HI. 

1550  Julius  III. 

1555  Marcellus  II. ;  died  in  21  days. 

1555  Paul  IV. :  fiery  and  haughty. 

1559  Pius  IV. 

1566  Pius  V. 

1572  Gregory  XIII.  ;    learned  canon  ;   re- 
formed the  Calendar,  (which  see). 

1585  Sixtus  V. ;  supposed  poisoned. 

1590  Urban  VII. ;  died  12  days  after. 

1590  Gregory  XIV. 


1591  Innocent  IX.  ;  died  in  2  months. 

1592  Clement  VIII.  ;  learned  and  just. 
1605  Leo  XI. ;  died  same  month. 
1605  Paul  V. 

1621  Gregory  XV. ;  beneficent. 
1623  Urban  VIII. 

1644  Innocent  X. ;  violent  and  cruel. 
1656  Alexander  VII. ;  liberal  and  learned. 
1667  Clement  IX. ;  died  of  grief. 
1670  Clement  X. 

1676  Innocent  XI. ;  refoimed  abuses. 
1689  Alexander  VIII. 
1691  Innocent  XII. :  abolished  nepotism. 
1700  Clement  XI. 

1721  Innocent  XIII. ;  the  eighth  pontiff  of 
his  family. 


•  ''  When  Louis,  kin?  of  France,  and  Henry  IT.  of  England,  met  pope  Alexander  HI.  at  the  castle 
e/Torci.  on  the  Loire,  they  both  dismounted  to  receive  him,  and  holding  each  of  them  one  of  the 
reins  of  his  bridle,  walked  on  foot  by  his  side,  and  conducted  him  in  that"  submisei  ?e  manner  into 
the  castle." — Ifume.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  was  the  only  Englishman  (hat  ever  obtained  the  tiara,  llii 
arrogance  was  such,  that  ne  obliged  Frederick  I.  to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  kiss  1m  fo3t,hold 
bis  stirrup,  and  lead  the  white  palfrey  on  which  he  rode.  His  name  was  Nicholas  Brek«*pewe. 
lie  was  elected  to  the  popedom  in  1154. 


POP  j 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


537 


1800  Cardinal  Chiaramonte,  elected  at  Ven 
ice,  as  Pius  VII.,  March  13. 

1823  Annibal  delta Gensa,Leo  XII.,  Sept.28 

1831  Mauro  Capellari,  Gregory  XVl..Feb.2. 

1816  Maslai  Ferreui,  Pius  IX.,  ic»ugurate<< 
June  21,  aged  54.  -  -  June  !ti. 


POPES,  continued. 

1724  Benedict  XIII. 

1730  Clement  XII. ;  reformed  abuses. 

1740  Benedict  XIV. ;  wise  arid  pious. 

1758  Clement  XIII. 

1769  Clement  XIV.    Ganganelli. 

1775  Pius  VI.,  February  14. 
For  Succession  of  Popes  to  the  Reformation,  see   Tabular   Views,  from  page 
60  to  page  115. 

POPE  JOAN.  It  is  fabulously  asserted  that  in  the  ninth  century,  a  female, 
named  Joan,  conceived  a  violent  passion  for  a  young  monk  named  Felda, 
and  in  order  to  be  admitted  into  his  monastery  assumed  the  male  habit. 
On  the  death  of  her  lover,  she  entered  on  the  duties  of  professor,  and  being 
very  learned,  was  elected  pope  when  Adrian  II.  died  in  872.  Other  scan- 
dalous particulars  follow  ;  "  yet  until  the  Reformation  the  tale  was  repeated 
and  believed  without  offence." — Gibbon. 

POPISH  PLOT.  This  plot  is  said  to  have  been  contrived  by  the  Catholics  to 
assassinate  Charles  II. ;  concerning  which,  even  modern  historians  have 
affirmed,  that  some  circumstances  were  true,  though  some  were  added,  and 
others  much  magnified.  The  popish  plot  united  in  one  conspiracy  three 
particular  designs  :  to  kill  the  king,  to  subvert  the  government,  and  extir- 
pate the  Protestant  religion.  Lord  Stafford  was  convicted  of  high  treason 
as  a  conspirator  in  the  Popish  plot,  and  was  beheaded,  making  on  the 
scaffold  the  most  earnest  protestations  of  his  innocence,  Dec.  20,  1680. — 
Rapin. 

POPULATION.  The  population  of  the  world  may  now,  according  to  the  best 
and  latest  authorities.  Balbi,  Hanneman,  the  Almanac  de  Got/ia,  &c.,  be 
stated  in  round  numbers  at  1050  millions.  Of  these  Europe  is  supposed  to 
contain  270  millions  ;  Asia,  565  millions  ;  Africa,  115  millions;  America,  75 
millions ;  and  Australasia,  25  millions.  The  population  of  England  in  A.  D. 
1377  was  2  092.978  souls.  In  a  little  more  than  a  hundred  years,  1483.  it 
had  increased  to  4  689.000.  The  following  tables  of  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  from  official  returns  : — 

POPULATION  OP  ENGLAND  AND  WALES  DECENNIALLY  FOB  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


Year  1700 
1710  - 
1720 
1730  - 
1740 
1750  - 
1760 


Population  5.475,000 

ditto  5,240,000 

ditto  5,565,000 

ditto  5,796,000 

ditto  6,064.000 

ditto  6.467,000 

ditto  6,736,000 


Year  1770 
1780  • 
1790 
1801  - 
1821 
1841  - 


Populaiion  7,428,000 
ditto  7,953.000 
ditto  8,675,000 
ditto  10,942,646 
ditto  14,391,631 
ditto  18,844,434 


POPULATION    OP  THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Year  1830 
1840 


rSee  the  several  States 


Population  12,866,9-20 
ditto       17,053,353 


Year  1790  Populaiion  3,929.827 

1800  -       -        -       ditto       5,305,9-25 
1810       -       -    -       ditto       7,239,814 

1820  -       -       -       ditto       9,638,131 

PRESENT  POPULATION  OF  THK  CHIEF  KINGDOMS  AND  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD 


Chinese  empire                         Pruss.  monarchy 

16,550,000     Holland  .        .     -    5,lOfr,OcO 

(Balbi)    • 

180,000,000 

United  Stages  of 

Dutch  monarchy 

Russia    • 

58,500,000 

America* 

17,063,000 

(tottU)      -            t4,750,OTil 

Russian  empire 

72,000,000 

Turkey   -        •    - 

12,000,000 

Bavaria  - 

4,600.000 

France 

36,500.000 

Ottoman  empire 

Sweden  and  Noi 

Austria   - 

34,599,000 

(total) 

24,500.000 

way-        • 

4,550,000 

Great  Britain  am 

I       : 

Persia     •        .    - 

11.800,000 

Belgium  - 

4,50r,000 

Ireland     - 

27,000,000 

Mexico 

9,500,000 

Poland 

4,250,000 

British  empire 

15S,000,000 

Kingdom  of  the 

Portugal 

.    3,950,000 

Japan     -        -    -   27,000,000 

two  Sicilies  -    - 

8,750,000 

Republic  of  Co 

Spain  -        -        .    I7,f  X),000 

Brazil  - 

6,250,000 

lumbia    - 

3,350,000 

Spanish    empire 

Sardinia  -       -    - 

5,800,000 

Eccles.  States- 

2,970,000 

(total)  •        •    •    19,500,000     Morocco      - 

5,200,000  I   British  America       2,950,600 

23* 


•  In  laiO.     In  1850,  estimated  at  22,000,000. 


538 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


poa 


POPULATION,  continued. 


Switzerland 

2,450,000     St.  Petersburgh           405,000 

Hamburgh                  172,0* 

Denmark        -    - 

2,400,000 

Vienna    - 

395,000 

Lyons          •                 168,008 

Hanover 

1,780,000 

New  York  (1845 

371.000 

Palermo 

147,000 

Wirtemberg  -   - 

1,680,000 

Moscow 

SSSiOOO 

Marseilles  • 

146,000 

Saxony 

1.650,000 

Grand  Cairo  - 

3-35,000 

Copenhagen   • 

145,000 

Tuscany  -       -    - 

i;550,000 

Lisbon 

298.000 

Turin  - 

143,000 

Baden         -        - 

1,400,000 

Aleppo   - 

280,000 

Seville    - 

142,000 

CITIES. 

Berlin  - 

280,000 

Warsaw 

141,000 

Cities. 

Inhab. 

Amsterdam    - 

274,000 

Tunis 

138,000 

London  (Parlia- 

Madrid 

270,000 

Baltimore  (1848 

134,000 

mentary  Ret.) 

1,776,556 

Philadelphia  (184 

8)     258,000 

Prague 

133,000 

Jeddo  (reputed)  - 

1,690,000 

Bordeaux 

247,000 

Smyrna  • 

132.000 

Pekin    ("reputed) 

1,600,000 

Bagdad 

245.000 

Brussels 

•30,000 

Paris  ... 

1,000,000 

Mexico    • 

fc25,000 

Florence 

1:2,000 

Nankin   -        -    - 

850,000 

Rome  - 

824,000 

Stockholm  - 

l*l,OU) 

Consian-inople   - 

800,000 

Rio  Janeiro    - 

200,000 

Munich   • 

j  13,000 

Calcutta 

710,000 

Milan  •       '•  "' 

193,OOU 

Dresden 

1  14.000 

Madras    •        .    - 

435,000 

Barcelona 

183,000 

Boston  (1845)- 

114,000 

Naples 

410,000 

Frankfort    - 

110,000 

PORCELAIN.  Porcelaine.  Said  to  be  derived  from  Pour  cent  annies,  it  being 
formerly  believed  that  the  materials  of  porcelain  were  matured  under 
ground  100  years.  It  is  not  known  who  first  discovered  the  art  of  making 
porcelain,  nor  is  the  date  recorded  ;  but  the  manufacture  has  been  carried 
on  in  China  at  King-te-ching,  at  least  since  A.  D.  442,  and  here  still  the  finest 
porcelain  is  made.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Europe  in  1531,  shortly  after 
which  time  it  was  known  in  England.  See  China  Porcelain^  and  Dresden 
China. 

PORTLAND,  the  largest  town  in  Maine,  formerly  part  of  Falmouth ;  burnt  by 
the  British,  Oct.  1775.  Population  in  1800,  3,677  ;  in  1820,  8.581 :  in  1840 
15,082. 

PORTO  BELLO.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  November  2,  1502.  It  was  taker, 
from  the  Spaniards  by  the  British  under  admiral  Vernon,  November  22, 
1739.  It  was  again  taken  by  admiral  Vernon,  who  destroyed  the  fortifica- 
tions, in  1742.  Before  the  abolition  of  the  trade  by  the  galleons,  in  1748, 
and  the  introduction  of  register  ships,  this  place  was  the  great  mart  for  the 
rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

PORTO  FERRAJO.  Capital  of  Elba  ;  built  and  fortified  by  Cosmo  I.  duke 
of  Florence,  in  1548  ;  but  the  fortifications  were  not  finished  till  1628,  when 
Cosmo  II.  completed  them  with  a  magnificence  equal  to  that  displayed  by 
the  old  Romans  in  their  public  undertakings.  Here  was  the  residance  of 
Napoleon  in  1814-15.  See  Bonaparte,  Elba,  and  France. 

PORTSMOUTH.  The  most  considerable  haven  for  men-of-war,  and  the  most 
strongly  fortified  place  in  England.  The  dock,  arsenal,  and  storehouses 
were  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

PORTUGAL.  The  ancient  Lusitania.  The  name  is  derived  from  Porto  Callo, 
the  original  appellation  of  the  city  of  Oporto.  It  submitted  to  the  Roman 
arms  about  250  B.  c..  and  underwent  the  same  changes  as  Spain  on  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  empire.  Conquered  by  the  Moors.  A.  D.  713.  They  kept 
possession  till  they  were  conquered  by  Alphonsus  VI.  the  Valiant  of  Castile, 
assisted  by  many  other  princes  and  volunteers.  Among  those  who  shone 
most  in  this  celebrated  expedition  was  Henry  of  Lorraine,  grandson  of 
Robert,  king  of  France.  Alphonsus  bestowed  upon  him  Theresa,  his  na- 
tural daughter,  and.  as  her  marriage  portion,  the  kingdom  of  Portugal, 
which  he  was  to  hold  of  him,  A.  D.  1093. 
Settlement  of  the  Alains  and  Visigoths 

here       -  -  -  •     A.  D.    472 

Invasion  by  the  Saracens  -  -   713 

The  kings  of  Asturias  subdue  some 
Saracen  chiefs,  and  Alphousos  HI. 
•stablishes  episcopal  sees  -  •  900 


Alphonsus  Henriquez  defeats  5  Moorish 
Kings,  and  is  proclaimed  king  by  his 
army  -  -  •  -  -  1131 

Assisted  by  a  fleet  of  Crusaders  in  their 
way  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  takes  Lis- 
o 


bon  from  the  Moors 


•  1141 


MR] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


539 


PORTT/GAL,  continued. 

The  kingdom  of  Algarve  taken  from  the 
Moors  by  Sancho  I.  -  -  -  1189 

Reign  of  Dionysius  I.  or  Denis,  father 
of  his  country,  who  builds  44  cities 
or  towns  in  Portugal  -  -  -  1279 

Military  orders  of  Christ  and  St.  James 
instituted,  -  -  -  '.279  to  1325 

John  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  carries 
his  arms  into  Africa  -  -  -  1415 

Madeira  and  the  Canaries  seized          •  1420 

Passage  to  the  East  Indies,  by  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  discovered  -  -  1498 

Discovery  of  the  Brazil's  -  -  1500 

The  Inquisition  established        •  -1526 

The  kingdom  seized  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  -  •:  -1580 

The  Portuguese  throw  off  the  yoke,  and 
place  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  on  the 
throne.  His  posterity  still  possess 
the  crown  -  -  -  1&40 

The  great  earthquake  which  destroys 
Lisbon.  See  Earthquake  •  •  1755 

Joseph  I.  is  attacked  by  assassins,  and 
narrowly  escapes  deaih  -  -  1758 

[This  affair  causes  some  of  the  first 
families  of  (he  kingdom  to  be  tortured 
to  death,  their  very  names  being  for- 
bidden to  be  mentioned;  yet  many 
were  unjustly  condemned,  and  their 
innocence  was  soon  afterwards  made 
manifest.  The  Jesuits  were  also  ex- 
pelled on  this  occasion.] 

Joseph,  having  no  son,  obtains  a  dis- 
pensation from  the  pope  to  enable 
his  daughter  and  brother  to  intermar- 
ry. See  Incest.  •  .  •  1760 

The  Spaniards  and  French  invade  Port- 
ugal, which  is  saved  by  the  valor  of 
the  English  -  -  1762  and  1763  : 

Regency  of  John  (afterwards  king) 
cw.ng  to  the  queen's  lunacy  -  -  1792  j 

The  Court,  on  the  French  invasion, 
emigrates  to  the  Brazils  Nov.  2,  1807  ; 

Marshal  Junot  enters  Lisbon,  Nov.  29,  1807 

Convent  ion  of  C'intra  (see  article  under 
that  name)  -  -  Aug.  30,  1808 

Portugal  cedes  Guiana  to  France         -  1814 

Revolution  in  Portugal  -          Aug.  29,  1820 

Constitutional  Junta      •  -Oct.  1,  1820  i 

Return  of  the  Court       -  -  July  4,  1821  j 

Independence  of  Brazil,  the  prince  re- 
gent made  emperor  -  Oct.  12,  1822 

The  king  of  Portugal  suppresses  the 
constitution  June  5,  1823 

Disturbances  at  Lisbon  ;  Don  Miguel 
departs,  <fec.  -  -  May  1-9,  1824 

Treaty  with  Brazil         -          Aug.  29,  1825 


Death  of  John  VI.  .  Feb.  18,  :  836 

Don  Pedro  grants  a  charter,  and  con- 
firms the  regency        -         April  26,  1828 
He  relinquishes  the  throne  in  favor  of 
his  daughter  Donna  Maria       May  2,  1826 

Marquess  of  Chaves'  insurrection  at 
Lisbon  ....  Oct.  6,  ISSfi 

Don  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betroth- 
ed Oct.  29, 1828 

Portugal  solicits  the  assistance  of  Great 
Britain  -  -  -  Dec.  3,  1326 

Departure  of  the  first  British  auxiliary 
troops  for  Portugal  -  Dec.  17,  1826 

Don  Miguel  formally  assumes  the  title 
of  king  -  -  -  -July  4,  1828 

He  dissolves  the  three  estates  July  12,  1828 

Revolution  at  Brazil       -  April  7,  1831 

Don  Pedro  arrives  in  England  June  16,  1831 

Insurrection  in  favor  of  the  queen,  in 
which  300  lives  are  lost  Aug.  21,1831 

Don  Pedro's  expedition  sails  from 
Belle-isle  -  -  Feb.  9,  1832 

At  Terceira  Don  Pedro  proclaims  him- 
self regent  of  Portugal,  on  behalf  of 
his  dauzhter  -  -  April  2,  16_fi 

He  takes  Oporto  -  -  -July  8,  1832' 

After  various  conflicts,  Don  Miguel  ca- 
pitulates to  the  Pedroites  May  2(5,  1834 

Don  Miguel  is  permitted  to  leave  the 
country  unmolested  -  May  31,  1834 

Massacres  at  Lisbon        -  June  9,  1834 

The  queen  declared  by  the  Cortes  to  be 
of  ase  -  -  -  Sept.  15,  1834 

Don  Pedro  dies    -  -          Sept.  21,  1834 

Prince  Augustus  of  Portugal  (duke  of 
Leuchtenberg),  just  married  to  the 
queen,  dies  -  -  March  28,  1335 

The  queen  marries  prince  Ferdinand  of 
SaxeCoburg  -  -  -Jan.  1,1836 

A  sudden  change  of  ministry  leads  to  a 
formidable  revolution  Oct.  9,  1846 

Activn  at  Evora ;  the  insurgents  defeat- 
ed by  the  queen's  troops  Oct.  23,  184ti 

[Oporto,  where  a  revolutionary  junta 
is  established,  and  other  large  towns, 
are  seized  by  the  insurgent  army  ] 

Actions  are  fought  at  Viana,  Valpassa', 
Braga,  Torres-Vedras,  <fec.,  favorable 
to  the  queen.  Battle  of  St.  Ubes;  the 
Insurgents  defeated,  losing  Sfil  men 
in  killed  and  wounded  -  May  1, 1847 

Intervention  of  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  signed  in  London  May  21,  1847 

Claim  of  the  United  States  on  Portugal 
for  damages  in  the  war  of  1812,  re- 
sisted, and  U.  S.  minister  leaves  Li»- 
bon  -  -  -  July,  1850 


KINGS   OP 

».D,  1093  King  of  Lorraine,  count  or  earl  of  Port- 

ugal. 

1112  Alphonso  I.  ;  proclaimed  king    -  1139 
1185  Sancho  I. 
1212  Alphonso  II.,  surnamed  Crassus,  or 

the  Fat. 

1224  Sancho  H.,  the  Idle,  deposed. 
1247  Alphonsus  III. 
1279  Dennis. 
1325  Alphonsus  IV 
1357  Peter  the  Severe. 
1367  Ferdinand  I.,  died  1383  ;  an  interreg- 

num for  18  months. 


POKTUQAL. 

1385  John  I.,  the  Bastard,  natural  son  M 

Peter  the  Severe. 
14a3  Edward. 
1438  Alphonsus  V. 
1481  John  II. 
1495  EmanueL 
1521  John  HI. 

1557  Sebastian,  killed  in  Africa. 
1578  Henry,  the  Cardinal. 
1580  Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Em  an 

uel.  deposed  by  Philp  II.  of  Siiain, 

who  united  Portugal  to  his  other  do 

minions,  •  ill  1640, 


540 

PORTUGAL,  continued. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


rot 


1640  John  IV.,  duke  of  Braganza,  dispos- 
sessed the  Spaniards,  and  was  pro- 
claimed king,  Dec.  1. 

1656  Alphonsus  VI. 

1668  Peter  II. 

1~07  John  V. 


1750  Joseph. 

1777  Mary  Frances  Isabella. 

1799  John  VI. 

1626  Don   Pedro ;    he  abdicate*  May  2, 

favor  of  his  daughter. 
1826  Maria  de  Gloria. 


POSTS.  Posts  originated  in  the  regular  couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who 
erected  post-houses  throughout  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  Augustus  was  the 
first  who  introduced  this  institution  among  the  Romans,  and  who  employed 
post-chaises.  This  plan  was  imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  A.  D.  800. — 
Ashe.  Louis  XI.  first  established  post-houses  in  France  owing  to  his  eager- 
ness for  news,  and  they  were  the  first  institution  of  this  nature  in  Europe, 
1470. — Henautt.  In  England  the  plan  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.,  1481,  when  riders  on  post-horses  went  stages  of  the  distance  of  twenty 
miles  from  each  other  in  order  to  procure  the  king  the  earliest  intelligence 
of  the  events  that  passed  in  the  course  of  the  war  that  had  arisen  w^th  the 
Scots. — Gale.  Richard  III.  improved  the  system  of  couriers  in  1483.  In 
1543  similar  arrangements  existed  in  England. — Sadler's  Letters.  Post  com- 
munications between  London  and  most  towns  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  existed  in  1635.—  Strype. 

POST-OFFICE,  THE  GENERAL,  OP  ENGLAND.  See  preceding  article.  The  first 
chief  postmaster  of  England  was  Mr.  Thomas  Randolph,  appointed  by 
queen  Elizabeth  in  1581.* 

THE   REVENUE  OP  THE  POST-OFFICE  OF  ENGLAND  AT  THE  FOLLOWING  PERIODS,  VIC. 

In  1643  It  yielded     - 

1653  Farmed  to  John  Manley, 

Esq.,  for 
1663  Farmed  to  Daniel  O'Neale, 

Esq.,  for  - 
1674  Farmed  fo: 
16S5  It  yielded     - 
1707  Ditto      - 
1764  Ditto 
1800  Ditto      - 

POST-OFFICE  IN  THE  TOUTED  STATES.  The  first  post-office  in  the  colo- 
nies was  established  in  1710.  by  act  of  Parliament  for  establishing  a  general 
post-office  for  all  her  Majesty's  dominions.  During  the  revolution  this  de- 
partment was,  of  course,  controlled  by  Congress,  and  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States.  1789,  provided  for  the  continuance  of  this  control — the 
Postmaster-General  being  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate,  as  one  of 
the  cabinet.  For  successive  Postmaster- Generals  see  Administrations.  The 
following  table  gives  the  statistics  of  the  post-offices  in  the  United  States 
Mt  different  times  since  1790. 


-     ,£5,000 
'-      10,000 

21,500 
43.000 
65.000 
111,461 
432.048 
745,313 

In  1805  Great  Britain          -           -  1,424,994 
1815  Ditto      -           -           .     -  1,755,898 
1820  United  Kingdom    -           -  2,402,697 
1825     Ditto   -           -           .     -2,255,239 
1835     Ditto         -           -           -2,353,340 
1839  Last   year  of  the    heavy 
postage          -           -     -  2,522,495 
1840  First  year  of  the  low  rate, 
1  penny  for  all  distances    471,000 

Year. 

1790  • 

1800  - 
1810  • 
1820  . 
1830  . 
1840  - 

1845  - 

1846  - 

1847  - 

1848  - 


No.  of  Post 
Ojices. 

-  75  - 

-  903  - 
.   2,300  • 

-  4,500  • 

-  fi.UK)   - 

-  KUC.8    . 

-  14,183 
-14,601   • 

-  15,146  - 

-  16,159  - 


Amount  of 
Pistagt 

•  «37,93(,     • 

-  280,804    • 

-  551,684    • 
-1,111,927 
-1,850,583    . 

•  4,539,265 
-4,289,842 
-3,487,199} 
-3,955,8931 
•4,371,077} 


Net  Revenue. 

•  95,795 
.  66,810 

-  55.715 


•44,227 


Exter.t  in  mi  tea 
of  JPo"/  Rjodt 

1,875 
20,817 
36,406 
72,492 
115,000 
155,739 
143,940 
152,865 
153,818 
163.208 


The  number  of  dead  letters  returned  quarterly  is  estimated  at  450,000. 

'  Even  so  late  as  between  1730  and  1740,  the  post  was  only  transmitted  three  days  a  week  be- 
iw  x'n  Edinburgh  and  London ;  and  the  metropolis,  on  one  occasion,  only  st-nt  a  single  letter,  which 
«r*a  for  an  Edinburgh  banker,  named  Ramsay. 

1  In  all  these  yenrs  the  receipts  fell  short  of  the  expenditures. 

t  The  returns  for  1846, 7,  ana  8,  are  for  the  first  three  years  of  the  new  )aw  passed  March  3, 1843 
Kducine  the  letter  postage  to  5  cents  under  300  miles,  and  10  cents  for  all  greater  distances. 


PSA]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  541 

POTATOES.    Tie  potato  is  a  native  of  Chili  and  Peru.     Potatoes  were  on 

finally  carried  to  England  from  Santa  Fe.  in  America,  by  sir  John  Haw- 
ins,  A.  D.  1563.  Others  ascribe  this  introduction  to  sir  Francis  Drake,  in 
1686;  while  their  general  introduction  is  mentioned  by  many  writers  aa 
occurring  in  1592.  Their  first  culture  in  Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  had  large  estates  in  that  country,  about  Youghal,  in  the 
county  of  Cork.  It  is  said  that  potatoes  were  not  known  in  Flanders  until 
1020.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from  America,  by  that 
"  patriot  of  every  clime,"  the  late  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Carding - 
ton.  near  Bedford,  1765 ;  and  its  culture  became  general  soon  after.  It  it 
affirmed  that  the  Neapolitans  once  refused  to  eat  potatoes  during  a  famine. 
— Butler.  Potatoe  disease  first  appeared  in  Ireland,  &c.,  causing  great 
*larm  and  distress,  Oct.  1845. 

POTOSI,  MINES  OF.  These  mines  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1545, 
and  produce  the  best  silver  in  America.  They  are  in  a  mountain  in  the 
form  of  a  sugar-loaf.  Silver  was  as  common  in  this  place  as  iron  is  in 
Europe ;  but  the  mines  are  now  much  exhausted,  or  at  least  little  is  got  in 
comparison  of  what  was  formerly  obtained. 

POUND.  From  the  Latin  Pondus.  The  pound  sterling  was  in  Saxon  times, 
about  A.  D.  671.  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was  its  twentieth  part, 
consequently  the  latter  was  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present. — Peocham. 
The  value  of  the  Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  known,  though  some  sup- 
pose it  was  equivalent  to  an  Attic  mina,  or  31.  4s.  Id.  Our  avoirdupois 
weight  (avoir  du  poids)  came  from  the  French,  and  contains  sixteen  ounces  ; 
it  is  in  proportion  to  our  troy  weight  as  seventeen  to  fourteen. —  Chambers. 

POWDERING  THE  HAIR.  This  custom  took  its  rise  from  some  of  the  ballad- 
singers  at  the  fair  of  St.  Germain  whitening  their  heads  to  make  them- 
selves ridiculous.  Unlike  other  habits  it  was  adopted  from  the  low  by  the 
high,  and  became  very  general  about  A.  D.  1614.  In  England  the  powdered- 
hair  tax  took  place  in  May  1795,  at  which  time  the  preposterous  practice 
of  using  powder  was  at  its  height ;  this  tax  was  one  gxiinea  for  each  person. 
The  hair-powder  tax  is  still  continued,  though  it  yields  in  England  under 
7000Z.  per  year,  and  in  Scotland  about  250Z.  It  was  abolished  in  Ireland. 

PRAETORS.  Magistrates  of  Rome.  The  office  was  instituted  365  B.  c.,  when 
one  praetor  only  was  appointed ;  but  a  second  was  appointed  in  252  B.  <;. 
One  administered  justice  to  the  citizens,  and  the  other  appointed  judges 
in  all  causes  which  related  to  foreigners.  In  the  year  of  Rome  520. 
two  more  praetors  were  created  to  assist  the  consul  in  the  government 
of  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  which  had  been  lately  conquered, 
and  two  more  when  Spain  was  reduced  into  the  form  of  a  Roman  province, 
A.  u.  c.  551.  Sylla  the  dictator  added  two  more,  and  Julius  Caesar  increas- 
ed the  number  to  10.  and  afterwards  to  16,  and  the  second  triumvirate  to 
64.  After  this  their  numbers  fluctuated,  being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12,  till, 
in  the  decline  of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased,  and  their  numbers 
were  reduced  to  three. 

PRAGA,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  30.000  Poles  were  butchered  by  the  merciless 
Russian  general  Suwarrow.  fought  Oct.  10,  1794.  Battle  of  Praga,  in  which 
the  Poles  commanded  by  Skrznecki  defeated  the  Russian  army  commanded 
by  general  Giesmar,  who  loses  4000  killed  and  wounded,  6000  prisoners,  and 
12  pieces  of  cannon;  fought  between  Grothoff  and  Wawer,  March  31, 1831. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.  An  ordinance  relating  to  the  church  and  some- 
times state  affairs ;  and  at  one  time  particularly  the  ordinances  of  the  kings 
of  France,  wherein  the  rights  of  the  Gallican  church  were  asserted  against 
the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in  the  choice  of  bishops.  Also  the  emperor's 
letter  by  advice  of  his  council,  in  an^-ver  to  high  personages  in  particular 


542  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  PHI 

contingencies.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  for  settling  the  empire  of  Germany 
in  the  house  of  Austria,  A.  D.  1439.  The  emperor  Charles  VI.  published  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  whereby,  in  default  of  male  issue,  his  daughters  should 
succeed  in  preference  to  the  sons  of  his  brother  Joseph  I..  April  17,  1713, 
ai.d  he  settled  his  dominions  on  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  in  conformity 
thereto,  1722.  She  succeeded  in  Oct.  1740 ;  but  it  gave  rise  to  a  war,  iu 
which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe  were  engaged. 

PRAGUE.  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  Imperialists  and  Bohemians.  The  latter, 
who  had  chosen  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatine  (son-in-law  to  our  James  I.)  fof 
their  king,  were  totally  defeated.  The  unfortunate  king  was  forced  to  flea 
with  his  queen  and  children  into  Holland,  leaving  all  his  baggage  and  money 
behind  him.  He  was  afterwards  deprived  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  and 
the  Protestant  interest  was  ruined  in  Bohemia ;  all  owing  to  the  pusilla- 
nimity and  inactivity  of  James,  Nov.  7,  1620.  Prague  was  taken  by  the 
Saxons  in  1631 ;  and  by  the  Swedes  in  1648.  It  was  taken  by  storm  by  thy 
French,  in  1741 ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it  in  1742.  In  1744,  it  was 
taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it  the  same 
year.  The  great  and  memorable  battle  of  Prague  was  fought  May  6,  1757. 
In  this  engagement  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  prince  Henry  of  Prussia, 
and  their  whole  camp  taken  ;  their  illustrious  commander,  general  Brown  ,-, 
was  mortally  wounded ;  and  the  brave  Prussian,  marshal  Schwerin,  was 
killed.  After  this  victory,  Prague  was  besieged  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but 
he  was  soon  afterwards  obliged  to  raise  the  siege. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  A  celebrated  parliament,  so 
called  from  one  of  the  members  (who  had  thus  fantastically  styled  hiu'r.clJ 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  times),  met  July  4,  1653.  This  parliarr  cnt 
consisted  of  144  members,  summoned  by  the  protector  Cromwell ;  they  M-  jre 
to  sit  for  fifteen  months,  and  then  they  were  to  chose  a  fresh  parlinn^nt 
themselves. 

PRATIQUE.  The  writing  or  license  of  this  name  was  originally  address' d  by 
the  Southern  nations  to  the  ports  of  Italy  to  which  vessels  were  boup-l,  and 
signified  that  the  ship  so  licensed  came  from  a  place  or  country  in  a  healthy 
state,  and  no  way  infected  with  the  plague  or  other  contagious  disease. 
The  pratique  is  now  called  a  bill  of  health,  and  is  still  of  the  same  intenJ 
and  import. — Aske. 

PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD,  &c.  They  were  first  introduced  into  the  Chris 
tian  church  about  A.  D.  190. — Eusebius.  Prayers  addressed  to  the  V*rgiu 
Mary  and  to  the  saints  were  introduced  by  pope  Gregory,  A.  D.  593.  The 
mode  of  praying  with  the  face  to  the  east  was  instituted  by  pope  Borifaco 
II.,  A.  D.  532. 

PRECEDENCE.  Precedence  was  established  in  very  early  ages ;  and  in  most 
of  the  countries  of  the  East  and  of  Europe,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  o< 
Justinian.  In  England,  owing  to  the  disputes  that  prevailed  among  cour- 
tiers respecting  priority  of  rank  and  office,  the  order  of  precedency  was 
regulated  chiefly  by  two  statutes,  namely,  one  passed  31  Henry  VIII.  1539  j 
and  the  other,  1  George  I.,  1714. 


•* 
THE  QUEEN.                       | 
Prince  of  Wales. 
Prince  Albert. 
Queen  Dowager. 
Queen's  other  sons, 
••rincess  royal. 

ABLE   OP  PRECEDENCY. 

Princess  Alice  ;    and   other 
princesses. 
Duchess  of  Kent. 
Queen's  uncles. 
Queen's  aunts. 
Queen's  cousins. 

Archoisnop  uf  C  anti  i*«ry. 
Lord  Chancellor. 
Archbishop  of  York- 
"Lord  high  treasurer 
"Lord  president. 
'Lord  privy  seal. 

-                                     —  • 

*  If  of  the  rank  of  barons. 


PBE  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


543 


PRECEDENCE,  continued. 

'Lord  high  constable. 

rLord  great  chamberlain  of 
England. 

'Earl  marshal. 

'Lord  high  admiral. 

Lord  steward  of  the  house- 
hold. 

Lord  Chamberlain. 

Dukes,  according  to  patent. 

Marquesses,  according  to 
their  patents. 

Dukes'  eldest  sons. 

Earls,  according  to  their  pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses'  eldest  sons. 

Dukes'  younger  sons. 

Viscounts,  according  to  their 
patents. 

Earls'  eldest  sons. 

Marquesses'  younger  sons. 

Bishop  of  London. 

Bishop  of  Durham. 

Bishop  of  Winchester. 

All  other  bishops,  according 
to  their  seniority  of  conse- 
cration. 

Secretary  of  State,  being  a 
baron. 

Commissioners  of  the  great 
seal. 

Barons,  according  to  their 
patents. 

[All  the  above,  except  the 
royal  family,  hold  their 


COMMONERS. 


The  Speaker. 

Treasurer,  comptroller,  and 

vice-chamberlain    of    the 

household. 
Secretaries  of  State,  if  they  be 

under  the  degree  of  baron. 
Viscounts'  eldest  sons. 
Earls'  younger  sons. 
Barons'  eldest  sons. 
Knights  of  the  Garter. 
Privy  councillors. 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 


Lancaster. 

Lord    chief  justice    of  the 
queen's  bench. 

Master  of  the  rolls. 

Vice-chancellor. 

Lord  chief  justice  of  the  com- 
mon pleas. 

Lord  chief  baron. 

Judges  and  barons,  according 
to  seniority. 

Hereditary  bannerets. 

Viscounts'  younger  sons. 

Barons'  younger  sons. 

Baronets. 

Bannerets  for  life  only. 

Knights  of  the  bath. 

Grand  Crosses. 

Knights  commanders. 

Knijihts  bachelors. 

Eldest  sons  'of  the  younger 


Knights  of  thi  Garter's  eldoer 

sons. 

Bannerets'  eldest  sons. 
Knights  of  the  bath's  eldes< 

sons. 

Knights'  eldest  sons. 
Baronets'  younger  sons. 
Flag  and  field  officers. 
Sergeants-at-law. 
Doctors,   Deans,   and  chan 

cellors. 

Masters  in  chanceiy. 
Companions  of  the  bath. 


Comp 
Gentle 


men     of     the 

chamber. 
Esquires  of  ti  e  kriMils  ol  the 

Bath. 

Esquires  by  creation. 
Esquires  by  office  or  com- 

mission. 
Younger  so  e  of  knights  of 

the  garter. 
Sons  of  bannerets. 
Younger  sons  of  knights  of 

the  bath. 
Younger  sons  of  knights  ba- 

chelors. 
Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear 

arms. 

Clergymen,  not  dignitaries. 
Barristers  at  law. 
Officers    of  the    army  and 

navy,  not  esquires  by  com- 

mission. 
Citizens,  burgesses,  &c. 


recedence  of  rank  by  act        sons  of  peers. 
31  Henry  V11I.)  Baronets'  eldest  sons. 

PREDESTINATION.  The  belief  that  God  hath  from  all  eternity  unchangeably 
appointed  whatever  comes  to  pass.  This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  most  perplexing  controversies  that  have  occurred  among  mankind.  It 
was  taught  by  the  ancient  Stoics  and  early  Christians ;  and  Mahomet  intro- 
duced the  doctrine  of  an  absolute  predestination  into  his  Koran  in  the 
strongest  light.  The  controversy  respecting  it  in  the  Christian  church  arose 
in  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was  maintained  by  St.  Augustin ;  and  Lucidus. 
a  priest  of  Gaul,  taught  it  A.  D.  470. 

PRESBURG,  PEACE  OF,  between  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  ancient 
states  of  Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy ;  the  principality  of  Eichstett,  part  of 
the  bishopric  of  Passau,  the  city  of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions 
of  Austria  in  Suabia,  in  Brisgau.  and  Ortenau,  were  transferred  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  and  the  duke  of  Wirtemberg,  who.  as  well  as  the  duke  of 
Baden,  were  then  created  kings  by  Napoleon  ;  the  independence  of  the  Hel- 
vetic republic  was  also  stipulated,  Dec.  26,  1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  numerous  and  increasing  sect  of  Christians,  so  called 
from  their  maintaining  that  the  government  of  the  church  appointed  in  tho 
New  Testament  was  by  Presbyteries,  or  associations  of  ministers  and  ruling 
elders,  equal  in  power,  office,  and  in  order.  The  first  Presbyterian  meeting- 
house in  England  was  established  by  the  Puritans  at  Wandsworth,  Surrey 
Nov.  20,  1572.  Presbyterianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland.  Its  distinguish- 
ing tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith  attri- 


*  Above  all  of  their  own  rank  only,  by  31  Henry  VIII. 

t  When  in  actual  office  only,  by  I  George  I. 

N.  B.  T1.S  priority  of  signing  any  treaty  or  public  instrument  by  ministers  of  state  a  f*k.en 
rank  of  office,  and  net  title. 


644  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS  [  FBI. 

buted  to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformei  in  1560.  It  was 
approved  by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,  1567,  and  finally  settled  by  an  act 
of  the  Scottish  senate,  1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with 
England  in  1707. 

PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Washington,  unanimously  Reeled 
president  of  the  federal  convention,  which  sat  at  Philadelphia  from  May  25 
to  Sept.  17,  1787;  and  was  unanimously  elected  first  president  of  the  United 
States,  April  6,  1789.  See  United  States  and  Administrations. 

PRESS,  THE  PRINTING.  This  great  engine  was  of  rude  construction  from 
the  period  of  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing,  up  to  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  many  improvements  were  made.  William  Caxton. 
a  mercer  of  London,  had  a  press  set  up  at  Westminster,  1471. — Slowe'i 
CAron.  The  earl  of  Stanhope's  iron  presses  were  in  general  use  in  18U6. 
The  printing-machine  was  invented  by  Koenig  in  .  811.  and  Applegath's  fol- 
lowed. The  Columbian  press  of  Clymer  was  produced  in  1814;  and  the 
Albion  press,  an  improvement  on  this  last,  came  into  use  a  few  years  after. 
Printing  by  means  of  steam  machinery  was  first  executed  in  England  at 
Tke  Times  office,  London,  on  Monday,  November  28,  1814.  Cowper's  and 
Applegath's  rollers  for  distributing  the  ink  upon  the  types  were  brought  in.o 
use  in  1817.  Vast  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  within 
a  few  years,  both  in  hand  and  steam-presses.  The  most  celebrated  manufac- 
turers, probably,  are  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  of  New- York.  Their  largest  presses 
for  newspapers  are  capable  of  throwing  off  10,000  sheets  per  hour,  which  is 
so  much  in  advance  of  any  presses  in  Europe  that  they  have  supplied  orders 
from  Pari?.  The  presses  of  Seth  Adams  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  are  perhaps  the 
best  in  the  world  for  book  printing.  See  article  Printing. 

PRESS,  LIBERTY  or  THE.  The  imprimatur,  "  let  it  be  printed,"  was  much  used 
on  the  title-pages  of  books  printed  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  The 
liberty  of  the  press  was  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master  printers  in 
London  and  Westminster  limited,  by  the  star-chamber,  14  Charles  I.,  1638. 
And  again  by  act  of  parliament,  6  William  III.,  1693.  The  celebrated  toast, 
"The  liberty  of  the  press — it  is  like  the  air  we  breathe — if  we  have  it  not 
we  die,"  was  first  given  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  tavern,  London,  at  a  Whig 
dinner  in  1796.  Presses  were  licensed,  and  the  printer's  name  required 
to  be  placed  on  both  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a  book,  July  1799.  In  France 
and  Germany  the  liberty  of  the  press  has  been  occasionally  granted,  but 
again  restricted  by  the  reactionary  governments.  In  the  United  States  it 
was  fully  guaranteed  by  the  constitution. 

PRESSING  TO  DEATH.  A  punishment  in  England,  referred  to  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  or  of  Edward  I.,  and  on  the  statute  book  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  death,  in  England,  if  the 
following : — Hugh  Calverly,  of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire,  esq.,  having  murdered 
two  of  his  children  and  stabbed  his  wife  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  being  arraign- 
ed for  his  crime  at  York  assizes,  stood  mute,  and  was  thereupon  pressed  to 
death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed  upon  his  breast,  3  James 
I.  1605  —  Slowed  Chron. 

PRESTONPANS.  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Young  Pretender,  prince  Chark* 
Stuart,  heading  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the  royal  army  under  sir  John 
Cope.  The  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  600  men,  and  was  forced  to 
fly  at  the  very  first  onset.  Sir  John  Cope  precipitately  galloped  from  the 
field  of  battle  to  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  where  he  was  the  first  to  announce 
his  own  discomfiture.  His  disgrace  is  perpetuated  in  a  favorite  Scottish 
ballad,  called,  from  the  doughty  hero,  "Johnie  Cope."  Fo'ight  Sept.  21, 
1746. 

PBETENDER.  The  person  known  in  English  history  by  the  title  of  ihs.  **r?tender. 


HUj"  DICTIONARY    OF    I>  VTES. 

or  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  was  the  son  of  James  II.,  born  in  1688,  and  ac- 
knowledged by  Louis  XIV.  as  James  III.  of  England,  in  1701.  He  was  pro- 
claimed, and  his  standard  set  up,  at  Braemar  and  Castletown  in  Scotland, 
Sept.  6,  1715 ;  and  he  landed  at  Peterhead,  in  Aberdeenshire,  from  France, 
to  encourage  the  rebellion  that  the  earl  of  Mar  and  his  other  adherents  had 
promoted,  Dec.  26,  same  year.  This  rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed, 
the  Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from  whence  he  arrived  at  Gravelines1), 
Feb.  4,  1716 ;  and  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  30,  1765. 

PRETENDER,  THE  YOUNG.  The  son  of  the  preceding,  called  prince  Charles, 
born  in  1720.  He  landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king,  June 
1745.  He  gained  the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  Sept.  21,  1745,  and  of  Falkirk, 
January  18,  1746 ;  but  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  April  16,  same  year,  a:ii! 
sought  safety  by  flight.  He  continued  wandering  among  the  frightful  wilda 
of  Scotland  for  nearly  six  months,  and  as  30,OOOZ.  was  offered  for  taking  him, 
he  was  constantly  pursued  by  the  British  troops,  often  hemmed  round  by 
his  enemies,  but  still  rescued  by  some  lucky  accident,  and  he  at  length  es- 
caped from  the  isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix.  He  died  March  3,  1788.  His  natur- 
al daughter  assumed  the  title  of  Duchess  of  Albany ;  she  died  ;n  1789.  His 
brother,  the  cardinal  York,  calling  himself  Henry  IX.  of  Fngland,  born 
March  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  August  1807. 

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  In  the  civil  war  against  Charles  I.  colonel  Pride,  at  the 
Lead  of  two  regiments,  surrounded  the  house  of  parliament,  and  seizing 
in  the  passage  41  members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  sent  them  to  a  low 
room,  then  called  hell.  Above  160  other  members  were  excluded,  and  none  . 
admitted  but  the  most  furious  of  the  independents.  This  atrocious  invasion 
of  parliamentary  rights  was  called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  privileged  mem- 
bers were  named  the  Rump,  to  whom  nothing  remained  to  complete  their 
wickedness,  but  to  murder  the  king,  24  Charles  I.,  1648. —  Goldsmith. 

PRIESTS.  Anciently  elders,  but  the  name  is  now  given  to  the  clergy  only. 
In  the  Old  Testament  the  age  of  priests  was  fixed  at  thirty  years.  Among 
the  Jews,  the  dignity  of  high  or  chief  priest  was  annexed  to  Aaron's  fa- 
mily, 1491  B.  c.  After  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  civil  government  and 
the  crown  were  superadded  to  the  high  priesthood ;  it  was  the  peculiar 
privilege  of  the  high  priest,  that  he  could  be  prosecuted  in  no  court  but 
that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The  heathens  had  their  arch-flamen  or 
high-priest,  and  so  have  the  Christians,  excepting  among  some  particular 
sects. 

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Romish  book  of  devotions,  and  for- 
merly set  forth  or  published  by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children  should 
publicly  learn  or  read  in  schools,  containing  prayers  and  portions  of  the 
Scripture.  Copies  of  primers  are  preserved  of  so  early  a  date  as  1539. — 
Ashe. 

PRIMOGENITURE,  RIGHT  OF,  an  usage  brought  down  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  first  born  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a  superiority  over  his  brethren, 
and  in  the  absence  of  his  father  was  priest  fc>  the  family.  In  England,  by 
the  ancient  custom  of  gavel-kind,  primogeniture  was  of  no  account.  It 
came  in  with  the  feudal  law,  3  William  I.,  i068. 

PRINTING.  The  greatest  of  all  the  arts.  The  honor  of  its  invention  haa 
been  appropriated  to  Mentz,  Strasburg,  Haerlem,  Venice,  Rome,  Florence, 
Basle  and  Augsburg  ;  but  the  claims  of  the  three  first  only  are  entitled  to 
attention.  Adrian  Junius  awards  the  honor  of  the  invention  to  Laurenzes 
John  Coster  of  Haerlem,  "  who  printed  with  blocks,  a  book  of  images  and 
letters.  Speculum  Humana  Salvatonis,  and  compounded  an  ink  more  viscoua 
and  tenacious  than  common  ink,  which  blotted,  about  A.  D.  1438."  Th«» 
leaves  of  this  book  being  printed  on  one  side  only,  were  afl  awards  pasted  to 


546 


THE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[PR* 


getlier.  John  Faust  established  a  printing  office  at  Mentz,  and  printed  the 
Tractatus  Petri  Hispani,  in  1442.  John  Guttenberg  invented  cut  metal 
types,  and  used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was 
commenced  in  1444  and  finished  in  1460.  See  Book.  Peter  Schaeffer  cast 
the  first  metal  types  in  matrices,  and  was  therefore  the  inventor  of  COMPLETE 
FEINTING,  1452. — Adrian  Junius;  Du  f^resnoy. 


Boole  qfPsalnis  printed          -1      A.  D.  1457 

The  Durandi  Rationale,  first  work 
primed  with  cast  metal  types  1  •  1459 

[Printing  was  introduced  into  Oxford, 
about  this  time. —  Collier.  But  this 
statement  is  discredited  by  Dibdin.] 

A  Liny  printed.—  Dufresnoy    •     1      -1460 

The  first  Bible  completed.— Idem!      •  1460 

[Mentz  taken  and  pi  undered,  and  the  art 
of  printing,  in  the  general  ruin,  is 
spread  to  oiher  towns]  -  -1462 

The  types  were  uniformly  Gothic,  or 
old  German  (whence  our  English,  or 
Black  Letter)  until  -  -  1465 

Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first 
used,  same  year  -  -  -  -  1465 

Cicero  de  Officiis  printed  (Blair)       -  1466 

Roman  characters,  first  at  Rome        -  1467 

A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found 
in  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury's  pa- 
lace (the  fact  disputed),  bearing  the 
date  Oxford,  anno  -  -  -  1468 

William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London, 
set  up  the  first  press  at  Westminster"  1471 

He  printed  Willyam  Caxton' s  Kecuyel 
of  the  Historyes  of  Troy,  by  Raoul 
le  Feure.— PHILLIPS  -  -  -  1471 

His  first  pieces  were,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Game  of  Chess,  and  Tally's  Offices 
(see  below). — DIBDIN  -  -  -  1474 

dSsop's  Fables,  printed  by  Caxton,  is 
supposed  10  be  the  first  book  with  its 
leaves  numbered  -  -  1434 

Aldus  cast  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  a 
Greek  book  printed  (ap  Aldi)  •  •  1476 

He  introduces  the  Italic         •        -        -  1496 


The  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew      •    A.  D.  1498 

Homer,  infolio,  beautifully  done  at  Flo- 
rence, eclipsing  all  former  printing, 
by  Demetrius "438 

Printing  used  in  Scotland  -        -        •     i609 

The  first  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was, 
strictly  speaking,  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  of  cardinal  Ximenes  (see 
Polyglot 1517 

The  Liturgy,  the  first  book  printed  in 
Ireland,  by  Humphrey  Powell  -  •  1550 

The  first  Newspaper  printed  in  Englana 
(see  Newspapers)  ....  1588 

First  patent  granted  for  printing       -     1591 

First  printing-press  imprtved  by  Wil- 
liam Blaeu,  at  Amsterdam  •  -  1601 

First  printing  in  America  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  when  the  Freeman's  Oath  and 
an  Almanac  were  printed  -  -  -639 

First  Bible  printed  in  Ireland  was  at 
Belfast.— Hardy's  Tour.  •  •  •  1704 

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon. — 
Phillips. 1720 

Stereotype  printing  suggested  by  Wil- 
liam Ged,  of  Edinburgh.— Nichols.  1735 

The  present  mode  of  stereotype  inven- 
ted by  Mr.  Colden,  of  New  York  -  1779 

Stereotype  printing  was  in  use  in  Hol- 
land in  the  last  century. — Phillips.} 
See  Stereotype. 

The  printing-machine  was  first  suggest- 
ed by  Nicholson  ....  1790 

The  Stanhope  press  was  in  general  use 
in  -1806 

Machine  printing  (see  Press)    -        •     1811 

Steam  machinery  (see  Press)       •       •  1814 


TITLES  OP   THE   EARLIEST   BOOKS    OF   CAXTON    AND    WYNKYN   DE   WORDE. 


The  Game  and  Play  e  of  the  Chesse.  Trans- 
lated out  if  the  Frenche  and  emprynted 
by  -me  Willia  n  Caxton  Fynysshid  the  last 
day  of  Marche  the  yer  of  our  Lord  God  a 
thousandfoure  hondred  and  Ixxiiij. 

TUI.LY. 

The  Bokeof  Tulle  of  Olde  age  Emprynted 
by  me  simple  persons  William  Caxton  in 
to  Englysshe  as  t/tep  at/sir  solace  and  re- 
verence of  men  growynir  in  to  old  age  the 
fij  day  of  August  the  yere  of  our  lord 
Jti.cccc.lxxij.— HERBERT. 

THE   POLYCHONYCON. 

The  Polt/cronyron  conteyning  the  Berynges 
and  Dfdes  of  many  Tymes  in  eyght  Bakes. 
Imprinted  by  William  Caxton  after  hav- 
ing somewhat  chaunged  the  rude  and 
aide  Englysshe,  that  is  to  wete  (to  wit)  cer- 


tayn  Words  which  in  these  Days  be  nei- 
ther vsyd  ne  understanden.  Ended  the 
second  day  of  Juyll  at  Weslmestre  the 
xxij  yere  of  the  Regne  ofKynge  Edward 
the  fourth,  and  of  the  Incarnation  of  oure 
Lord  a  Thousand  four  Hondred  four 
Score  and  tweyne  [1482.] — DIBDIN'S  TYP. 
Anna. 

THE    CHRONICLES. 

The  Cronicles  of  England  Enjmted  by  mr. 
Wyllyam  Caxton  IhabbeyofWestmynstre 
by  London  the  v  day  of  Juyn  the  ytre 
of  thincarnacion  of  our  lord  god 
M  CGCC.LXXX. 

POLYCHONICON. 

Pofycronycon.  Ended  the  thyrtenth  diyt 
of  Apryll  the  tenth  yere  of  the  regne  if 
kinge  Harry  the  seuenth  and  of  the  •/;*• 


*To  the  west  of  the  Sanctuary,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry, 
where  the  first  primins-press  in  England  was  erected  in  1471,  by  Wrlliarn  Caxton,  encouraged  b/ 
the  learned  Thomas  Milling,  then  abbot.  He  produced  •'  The  Game  and  Play  of  the  Chesse,"  '.te 
first  book  ever  printed  in  these  kingdoms.  There  is  a  slight  difference  about  the  place  in  which  il 
was  printed,  tut  all  agree  that  it  was  within  the  precincts  of  this  religious  house. — Ltigh. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


547 


PRIMING,  continued. 

carnacyon  of  our  lord  MCCCCLXXXXV 
Emprynled  by  \\  ynkyn  Theworde  at 
Weslmestre. 

HILL   OP  PERFECTION. 

The  Hylle  of  Perfection  emprynted  at  the 
instance  of  the  reverend  relygyous  fader 
Tho.  Prior  of  the  hous  of  St.  Ann.  the  or- 
der of  the  vharterouse  Acco-nipiyshe[d] 
aiMfynysshe[d]  alt  Westmynster  the  uiii 
day  o/'janeur  the  yere  of  our  lord  Thou- 
sande  CCCC.LXXXXVII.  And  in  them  yere 
qfkynge  Henry  the  vii  by  me  wynkyn  de 
worde. — AMES,  HERBERT,  DIBDIN. 

ENGLAND. 

The  Descrypcyon  of  Englonde  Walys  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  speaking  of  the.  Noblesse 
and  Worthynesseofthesame  lyanysshed 
and  enprynted  in  Flete  strete  in  the  syne 
of  the  aionne  by  me  Wynkyn  de  Worde 
the  yere  of  our  lord  a  M.CCCCC  and  ij.  men- 
sis  Mayiis  [mense  Mali]. — DIBDIN'  s  TYP. 
ANT. 

THE  FESTIVAL. 

The  FeslyvaU  or  Sermons  on  sondays  and 
holidais  taken  out  of  the  golden  legend  en- 


prynted at  Ion  Jon  in  F  letestrete  at  ye  synt 
of  ye  Sonne  by  wynkyn  de  worde.  In  the 
yere  ol  our  lord  M.CCCCC. VIH.  And  ended 
the  xi  daye  nf  Maye. — AMES. 

THE    LORD'S   PRATER. 

As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483. 

Father  our  that  art  in  heavens,  hallowed  bt 
thy  name :  thy  kyngdome  come  to  ut ;  /hjf 
will  be  done  in  earth  as  is  in  heaven :  oure 
every  days  bred  give  us  to  day  ;  and  for- 
give us  oure  tresspasses,  as  we  forgivt 
them  that  tresspass  against  us  ;  and  lead 
us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  usfrom 
all  evil  sin,  amtn. — LEWIS'S  LIPB  or 
CAXTON. 

A  PLACARD. 
As  printed  by  William  Caxton. 

If  it  p/ese  any  man  spiritual  or  temporal  to 
bye  onypies  of  two  or  thre  comemoracios  of 
Kalisburi  use'  enpryntid  after  the  forme 
of  this  presit  lettre  whiche  ben  wel  and 
truly  correct,  late  him  come  to  westmon- 
ester  in  to  the  almonestye  at  the  reed  pale 
[red  pale]  and  he  shall  have  them  good 
there. — DIBDIN'S  TYP.  ANTIQ,. 


Among;  the  early  printers,  the  only  points  used  were  the  comma,  parenthesis, 
interrogation,  and  full  stop.  To  these  succeeded  the  colon  ;  afterwards  the 
semicolon ;  and  last  the  note  of  admiration.  The  sentences  were  full  of 
abbreviations  and  contractions  ;  and  there  were  no  running-titles,  numbered 
leaves  or  catch-words.  Our  punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
with  the  art  of  printing. 

PRINTED  GOODS.  The  art  of  calico-printing  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  there  exist  specimens  of  Egyptian  cotton  dyed  by  figured  blocks  many 
hundred  years  old.  A  similar  process  has  been  resorted  to  even  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  where  they  use  a  large  leaf  as  a  substitute  for  the  block. 
See  article  Cotton.  The  copyright  of  designs  secured  in  England  by  2  Vic- 
toria, 1839. 

PRIORIES.  They  were  of  early  foundation,  and  are  mentioned  in  A.  D.  722  in 
England.  See  Abbeys  and  Monasteries.  The  priories  of  aliens  were  first 
seized  upon  by  Edward  I.  in  1285.  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  between 
England  and  France.  They  were  seized  in  several  succeeding  reigns  on 
the  like  occasions,  but  were  usually  restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace. 
These  priories  were  dissolved,  and  their  estates  vested  in  the  crown,  3 
Henry  V.  1414. — Rymers  Fadera. 

PRISONERS  or  WAR.  Among  the  ancient  nations,  prisoners  of  war  when 
spared  by  the  sword  were  usually  enslaved,  and  this  custom  more  or  less 
continued  until  about  the  thirteenth  century,  when  civilized  nations,  instead 
of  enslaving,  commonly  exchanged  their  prisoners.  The  Spanish,  French, 
and  American  prisoners  of  war  in  England  were  12  000  in  number.  Sept.  30, 
1779.  The  number  exchanged  by  cartel  with  France  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  then  war,  was  44.000.  June  1781. — Phillips.  The  English  pri- 
soners in  France  estimated  at  6000,  and  the  French  in  England,  27,000, 
Sept.  1798.— Idem.  The  English  in  France  amounted  to  10,300,  and  the 
French,  &c.,  in  England  to  47.600,  in  1811. — Idem.  This  was  the  greatest 


*  Romish  Service  books,  used  at  Salisbury  by  the  devout,  called  Pies  (Pica,  Latin),  as  u  sup 
posed  from  the  different  coloi  ol  the  text  and  rubric.  Our  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  print 
•W.—  Wheatley. 


548  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  ("PRO 

number,  owing  to  the  occasional  exchanges  made,  up  to  the  period  cf  th« 
last  war. 

PRISON  DISCIPLINE  SOCIETY,  in  England,  owes  its  existence  to  the  philan- 
thropic labors  of  Sir  T.  F.  Buxton,  M.  P.  It  was  instituted  in  1815,  and  held 
its  first  public  meeting  in  1820.  Its  objects  are,  the  amelioration  of  jails,  by 
the  diffusion  of  information  respecting  their  construction  and  management, 
the  classification  and  employment  of  the  prisoners,  and  the  prevention  of 
crime,  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  punishment,  and  by  inducing  the  criminal, 
on  his  discharge  from  confinement,  to  abandon  his  vicious  pursuits. — 
Haydn.  In  the  United  States  a  Prison  Discipline  Society  for  the  same  object 
was  established  in  Boston  in  1825.  The  Rev.  Louis  Dwight  was  its  active 
promoter  and  secretary.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  in  several  States  for 
the  amelioration  and  improvement  of  prisoners ;  and  the  various  systems 
adopted  and  practised  at  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Philadel- 
phia, &c.,  have  attracted  the  attention  of  statesmen  and  travellers  from 
Europe.  Among  those  who  have  labored  effectively  in  this  matter  is  a  lady 
— Miss  Dix,  of  New  York — who  has  accomplished  more  than  any  other  per- 
son, for  the  welfare  of  prisoners  and  of  the  insane,  and  may  deserve  even  a 
higher  name  than  the  American  Mrs.  Fry. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL,  ENGLAND.  This  assembly  is  of  great  antiquity.  Instituted 
by  Alfred,  A.  D.  895.  In  ancient  times  the  number  was  twelve  ;  but  it  was 
afterwards  so  increased,  that  it  was  found  inconvenient  for  secrecy  and 
despatch,  and  Charles  II.  limited  it  to  thirty,  whereof  fifteen  were  the 
principal  officers  of  state  (councillors  ex  nfficio),  and  ten  lords  and  five  com- 
moners of  the  king's  choice.  A.  D.  1679.  The  number  is  now  indefinite.  To 
attempt  the  life  of  a  privy-councillor  in  the  execution  of  his  office  made 
capital,  occasioned  by  Guiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter  was 
examining  him  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  10  Anne,  1711. 

PRIZE  MONEY.  In  the  English  navy  the  money  arising  from  captures 
made  upon  the  enemy,  is  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  and  thus  distri- 
buted by  order  of  government : — Captain  to  have  three-eighths,  unless 
under  the  direction  of  a  flag-officer,  who  in  that  case  is  to  have  one  of  the 
said  three-eighths ;  captains  of  marines  and  land  forces,  sea  lieutenants. 
&c.,  one-eighth  :  lieutenants  of  marines,  gunners,  admiral's  secretaries,  &c. 
one-eighth ;  midshipmen,  captain's  clerks,  &c.,  one-eighth ;  ordinary  and 
able  seamen,  marines,  &c.,  two-eighths 

PROFILES.  The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,  was  that  of  Antigonns,  who 
having  but  one  eye,  his  likeness  was  so  taken,  330  B.  c. — Ashe,  "  Until  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  I  have  not  seen  a  Roman  emperor  with  a  full  face  ; 
they  were  always  painted  or  appeared  in  profile,  which  gives  us  the  view  of 
a  head  in  a  very  majestic  manner." — Addison. 

PROMISSORY  NOTES.  They  were  regulated  and  allowed  to  be  made  assign- 
able in  1705.  First  taxed  by  a  stamp  in  1782 ;  the  tax  was  increased  in 
1804.  and  again  in  1808,  and  subsequently.  See  Bills  of  Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE.  The  celebrated  congregation  or  college  in  the  Romish 
Church,  Ctmgregatw  de  Propaganda  Fide,  was  constituted  at  Rome  by  pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  1622.  Its  constitution  was  altered  by  several  of  the  suc- 
ceeding pontiffs. 

VROPERTY  TAX  IN  ENGLAND.  Parliament  granted  to  Henry  VIII.  a  subsidy 
of  two-fifteenths  from  the  commons  and  two-tenths  from  the  clergy  to  aid 
the  king  in  a  war  with  France.  \b\2.—Rapin.  Cardinal  Wolsey  pro- 
posed a  tenth  of  the  property  of  the  laity  and  a  fourth  of  the  clergy 
to  the  same  king,  1522.  The  London  merchants  strenuously  opposed  this 
tax :  they  wore  required  to  declare  on  oath  the  real  value  of  their  effects  •, 
but  they  firmly  refused,  alleging  that  it  was  not  possible  for  them  to  givi 


fEU  J  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES  549 

an  exact  account  of  their  effects,  part  whereof  was  in  the  hands  of  corres- 
pondents in  foreign  countries  At  length,  by  agreement,  the  king  was 
pi  sased  to  accept  of  a  sum  according  to  their  own  calculation  of  themselves. 
— Butler.  This  tax  was  levied  at  various  periods,  and  was  of  great  amount 
in  the  last  years  of  the  late  war.  The  assessments  on  i  jal  property,  under 
the  property- tax  of  1815,  were  51,898,4232. 

PROPHECY.  The  word  prophet,  in  proper  language,  means  one  of  the  sacred 
writers  empowered  by  God  to  display  futurity.  We  have  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  writings  of  sixteen  prophets ;  i.  e.  of  four  greater,  and  twelve 
lesser.  The  former  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ;  the  latter 
are  Hosea,  Joel.  Amos,  Obadiah,  Micah,  Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Ze- 
phaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  Prophecy  is  instanced  in  the 
earliest  times.  The  prophetic  denunciations  upon  Babylon  were  executed 
by  Cyrus,  538  B.  c.  God's  judgment  upon  Jerusalem  (Isaiah,  xxix.  1 — 8) 
executed  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70.  Many  other  instances  of  prophecy  occur  in 
Scripture. 

PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  called  a  diet  at  Spires  in  1529,  to 
request  aid  from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise  means 
for  allaying  the  religious  disputes  which  then  raged,  owing  to  Luther's  op- 
position to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Against  a  decree  of  this  diet,  to 
support  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome,  six  Lutheran  princes,  .vith 
the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns,  formally  and  solemnly  protested, 
April  17,  1530.  Hence  the  term  protestants  was  given  to  the  followers  of 
Luther,  and  it  afterwards  included  Calvinists,  and  all  other  sects  separated 
from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  six  protesting  princes  were  John  and  George, 
the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  Ernest  and  Francis,  the  two 
dukes  of  Lunenburg ;  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt ; 
these  were  joined  by  the  inhabitants  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Con- 
stance, Hailbron  and  seven  other  cities.  See  biitheranism,  Calvinism,  $*c. 

PROVISIONS — REMARKABLE  FACTS  CONCERNING  THEM.  Wheat  for  food  for  100 
men  for  one  day  worth  only  one  shilling,  and  a  sheep  for  fourpence,  Henry 
I.,  about  1130.  The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence  per  quart  for  red,  and 
eightpence  for  white,  that  the  sellers  might  be  enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John, 
1200. — Burton's  Annals.  When  wheat  was  at  6s.  per  quarter,  the  farthing 
loaf  was  to  be  equal  in  weight  to  twenty-four  ounces  (made  of  the  whole 
grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white.  When  wheat  was  at  Is.  6d.  per  quarter, 
the  farthing  loaf  white  was  to  weigh  sixty-four  ounces,  and  the  whole  grain 
(the  same  as  standard  now)  ninety-six,  by  the  first  assize,  A.  D.  1202. — Mat. 
Paris.  A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280. — Dufresnoy.  Wheat  Is. 
per  quarter,  14  Edward  I.  1286. — Stowe.  The  price  of  provisions  fixed  by 
the  common-council  of  London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three-halfpence ; 
a  partridge,  or  two  woodcocks,  three-half-pence ;  a  fat  lamb  sixpence  from 
Christmas  to  Shrovetide,  the  rest  of  the  year  fourpence,  29  Edward  I.  1299. 
Stowe.  Price  of  provisions  fixed  by  parliament :  at  the  rate  of  21.  8s.  of 
our  money  for  a  fat  ox,  if  fed  with  corn  31. 12s. ;  a  shorn  sheep,  5s. ;  two 
dozen  of  eggs.  3d. ;  other  articles  nearly  the  same  as  fixed  by  the  common- 
council  above  recited,  7  Edward  II.  1313. — Rot.  Parl.  Wine,  the  best  sold 
for  20s.  per  tun.  10  Richard  II.  1387.  Wheat  being  at  Is.  Id.  the  bushel  in 
1390,  this  was  deemed  so  high  a  price  that  it  is  called  a  dearth  of  corn  by 
the  historians  of  that  era.  Beef  and  pork  settled  at  a  halfpenny  the  pound, 
and  veal  three  farthings,  by  act  of  parliament,  24  Henry  VIII.  1533. — An- 
derson's Origin  of  Commerce.  Milk  was  sold,  three  pints,  ale-measure,  foi 
one  halfpenny,  2  Eliz.  1560. — Stmce's  Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  Venedi,  about  32C 
B.  o.  The  Venedi  were  conquered  by  a  people  called  the  Borussi,  who  in- 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[PEB 


habited  the  Riphaean  mountains ;  and  from  these  the  country  was  called 
Burussia.  Some  historians,  however,  derive  the  name  from  Po,  sig- 
nifying near,  and  Russia — Po-Russia,  easily  modified  into  Prussia.  The 
Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  followers  of  the  Teutonic  knights, 
and  latterly,  with  the  Poles.  This  people  and  country  were  little  known 
until  about  A.  D.  1007. 


St.  Adalbert  arrives  in  Prussia  to  preach 
Christianity,  but  is  murdered  by  the 
pagans  -  -  A.  D. 1010 

Boleslaus  of  Poland  revenges  his  death 
by  dreadful  ravages  -  -  -  *  * 

Berlin  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  reign  of  Albert  the  Bear  -  1163 

The  Teutonic  knights,  returning  from 
the  holy  wars,  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Prussia,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
people  -  -  -  -  1225 

Konigsberg,  lately  built,  made  the  capi- 
tal of  Prussia  ....  1286 

The  Teutonic  knights,  by  their  barba- 
rities, almost  depopulate  Prussia.  It 
is  repeopled  by  German  colonists  in 
the  13th  century  -  -  -  *  *  * 

Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg  obtains  by 
purchase  from  Sigismond,  emperor 
of  Germany,  the  margraviate  of  Bran- 
denburg ....  1415 

[This  Frederick  is  the  head  of  the  pre- 
sent reigning  family.] 

Casimir  IV.  of  Poland  assists  the  na- 
tives against  the  oppression  of  ihe 
Teutonic  knights  -  -  -  1446 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand-master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  renounces  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  embraces 
Lutheranism,  and  is  acknowledged 
duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held  as  a 
fief  of  Poland  -  -  -  -1525 

University  of  Konigsberg  founded  by 
duke  Albert  ....  1544 

The  dukedom  of  Prussia  is  joined  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg,  and  so 
continues  to  this  day  -  •  -  1594 

John  Sigismund  created  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg and  duke  of  Prussia  •  1603 

The  principality  of  Halberstadt  and  the 
bishopric  of  Minden  transferred  to  the 
house  of  Brandenburg  •  -  1648 

Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia 
as  an  independent  state,  under  Frede- 
rick William  ....  1657 

Order  of  Concord  instituted  by  Christian 
Ernest,  duke  of  Prussia,  to  distinguish 
the  part  he  had  taken  in  restoring 
peace  to  Europe  -  -  -  1660 

The  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monar- 
chy was  established  between  the  years 
1640  and  -  -  -  -  1680 

Frederic  HI.,  in  an  assembly  of  the 
states,  puts  a  crown  upon  his  own 
head,  and  upon  the  head  of  his  con- 
sort, atid  is  proclaimed  km"  of  Prus- 
sia, by  the  title  of  Frederick  L  -  1701 

Ouelders  taken  from  the  Dutch      •      -  1702 

Frederick  I.  seizes  Neufchatel  or  Neun- 
burgh,  and  Valencia,  and  purchases 
the  principality  of  Tecklenburgh  - 1707 

Reign  of  Frederick  the  Great,  during 


which  the  Prussian  monarchy  is 
made  to  rank  among  the  first  powers 
in  Europe  -  •  -  A.  D.  1740 

Breslau  ceded  to  Prussia     •  -      -  1741 

Silesia,  Glatz,  <fec.,  ceded  •  -  1742 

Frederick  the  Great  visits  England      -  1741 
General   Lacy  with   15,000  Austrians, 
and  a  Russian  army,  march  to  Berlin. 
The  city  laid  under  contribution ;  and 
pays  800,000  guilders,  and  1.900,000 
crowns,  the  magazines,  arsenals,  and 
foundries  destroyed     ...  1760 
Frederick  the  Great  dies      -    Aug.  17,  1786 
The  Prussians  take  possession  of  Hano- 
ver Jan.  30.  1806 
Prussia  j;  ins    the    allies  of  England 

against  France  -  -   Oct.  6,  1^06 

Fatal  battle  of  Jena  -         Oct.  14,  18u6 

[Here  followed  the  loss  of  almost  every 
corps  in  succession  of  the  Prussian 
army,  the  loss  of  Berlin,  and  of  every 
province  of  the  monarchy  except 
Prussia  proper.] 

Berlin  decree  promulgated  •  Nov.  20, 1806 
Peace  of  Tilsit  (which  see)  •  July  7,  1807 
Convention  of  Berlin  -  Nov.  5,  1808 

Prussia  joins  the  allies  -  March  17,  1813 
Treaty  of  Paris  -  -  April  11, 1814 

The  king  promised  liberty  of  the  press 

March,  1847 

Outbreak  at  Berlin :  the  king  resists 
urgent  demands  for  liberal  measures, 

March  14,  1847 
Barricade5!  and  fights  between  troops 

and  students  -  -  March  15, 1847 

The  king  goes  to  Potsdam  -  March  18,  1847 
-  issues  decree  demanding   a  federal 
union  of  Germany,  and  granting  li- 
berty of  the  press        -         March  18,  1847 
Another  bloody  collision,  274  killed 

March  18, 1847 

New  ministry  formed  -  March  18,  1817 
The  king  grants  general  amnesty 

March  20,  1847 

Agitations  general  throughout  Prussia 
A  free  constitution  granted,  in  a  sojemn 

convocation,  by  the  king   •  April  11,  1347 
The  duchy  of  Posen  reorganized  by  the 

king          -  -  -    March  26,  1&43 

Prussian  diet  meets  at  Berlin  -  April  3,  1848 
Constitutional  assembly  of  Prussia 

meets  -  •  -    May  22,  18« 

The  arsenal  at  Berlin  captured  by  the 

mob  -  •        June  16,  1849 

The  king  prorogues  the  assembly  at 
Berlin,  and  appoints  its  meeting  at 
Brandenburg  -  -  Nov.  9,  1848 

The  Burgher  Guard  refuses  to  obey  the 
order  of  the  king  to  disband.  Berlin 
in  a  state  of  siege  •  Nov.  12,  1&J& 

The  assembly  dissolved,  and  a  new  con- 
stitution promulgated  -  Dec.  6, 1843 


MARGRAVES   AND   ELECTORS   OP  BRANDENBURG,  ETC. 

.  923  Sifroi,  margrave  of  Brandenburg.  I  succession  of  time,  passed  into  t*\« 

'  *  Geron,  margrave  of  Lusatia.  which,  in  |  families  of  Staden,  A/scanU,  Bellen 


PUR]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  551 

PRUSSIA,  continued. 


stadt,  and  that  of  Bavaria;  till  the 
emperor  Sigismond,  with  the  consent 
of  the  states  of  the  empire,  gave  per- 
petual investiture  to 

1416  Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg,  made 
elector  of  Brandenburgh,  1417. 

1440  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  Ferreus,  or 
Ironside ;  resigned. 

1470  Albert  I.,  surnamed  the  German  Achil- 
les. He  confirmed  the  deed  made  by 
his  predecessor,  of  mutual  succession 
with  the  families  of  Saxony  and 
Hesse ;  resigned. 

1476  John,  suruamed  the  Cicero  of  Germany, 
his  son. 

1499  Joachim  I.,  his  son. 


1535  Joachim  II. ;  he  was  poisoned  by  a  Jew 

1571  John  George. 
1598  Joachim  Frederick. 
1608  John  Sisismund. 
1619  George  William. 
1640  Frederick  William  the  Great. 
1688  Frederick,  who,  in  1701,  was  mide  kin| 
of  Prussia. 

KINGS    OP  PRUSSIA. 

1701  Frederick  I. 

1713  Frederick  William  I. 

1740  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Grstt 

1786  Frederick  William  II. 

1797  Frederick  William  III. 

1840  Frederick  William  IV.,  June  7. 


PUBLICHOUSES  IN  ENGLAND.  A  power  of  licensing  them  was  first  granted 
to  sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchel  for  their  own  emolument, 
A.  D.  1620-1.  The  number  of  public  houses  in  England  at  this  period  was 
about  13  000.  In  1700  the  number  was  32  600 ;  and  in  1790,  the  number  in 
Great  Britain  was  76  000.  It  is  supposed  that  there  were  about  60,000 
public  houses,  and  30,000  beer-shops  in  England  and  Wales  in  1830.  The 
number  on  Jan.  5,  1840,  was  95,820. 

PULLEY.  The  pulley,  together  with  the  vice  and  other  mechanical  instru- 
ments, are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  a  disciple 
of  Pythagoras,  about  516  B.  c. —  Univ.  Hist.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  in 
a  single  movable  pulley  the  power  gained  is  doubled.  In  a  continued  com- 
bination the  power  is  twice  the  number  of  pullies,  less  1. — Phillips. 

PULTOWA,  BATTLE  OF.  In  this  memorable  engagement  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  obliged  to 
take  refuge  at  Bender,  in  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  vanquished  monarch 
would  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  czar  after  the  engagement,  had  he 
not  been  saved  by  the  personal  exertions  of  the  brave  count  Poniatowski,  a 
Polish  nobleman,  whom  Voltaire  has  commemorated  and  immortalized. 
This  battle  was  lost  chiefly  owing  to  a  want  of  concert  in  the  generals,  and  to 
the  circumstance  of  Charles  having  been  dangerously  wounded,  just  before, 
which  obliged  him  to  issue  his  commands  from  a  litter,  without  being  able 
to  encourage  his  soldiers  by  his  presence.  Fought  July  8,  1709. 

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  architect  and  mechanic,  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  pump  (with  other  hydraulic  instruments)  about  224  B.  c.,  although 
the  invention  is  ascribed  to  Danaus,  at  Lindus,  1485  B.  c.  They  were  in 
general  use  in  England,  A.  D.  1425.  The  air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto 
Guericke  in  1654,  and  was  improved  by  Boyle  in  1657.  An  inscription  on 
the  pump  in  front  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,  states  that  the  well 
beneath  was  first  sunk  in  A.  D.  1282. 

PUNIC  WARS.  The  first  Punic  war  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  against 
Carthage  264  B.  c.  The  ambition  of  Rome  was  the  origin  of  this  war  ;  it 
lasted  twenty-three  years,  and  ended  241  B.  c.  The  second  Punic  war  be- 
gan 218  B.  c.,  in  which  year  Hannibal  marched  a  numerous  army  of  90,000 
foot  and  12000  horse  towards  Italy,  resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  to  the 
gates  of  Rome.  He  crossed  the  Rhone,  the  Alps,  and  the  Apennines,  with 
uncommon  celerity ;  and  the  Roman  consuls  who  were  stationed  to  stop  his 
progress  were  severally  defeated.  The  battles  of  Trebia,  of  Ticinus,  and 
of  the  lake  of  Thrasymenus,  followed.  This  war  lasted  seventeen  years,  and 
ended  in  201  B.  c.  The  third  Punic  war  began  149  B.  c.,  and  was  terminated 
by  the  fall  of  Carthage,  146  B.  c.  See  Carthage. 

PURGATORY.    The  middle  place  between  the  grave,  or  heaven,  and  hel) 


552  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  PTT 

where,  it  is  believed  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  soul  passes  through  the 
fire  of  purification  before  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  doctrine  of 
purgatory  was  known  about  A.  D.  250 ;  and  was  introduced  into  the  Roman 
church  in  593. — Platina.  It  was  introduced  early  in  the  sixth  century. — 
Dupin. 

PURIFICATION.  The  act  of  cleansing,  especially  considered  as  relating  to 
the  religious  performance  among  the  Jewish  women.  It  was  ordained  by  the 
Jewish  law  that  a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days  after  the 
birth  of  a  son.  and  eighty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  when  she  was 
to  go  to  the  temple  and  offer  a  lamb,  pigeon,  or  turtle,  A.  D.  214.  Among 
the  Christians,  the  feast  of  purification  was  instituted,  A.  D.  542,  in  honor  of 
the  Virgin  Mary's  going  to  the  temple,  where,  according  to  custom,  she 
presented  her  son  Jesus  Christ,  and  offered  two  turtles  for  him.  Pope  Ser- 
gius  I.  ordered  the  procession  with  wax  tapers,  from  whence  it  is  called 
Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS.  The  name  given  to  such  persons  as  in  the  reigns  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth, king  James,  and  king  Charles  I.,  pretended  to  greater  holiness  of 
living  and  stricter  discipline  than  any  other  people.  They  at  first  were 
members  of  the  established  church,  but  afterwards  became  separatists  upon 
account  of  several  ceremonies  that  were  by  the  rigidness  of  those  times  se- 
verely insisted  upon. — Bishop  Sanderson. 

PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT.  The  pyramids,  according  to  Dr.  Pococke  and  Son- 
nini,  '•  so  celebrated  from  remote  antiquity,  are  the  most  illustrious  monu- 
ments of  art.  It  is  singular  that  such  superb  piles  are  nowhere  to  be  found 
but  in  Egypt ;  for  in  every  other  country,  pyramids  are  rather  puerile  and 
diminutive  imitations  of  those  in  Egypt,  than  attempts  at  appropriate  mag- 
nificence. The  pyramids  are  situated  on  a  rock  at  the  foot  of  some  high 
mountains  which  bound  the  Nile."  The  first  building  of  them  commenced, 
it  is  supposed,  about  1500  B.  c.  They  were  formerly  accounted  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  largest,  near  Gizeh,  is  461  feet  in  perpen- 
dicular height,  with  a  platform  on  the  top  32  feet  square,  and  the  length  of 
the  base  is  746  feet.  It  occupies  eleven  acres  of  ground,  and  is  constructed 
of  such  stupendous  blocks  of  stone,  that  a  more  marvellous  result  of  hu- 
man labor  has  not  been  found  on  the  earth. 

"  Virtue  alone  outbuilds  the  pyramids, 

"  Her  monuments  shall  stand  when  Egypt's  fall."— YOPNO. 

PYRENEES,  BATTLE  OP  THE,  between  the  British  army,  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French,  under  the  command  of  marshal  Soult.  The 
latter  army  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  July  28,  1813.  After  the 
battle  of  Vittoria  (fought  June  21),  Napoleon  sent  Soult  to  supersede  Jour- 
dan,  with  instructions  to  drive  the  allies  across  the  Ebro,  a  duty  to  which 
his  abilities  were  inferior ;  for  Soult  retreated  into  France  with  a  loss  of 
more  than  20,00  men,  having  been  defeated  in  a  series  of  engagements  from 
July  25  to  August  2. 

PYRENEES.  PEACE  OF  THE.  A  peace  concluded  between  France  and  Spain ; 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Spain  yielding  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  her 
rights  to  Alsace;  and  France  ceding  her  conquests  in  Catalonia,  Italy,  &c., 
and  engaging  not  to  assist  Portugal,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Founded  by  Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  head 
of  the  Italic  sect.  He  first  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or 
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another.  He  forbade  his  dis- 
ciples to  eat  flesh,  as  also  beans,  because  he  supposed  them  to  liave  been 
produced  from  the  same  putrified  matter  from  which  at  the  creation  of  the 
world  man  was  formed.  In  his  theological  system,  Pythagoras  supported 
that  the  universe  was  created  from  a  shapelesg  heap  of  passive  matter  bj 


tUA  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  553 

the  hands  of  a  powerful  being,  who  himself  was  the  mover  and  soul  of  tha 
world.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  multiplication-table,  and  a  great  im- 
prover of  geometry,  while  in  astronomy  he  taught  the  system  adopted  at 
this  day,  539  B.  c. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES.  Games  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo,  near  the  temple 
of  Delphi.  They  were  first  instituted,  according  to  the  more  received 
opinion,  by  Apollo  himself,  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  which  he  had 
obtained  over  the  serpent  Python,  from  which  they  received  their  name; 
though  others  maintain  that  they  were  first  established  by  Agamemnon, 
or  Diomedes,  or  by  Amphictyon,  or,  lastly,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphio- 
tyons,  B.  c.  1263. — Arundelian  Marbles. 

Q. 

QUACKERY  AND  QUACK  MEDICINES.  At  the  first  appearance  that  a 
French  quack  made  in  Paris,  a  boy  walked  before  him,  publishing,  with  a 
shrill  voice,  "  My  father  cures  all  sorts  of  distempers  ;"  to  which  the  doctor 
added  in  a  grave  manner,  "  What  the  child  says  is  true." — Addi&oii.  Quacks 
sprung  up  with  the  art  of  medicine ;  and  several  countries,  particularly 
England  and  France,  abound  with  them.  In  London,  some  of  their  ^sta- 
blishments  are  called  colleges.  Quack  medicines  were  taxed  in  England  in 
1783  et  seq.  An  inquest  was  held  on  the  body  of  a  young  lady,  Miss 
Cashin,  whose  physician,  St.  John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  man- 
slaughter ;  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  2502.,  Oct. 
30,  1830. 

QUADRANT.  The  mathematical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  circle. 
The  solar  quadrant  was  introduced  about  290  B.  c.  The  Arabian  astrono- 
nomers  under  the  Caliphs,  in  A.  D.  995,  had  a  quadrant  of  21  feel  8  inches 
radius,  and  a  sextant  57  feet  9  inches  radius.  Dayis's  quadrant  for  mea- 
suring angles  was  produced  about  1600.  Hadley's  quadrant,  in  If31.  See 
Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  Alliance  between  Great 
Britain.  France,  and  the  Emperor,  signed  at  London.  This  alliance,  on  the 
accession  of  the  states  of  Holland,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Quadruple 
Alliance, .and  was  for  the  purpose  of  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  the 
reigning  families  in  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  settling  the  partition  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy.  Aug.  2,  1718. 

QUAESTOR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  an  officer  who  had  the  management  of 
the  public  treasure,  instituted  484  B.  c.  The  questorship  was  the  first  office 
any  person  could  bear  in  the  commonwealth,  and  gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the 
senate.  At  first  there  were  only  two;  but  afterwards  the  number  was 
greatly  increased. 

QUAKERS  OR  FRIENDS.  Originally  called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the 
truth  ;  and  afterwards  Friends — a  beautiful  appellation,  and  characteristic 
of  the  relation  which  man,  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  ought  to  bear 
towards  man. — Clarkson.  Justice  Bennet.  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the 
name  of  Quakers  in  1650.  because  Fox  (the  founder)  admonished  him  and 
those  present  with  him.  to  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord.  This  respect- 
able sect,  excelling  in  morals  prudence,  and  industry,  was  commenced  in 
England  about  A.  D.  1650,  by  George  Fox,  who  was  soon  joined  by  a  num- 
ber of  learned,  ingenious  and  pious  men — among  others,  by  George  Keith, 
Wm.  Penn,  and  Robert  Barclay  of  Ury.*  The  thce  and  thou  used  by  tha 

*  The  Quakers  early  suffered  grievous  persecutions  in  England  and  America.    At  Boston,  when 
the  first  Friends  who  arrived  weie  females,  they,  even  females,  were  cruelly  scourged,  anil  U>eW 

'24: 


554  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  QU* 

Quakers  originated  with  their  founder,  who  published  a  book  of  instruc- 
tions for  teachers  and  professors.  The  solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  was 
enacted  to  be  taken  in  all  cases,  in  the  courts  below,  wherein  oaths  are  re- 
quired from  other  subjects,  8  William  III.  1696. 

QUARANTINE.  The  custom  first  observed  at  Venice,  A.  D.  1127,  whereby  all 
merchants  and  others  coming  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to  remain  in 
the  house  of  St.  Lazarus,  or  the  Lazaretto,  40  days  before  they  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  city.  Various  southern  cities  have  now  lazarettos ;  that  of 
Venice  is  built  in  the  water.  In  the  times  of  plague,  England  and  all  other 
nations  oblige  those  that  come  from  the  infected  places  to  perform  qua- 
rantine with  their  ships,  &c.,  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  as  may  be  judged 
most  safe. 

QUATRE-BRAS  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  and  allied  army  under  the 
duke  of  Brunswick,  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the 
French  under  marshal  Ney,  fought  two  days  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
In  this  engagement  the  gallant  duke  of  Brunswick  fell,  June  16,  1815. 

QUEBEC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1605.  It  was  reduced  by  the  English, 
with  all  Canada,  in  1626,  but  was  restored  in  1632.  Quebec  was  besieged 
by  the  English,  but  without  success,  in  1711 ;  but  was  conquered  by  them, 
after  a  battle  memorable  for  the  death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of 
victory,  Sept.  13,  1759.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham. 
Quebec  was  besieged  by  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Montgomery,  who  was 
slain.  December  31,  1775;  and  the  siege  was  raised  the  next  year.  The 
public  and  private  stores,  and  several  wharfs,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1815 ;  the  loss  being  estimated  at  upwards  of  260,OOOZ.  Awful  fire,  1650 
houses,  the  dwellings  of  12.000  persons,  burnt  to  the  ground,  May  28, 
1845.  Another  great  fire,  one  month  afterwards ;  1365  houses  burnt,  June 
28,  1845.  Disastrous  fire  at  the  theatre,  50  lives  lost,  Jan.  12,  1846. 

QUEEN.  The  first  queen  invested  with  authority  as  a  ruling  sovereign,  was 
Semiramis.  queen  and  empress  of  Assyria,  2017  B.  c.  She  embellished  the 
city  of  Babylon,  made  it  her  capital,  and  by  her  means  it  became  the  most 
magnificent  and  superb  city  in  the  world.  The  title  of  queen  is  coeval  with 
that  of  king.  The  Hungarians  had  such  an  aversion  to  the  name  of  queen, 
that  whenever  a  queen  ascended  the  throne,  she  reigned  with  the  title  of 
king.  See  note  to  article  Hungary. 

QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL.  Caroline,  the  consort  of  George  IV.  of  Eng- 
land, was  subjected,  when  princess  of  Wales,  to  the  ordeal  of  the  Delicate 
Investigation.  May  29,  1806.  Her  trial  commenced  Aug.  19,  1820.  Illumi- 
nations on  her  acquittal,  Nov.  10-12.  Her  death  Aug.  7, 1821.  Riot  at  her 
funeral,  Aug.  14. 

QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND.  There  have  been,  since  the  conquest,  besides  the 
present  sovereign,  four  queens  of  England  who  have  reigned  in  their  own 
right,  not  counting  the  empress  Maude,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  or  the  lady 
Jane  Grey,  whose  quasi  reign  lasted  only  ten  days.  There  have  been  thirty- 
four  queens,  the  consorts  of  kings,  exclusively  of  four  wives  of  kings  who 


iier*  i  1.1  ii 
7,000  Frie 

•elves  at  tins  iiuie,  uy  name,  lu  guveniiiieui,  lu  UK  imprisoned  in  lieu  01  an  equal  numuer  in  uanger 
(from  confinement)  of  death.  Fifty-five  (out  of  1:20  sentenced)  were  transported  to  America,  by  an 
order  of  council,  UJ64.  The  masters  of  vessels  refusing  to  carry  them  lor  some  months,  an  em- 
bargo was  laid  on  West  India  ships,  when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the  service 
Huf  the  Friends  would  not  walk  on  board,  nor  would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  vessel,  and  sol- 
diers from  the  Tower  were  employed.  In  1665,  the  vessel  sailed  ;  but  it  was  immediately  captured 
by  the  Dutch,  who  liberated  !W  of  the  prisoners  in  Holland,  the  rest  having  died  of  the  plague  in  thai 
jrw.  See  Ptngue.  Of  the  120  few  reached  America. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


555 


died  previously  to  their  husbands  ascending  the  throne.  Of  thirty- five  ac« 
tual  sovereigns  of  England,  four  died  unmarried,  three  kings  and  one  queen. 
The  following  list  includes  all  these  royal  personages : — 

Of  WILLIAM  I.  was  married  September  12, 1299.    Survived 


Matilda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  earl  of 
Flanders ;  she  was  married  in  1051 ;  and 
died  1084. 

WILLIAM  II. 

This  sovereign  died  unmarried. 
Of  HENRY  I. 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  king  of 
Scotland ;  she  was  married  November  11, 
1100;  and  died  May  1,1119. 

Adelais,  daughter  of  Godfrey,  earl  of  Lou- 
vaine  ;  she  was  married  January  29.  1129. 
Survived  the  king. 

MAUDE  01  MATILDA. 
Di  lighter  of  Henry  I.,  and  rightful  heir  to 
the  throne  ;  she  was  born  1101  ;  was  betroth- 
sd  in  1109,  at  eight  years  of  age,  to  Henry 
V.,  emperor  of  Germany,  who  died  1125. 
She  married,  secondly.  Geoffrey  Plantagenet, 
earl  of  Anjou.  1130.  Was  set  aside  from  the 
English  succession  by  Stephen.  1135;  landed 
in  England  and  claimed  the  crown,  1 139. 
Crowned,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  at 
Winchester.  1141.  Concluded  a  peace  with 
Stephen,  which  secured  the  succession  to 
her  son,  Henry,  1153;  died  1167. 

Of  STEPHEN. 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Eustace,  count  of 
Boulogne ;  she  was  married  in  1128 :  and 
lied  May  3, 1151. 

Of  HENRY  II. 

Eleanor,  the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis 
VII.  king  of  France,  and  heiress  of  Guienne 
and  Poitou ;  she  was  married  to  Henry  1152 ; 
and  died  1204. 

[The  Fair  Rosamond  was  the  mistress  of 
this  prince. 

Of  RICHARD  I. 

Berengera,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Na- 
varre ;  she  was  married  May  12,  1191.  Sur- 
vived the  king. 

Of  JOHN. 

Aviso,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester ; 
she  was  married  in  1189.  Divorced. 

Isabella,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Angou- 
leme ;  she  was  the  young  and  virgin  wife  of 
the  count  de  la  Marche  ;  married  to  John  in 
1200.  Survived  the  king,  on  whose  death 
•he  was  remarried  to  the  count  de  la  Marche. 

Of  HENRY  III. 

Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  count  de  Pro- 
vence ;  she  was  married  January  14,  1236. 
Survived  the  king ;  and  died  in  1292,  in  a  mo- 
nastery, whither  she  had  retired 

Of  Edward  I. 

Eleanor  of  Castile ;  she  was  married  in 
17K? ;  died  of  a  fever,  on  her  journey  to  Scot- 
land, at  Horneby,  in  Lincolnshire,  1296. 

Margaret,  sister  of  the  king  of  France  ;  s>w 


the  king. 

Of  EDWARD  IL 

Isabella,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France; 
she  was  married  in  1308.  On  the  death,  by 
the  gibbet,  of  her  favorite,  Mortimer,  she  wt« 
confined  for  the  rest  of  her  life  in  her  ovn 
house  at  Risings,  near  London. — Hume. 

Of  EDWARD  III. 

Philippa,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Holland 
and  Hamault ;  she  was  married  January  24 
1328;  and  died  August  16,  136i». 

Of  RICHARD  II. 

Anne,  of  Bohemia,  sister  of  the  emperor 
Winceslaus  of  Germany ;  she  was  married 
in  January  1382  ;  and  died  Aueust  3,  1395. 

Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles  Vl.of  France; 
she  was  married  Nov.  1,  1396.  On  the  mui- 
cler  of  her  husband  she  returned  to  her  fa- 


ther. 


Of  HENRY  IV. 


Mary,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  He  eford ; 
she  died,  before  Henry  obtained  the  crown, 


Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of  the  duke  of 
Bretagne ;  she  was  married  in  1403.  Sur- 
vived the  king,  and  died  in  1437. 

Of  HENRY  V. 

Catherine,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France  > 
she  was  married  May  30,  1420.  "She  outliv- 
ed Henry,  and  was  married  to  Owen  Tudol , 
grandfather  of  Henry  VII. 

Of  HENRY  VI. 

Margaret,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Aiijou ; 
she  was  married  April  22, 1445.  She  surviv- 
ed the  unfortunate  king,  her  husband,  and 
died  in  1482. 

Of  EDWARD  IV. 

Lady  Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of  sir 
Richard  Woodeville,  and  widow  of  sir  John 
Grey,  of  Groby ;  she  was  married  March  1, 
1464.  Suspected  of  favoring  the  insurrection 
of  Lambert  Simnel ;  and  closed  her  life  in 
|  confinement. 

EDWARD  V. 

This  prince  perished  in  the  Tower,  in 
the  13th  year  of  his  age ;  and  died  unma  •• 
ried. 

Of  RICHARD  III. 

Anne,  daughter  of  the  eail  of  Warwi-k, 
and  widow  of  Edward,  prince  of  Wales, 
whom  Richard  had  murdered,  1471.  She  ia 
supposed  to  have  been  poisoi.ed  by  Richard 
(having  died  suddenly  March  6,  1485),  to 
make  way  for  his  intended  marriage  with 
the  princess  Elizabeth  of  York. 

Of  HENRY  VII. 

Elizabeth  of  York,  princess  of  England, 
daughter  of  Edward  IV. ;  she  was  marrie* 
January  18,  1486;  and  died  February  21 
1503. 


556 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[QUB 


QUEENS,  continued. 

Of  HENRT  VIII. 

Catherine  of  Arragon,  widow  of  Henry's 
elder  brother,  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales.  She 
was  married  June  3,  1509;  was  the  mother 
of  queen  Mary ;  was  repudiated,  and  after- 
wards formalfy  divorced,  May  23, 1533;  died 
January  6,  1536. 

Anna  Boleyn,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Bo- 
leyn,  and  maid  of  honor  to  Catherine.  She 
was  privately  married,  before  Catherine  was 
divorced,  Nov.  14,  1532 ;  was  the  mother  of 
queen  Elizabeth ;  was  beheaded  at  the  Tow- 
er, May  19,  1536. 

Jane  Seymour,  daughter  of  sir  John  Sey- 
mour, and  maid  of  honor  to  Anna  Boleyn. 
She  was  married  May  20,  1536,  the  day  after 
Anna's  execution ;  was  the  mother  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  of  whom  she  died  in  childbirth, 
Oct.  13,  1537. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  sister  of  William,  duke 
of  Cleves.  -She  was  married  January  6, 
1540 ;  was  divorced  July  10,  1540 ;  and  died 
in  1557. 

Catherine  Howard,  niece  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk ;  she  was  married  August  8,  1540 ; 
and  was  beheaded  on  Tower  hill  February 
12,  1542. 

Catherine  Parr,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Parr,  and  widow  of  Nevill,  lord  Latimer. 
She  was  married  July  12,  1543.  Survived 
the  king,  after  whose  death  she  married  sir 
Thomas  Seymour,  created  lord  Sudley ;  and 
died  September  5,  1548. 

EDWARD  VI. 

This  prince,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  his 
tenth  year,  reigned  six  years  and  five  months, 
and  died  unmarried. 

LADY  JANE  GREY. 

Daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  wife 
of  lord  Guildford  Dudley.  Proclaimed  queen 
on  the  death  of  Edward.  In  ten  days  after- 
wards returned  to  private  life ;  was  tried 
Nov.  13,  1553 ;  and  beheaded  February  12, 
1554,  when  but  seventeen  years  of  age. 

MARY. 

Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  She  ascended 
the  throne  July  6,  1553 ;  married  Philip  II. 
of  Spain.  July  25,  1554  :  and  died  Novem- 
ber 17,  1558.  The  king  her  husband  died  in 
1598. 

ELIZABETH. 

Daughter  of  Henry  V1I1.  Succeeded  to 
the  crown  Nov.  17,  1558 ;  reigned  44  years, 
4  months,  and  7  days ;  and  died  unmarried. 

Of  JAMES  I. 

Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  daughter  if 
Frederick  II. ;  she  was  married  August  2), 
1689;  and  died  March  1619. 

Of  CHARLES  I. 

Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV. 
king  of  France :  she  was  married  June  13. 
1625.  Survived  the  unfortunate  king ;  and 
died  in  France,  August  10,  1669. 


Of  CHARLES  II. 

CATHERINE,  infanta  of  Portugal,  daughta 
of  John  IV.  and  sister  of  Alfonso  VI.  ;  »h< 
was  married  May  21,  1G62.  Survived  th« 
king,  returned  to  Portugal,  and  died  Dec. 
21,  1705. 

Of  JAMES  II. 

Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde 
irl  of  Clarendon  ;  she  was  married  in  Sep 
tember  1660 ;  and  died  before  James  ascend- 
ed the  throne,  in  1671. 

Mary  Beatrice,  princess  of  Modena,  daugh 
ter  of  Alphonzo  d'Este,  duke ;  she  was  mar- 
ried November  21,  1673.  At  the  revolution 
in  1683,  she  retired  with  James  to  France ; 
and  died  at  St.  Germains  in  1718,  having  sur- 
vived her  consort  seventeen  ye*rs. 

WILLIAM  and  MART. 
MARY,  the  princess  of  Orange,  daughtei  >f 
James  II.;  married  to  William,  Nov.  4,  Iff,  T ; 
ascended  the  throne  Feb.  13,  1689 ;  died  De- 
cember 28,  1694. 

ANNE. 

Daughter  of  James  H.  She  married  George 
prince  of  Denmark,  July  '£$,  1683 ;  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne  March  8, 1702 ;  had  thirteen 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young ;  lost  her 
husband,  October  28, 1/08 ;  and  died  August 
1,  1714. 

Of  GEORGE  I. 

Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  duke  ol 
Zell.  She  died  a  few  weeks  previously  to 
the  accession  of  George  to  the  crown,  Jute 
8,  1714. 

Of  GEORGE  II. 

Wilhelmina  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Bran- 
denburgh-Anspach ;  married  in  1704:  and 
died  November  20,  1737. 

Of  GEORGE  III. 

Charlotte  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  duke  ol 
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ;  married  Septembei 
8, 1761 ;  and  died  November  17,  1818. 

Of  GEORGE  IV. 

Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Brunswick  ;  she  was  married  April 
8,  1795, ;  was  mother  of  the  lamented  prin- 
cess Charlotte ;  and  died  August  7, 1821.  Se« 
article  Queen  Caroline. 

Of  WILLIAM  IV. 

Adelaide  Amelia  Louisa  Teresa  Caroline, 
sister  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meinengen ;  eh« 
was  married  July  11, 1818;  and  survived  th« 
king. 

VICTORIA. 

Alexandrina  Victoria,  the  reigning  queen 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Kent ;  born  May  24 
1819 ;  succeeded  to  ihe  crown  June  20, 1837 
crowned  June  28,  1838.  Married  her  ccusir 
prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Cotwrg-Gotha,  Feb- 
ruary 10,  1840. 


QUEENSTOWN,  CANADA.    Taken  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States  of  AmerL 


RAC  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  557 

ca,  October  13,  1812 ;  but  retaken  by  the  British  forces,  who  defeated  th« 
Americans  with  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  the 
same  day. 

QinCKSILVER.  In  its  liquid  state,  it  is  commonly  called  virgin  mercury.  It 
is  endowed  with  very  extraordinary  properties,  and  used  to  show  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  its  continual  variations,  &c.  Its  use  in  refining  sil- 
ver was  discovered  A.  D.  1540.  There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  tho 
chief  of  which  are  at  Almeida  in  Spain,  and  at  Udria  in  Carniola  in  Ger- 
many, discovered  by  accident  in  1497.  A  mine  was  discovered  at  Ceylon  in 
1797.  Quicksilver  was  congealed  in  winter  at  St.  Petersburgh  in  1759.  It 
was  congealed  in  England  by  a  chemical  process,  without  snow  or  ice,  by 
Mr.  Walker,  in  1787. 

QT7IETISTS.  The  doctrines  and  religious  opinions  of  Molinus,  the  Spaniard, 
whose  work,  the  Spiritual  Guide,  was  the  foundation  of  the  sect  of  Quietists 
in  France.  His  principal  tenet  was,  that  tht.  purity  of  religion  coi/sisted  in 
an  internal  silent  meditation  and  recollection  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  and 
the  mercies  of  God.  His  doctrine  was  also  called  quietism  from  a  kind  of 
absolute  rest  and  inaction  in  which  the  sect'supposed  the  soul  to  be,  when 
arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection  called  by  them  unitive  life.  They  then 
imagined  the  soul  to  be  wholly  employed  in  contemplating  its  Jod.  Ma- 
dame de  la  Mothe-Guyon,  who  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  her  visions 
and  prophecies,  but  released  through  the  interest  of  Pension,  the  celebrated 
archbishop  of  Cambray,  between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  she 
occasioned  the  famous  controversy  concerning  Quietism,  1697.  The  sect 
sprang  up  about  1678. — Nouv.  Diet. 

QUILLS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  pens  in  A.  D.  553  ;  but  some 
say  not  before  635.  Quills  are  for  the  most  part  plucked  with  great  cruelty 
from  living  geese ;  and  all  persons,  from  convenience,  economy,  and  feeling, 
ought  to  prefer  metallic  pens,  which  came  into  use  in  1830. — Phillip* 

QUITO.  A  presidency  of  Colombia  (which,  see)  celebrated  as  having  been  (he 
scene  of  the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French  and 
Spanish  mathematicians,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  Forty  thousand  souls 
were  hurried  into  eternity  by  a  dreadful  earthquake  at  Quito,  which  almost 
overwhelmed  the  city,  Feb.  4,  1797. 

R. 

RACES.  One  of  the  exercises  among  the  ancient  games  of  Greece  (see  Chaiir 
ots).  Horse-races  were  known  in  England  in  very  early  times.  Fitz- Stephen, 
who  wrote  in  the  days  of  Henry  II.,  mentions  the  delight  taken  by  the  citi- 
zens of  London  in  the  diversion.  In  James's  reign,  Croydon  in  the  south, 
and  Garterly  in  the  north,  were  celebrated  courses.  Near  York  there  were 
races,  and  the  prize  was  a  little  golden  bell,  1607. — Camden.  In  the  end  of 
Charles  I.'s  reign,  races  were  performed  at  Hyde-park,  and  also  Newmarket, 
although  first  used  as  a  place  for  hunting.  Charles  II.  patronized  them, 
and  instead  of  bells,  gave  a  silver  bowl,  or  cup.  value  100  guineas. 

RACKS.  This  engine  of  death,  as  well  as  of  torture,  for  extracting  a  confes- 
sion from  criminals,  was  early  known  in  the  southern  countries  of  Europe. 
The  early  Christians  suffered  by  the  rack,  which  was  in  later  times  an  in- 
strument of  the  Inquisition.  The  duke  of  Exeter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
erected  a  rack  of  torture  (then  called  the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter),  now 
teen  in  the  Tower,  1423.  In  the  case  of  Felton.  who  murdered  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  the  judges  of  England  nobly  protested  against  the  punish- 
ment proposed  in  the  privy  council  of  putting  the  as«iassin  to  the  rack,  a; 
being  contrary  to  the  laws,  1628.  See  RavdUi£. 


558  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BA 

RADCLIFFE  LIBRARY,  OXFORD.  Founded  under  the  will  of  Dr.  John  Rad- 
cliffe,  the  most  eminent  physician  of  his  time.  He  left  40,000£.  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  for  this  purpose,  dying  Nov.  1.  1714.  The  first  stone  oz 
the  library  was  laid  May  17,  1737 ;  the  edifice  was  completely  finished  in 
1749,  and  was  opened  April  13,  same  year. 

R  ADSTADT,  PEACE  OP,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  March  6, 1714.  CON- 
GRESS of— commenced  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the  Germanic  powers, 
Dec.  9, 1797.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  throughout  the  year  1798.  Atro- 
cious massacre  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  at  Radstadt  by  the  Austrian 
regiment  of  Szeltzler,  April  28,  1798. 

RAFTS.  The  Greeks  knew  no  other  way  of  crossing  the  narrow  seas  but  en 
rafts  or  beams  tied  to  one  another,  until  the  use  of  shipping  was  brought 
among  them  by  Danaus  of  Egypt,  when  he  fled  from  his  brother  Rameses, 
1485  B.  o. — Heylin. 

RAILROADS.  There  were  short  roads  called  tram- ways  in  and  about  New- 
castle so  early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  century;  but  they  were  made  of 
wood,  and  were  used  for  transporting  coals  a  moderate  distance  from  the 
pits  to  the  place  of  shipping.  They  are  thus  mentioned  in  1676  : — "  The 
manner  of  the  carriage  is  by  laying  rails  of  timber  from  the  colliery  to  the 
river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel ;  and  bulky  carts  are  made  with  four  roll- 
ers fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy  that  one  horse  will 
draw  down  four  or  five  chaldrons  of  coals,  and  is  an  immense  benefit  to  the 
coal-merchants," — Life  of  Lord-Keeper  North.  They  were  made  of  iron,  a.1. 
Whitehaven,  in  .1738.  The  first  considerable  iron  railroad  was  laid  down  at 
Colebrook  Dale  in  1786.  The  first  iron  railroad  sanctioned  by  parliament 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  undertaken  by  canal  companies  as  small 
branches  to  mines)  was  the  Surrey  iron  railway  (by  horses),  from  the  Thames 
at  Wandsworth  to  Croydon,  for  which  the  act  was  obtained  in  1801.  The  first 
great  and  extensive  enterprise  of  this  kind  is  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
railway  (by  engines),  commenced  in  October  1826,  and  opened  Sept.  15,  1830. 

EXTENT   OP  RAILWAYS    OPENED    THROUGHOUT    THE   WORLD,   IN    1847. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
United  States  (in  1849,  6,117) 
Germany  (in  1849,  3,100) 
'  Holland     - 
Belgium 


Miles. 
3,375 
3.800 
1,570 
200 
1.095 


France        •  •  ...  2,200 


Miles 

Italy      -  •  .  .    115 

Denmark  •  •  -  -    106 

Cuba 800 

Russia       -  •  •  52 

British  Colonies          •  -  - 1,000 

East  India  -  •  •  •          500 


Total  length  of  railways  opened  throughout  the  world  : — in  1847,  21,761  miles. 

In  1824,  the  first  locomotive  constructed  travelled  at  the  rate  of  6  miles 
per  hour ;  in  1829,  the  Rocket  travelled  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  per  hour ; 
in  1834.  the  Fire  Fly  attained  a  speed  of  20  miles  per  hour ;  in  1839,  tho 
North  Star  moved  with  a  velocity  of  37  miles  per  hour;  and  at  the  present 
moment  locomotives  have  attained  a  speed  of  70  miles  per  hour.  During 
the  same  period  the  quantity  of  fuel  required  for  generating  steam  has  been 
diminished  five-sixths,  that  is,  six  tons  of  coal  were  formerly  consumed  foi 
one  at  the  present  moment,  and  other  expenses  are  diminished  in  a  corres- 
ponding ratio. —  Tuck's  Railways,  1847. 

BAILROADS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.    In  Janaary  1849,  the  lines  complete 
ed  reached  an  aggregate  of 

In  New  England 1,219  miles. 

In  New  York 840    do 

In  other  parts  of  the  United  States 4,058    do. 

Total    ....         6,117    do 
[See  Amtrican  Almanac,  1850,  page  211,  for  complete  list.] 


RAV]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  559 

A  considerable  number  of  miles  have  since  been  completed,  including  a 
portion  of  the  New  York  and  Erie;  Hudson  River  Railroad,  &c.,  &c.  The 
first  railway  in  the  United  States,  was  the  Quincy  and  Boston,  to  convej 
granite  for  Bunker  Hill  monument,  1827.  Boston  and  Providence  Railroad, 
opened  June  2,  1835.  Boston  and  Lowell,  June  27,  and  Boston  and  Wor- 
cester, July  6.  same  year.  Utica  and  Schenectady,  opened  Aug.  1, 1836.  Bal- 
timore to  Wilmington,  July  19,  1837.  Providence  and  Stonington,  Nov.  10, 
1837  Worcester  and  Springfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  1,  1839.  Housatonic,  Feb. 
12,  1840. 

RAILROADS  IN  FRANCE.  There  was  a  small  one  at  mount  Cenis  as  early  as 
1783;  the  first  of  any  extent  was  the  St.  Etienne  and  Andrezieux  22  miles, 
commenced  in  1825.  Paris  and  Versailles  commenced  1827.  Horrible  accident 
on  that  from  Paris  to  Versailles.  70  persons  killed  by  collision  and  fire,  includ- 
ing the  celebrated  navigator  D'Urville,  May  8, 1842.  Another  on  the  Paris  and 
Brussels  Railway,  train  ran  off  a  bridge,  14  killed  and  20  wounded,  July 
8,  1846. 

RAILWAYS,  BELGIUM.  That  between  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  the  fiist  in 
Belgium,  opened  May  3,  1836. 

RAMILIES,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough 
and  the  allies  on  the  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other;  fought  on 
Whitsunday,  May  23.  1706.  The  duke  achieved  one  of  his  most  glorious 
victories,  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  other  import- 
ant places,  and  parliament  rewarded  the  victor  by  settlipg  the  honors  which 
had  been  conferred  on  himself,  upon  the  male  and  female  issue  of  his 
daughters. 

RATISBON,  PEACE  OF,  concluded  between  France  and  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  by  which  was  terminated  the  war  for  the  Mantuan  succession, 
October  13,  1630.  It  was  at  Ratisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German 
princes  seceded  from  the  Germanic  empire,  and  placed  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  August  1,  1806. 

RATS.  The  brown  rat,  very  improperly  called  the  Norway  rat,  the  great  pest 
of  our  dwellings,  originally  came  to  us  from  Persia  and  the  Southern  regions 
of  Asia.  This  fact  is  rendered  evident  from  the  testimony  of  Pallas  and  F. 
Cuvier.  Pallas  describes  the  migratory  nature  of  rats,  and  states  that  in 
the  autumn  of  1729  they  arrived  at  Astrachan  in  such  incredible  numbers, 
that  nothing  could  be  done  to  oppose  them ;  they  came  from  the  western 
deserts,  nor  did  the  waves  of  the  Volga  arrest  their  progress.  They  only  ad- 
vanced to  the  vicinity  of  Paris  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
in  some  parts  of  France  are  still  unknown. 

RAVENNA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  French  under  the  great  Gaston  de  Foix 
(duke  of  Nemours  and  nephew  of  Louis  XII.)  and  the  Spanish  and  papal 
armies.  De  Foix  gained  the  memorable  battle,  bu"t  perished  in  the  moment 
of  victory,  and  his  death  closed  the  fortunes  of  the  French  in  Italy,  April 
11,  1512. 

RAVILLAC'S  MURDER  OF  HENRY  IV.  OF  FRANCE.  The  death  cf  Ravil- 
lac  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  upon  record.  He  assassinated  the  king,  May 
14,  1610;  and  when  put  to  the  torture,  he  broke  out  into  horrid  execrations. 
He  was  carried  to  the  Greve,  and  tied  to  the  rack,  a  wooden  engine  in  the 
shape  of  St.  Andrew's  cross.  His  right  hand,  within  which  was  fastened 
the  knife  with  which  he  did  the  murder,  was  first  burnt  at  a  slow  fire. 
Then  the  fleshy  and  most  delicate  parts  of  his  body  were  torn  with  red  hot 
pincers,  and  into  the  gaping  wounds  melted  lead,  oil.  pitch,  and  rosin  wero 
poured.  His  body  was  so  robust,  that  he  endured  this  exquisite  pain;  and 
his  strength  resisted  that  of  the  four  horses  by  which  his  limbs  were  to  b« 


560  TILE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  £  E.E1 

puiled  to  pieces.  The  executioner  in  consequence  cut  him  into  quarters, 
and  the  spectators,  who  refused  to  pray  for  him,  dragged  them  through  thu 
streets. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT.  This  subject  was  a  chief  source  of  agitation 
for  many  years,  and  during  several  administrations.  Mr.  Pitt's  motion  for 
a  reform  in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  20.  in  1782.  The  discus- 
sion on  this  motion  was  the  most  remarkable  up  to  the  period  at  which  re- 
form was  conceded.  The  first  ministerial  measure  of  reform  was  in  earl 
Grey's  administration,  when  it  was  proposed  in  the  house  of  commons  by 
lord  John  Russell,  March  1,  1831.  His  bill  defeated  in  the  house  of  lords 
by  41  majority,  Oct.  8.  The  bill  of  1832  defeated  by  35  majority,  May  7. 
New  peers  were  created  May  18,  and  the  bill  was  finally  passed  by  peers 
(106  to  22)  June  4,  1832. 

REFORMATION,  THK.  The  early  efforts  for  the  reformation  of  the  church 
may  be  traced  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  when  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Aqui- 
leia.  employed  his  voice  and  pen  to  accomplish  this  object.  The  principal 
reformers  were  Wickliffe,  Huss,  Luther,  Zuinglius,  Tyndal,  Calvin,  Petri. 
Melancthon.  Erasmus,  Jerome  of  Prague,  Zisca.  Browne,  and  Knox.  The 
eras  of  the  Reformation  are  as  follows : — 


In  England  ( Wickliffe)    •        •      A.  D  1360 

In  Bohemia  (Huss)       •       •       •  1405 

In  Germany  (.Luther)       •        •        •  1517 

In  Switzerland  (Zuinglius)  •       •  1519 

In  Denmark 1521 

In  France  ( Calvin)  ....  1529 


In  Sweden  (Petri)  •  -  -  A.  D  1530 
In  England  (Henry  VIII.)  •  •  1534 
In  Ireland  (Browne)  •  •  •  1535 
In  England,  completed  (Cranmer,!  u 

cer,  Fagius.  Sfc.)  -  -  •  1547 
In  Scotland  (Knox)  ....  1560 
In  the  Netherlands  -  -  .  1562 


Protestants  first  so  called  •  •  1529 
The  reformed  religion  was  established  by  queen  Elizabeth  on  her  accession 
to  the  throne,  1668.  George  Browne,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  was  the  first 
prelate  who  embraced  the  Protestant  religion  in  Ireland,  1535.  See  Lmther, 
Protestants,  ifrc. 

RELIGION.  Properly,  that  awful  reverence  and  pure  worship  that  is  due  to 
God,  the  supreme  Author  of  all  beings,  though  it  is  very  often  abused,  and 
applied  to  superstitious  adorations  among  Christians,  and  to  idols  and  false 
gods  among  the  heathens. — Pardon.  Religion  had  its  origin  in  most  tribes 
and  nations  in  their  ignorance  of  the  causes  of  natural  phenomena,  benefits 
being  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and  evils  to  a  bad  one. — Phillips.  Religious 
ceremonies  in  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced by  Enos,  2832  B.C.. — Lenglet.  See  the  different  sects  as  described 
throughout  the  volume.  The  Established  religion  of  England  commenced 
with  the  Reformation  (which  see),  1534.  The  Six  Articles  of  Religion,  for 
the  non-observance  of  which  many  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics  suffered 
death,  passed  1539.  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  established  first  in  1552; 
they  were  reduced  from  forty-two  to  thirty-nine  in  January  1563,  and  receiv- 
ed the  sanction  of  parliament  in  1571. 

REPEAL  OP  THE  UNION  OF  GRKAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  An  Irish  associa- 
tion was  formed  with  this  object  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  in 
1829.  A  new  and  more  resolved  association  afterwards  sprung  up,  and  in 
1841.  1842,  and  1843  became  more  violent,  each  successive  year,  in  its  deli- 
berations. Assemblies  of  the  people  were  held,  in  the  last-named  year,  in 
various  parts  of  Ireland,  some  of  them  amounting  to  150,000  persons,  and 
called  "  monster  meetings."  A  meeting  to  be  held  at  Clontarf.  on  Oct.  8, 
was  suppressed  by  government;  O'Connell  and  his  chief  associates  were 
brought  to  trial,  Jan.  16,  1844. 

RETREAT  OP  THE  GREEKS.  Memorable  retreat  of  10000  Greeks  who  had 
joined  the  army  of  the  younger  Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother  Arta- 
xerxes.  Xenophon  was  selected  by  his  brother  officers  to  superintend  the 
retreat  of  his  countrymen.  He  rose  superior  to  danger,  and  though  undo! 


lEV] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


561: 


continual  alarms  from  the  sudden  attacks  of  the  Persians,  he  was-  enabled 
to  cross  rapid  rivers,  penetrate  through  vast  deserts,  gain  the  tops  \.( moun- 
tains, till  he  could  rest  secure  for  awhile,  and  refresh  his  tired  companions. 
This  celebrated  retreat  was  at  last  happily  effected ;  the  Greeks  returned 
home  after  a  march  of  1155  parasangs,  or  leagues,  which  was  performed  in 
216  days,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  The  whole  perhaps  might 
now  be  forgotten,  or  at  least  but  obscurely  known,  if  the  great  philosophei 
who  planned  it  had  not  employed  his  pen  in  describing  the  dangers  which 
he  escaped,  and  the  difficulties  which  he  surmounted.  401  B.  c. —  Vossius. 
REVENUE,  PUBLIC,  OF  ENGLAND.  The  revenue  collected  for  the  civil  list 
and  for  all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary  as  extraordi- 
nary, £1.200  000  per  annum,  in  1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.  Raised  to  £6,000000,  and  every  branch  of  the  revenue  anticipated, 
which  was  the  origin  of  the  funds  and  the  national  debt,  William  and  Mary, 
1690. — Salmon's  Ckron.  Hist.. 

•ENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  SINCE  THE  CONQUEST,  BY  SIR  JOHN  SINCLAIR. 


William  the  Conqueror 
William  Kul'us    - 
Henry  1.            ... 

-  .£400,000 
350,000 
300,000 
250  000 

Henry  VIII.         .... 
Edward  VI.      .... 
Mary             ..... 

Elizabeth          .... 
James  I.         

Charles  I.          .... 
Commonwealth 
Charles  II. 
James  II.     
William  III.    .... 
Anne  (at  ihe  Union)  - 
Georse  1.          .... 
Georse  II.           .... 
George  III.,  1786     - 
Ditto,  1820,  United  Kingdom     • 
George  IV.,  1825,  ditto    •     •- 
William  IV..  1830,  ditto     - 
.Ditto,  1835,  ditto 
Victoria,  1845,  ditto    • 

£800,000 
400,000 
450,00(1 
500,000 
600,0(1 
895,819 
1,517,247 
1,800,000 
2,001,855 
3,892,205 
5,691,803 
6,762,643 
8,522,540 
15,572.971 
65.599,570 
62,871,300 
55,431,317 
50,494.732 
51,067,856 

Henry  II.          ... 
Richard  I.     •        • 
John         .... 
Henry  HI.    - 
Edward  I. 
Edward  II. 
Edward  HI.      - 
Richard  II. 

200,000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150.900 
100,000 
154,000 
130,000 
100000 

Henry  V.      - 
Henry  VI.         ... 
Edward  IV. 

76,643 
64,976 

100000 

Richard  III. 
Henrv  VII.       . 

130,000 
400,000 

REVENUE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  THE,   is  derived  chiefly  from  customs  and 
sales  of  public  lands.    The  aggregate  revenue  was,  in 


1790 
1795  - 
1800 
1805  - 
1810 
.'.815  - 
1820 


84.399.473 

.      5,926.216 

10,624,997 

-  13,520,312 

9,299,737 

-  15,411.634 
16,779,331 


1825  - 
1830 
1835  • 
1836 
1837  • 
1838 
1839  - 


8  21,342,906  I  1840 
24,280.888  1844 


« 16,993,858 
28,504.519 

-  29,769.134 
29,499.247 

-  26,346.791: 
35,436,750 


-  34,163,6X5  1845    - 
48,288,219  1846 

-  18,032,846  1847    - 
19,372,984  1848 

-  30,399,043 

REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES.  The  first  publication  of  the  character  of  a  re- 
view was  the  "Journal  des  Savants,"  established  at  Paris,  in  1665,  by  Denis 
de  Sallo.  It  was  at  first  pxiblished  weekly,  and  contained  analyses  and  cri- 
tiques of  new  works,  which  were  so  severe  as  to  give  much  offence.  De 
Sallo  died  in  1669.  and  the  journal  was  afterwards  edited  by  Gallois,  De  la 
Roque,  and  Cousin.  From  1715  to  1792,  it  was  conducted  by  a  society  ol 
learned  men.  and  appeared  in  monthly  numbers ;  and  the  collection  from 
1665  to  1792  forms  111  volumes  4to.  In  1792,  it  was  discontinued ;  but  in 
1816,  it  was  revived,  and  has  had  a  number  of  eminent  men  among  its  con- 
tributors, as  De  Sacy,  Langl^s,  Re"musat,  Biot,  Cuvier.  &c.  Numerous  other 
literary  and  scientific  journals  have  been  established  at  Paris  within  a  few 
years. 

The  Gentleman's  Magazine,  which  first  appeared  in  1731,  and  the  Monthly 
Review,  in  1749,  were  the  first  works  of  t'he  kind  published  in  Lor.don,  that 
obtained  any  great  degree  of  permanency  or  celebrity.  Of  the  journals 
irLich  preceded  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  the  following  are  enumerated 
by  Nichols;  viz.  "  Weekly  Memorials,  or  an  Account  of  Books  lately  set  forth.1 
24* 


562  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  REV 

1688-9;  "  Memoirs  of  Literature,"  8  vols.,  8vo.,  1722;  '  New  Memoirs  of 
Literature,"  6  vols.,  1725  to  1727  ;  "  Present  State  of  the  Republic  of  Letters," 
18  vols.,  1728  to  1736;  "Historia  Literaria,"  4  vols.,  1730  to  1732. 

The  Gentleman's  Magazine  was  established  in  1731,  by  Edward  Cave,  the 
tirst  editor,  who  died  in  1754.  leaving  the  work  in  the  hands  of  his  associate, 
David  Henry,  who  received  as  coadjutor  John  Nichols,  in  1778,  and  died  in 
1792,  having  been  connected  with  the  management  of  the  magazine  more 
than  fifty  years.  Mr.  Nichols,  who  was  an  eminent  antiquary,  and  author 
of  "  Literary  Anecdotes,"  9  vols.,  died  in  1827,  having  been  joint  or  sole 
editor  nearly  half  a  century.  These  editors  were  all  printers  by  profession; 
and  the  appellation  assumed  a.id  retained  by  the  conductor  of  the  work 
from  its  commencement  to  the  present  time,  is  Sylvanus  Urban.  This  Mag- 
azine is  celebrated  for  the  early  connection  of  Dr.  Johnson  with  the  first  edi- 
tor, and  in  a  notice  of  the  life  of  Cave,  revised  in  1781,  Dr.  Johnson  says  of 
this  magazine,  that  its  "  scheme  is  known  wherever  the  English  language  is 
spoken  — that  it  is  one  of  the  most  successful  and  lucrative  pamphlets  which 
literary  history  has  upon  record."  A  new  series  of  this  work  vas  begun 
January,  1834;  the  fifst  series  having  been  completed  in  103  voluues 

The  Monthly  Review,  the  earliest  regular  work  of  the  kind  in  England,  was 
established  in  1749,  by  Ralph  Griffiths,  LL.  D.,  who  continued  to  ;onduct  it 
64  years,  assisted  by  his  son  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  This  work  was 
continued  until  1844.  and  had  many  able  contributors.  The  first  series, 
from  1749  to  1789  inclusive,  comprises  81  volumes ;  Second  Series,  ending  in 
1825  108  volumes. 

The  Critical  Review  [London]  was  established  in  1756,  by  Archibald  Hamil- 
ton, with  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Smollett  and  other  friends.  From  1764  to 
1785,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Robertson  was  a  liberal  contributor,  having  furnished 
upwards  of  2  620  articles.  This  work  was  discontinued  several  years  since. 
First  Series,  from  1756  to  1790,  inclusive.  70  volumes  ;  2d  Series,  from  1791 
to  1803,  inclusive..  39  volumes;  3d  Series,  from  1804  to  1811,  inclusive,  24 
volumes ;  4th  Series,  from  1812  to  1814,  inclusive,  6  volumes.  A  5th  Series 
was  begun  in  1815. 

The  British  Critic  ("London]  was  established  in  1793 ;  and  its  first  editors  were 
the  Rev.  Messrs.  Robert  Nares  and  William  Beloe :  the  latter  of  whom  died 
in  1817 ;  and  the  former  in  1829,  having  retained  his  connection  with  the 
Work  till  the  completion  of  the  42d  volume.  It  was  at  first  published  in 
monthly  numbers ;  bi'*  *vom  1827,  it  appeared  quarterly,  under  the  title  of 
"The  British  Critic  acid  Theological  Review,"  until  1843.  when  a  new  work, 
called  the  English  Review,  took  its  place.  It  was  conducted  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  ecclesiastical  establishment;  and  maintained  Tory  and  High 
Church  principles. 

The  establishment  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  1802,  formed  an  era  in  peri- 
odical criticism ;  as  this  work  from  its  commencement  took  a  wider  range 
and  assumed  a  higher  tone,  both  in  literature  and  politics,  than  any  preced- 
ing publication  of  the  kind.  It  has  uniformly  been  a  strenuous  asserter  of 
Whig  or  reforming  principles.  Its  editors  have  been  the  Rev.  Sidney  Smith 
(the  first  year).  Francis  Jeffrey,  and  (now)  Macvey  Napier.  Among  its 
principal  writers,  besides  Sidney  Smith  and  Jeffrey,  are  the  distinguished 
names  of  Playfair,  Dugald  Stewart,  Mackintosh,  Brown,  Leslie,  Brougham, 
and  Macaulay.  This  work  soon  gained  a  wide  circulation ;  and  at  one  time^ 
upwards  of  20,000  copies  were  published ;  but  in  1832,  the  number  was  some- 
what less  than  9000. 

The  Quarterly  Review  [London]  was  established  in  1809,  and,  as  early  at 
1812.  it  is  said  to  have  obtained  a  circulation  little  short  of  6000  copies.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  a  rival  publication  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  maintain- 


REV  ]  DICTIONARY    OP   DATES.  563 

ing,  in  a  manner  equally  uncompromising,  opposite  or  High  Tory  principles. 
It  was  edited  from  its  commencement  till  1825  by  William  Gifford ;  then  by 
H.  N.  Coleridge ;  and  now  by  J.  G.  Lockhart.  Among  its  writers  are  num- 
bered sir  Walter  Scott.  Southey,  and  Croker.  It  has  had  many  able  and 
learned  contributors,  some  of  whom  are  understood  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  government. 

The  Eclectic  Review  [London],  a  monthly  Journal,  was  commenced  in  1806. 
It  is  conducted  by  Protestant  Dissenters,  and  maintains  evangelical  princi- 
ples in  religion,  and  liberal  or  reforming  principles  in  politics.  It  has  had 
many  able  contributors,  among  whom  are  numbered  Adam  Clarke,  Robert 
Hall,  and  John  Foster. — Present  eoitor,  Josiah  Conder. — First  Series,  from 
1805  to  1813,  inclusive,  10  volumes ;  2d  Series,  from  1814  to  1828,  inclusive, 
30  volumes.  The  3d  Series  was  begun  in  1829. 

The  Christian  Observer  [London],  a  monthly  journal,  conducted  by  members 
of  the  established  church,  was  commenced  in  1802.  and  maintains  what  are 
commonly  styled  evangelical  principles.  It  has  had  a  number  of  able  contri- 
butors. The  first  editor,  Zachary  Macaulay ;  the  present,  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Charles  Wilks. — Most  of  the  volumes  of  this  work  have  beoi  republished 
in  this  country. 

Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Magazine,  a  monthly  journal,  was  commenced  in  1817. 
It  is  edited  by  Professor  John  Wilson,  and  maintains  High  Tory  politics. 
The  number  of  copies  published,  in  1832,  was  stated  at  upwards  of  9000. 
1  he  Westminster  Review,  established,  in  1824,  by  the  disciples  of  Jeremy  Ben- 
iham,  is  a  strenuous  advocate  for  radical  reform  in  church,  state,  and  legis- 
lation. First  editor.  John  Bowring.  LL.D ;  then  succeeded  by  Mr.  Mill, 
and  by  W.  E  Hickson.  The  Foreign  Quarterly  was  united  with  it  in  1845. 
The  Foreign  Quarterly  Review  [London],  established  in  1827,  devoted  to 
foreign  literature,  and  conducted  with  ability,  until  1845,  when  it  was  united 
to  the  Westminster  Review. — Amer.  Almanac,  &c. 

REVOLUTION,  ERA  OF  THE.  This  memorable  revolution  took  place  in  Eng- 
land in  1688,  and  is  styled  by  Voltaire  as  the  era  of  English  liberty.  James 
II.  had  rendered  himself  hateful  to  his  subjects  by  his  tyranny  and  oppres- 
sion ;  and  soon  after  the  landing  of  the  prince  of  Orange  at  Torbay,  Nov.  5, 
1688,  the  throne  was  abdicated  by  James,  who  fled.  The  revolution  was 
consummated  by  William  III.  and  his  queen  (Mary,  daughter  of  James) 
being  proclaimed,  Feb.  13,  and  crowned  April  11,  1689. 

REVOLUTIONS,  REMARKABLE  IN  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  The  Assyrian  empire  de- 
stroyed, and  that  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great, 
536  B.  c.  The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruction  of  the  Per- 
sian, on  the  defeat  of  Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alexander  the  Great,  331 
B.  c.  The  Roman  empire  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  Macedonian,  or 
Greek  monarchy,  by  Julius  Caesar.  47  B.  c.  The  Eastern  empire,  founded 
by  Constantino  the  Great,  on  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Roman.  A.  D.  306. 
The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  began  under  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  802. 
This  empire  underwent  a  new  revolution,  and  became  the  German  empire 
under  Rodolph  of  Hapsburgh,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Austria.  A.  n.  1273, 
from  whom  it  is  also  called  the  Monarchy  of  the  Austrians.  The  Eastern 
empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  about  A.  D.  1293.  See  also  the 
Revolutions  of  particular  countries  under  their  proper  heads,  as  Rome, 
France,  Portugal,  &c. 

REVOLUTIONS.  THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  IN  MODERN  HISTORY.  In  Portugal,  A.  D. 
1640.  In  England  1688.  In  Poland,  1 704,  1795,  and  1830.  In  Russia,  1730 
and  1762.  In  Sweaen.  1772  and  1809.  fn  America,  1775.  In  France.  1789, 
1830  and  1848.  In  Holland.  1795.  In  Venice.  1797.  In  Rome,  1798.  In 
the  Netherlands,  1830.  In  Brunswick,  1830.  In  Brazil,  1831.  In  Rome, 


564 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


RIO 


Tuscany,  Lombardy,  Hungary.  &c.,  1848-9.  These  last  were  temporary  onlj 
— the  former  governments  were  restored,  1849.  See  these  countries  respec- 
tively. 

REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Before  the  Ame- 
rican Revolution  various  attempts  were  made  to  establish  religious  and  lite- 
rary journals  !fi  several  places  in  this  country,  particularly  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia ;  but  no  one  of  them  obtained  a  liberal  support  ot 
had  a  long  duration.  The  following  are  some  of  the  leading  literary  an3 
religious  reviews  and  magazines : 

PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's  Pennsylvania 
Magazine  was  the 
most  popular  before 
the  Revolution;  Thos. 
Paine  and  Francis 
Hopkinson,  editors 

Amer.  Museum,  pub.  by 
Matthew  Carey,  (to 
1792)  -  -  -1787 

Literary  Magazine  and 
American  Register,  C. 
Brockden  Brown,  (to 
1810)  -  -  -186 

Portfolio,  pub.  n  onthly 
from  1809  by  Jos.  Den- 
nie;  edited  by  Nicho- 
las Biddle.1812-16.  and 
1816-21  by  J.  E.  Ha'l  -  1801 

Analectic  Mag.,  Mo^^ 
Thomas,  (to  1820)  'PIS 

Amer.  Quar.  Review, 
Robt.  Walsh,  (to  1837)  1827 

Graham's  Magazine    • 

Lady's  Book,  Mrs.  Hale 

Striker's  American  Re- 
gister, (quarterly)  -  1647 

Southern  Quarterly  Re- 
view, at  Charleston, 
(to  1833,  recommenced 
1842)  -  -  -  1823 

Southern  Lit.  Messen- 
ger, at  Richmond,  by 
T.  W.  White  -  -  1834 

Biblical  Repertory  and 
Theological  Review, 
Princeton,  N.  J.  -  18— 

RHEIMS.  The  principal  church  here  was  built  before  A.  D.  406 ;  it  was  rebuilt 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St.  Remy, 
the  archbishop,  is  preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a  magnificent  shrine. 
The  kings  of  France  have  been  successively  crowned  at  Rheims ;  probably, 
becouse  Clovis  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  when  converted  from 
paganism,  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  here,  in  the  year  496.  This  city 
was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  in  the  last  months  of  the  war  of  1814. 

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  accents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium  200  B.  c. — Abbe  Lcnglet.  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at 
Rome  by  Photius  Gallus.  87  B.  c. — Idem.  "  We  are  first  to  consider  what  is 
to  be  said  ;  secondly,  how  :  thirdly,  in  what  words ;  and  lastly,  how  it  is  to 
be  ornamented." — Cicero.  A  regius  professor  of  rhetoric  was  appointed  in 
Edinburgh,  April  20,  1762,  when  Dr.  Blair  became  first  professor. 


BOSTON.        Founded. 

1                      NEW  YORK. 

American  Monthly  Ma- 

N.   Y.   Magazine    and 

gazine,  (the  first)  es- 

Literary   Repository, 

tablished    by    Jeremy 

(to  179*)           •           -  1787 

Gridley,    continued  3 

Literary  Review.  R.  C. 

years,  about    -           -  1745 

Sands,  <tc.  (to  1823)    -  1822 

Massachusetts     Maga- 

Atlantic Mag.,    Sands, 

zine,  (lasted   to  1795)  1784 

afierwards  New  York 

Monthly  Anthology,  Prf. 
Ticknor,    A.  H.  Eve- 

Monthly Review,        -1824 
Knickerbocker  Mag.  ,  C. 

rett,  Buckminster,  dec. 

F.  Hoffman,  succeeded 

(to  1811)      -           -    -  1803 

by  Flint,  and  now  L. 

General  Repertory  and 

G.  Clark                      -  1832 

Review,    (1st    Amer. 

Democratic  Review  (un- 

quarterly,)   edited    at 
Cambridge  by  Andrews 

til  1841  at  Washington)  1837 
American  Monthly  Ma- 

Norton        -          -  1812-13 

Sizine,N.  Y.,uo  1838) 

North    American     Re- 

erbert,Hoffman,Ben- 

view,  commenced  by 

jamin           -           -    -  1835 

W.  Tudor*              -    -  1815 

N.    Y.   Review,  (quar- 

Christian    Examiner, 

terly)  J.  G.  Cogswell, 

(quarterly)  Channing, 
Bewey,  Ware,  dec.      -  1818 

(to  1842)           -           -  1837 
American   Review,    G. 

American  Biblic.  Repo- 

H. Colton         -           -  1844 

sitory,  founded  by  E. 

Hunt's  Merchant's  Ma- 

Robinson, D.D.,  at  An- 

gazine     •           -        -  1839 

dover    -           -           -  1831 

Christian  Review,(Bzp- 

NEW  HAVEN. 

list)  quarterly         -    -  1835 
Boston    Quarterly   Re- 
•cieui.(Brownson)       -  1837 
New    England   Maga- 
zine, Buckingham      -  1833 
American  Quarterly  Re- 
•   sister.  Edwards         •  18  — 
The    Dial,    (quarterly) 
Emerson,  to  1843         -  1841 

Christian  Observer      •  182- 
American    Journal    of 
Science  4"  Arts,  (Silli- 
man's)  quarterly        -  1818 
New  Eng/under,  Theol. 
(quarterly)            -      -  1843 
Church   Review  (quar- 
terly)    •           .           -  1848 

Massachusetts  Quarter- 

ly, Theo.  Parker,  &c.  1846 

•Subsequent  editors  :— W.  Phillips,  1817  ;  E.  T.  Channing,  Dana,  and  Sparks,  1817;  Ed 
erett,  18;9    Jared  Sparks,  1823;  A.  H.  Everett,  1830;  J.  G.  Palfrey,  1835;  F.  Bowen,  .842 


Everett 


[war* 
.342. 


ROM 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


560 


RHINE,  CONFEDERATION  OF  THE.     See  article  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  United  States ;  first  settled  by  Roger  Williaua 
and  his  associates,  who  left  Massachusetts  to  escape  religious  persecution, 
and  founded  the  town  of  Providence,  in  1636.  Williams  obtained  a  patent 
from  Plymouth  Co.  in  1644,  including  Providence  Plantations  and  Rhode 
Island,  which  had  been  settled  1638.  New  charter  by  Charles  II.,  in  1663, 
which  has  continued  in  force  till  recently,  unchanged  by  the  Revolution. 
Dorr's  attempt  to  change  or  overturn  this  constitution  by  armed  force,  iu 
June,  1842,  defeated  by  the  military  force  of  the  government.  New  consti- 
tution adopted  in  convention,  September  1842.  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  adopted  May  29,  1790 ;  this  State  being  the  last  to  accede  to  it.  Pop- 
ulation in  1790,  58;825;  in  1810,  76,931;  in  1830,  97,212;  in  1840,  108130. 

RHODES.  This  city  was  peopled  from  Crete,  as  early  as  916  B.  c.  The  Rho- 
dians  were  famous  navigators,  masters  of  the  sea,  and  institutors  of  a  mar- 
itime code,  which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  republic  not 
completed  till  480  B.  c.  The  city  built  432  B.  c.  Its  famous  Colossus 
(which  see)  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake,  224  B.  c.,  and  finally  destroyed 
by  the  Saracen  admiral  Moavi*,  A.  D.  672 — Priestley. 

RJALTO,  AT  VENICE.  This  renowned  bridge  is  mentioned  by  Shakspeare  in 
his  "  Merchant  of  Venice/'1  It  was  built  in  1570,  and  consists  of  a  single 
arch,  but  a  very  noble  one,  of  marble,  built  across  the  Grand  Canal,  near 
the  middle,  where  it  is  the  narrowest :  this  celebrated  arch  is  ninety  feet 
wide  on  the  level  of  the  canal,  and  twenty-four  feet  high. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  OF.  The  declaration  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  Eng- 
land to  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13,  1689.  See  Bill  of 
Rights. 

RIOTS.     Some  of  the  most  noted  in  the  United  States :   . 


At  Baltimore,  office  of  a  Newspaper  oppos-  i  At  Cincinnati,  chiefly  of  Irishmen  against 
dished,  July.  1812. 

,  .        _ons  killed  bv  thj 

tary,  Sept.  24, 1831. 


ed  to  the  war,  demolished,  July.  ISIS 
At  Providence,  4  persons  killed  by  the  mill- 

....      w-      ,     -      n4      IOO1 


,         .      , . 

At  Baltimore,  about  the  bank  of  Mil.,  several 
killed  and  wounded.  Aug.  8,  1835. 

At  New  York,  '-abolition  riots,"  caused  by 
discussions  on  slavery,  and  supposed  in- 
tentions of  abolitionists  to  promote  "  amal- 
famation"  between  whites  and  blacks, 
uly  10-12,  1834. 

At  Charlestown,  Mass.,  a  Catholic  seminary 
or  nunnery  burnt,  Aug.  11,  1834. 

At  Philadelphia,  further  "abolition"  riots, 
40  houses  destroyed,  Aug.  12,  1834. 

At  Utica;  Boston,  &c.,  same  cause.  1835-6. 

At  Cincinnati^  printing-press  of  Mr.  Bur- 
ney's  "abolition"  paper  destroyed,  July 
30.1836. 

At  New  York,  caused  by  the  high  price  ol 
flour ;  several  hundred  barrels  of  flour  des- 
troyed, Feb.  13,  1837. 

At  Alton,  III.,  Rev.  E.  P.  Lovejoy's  anti-sla- 
very newspaper  destroyed,  and  he  was 
killed,  Nov.  7.  1837. 

At  Philadelphia,  mob  opposed  to  the  anti- 
slavery  discussions,  destroyed  Pennsylva- 
nia Hall,  &c.,  May  17,  1838. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  legislature,  two  different 


abolitionists  and  negroes,  Sept.  4, 1841. 

Disgraceful  affray  in  Pennsylvania  legisla- 
ture ;  a  member  stabbed  by  another,  April 
8,  1843. 

Another  in  House  of  Representatives  of  U. 
S.;  rencontre  between  Weller  and  Shriver, 
Jan.  25,  1844. 

Riot  at  Philadelphia, between  "native  Ame- 
ricans" and  the  Irish,  30  houses  and  3 
churches  burned,  fourteen  persons  killed, 
forty  wounded ;  finally  put  down  by  the 
military,  May  6-8,  1844. 

The  same  renewed,  and  40  to  50  killed  and 
wounded  by  the  military:  5000  troops  call- 
ed out,  July  7,1844. 

Outrages  of  "Anti-Renters,"  in  Rensselaer 
County.  N.  Y.  Commenced  August  21, 
1844 :  renewed  in  December. 

Delaware  Co.,  N.  Y.,  declared  by  governor 
Wright  to  be  in  a  state  of  insurrection. 
Collection  of  rents  being  resisted  by  rioters! 
disguised  as  Indians,  and  an  under  sheriff 
murdered,  Aug.  27,  1845. 

Anti-Rent  riot  in  Columbia  Co.  N.  Y.  March 
25, 1847. 

Riots  at  the  Astor  Place  Opera  House,  N.  Y. 
against  Mr.  Macready,  the  Unglish  aitor 
21  killed  ;  May  10,  1849. 


i  me  rennsyivama  legislature,  two  ninerent        zi  Kineu  ;  may  lu,  ie*i». 

legislatures  organized,  the  Senate  expelled  I  Disgraceful  rencontre  between  Foote  of  Mi 


from  their  Chamber  by  a  mob.  Militia 
called  out  and  the  contest  settled  after  4 
days,  Dec.  8,  1838. 


sissippi  and  Benton  of  Missouri,  in  th« 
Senate  of  ihe  U.  S.,  the  first  gross  insult  U 
that  assembly.  May,  1850. 


RIVER  AND  HARBOR  CONVENTION,  for  promoting  improvements,  &c. ;   as- 


566  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  |  EJM 

sembled  at  Chicago,  111.,  July  5,  1847.  House  of  Representatives  votes 
(112  to  53)  that  it  is  expedient  and  constitutional  for  the  general  govern- 
ment to  promote  such  improvements,  July  1848. 

ROBESPIERRE'S  REIGN  OF  TERROR.  Maximilian  Robespierre  headed  the 
populace  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of 
the  king,  July  17,  1791.  He  was  triumphant  in  1793,  and  great  numbers  01 
eminent  men  and  citizens  were  sacrificed  during  his  sanguinary  administra- 
tion. Billaud  Varennes  denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in  the  tri- 
bune, July  28.  1794.  Cries  of  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !"  resounded  through 
the  hall ;  and  so  great  was  the  abhorrence  of  the  Convention  of  this  wicked 
minister,  that  he  was  immediately  ordered  to  the  place  of  execution  and 
suffered  death,  no  man  deeming  himself  safe  while  Robespierre  lived. 

ROBIN  HOOD.  The  celebrated  captain  of  a  notorious  band  of  rubbers,  who 
infested  the  forest  of  Sherwood  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  from  thence  made 
excursions  to  many  parts  of  England,  in  search  of  booty.  Some  historiaea 
assert  ti.at  this  was  only  a  name  assumed  by  the  then  earl  of  Huntingdon, 
who  was  disgraced  and  banished  the  court  by  Richard  I.  at  his  accession. 
Robin  Hood,  Little  John  his  friend  and  second  in  command,  with  their  nu- 
merous followers,  continued  their  depredations  from  about  1189  to  1247, 
when  he  died. — Stowe's  Chron. 

ROCKETS,  CONGREVE'S.  War  implements  of  very  destructive  power,  were 
invented  by  sir  William  Congreve,  about  1803.  The  carcase  rockets  were 
first  Uh-d  at  Boulogne,  their  powers  having  been  previously  demonstrated 
in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.  Sue 
article  Boulogne  Flotilla. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  progress  of  Christianity  during  the  life-time  of 
its  divine  founder  was  confined  within  narrow  bounds :  the  Holy  Land  was 
alone  the  scene  of  his  labors,  and  of  his  life  and  death.  The  period  of  the 
rise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  may  be  dated  from  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  by  Constantine,  A.  D.  323.  See  Rome.  The  foundation  of  the 
papal  power  dates  from  A.  D.  606,  when  Boniface  III.  assumed  the  title  of 
Universal  Bishop.  See  Pope.  Pepin,  king  of  France,  invested  pope  Ste- 
phen II.  with  the  temporal  dominions  of  Rome  and  its  territories,  A.  D.  756. 
The  tremendous  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  was  weakened  by  the  Reform- 
ation, and  has  since  been  gradually  yielding  to  the  influence  of  the  reformed 
doctrines,  and  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  Of  225  millions  of  Christians,  about  160  millions  are,  or  pass  under 
the  denomination  of,  Roman  Catholics. — M.  Balbi. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS  IN  ENGLAND.  Laws  were  enacted  against  them  in 
1.539.  They  were  forbidden  the  British  court  in  1673 ;  but  restored  to  favor 
there  in  1685.  Disabled  from  holding  offices  of  trust  1689  ;  and  excluded 
from  the  British  throne  same  year.  Obliged  to  register  their  names  and 
estates  1717.  Indulgences  were  granted  to  Roman  Catholics  by  parliament 
in  1778.  They  were  permitted  to  purchase  land,  and  take  it  by  descent, 
1780.  The  "no-popery"  riots  (Gordon's)  1780.  Catholic  Emancipation 
Bill  passed  April  13,  1829,  D.  O'Connell  being  the  first  M.  P.  who  took  his 
seat  under  the  act. 

ROMANCES.  "  Stories  of  love  and  arms  wherein  abundance  of  enthusiastic 
flights  of  the  imagination  are  introduced,  giving  false  images  of  life." — 
Pardon.  As  Heliodorus,  a  bishop  of  Tricea.  in  Thessaly,  was  the  author 
of  Ethiopia,  in  Greek,  the  first  work  in  this  species  of  writing,  he  is  henoj 
styled  the  "  Father  of  Romances."  His  work  has  a  moral  tendency,  and 
particularly  inculcates  the  virtue  of  chastity.  He  flourished  A.  D.  398.-- 
Ifuet  de  Or  :gine  Fabul.  Roman. 


EOS] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


567 


ROME.  Once  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  the 
most  extensive  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ever  acknowledged  by  mankind. 
Romulus  is  universally  supposed  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  this  cele- 
brated city,  on  the  20th  of  April,  according  to  Varro,  in  the  year  3961  of 
the  Julian  period,  3251  years  after  the  creation  of  the  world,  753  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  431  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of 
the  sixth  Olympiad.  In  its  original  state.  Rome  was  but  a  small  castle  on 
the  summit  of  Mount  Palatine  ;  and  the  founder,  to  give  his  followers  the 
appearance  of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian  horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a  standard 
a  3  a  common  asylum  for  every  criminal,  debtor,  or  murderer,  who  fled  from 
their  native  country  to  avoid  the  punishment  which  attended  them.  From 
such  an  assemblage  a  numerous  body  was  soon  collected,  and  before  the 
death  of  the  founder,  the  Romans  had  covered  with  their  habitations,  the 
Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine,  Esquiline  hills,  with  Mount  Coalius,  and 
Quirinalis.  Their  numerous  and  successful  wars  led,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
to  their  mastery  over  all  mankind,  and  to  their  conquest  of  nean>  the 
whole  of  the  then  known  world.  The  Romans  and  the  Albans,  contesting 
for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on  each  part  to  decide  it. 
The  three  Horatit.  Roman  knights,  and  the  three  Curiaf.ii,  Albans,  having 
been  elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  com- 
bat, which  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome,  667  B.  c. — • 
Livy.  See  Tubular  Views,  p.  15  to  p.  63. 


Foundation  of  the  city  commenced  by 


753 


476 


Romulus  -  -B.C. 

Odoacer,  chief  of  the   Heruli,  enters 

Italy,  takes  Rome,  and  assumes  the 

title  of  king  of  Italy,  which  ends  the 

Western  empire          -  -    A.  D. 

Rome  is  recovered  for  Justinian,  by 

Belisarius         ....    537 
Retaken  by  the  Gotha          -  -      -   517 

Narses,  Justinian's  general,  again  re 

conquers  Rome 
Papal  power  established 
Rome  revolts  from  the  Greek  emperors, 

and  becomes  free         -  -  -    726 

Pope  Stephen  II.  invested  with  the  tem- 

poral dominion  of  Rome        -  -   756 

Charlemagne  acknowledged  as  emperor 

of  the  West  -  -  -      -   800 


&c.  The  pope  refuses  ;  the  people 
attack  the  palace,  and  at  7  p.  M.  the 
pope  yields,  and  grants  a  liberal  mi- 
nistry -  -  •  Nov.  16,  1848 


The  pope,  after  being  a  prisoner  in  his 
palace  for  seven  days,  escapes  from 
Rome  to  Mola  di  Gaeta,  in  the  dis- 


Rienzi, the  last  of  the  tribunes,  rules  at 

Rome    .....  1347 
[The  popes  continued  in  possession  of 

the  city  and  territories.    See  article 

Popes  and  Italy.] 
The  recent  struggles  of  Rome  for  free- 

dom commenced  in     -  -  -  1848 

Mazzini's  first  proclamation  •  Oct.  29,  1848 

Count  Rossi,  the  pope's  prime  minis- 
ter, assassinated  at  the  senate-house. 
The  populace  march  to  the  Quirinal, 
and  present  their  demands  to  the 
pope,  viz.  :  Italian  nationality,  con- 
stituent assembly,  a  new  ministry, 


guise  of  a  servant        •  Nov.  24,  1848 

Roman  chambers  dissolved,  and  a  con- 
stituent assembly  convened  •  Dec.  29,  1848 

-  553  ,  The  Roman  republic  proclaimed  ;  Maz- 

-  606  i      zini  and  two  others  triumvirs  Feb.  9,  1849 

French  armament  against  the  republic 
reaches  Civita  Vecchia  -  April  25,  1849 

French  repulsed  under  the  walls  of 
Rome,  with  the  loss  of  600  -  April  29,  1849 

Rome  surrenders  after  an  attack  of  29 
days,  and  false  promises  on  the  part 
of  the  French  -  -  July  2,  1849 

Rome  entered  by  the  French  under  Ou- 
dinot.  and  evacuated  by  Garibaldi 
and  his  force  of  3,000  men  -  July  3,  1849 

Garibaldi  escapes  to  the  Adriatic,  Aug.2,  1849 

Oudinot  surrenders  the  government 
into  the  hands  of  three  commissioners 
of  the  pope,  who  begin  the  work  of 
reaction  -  -  Aug.  3,  IS49 

Letter  of  the  French  president,  dictat- 
ing the  basis  of  the  restoration  of  the 
pope's  temporal  power,  viz.  :  general 
amnesty,  secularization  of  the  admi- 
nistration, code  Napoleon,  and  a  libe- 
ral government  -  Aug.  18,  1849 

Pope  Pius  IX.  returned  to  Rome  -  Apr.  1850 


ROSARY.  "We  owe  to  Dominic  de  Guzman,  a  canon  of  the  order  of  St.  Au- 
gustin,  two  most  important  blessings,"  says  a  Spanish  writer,  the  Rosary 
and  the  Holy  Office,"  A.  D.  1202.  Other  authors  mention  the  Rosary  aa 
being  said  in  1093. 

ROSES,  THE  WHITE  AND  RED.  The  intestine  wars  which  so  long  devastated 
England,  were  carried  on  under  the  symbols  of  the  White  and  the  R?.d  Rose, 
and  were  called  the  wars  of  the  Roses.  The  partisans  of  the  house  of  Lan- 


568  THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS.  [  RCM 

caster  chose  the  ied  roses  as  their  mark  of  distinction,  and  thote  of  York 
were  denominated  from  the  white.  These  wars  originated  with  the  descend- 
ants of  Edward  III.  That  monarch  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Ri- 
chard II.,  who  being  deposed,  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was  proclaimed  king 
by  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  in  prejudice  to  the  duke  of  York,  the  right  heii 
to  the  crown ;  he  being  descended  from  Lionel,  the  second  son  of  Edward 
III.,  whereas  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  the  tkirt 
son  of  king  Edward.  The  accession  of  Henry  occasioned  several  conspira 
cies  during  his  reign ;  and  the  animosities  which  subsisted  between  his  de- 
scendants and  those  of  the  duke  of  York  afterwards  filled  the  kingdom 
with  civil  commotions,  and  deluged  its  plains  with  blood,  particularly  ir 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV.  First  battle  foughv,  May  22 
1455.  See  Albans,  St.  Union  of  the  Roses  in  the  marriage  of  Henry  VII 
with  the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  I486 

ROSICRUSIANS.  A  sect  of  hermetical  philosophers,  first  appeared  in  Ger 
many  in  1302,  and  again  early  in  the  1 7th  century.  They  swore  fidelity 
promised  secrecy,  and  wrote  hieroglyphically ;  and  affirmed  that  the  an 
cient  philosophers  of  Egypt,  the  Chaldeans.  Magi  of  Persia,  and  Gymno 
sophists  of  the  Indies,  taught  the  same  doctrine  with  themselves. 

ROUND-HEADS.  During  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  of  Eng 
land  to  the  scaffold,  the  adherents  of  that  monarch  were  first  called  Cava 
lurs,  and  the  friends  of  the  parliament  were  called  Round-heads.  Tim 
latter  term  arose  from  those  persons  who  thus  distinguished  themselves 
putting  a  round  bowl  or  wooden  dish  upon  their  heads,  and  cutting  theii 
hair  by  the  edges  or  brims  of  the  bowl.  See  Cavaliers. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OP  ARTS  IN  ENGLAND.  Instituted  1768,  under  the  patron- 
age of  George  III. ;  and  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  knighted  on  the  occasion,  was 
appointed  its  first  president. — Leigh. 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY,  LONDON.  This  institution,  for  the  recovery  of 
persons  apparently  drowned,  was  founded  in  1774,  by  Drs.  Goldsmith,  He- 
berden,  Towers,  Lettsom,  Hawes  and  Cogan,  but  principally  by  the  exertions 
of  the  last  three  gentlemen.  The  society  has  eighteen  receiving-houses  in  th« 
metropolis,  all  of  which  are  supplied  with  perfect  and  excellent  apparatus 
and  designated  by  conspicuous  boards,  announcing  their  object. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION,  LONDON.  This  institution  was  formed  in  1800,  un- 
der the  patronage  of  George  III.,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter  as 
"  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,"  for  diffusing  the  knowledge,  and 
facilitating  the  general  introduction,  of  useful  mechanical  inventions  and 
improvements,  and  for  teaching,  by  courses  of  philosophical  lectures  and 
experiments,  the  application  of  science  to  the  common  purposes  of  life. 
The  investigations  and  the  important  discoveries  of  sir  H.  Davy,  who  lec- 
tured on  chemistry  here,  conferred  no  small  degree  of  celebrity  on  thii 
establishment.  A  new  professorship  was  created  in  1833. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY.  The  origin  of  this  learned  body  is  ascribed  to  the  hon. 
Robert  Boyle  and  sir  Win.  Petty,  who,  together  with  the  several  doctors  of 
divinity  and  physic,  Matthew  Wren  and  Mr.  Rook,  frequently  met  in  th» 
apartments  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  in  Wadham  College.  Oxford  ;  where  the  society 
continued  till  1658.  Charles  II.,  April  22,  1663,  constituted  them  a  bodj 
politic  and  corporate,  by  the  appellation  of  the  '•  President.  Council  and 
Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  improving  Natural  Knowledge." 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT.  The  parliament  so  designated  at  the  period  of  the 
civil  war  in  England.  Colonel  Pride  at  the  head  of  two  regiments  block- 
aded the  house  of  commons,  and  seized  in  the  passage  41  members  of  the 
Presbyterian  party,  whom  he  confined ;  above  160  more  wore  excluded  j 
and  none  but  the  most  determined  of  the  Independents  about  60.  \ver» 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


569 


permitted  to  enter  the  house.  This  invasion  of  parliamentary  rights  was 
called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  admitted  members  were  called  the  Rump, 
1649.—  Goldsmith. 

RUSSIA.  Anciently  Sarmatia.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  aborigines  of  thia 
vast  tract  of  country  were  the  immediate  progeny  of  Magog,  second  son 
of  Japhet ;  and  that  they  settled  here  very  shortly  after  the  dispersion 
from  Babel,  where  they  were  gradually  divided  into  tribes,  each  distin- 
guished by  a  particular  name,  but  still  retaining  their  ancient  general  ap- 
pellation, until  it  was  changed  by  the  Romans  into  that  of  Scythians. 
Rurick  was  grand-duke  of  Novogorod,  A.  D.  882,  which  is  the  earliest  au- 
thentic account  of  this  country.  In  981,  Woladimer  was  the  first  CLristian 
king.  Audrey  I.  began  his  reign  in  1156,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Mos- 
cow. About  1200,  the  Mongol  Tartars  conquered  Russia,  and  held  it  in 
subjection  till  1540.  when  John  Basilowitz  restored  it  to  independence.  In 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Russians  discovered  and  conqueie4 
Siberia. 


The  foundation  of  the  present  monarchy 
laid  ......  A.  D.  1474 

Basil  IV.  carries  his  victorious  arms  in- 
to the  East,  1509  to  ....  1534 

Ivan  Basilowitz  takes  the  title  of  czar, 
signifying  great  king,  and  drives  the 
Tartars  clear  out  of  his  dominions, 
1534  to  ......  1550 

The  navigation  from  England  first  dis- 
covered by  Robert  Chancellor  -  -  1554 

The  Tartars  surprise  Moscow,  and  slay 
30,000  of  the  people  -  -  -  -1571 

The  Novogorodians  having  intrigued 
with  ihe  Poles,  Ivan  orders  the  chief 
inhabitants  to  be  hewn  into  small  pie- 
ces before  his  eyes  .... 

The  race  of  Rurick,  who  had  governed 
Russia  for  700  years,  becomes  extinct  1598 

The  imposition  practised  by  Demetrius 
See  Impostors.  .....  1606 

The  Poles  place  Ladislaus,  son  of  their 
own  kins,  Sigismund  II.,  upon  the 
throne  of  Russia  ....  1610 

Michael  Fedorowitz,  of  the  house  of 
Romanzov,  ascends  the  throne  -  -  1613 

Revolt  from  Polish  tyranny  -        -        -  1613 

Finland  ceded  to  Sweden       -        -        -  1617 


Reign  of  Peter  I.  or  the  Great 


He  visited  England,  and  worked  in  the 


-  1682 


dock-yard  at  Depiford 


-  1097 


Orders  of  St.  Andrew,  and  of  St.  Alex- 
ander Nevskoi,  instituted  about  -  1698 

The  Russians  begin  their  new  year 
from  January  1  ...  1700 

Peter  builds  St.  Petersburg  -      -  1703 

Peter  II.  deposed,  aad  the  crown  given 
to  Anne  of  Courland  -  -  -1730 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.  reigns, 
in  prejudice  of  Ivan  VI.,  an  infant, 
who  is  imprisoned  for  life  -  -  1741 

Peter  III.  dethroned  and  murdered ;  suc- 
ceeded by  Catherine  his  wife,  -  1762 

THE   CZARS,   OR   EMPERORS   OF   RUSSIA. 

1606  Chousky. 
murdered. 


The  young  prince,  the  rightful  heir,  till 

now  immured,  put  to  death  A.  n.  1763 
The  dismemberment  of  Poland  com- 

menced by  Catherine.  (See  Poland)  177* 
This  perfidious  robbery  completed  •  -  1795 
Catherine  gives  her  subjects  a  new  code 

of  laws  ;  abolishes  torture  in  punish- 

ing criminals;  and  dies          -  -1790 

Murder  of  the  emperor  Paul,  who  is 

found  dead  in  lus  chamber,  March  23,  1801 
Great  defeat  of  Alexander,  at  Austerlitz, 

by  Napoleon  -  -      Dec.  2,  1805 

Alexander  visits  England  -       June  6,  1814 
The  grand-duke  Constantino  renounces 

the  right  of  succession  •  Jan.  26,  1822 
The  emperor  Nicholas  is  -crowned  at 

Moscow       -  -  -     Sept.  3,  1826 

Russian  war  against  Persia  -  Sept.  28,  182C 
Nicholas  invested  with  the  order  of  the 

Garter  -  -  -    July  9,  1827 

Peace  concluded  between  Russia  and 

the  Persians  -        -         Feb'  22,  1828 

War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 

Porte  declared   -  -        April  26,  1823 

[For  the  disastrous   consequences    to 

Turkey  of  this  war,  see  Turkey  and 

Buttles.] 
The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland, 


against  Russia 


Nov.  29,  1830 


This  war  closed  with  the  capture  of 


Warsaw,  ami  the  total  overthrow  of 
the  Poles.  See  Warsaw  •  Sept.  8, 1831 

[For  the  events  of  this  last  war,  see  ar- 
ticle Poland.] 

Cracow,  which  had  been  erected  into  a 
republic,  and  its  independence  gua- 
ranteed by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  is  occupied  by  a  Russian  and 
Austrian  army  -  Feb.  13,  1836 

Failure  of  the  Russian  expedition  a- 
gainst  Khiva  •  -  Jan.  3,  134<J 

Treaty  of  London.   See  Syria  •  July  15,  18*1 


1461  John  111. 

1504  Demetrius 

1504  Basil  V.      ' 

1534  John  IV. 

1584  Theodore  I. 

1598  Bovise  Godounove. 

1605  Theodore  It. 

1605  Demetrius  11. ,  assassinated. 


1616  Michael  fedorowitz. 

1645  Alexis. 

1676  Theodore  III. 

16S2  Peter  I.,  the  Great. 

1725  Catherine  I. 

1727  Peter  II.. 

1730  Anne,  a  nun. 


570  TIIK  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [SAD 


RUSSIA,  continued. 

1740  John  V. :  murdered,  Ji  ly  17. 1762. 

1741  Elizabeth. 

1762  Peter  III. ;  deposed,  anl  died  sooc  af- 
terwards. 


1762  Catherine  II. 

1796  Paul  1.;  murdr.ed,  Feb  25,  1901. 

1801  Alexander. 

1825  Nicholas,  December  1. 


RYE-HOUSE  PLOT.  The  real,  or  more  probably  pretended,  conspiracy  U 
assassinate  Charles  II.  and  his  brother  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  Jamei 
II.)  at  a  place  called  Rye-house,  on  the  way  to  London  from  Newmarket. 
This  design  was  said  to  have  been  frustrated  by  the  king's  house  at  New- 
market accidentally  taking  fire,  which  hastened  the  royal  party  away  eight 
days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  place.  March  22.  1683.  The  plot  was  discov- 
ered June  12.  following.  The  patriot  Algernon  Sidney,  suffered  death  on  a 
false  charge  of  being  concerned  in  this  conspiracy,  Dec.  7,  1683. 

RYSWICK,  PKACE  OP,  concluded  between  England,  France,  Sp^in.  and  Holland, 
signed  Sept.  20,  and  by  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Oct.  30,  1697. 

S. 

SABBATH,  THE.  Ordained  by  the  Almighty.  The  Jews  observed  the  seventh 
day  in  commemoration  of  the  creation  and  their  redemption  from  the  bon- 
dage of  the  Egyptians;  the  Christians  observe  the  first  day  of  the  week  in 
commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  univer- 
sal redemption  of  mankind.  The  sabbath-day,  or  Sunday,  ordained  to  be 
kept  holy  in  England,  from  Saturday  at  three  in  the  afternoon  to  Monday  at 
break-of-day,  4  Canon,  Edgar,  A.  D.  960.  Act  of  parliament  levying  one 
shilling  on  every  person  absent  from  church  on  Sundays,  3  James  I.  1606. 
Act  restraining  amusements,  Charles  I.,  162&  Act  restraining  the  perform 
ance  of  servile  works,  and  the  sale  of  goods,  except  milk  at  certain  hours, 
meat  in  public  houses,  and  works  of  necessity  and  charity,  on  forfeiture  of 
five  shillings,  29  Charles  II.  1677. 

SABBATIANS.  Christians,  who,  professing  to  follow  the  example  and  precepts 
of  Christ,  keep  the  ancient  divine  Sabbath  of  Saturday,  instead  of  the  mo- 
dern Romish  festival  of  Sunday,  for  which  this  sect  allege  that  there  is  not 
a  tittle  of  Scriptural  authority.  They  maintain  that  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
was  never  abrogated,  nor  any  other  appointed  or  instituted,  and  consequently 
that  it  ought  to  be  as  religiously  observed  by  the  Christians  as  by  the 
Jews.  1549. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.  A  Jewish  institution,  1444  B.  c.  Every  seventh  year, 
during  which  time  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tilled,  and  every 
forty-ninth  year  all  debts  were  forgiven,  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates, 
&c.,  that  were  before  sold  or  mortgaged,  returned  to  their  original  families, 
&c. — Jusep/ius. 

SABINES.  The  people  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romulus,  took  away 
their  daughters  by  force  for  wives,  having  made  and  invited  them  to  some 
public  sports  or  shows  on  purpose;  when  the  Sabines  were  determined  to 
revenge  this  affront,  the  women  became  mediators  to  their  fathers  in  behalf 
of  their  husbands  the  Romans,  and  settled  a  regular  and  lasting  peace  be- 
tween them,  750  B.  c. 

SACRED  WAR.  The  first,  concerning  the  temple  at  Delphi,  took  place  448  B.  c. 
The  second  Sacred  War  occurred  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phocoans, 
356  B.  c.  This  latter  war  was  terminated  by  Philip  of  Macedon  taking  all 
the  cities  of  the  Phoceans,  348  B.  c.— Plutarch.. 

SACRIFICE.  The  first  religious  sacrifice  was  offered  to  God  by  Abol;  it  con- 
sisted of  milk  and  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  3875  B.C. — Josep/ius;  Us/ui\ 
Sacrifices  to  the  gods  were  fii  st  introduced  into  Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of 


«T.  V]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  571 

Argos,  1773  B.  c.  The  offering  of  human  sacrifices  seems  to  have  originated 
with  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom  the  custom  passed  into  Greece,  Persia,  and 
other  eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to  the  true  God  ceased  with  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Redeemer,  A.  D.  33. 

SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither  saddles  nor  stirrups, 
which  led  to  several  maladies  of  the  hips  and  legs.  Saddles  were  in  use  in 
the  third  century,  and  are  mentioned  as  made  of  leather  in  A.  D.  304.  They 
were  known  in  England  about  the  year  600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  in 
use  in  1388.  Anne,  the  queen  of  Richard  II.,  introduced  them  to  the  En- 
glish ladies. — Stowe. 

3ADDUCEES.  A  soct  among  the  Jews,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one 
Sadoc,  a  scholar  of  Antigonus,  who,  misinterpreting  his  master's  doctrine, 
taught  there  was  neither  heaven  nor  hell,  angel  nor  spirit ;  that  the  soul 
was  mortal,  and  that  there  was  no  resurrection  of  the  body  from  the  dead. 
As  for  their  other  opinions,  the  Sadducees  agreed  ;n  general  with  the  Sama- 
ritans, excepting  that  they  were  partakers  of  all  the  Jewish  sacrifices.  This 
sect  began  about  200  B.  c. — Pardon. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  That  of  the  illustrious  sir  Humphrey  Davy,  to  prevent  ac- 
cidents which  happen  in  coal  and  other  mines,  introduced  in  1815  ;  and  im- 
proved in  1817.  The  safety-lamjj  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  flame,  in 
passing  through  iron-wire  meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat  as  not  to  be 
capable  of  igniting  inflammable  substances  around,  while  flame  alone  ig- 
nites gas.  It  should  be  mentioned,  that  the  father  of  all  safety-lamps  is 
Dr.  Reid  Clanny,  of  Sunderland,  whose  invention  and  improvements  are 
authenticated  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  for  1817,  and  in 
Thomson's  Annals  of  Philosophy,  same  year. 

SAGUNTUM,  SIEGE  OF.  The  famous  and  dreadful  siege  of  Saguntum  (now 
Morviedro  in  Valencia)  was  sustained  219  B.  c.  The  heroic  citizens,  after 
exerting  incredible  acts  of  valor  for  eight  months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the 
ruins  of  their  city  rather  than  surrender  to  Hannibal.  They  burnt  them- 
selves, with  their  houses  and  all  their  effects,  and  the  conqueror  became 
master  of  a  pile  of  ashes  and  of  dead. 

ST.  SALVADOR.  The  first  point  of  land  discovered  in  the  West  Indies  or 
America  by  the  illustrious  Christopher  Columbus.  It  was  previously  called 
Guanahami,  or  Cat's  Isle,  and  Columbus  (in  acknowledgment  to  God  for 
his  deliverance  from  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed  in  his  voyage  of 
discovery)  named  it  St.  Salvador,  October  11,  1492. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN'S,  SIEGE  OF,  by  the  British  and  allied  army  under  lord  Wel- 
lington. St.  Sebastian,  after  a  short  siege,  during  which  it  sustained  a  most 
heavy  bombardment,  and  by  which  the  whole  town  was  laid  nearly  in  ruins, 
was  stormed  by  general  (afterwards  lord)  Graham,  and  taken,  August  31 
1813. 

6TT.  SOPHIA,  CHURCH  OF.  In  Constantinople,  a  short  distance  from  the  Sub- 
lime Porte,  stands  the  ancient  Christian  church  of  St.  Sophia:  built  by 
Justinian ;  and  since  the  Mahometan  conquest,  in  1453,  used  as  an  impe- 
rial mosque.  It  abounds  in  curiosities.  Its  length  is  269  feet,  and  its 
breadth  243  feet.  Six  of  its  pillars  are  of  green  jasper,  from  the  Temple  of 
Diana,  at  Ephesus ;  and  eight  of  porphyry,  from  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at 
Rome. 

ST.  VINCENT,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Spanish  and  British  fleets  off  tho 
Cape.  The  latter  was  commanded  by  sir  John  Jervis  (afterwards  earl  St. 
Vincent),  who  took  four  line-of- battle  ships,  and  considerably  damaged  tb« 
rest  of  the  Spanish  fleet,  February  14,  1797. 


5/2  THE   WORLDS    ?»WOGRESS.  [  S/l» 

SALAMANCA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  British  and  allies  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Marmont.  fought  July  22, 
1812.  In  this  great  and  memorable  battle  the  illustrious  Wellington  was 
victorious,  though  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  most  severe,  amounting  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  to  nearly  6000  men  ;  but  that  of  the  enemy 
was  much  greater.  Marmont  left  in  the  victor's  hands  7141  prisoners,  11 
pieces  of  cannon,  6  stand  of  colors,  and  two  eagles  :  8000  men  are  believed 
to  have  been  killed  and  wounded.  Marmont  was  the  seventh  French  Mar- 
shal whom  lord  Wellington  had  defeated  in  the  course  of  four  years.  An 
immediate  consequence  of  this  victory  was  the  capture  of  Madrid  with  2600 
more  prisoners,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  stores. 

SALAMIS,  BATTLE  OF.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  Greeks  in  this  great  sea- 
fight,  October  20,  480  B.  c.  Thcmistocles,  the  Greek  commander,  with  only 
366  sail,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  of  over  1000,  at  the  least.  After 
this  battle,  Xerxes  retired  from  Greece,  leaving  behind  him  Mardonius, 
with  300  000  men,  to  carry  on  the  war.  and1  suffer  more  disasters.  In  his  re- 
treat, he  found  the  bridge  of  boats  he  had  crossed  over  at  the  Hellespont, 
now  the  Dardanelles,  destroyed  by  a  tempest. 

SALIQUE,  OR  SALIC,  LAW.  By  this  law  females  are  excluded  from  inherit- 
ing the  crown  of  France.  It  was  instituted  by  Pharamond,  A.  D.  424.  Rati- 
fied in  a  council  of  state  by  Clovis  I.,  the  real  founder  of  the  French 
monarchy,  in  511. — Henault's  France.  In  order  to  give  more  authority  to 
the  maxim  that  "  the  crown  should  never  descend  to  a  female,"  it  was  usual 
to  derive  it  from  a  clause  of  the  Salian  code  of  the  ancient  Franks ;  but 
this  clause,  if  strictly  examined,  carries  only  the  appearance  of  favoring 
the  principle,  and  does  not  in  reality  bear  the  sense  imposed  upon  it. 

SALT  AND  SALT-MINES.  Salt  is  either  procured  from  rocks  in  the  earth,  from 
salt-springs,  or  from  sea-water.  The  famous  salt-mines  of  Wielitska,  near 
Cracow,  in  Poland,  have  been  worked  600  years,  and  yet  present,  it  has  been 
lately  said,  no  appearance  of  being  exhausted.  Rock-salt  was  discovered 
about  A.  D.  950.  Saltpetre  was  first  made  in  England  about  1625.  The  fine 
salt-mines  of  Staffordshire  were  discovered  about  1670. 

SAMARITANS.  The  Samaritans  are  often  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  They 
were  the  inhabitants  of  a  province  of  which  Samaria  was  the  capital,  and 
were  composed  of  heathens  and  rebellious  Jews ;  and  on  having  a  temple 
•built  there  after  the  form  of  that  of  Jerusalem,  a  lasting  enmity  arose  be- 
tween the  people  of  Jv.dea  and  Samaria,  so  that  no  intercourse  took  place 
between  the  two  countries,  and  the  name  of  Samaritan  became  a  word  of  re- 
proach, and  as  if  it  were  a  curse. — Lempriere. 

SANCTUARIES.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  early  ages.  Rome  was  one 
entire  sanctuary  from  751  B.  c.  In  England,  privileged  places  for  the  safety 
of  offenders  were  granted  by  king  Lucius  to  our  churches  and  their  pre- 
cincts. St.  John's  of  Beverley  was  thus  privileged  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons. 
St.  Burehrs,  in  Cornwall,  was  privileged  by  Athelstan,  A.  D.  935;  West- 
minster, by  Edward  the  Confessor ;  St.  Martin's-le-Grand,  1529.  Sanc- 
tuaries were  abolished  at  the  Reformation.  Several  places  in  London  were 
privileged  against  the  arrest  of  persons  for  debt.  These  last  were  sup- 
pressed in  1696. 

RANDALS.  The  shoe  or  slipper  worn  especially  l-y  the  eastern  nations.  At 
first  it  was  only  a  piece  of  leather  like  the  sole  of  a  shoe,  to  keep  the  foot 
from  the  ground,  but  was  in  the  course  of  time  improved  to  a  covering  of 
cloth,  ornamented  with  all  the  delicacies  of  art,  and  made  of  the  richest 
materials,  and  worn  by  the  high  priests  at  great  solemnities,  and  by  kings, 
princes,  and  great  men  as  a  mark  of  distinction.  Sandals  were  also  worn 
by  women,  as  appears  from  the  story  of  Judith  and  Holofernes,  where, 


CAR  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATF8.  573 

among  other  decorations,  she  is  said  to  have  put  on  sandals,  at  the  sight  of 
which  he  was  ravished.  It  was  usual  for  ladies  to  have  slaves  to  carry 
their  sandals  in  cases,  ready  to  adorn  their  feet  on  occasions  of  state.  Sea 

Shoes. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  eleven  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They 
were  discc  pered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  Many  voyagers  report  that  the  na- 
tural capacity  of  the  natives  seems  in  no  respect  below  the  common  standard 
of  mankind.  It  was  in  one  of  these  islands  that  this  illustrious  circumna- 
vigator fell  a  victim  to  the  sudden  resentment  of  the  natives,  Feb.  14,  1779. 
Extraordinary  progress  in  the  civilization  and  improvement  of  the  natives, 
effected  chiefly  by  the  American  missionaries.  Tamehameha.  chief  of 
Hawaii,  becomes  king  of  the  group,  18  .  Rihoriho,  his  son,  succeed* 
him,  1819.  Idolatry  abolished,  1819.  Rihoriho  and  his  queen  died  in  Eng- 
land, 1824.  Kanikeaouli,  20  years  of  age.  king,  1824.  Mission  established 
by  the  American  Board,  1820.  In  1832  there  were  900  schools  and  50,000 
pupils  in  the  Islands.  Treaty  with  the  French,  made  with  admiral  Dupetit- 
Thouars,  1837.  Another,  enforcing  the  introduction  of  Catholic  mission- 
aries, &c.,  1839.  Tamehameha  III.  becomes  king,  Dr.  G.  P.  Ji  dd,  an  Ame- 
rican, prime-minister,  18  .  In  1831  there  were  14  ships.  2630  tons,  belong- 
ing to  the  Islands — which  are  important  to  the  United  States  as  a  whaling 
station.  See  Owhyhee. 

SANHEDRIM.  An  ancient  Jewish  council  of  the  highest  jurisdiction,  of  sev- 
enty, or  as  some  say,  seventy-three  members.  They  date  this  senate  from 
Numbers  xi.  16.  It  was  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  JKSUS  CHRIST,  John 
xviii.  31.  A  Jewish  Sanhedrim  was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon 
at  Paris.  July  23,  1806  ;  and  it  assembled  Jan.  20,  1807. 

SAPPHIC  VERSE.  The  verse  invented  by  Sappho,  the  lyric  poetess  of  Mity- 
lene.  Sappho  was  equally  celebrated  for  her  poetry,  her  beauty,  and  her 
amorous  disposition.  She  conceived  a  hopeless  passion  for  Phaon,  a  youth 
of  her  native  country,  on  which  account  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea 
from  Mount  Leucas,  and  was  drowned.  The  Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid 
her  divine  honors,  and  called  her  the  tenth  muse,  594  B.  c. 

SARACENS.  A  celebrated  people  from  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Sarra  in  their 
language  signifying  a  desert.  They  were  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet ; 
and  within  40  years  after  his  death,  in  A.  D.  631,  they  conquered  a  great  part 
of  Asia,  Afi  ica,  and  Europe.  They  conquered  Spain  in  713  et  seq. ;  the 
empire  of  the  Saracens  closed  by  Bagdad  being  taken  by  the  Tartars,  1258. 
— Blair.  There  are  now  no  people  known  by  this  name ;  the  descendants 
of  those  who  subdued  Spain  are  called  Moors. 

S.ARAGOSSA.  Anciently  Caesarea  Augusta;  whence,  by  corruption,  its  name. 
Its  church  has  been  a  place  of  great  devotion.  They  tell  us  that  the  Virgin, 
while  yet  living,  appeared  to  St.  James,  who  was  preaching  the  gospel,  and 
left  him  her  image,  which  was  afterwards  placed  in  the  church,  with  a  little 
Jesus  in  its  arms,  ornamented  with  a  profusion  of  gold  and  jewels,  and  il- 
luminated by  a  multitude  of  lamps.  In  December  1778.  four  hundred  of 
the  inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the  theatre.  Saragossa  taken  by 
the  French,  after  a  most  heroic  defence  by  general  Palafox,  during  as  re 
nowned  a  siege  as  is  on  record,  February  13,  1809. 

SARATOGA,  BURGOYNB'S  SURRENDER  AT.  Here  general  Burgoyne,  comman 
der  of  the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  Americans  it 
the  war  of  independence  (Oct.  7),  being  surrounded,  surrendered  to  th< 
American  general  Gates,  when  5791  men  laid  down  their  arms,  October  17 
1777. 

SARDANAPALTTS.    The  last  king  of  Assyria.     See  Aw/ria.    One  of  the  mod 


574 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 


SAl 


infamous  and  sensual  monarchs  that  ever  lived.  Having  grown  odious  to 
his  subjects,  and  being  surrounded  by  hostile  armies,  dreading  to  fall  into 
their  hands,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  capital  at  Nineveh  Here  he  caused 
a  vast  pile  of  wood  to  be  raised  in  a  court  of  his  palace,  and  heaping  upon. 
it  all  his  gold,  silver,  jewels,  precious  and  rare  articles,  the  royal  apparel, 
and  other  treasures,  and  inclosing  his  concubines  and  eunuchs  in  an  apart^ 
ment  within  the  pile,  he  set  all  on  fire,  perishing  himself  in  the  flames. 
This  is  the  mightiest  conflagration  of  wealth  on  record.  The  riches 
thus  destroyed  were  worth  a  thousand  myriads  of  talents  of  gold,  and  TEN 
TIMES  as  many  talents  of  silver  III  about  1,400,000,000/.  sterling. — Athenceus. 

SARDINIA.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  &c.,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Umbrians,  Etrurians,  Ligurians,  and  afterwards  the  Gauls 
(when  they  established  themselves  in  Italy,  under  Brennus,  &c.,)  from 
whom  this  country  was  called  Cisalpine  Gaul  (or  Gaul  on  this  side  of  the 
Alps,  with  respect  to  Rome):  it  afterwards  became  a  part  of  Lombardy, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Burgundians.  The  island  of  Sardinia  has 
been  successively  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  the  Carthagi- 
nians, Romans,  Saracens,  and  Spaniards.  From  settlers  belonging  to  v*  Inch 
various  nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive  their  origin. 

Subjugated  by  Ihe  Romans        -      B.C.    231     Declares  war  againct  Austria,  enters 

Milan  witli  xn  army,  to  assist  the  po- 
pular cause,  and  drives  the  Austrians 
towards  Mantua      -       -    March  23,  1848 
Takes  Lodi     ....    April  1,  *"* 
Forces  the  Austrian  line  near  Verona, 

April  17,  *••• 
Takes  Peschiara      -        .        -  May  30,  *•** 


Taken  by  the  Moors,  about  •        -  A.D.    728 
Reduced  by  the  Genoese    -        -        -      1115 
The  pope  grants  Sardinia  to  thePisanese, 
who  are.  however,  too  weak  to  expel 

the  Saracens 1132 

Alphonsus  IV.  of   Arragon,  becomes 


master  of  Sardinia 


-  1324 


Taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  Eng- 
lish naval  forces  ....  1708 

Recovered -by  the  Spaniards    -        -    -1717 

They  again  lose  possession   .        -        -  1719 

Ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  as  an  equi- 
valent for  Sicily  ....  1720 

Victor  Amadeus.  ha  vine  the  title  of  king 
abdicates  in  favor  of  his  son  -  A.D.  1730 

Attempting  to  recover  Sardinia,  he  is 
taken,  and  dies  in  prison  -  -  -  1732 

[The  court  kept  at  Turin  till  1706,  when 
these  dominions  were  overrun  by  the 
French  arms,  and  shortly  afterwards 
annexed  to  the  French  empire.] 

The  king  resigns  his  crown  to  his  bro- 


the 


king 
r,  du 


ke  of  Aoust 


June  4,  1802 


Sardinia  annexed  to  Italy,  and  Bona- 
parte crowned  king  of  the  whole. 

December  26,  1805 

Restored  to  its  rightful  sovereign,  with 
Genoa  added  to  it  December  1814 

King  Charles  Albert,  having  protested 
against  Austrian  encroachments  in 
Italy,  calls  out  an  additional  force  of 
25,000  men  -  -  •  Jan.  LO  1&48 

Proclaims  the  basis  of  a  Constitution 

Feb.  8,  1848 


Defeats  the  Austrians  under  Radetsky, 
at  Goito  

Sardinian  army  driven  from  Vicenza, 
Verona,  the  Adige,  &c.,  June-July  -  1848 

Retreats  to  Ticino  after  capitulation  of 
Milan Aug.  4.  **** 

Followed  by  an  armistice      •       -        '.*••* 

Rupture  of  the  armistice    -        -  March  1849 

Battle  of  Novava ;  the  Sardinians  under 
Charles  Albert,  totally  defeated  by 
Radetsky  •  -  -  -  -  -  *"• 

The  king  abdicates  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emanuel,  count  of  Savoy,  and 
leaves  the  kinsdom  -  March  23,  *"** 

Insurection  at  Genoa  against  the  new 
king April  1,  **" 

Genoa  invested  by  Marmora,    April  5,  *" 
and  fully  reduced      -        -    April  11,  *"* 

Charles  Albert  late  king,  dies  al  Lis- 
bon -  -  -  -  -  July  28,  "** 

Victor  Emanuel  opens  the  legislative 
chamber  with  a  moderate  speech,  and 
is  warmly  greeted  -  Aug.  1.  *" 

Treaty  with  Austria       -        -   Aug.  6,  **" 

The  chamber  votes  100,000  livres  to  re- 
lieve the  refugees  fom  various  parts 
ofltaly  -  •  -  Aug  30,  "" 


KINGS   OP   SARDINIA. 

4,1).  1720.  Victor  Amadeus,  son  of  Charles  Ema-  |    1802.  Victor  Emanuel. 

nuel  duke  of  Savoy. 
1730.  Charles  Emanuel 
1773.  Victor  Amadeus  Maria  II. 
1796.  Charles  Emanuel. 


1821.  Charles  Felix. 

1831.  Charles  Albert,  A  prL  27. 

1848.  Victor  Emanuel 


SATIRE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  comedy,  satire  made  its 
appearance  at  Rome  in  the  writings  of  Lucilius.  who  was  so  celebrated  in 
this  specie*  of  composition  that  he  has  been  called  the  inventor  of  it,  116 


SAW]  DICTIONARY   OP   DATES.  575 

B.  c. — Livy.  Lucilius  obtained  praise  lavished  with  too  liberal  a  hand :  we 
may  compare  him  to  a  river  which  rolls  upon  its  waters  precious  sand,  ac- 
companied with  mire  and  dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY.  With  us  this  is  the  last  or  seventh  day  of  the  week ;  but  with 
the  Jews  it  is  the  Sabbath.  See  Sabbath.  It  was  so  called  from  an  idol 
worshipped  on  this  day  by  the  old  Saxons,  and  according  to  Verligern  was 
named  by  them  Saterne's-day. — Pardon.  It  is  more  probably  from  Saturn, 
dies  Saturni. — Addison. 

SATURN.  Ascertained  to  be  about  900  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the 
sun,  and  its  diameter  to  be  89.170  miles.  His  satellites  were  discovered  by 
Galileo  and  Simon  Meyer,  1608-9-10 ;  his  belt,  &c.,  by  Huygens  in  1634  ; 
his  fifth  satellite  by  the  same  in  1655 ;  and  his  sixth  and  seventh  by 
Herschel  in  1789.  Cassini  was  also  a  discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  the 
planets. 

SATURNALIA.  Festivals  in  honor  of  Saturn.  They  were  instituted  long 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  freedom  and 
equality  which  prevailed  on  earth  in  the  golden  reign  of  Saturn.  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  the  Saturnalia  were  first  observed  at  Rome  in  .  h<; 
reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius,  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Sabines  ;  while 
others  support  that  Janus  first  instituted  them  in  gratitude  to  Saturn,  from 
whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.  Others  suppose  that  they  were  first 
celebrated  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Latins  by  the  dictator  Posthu- 
mius.  During  these  festivals  no  business  was  allowed,  amusements  were 
encouraged,  distinctions  ceased,  and  even  slaves  could  say  what  they  pleased 
to  their  masters  with  impunity. — Lcnglet. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  "ENGLAND.  The  benefit  clubs  among  artisans,  having  ac- 
cumulated stocks  of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,  a  plan  was 
adopted  to  identify  these  funds  with  the  public  debt  of  the  country,  and  an 
extra  rate  of  interest  was  held  out  as  an  inducement;  hence,  savings  banks 
to  receive  small  sums,  returnable  with  interest,  on  demand,  were  formed. 
Brought  under  parliamentary  regulation  in  1816.  The  number  of  savings 
banks  considerably  increased  up  to  1846 ;  and  the  number  of  depositors  in 
that  year  was.  for  the  United  Kingdom,  1,063,418;  and  the  whole  amount 
deposited,  32  661,924Z.  In  the  United  States  the  first  savings  bank  in  Phi- 
ladelphia, 1816  ;  the  next  in  Boston,  1817.  They  are  now  very  numerous 
throughout  the  United  States. 

SAVOY.  It  became  a  Roman  province  118  B.  c.  The  Alemans  seized  it  in  A.  D. 
395,  and  the  Franks  in  496.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till 
1040,  when  Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to  Hubert,  with  the  title 
of  earl.  Amadeus,  earl  of  Savoy,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  his  domi- 
nions into  a  duchy,  which  he  did  at  Cambray,  February  19,  1417.  Victor 
Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  by  treaty,  from 
Spain,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  with  the  emperor  for  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,  1713-20.  The  French  subdued  this  country 
in  1792,  and  made  it  a  department  of  France,  under  the  name  of  Mont 
Blanc,  in  1800. 

SAW.  Invented  by  Daedalus.— Pliny.  Invented  by  Talus. — Apollodorus,  Ta- 
lus, it  is  said,  having  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  he  employed  it  to  cut 
through  a  piece  of  wood,  and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron  like  it. 
Beecher  says  saw-mills  were  invented  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  he 
e-rs.  Saw-mills  were  erected  in  Madeira  in  1420;  at  Breslau,  in  1427. 
Norway  had  the  first  saw-mill  in  1530.  The  bishop  of  Ely,  ambassador 
from  M  iry  of  England  to  the  court  of  Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  there, 
1555.  IL  England  saw-mills  had  at  first  the  same  fate  with  printing  in  Tur- 
key, the  crane  in  Strasburg,  &c.  The  attempts  to  introduce  them  were 


576  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  SOB 

violently  opposed ;  and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman  in  1663  was  forced  to  be 
abandoned. 

°.A  XONY.  The  royal  family  of  Saxony  is  of  very  anMent  origin,  and  is  allied 
to  all  the  royal  houses  in  Europe.  The  sovereignty  still  continues  in  the 
same  family,  notwithstanding  it  encountered  an  interruption  of  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  from  1180  to  1423.  Saxony,  which  had  been  for  many 
centuries  an  electorate,  was  formed  into  a  kingdom  in  1806,  when  Frederick 
Augustus  became  the  first  king.  That  sovereign  was  sxicceeded  by  his 
brother,  Anthony,  May  5,  1827.  The  present  sovereign  is  Frederick  Au- 
gustus II.,  who  ascended  the  throne,  6th  of  June,  1836.  Saxony  became 
the  scene  of  the  great  struggle  against  Napoleon  in  1813.  Insurrection  at 
Dresden ;  the  king  retires  to  Konigstern,  May  3,  1849.  Insurgents  put 
down  by  the  Prussian  troops,  May  7,  1849. 

SCANDALUM  MAGNATUM.  The  name  given  to  a  special  statute  relating 
to  any  wrong,  by  words  or  in  writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land, 
such  as  peers,  judges,  ministers  of  the  crown,  officers  in  the  state,  and  other 
great  public  functionaries,  by  the  circulation  of  scandalous  statements, 
false  news,  or  horrible  messages.  This  law  was  enacted  2  Richard  II,.  1378. 

SCEPTIC.  The  ancient  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho,  334  u.  c. 
Pyrrho  was  in  continual  suspense  of  judgment:  he  doubted  of  everything, 
never  made  any  conclusions,  and  when  he  had  carefully  examined  a  subject, 
and  investigated  all  its  parts,  he  concluded  by  still  doubting  of  its  evidence. 
As  he  showed  so  much  indifference  in  every  thing,  and  declared  that  life 
and  death  were  the  same  thing,  some  of  his  disciples  asked  him,  why  he 
did  not  hurry  himself  out  of  the  world 7  "Because,"  says  he,  "there 
is  no  difference  between  life  and  death."  Timon  was 'one  of  the  chief  fol- 
lowers of  this  sect,  which  was  almost  extinct  in  the  time  of  Cicero. — 
Strabo. 

SCEPTRE.  This  is  a  more  ancient  emblem  of  royalty  than  the  crown.  In  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  world,  the  sceptres  of  kings  were  long  walking-staves  ; 
they  afterwards  were  carved,  and  made  shorter.  Tarquin  the  Elder  was 
the  first  who  assumed  the  sceptre  among  the  Romans  about  468  B.  c.  The 
French  sceptre  of  the  first  race  of  kings  was  a  golden  rod,  A.  D.  481. — Lt 
Gendre. 

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in  London  to  prevent  the  seduc- 
tion of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — 
Rapin.  Charter  schools  were  instituted  in  Ireland  1733. — Scully.  In  Eng- 
land there  are  now  13  642  schools  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  for  the 
education  of  the  poor  ;  and  the  number  of  children  is  998,431.  The  paro- 
chial and  endowed  schools  of  Scotland  are  in  number  (exclusively  of  Sunday 
schools)  4:836 ;  and  the  number  of  children,  181.467.  The  number  of 
schools  in  Wales  is  841.  and  the  number  of  children  38164:  in  Ireland, 
13  327  schools,  and  774,000  children.  In  the  United  States  the  system  of 
public  schools  is  very  generally  and  effectively  supported.  The  school-fund 
in  Maine  amounts  to  $350  000 ;  in  Massachusetts,  $850  000 ;  in  Connecticut, 
$2077.641;  New  York,  $6.491803;  New  Jersey,  $369.278;  Delaware, 
$225,000;  Virginia,  $1448  261 ;  Georgia,  $262300;  Alabama,  $1215,381 ; 
Tennessee,  $1  346.068;  Kentucky.  $1,221,819;  Ohio,  $1,566931;  Michigan, 
$600000 ;  Indiana,  $2  195  149  ;  Missouri.  $575  668;  Iowa,  $132  909.  Total 
in  1849,  $21.420275.  In  the  State  of  New  York  the  number  of  District 
School  Libraries  is  about  11,000.  See  Education,  Libraries,  &c. 

SCIENCE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Franklin's  discoveries  in  electricity,  1762. 
American  Philosophical  Society  established,  1769.  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences.  1780.  First  ;ourse  of  Chemical  Lectures  in  the  United 
States,  by  Dr.  S.  E.  Mitchill,  N.  Jf  ,  1792.  Botanic  garden  and  Professor  at 


SCf  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  577 

Natural  History  established  at  Harvard  College,  1805.     American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  formed,  1845. 

SCILLY  ISLES.  They  held  commerce  with  the  Pho3nicians.  They  are  men 
tioned  by  Strabo  as  being  ten  in  number.  The  memorable  shipwreck 
of  the  British  squadron  under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  occurred  here.  Thifl 
brave  admiral  returning  from  an  expedition  against  Toulon,  mistook  these 
rocks  for  land,  and  struck  upon  them.  His  ship,  the  Association,  in  which 
were  his  lady,  two  sons,  many  persons  of  rank,  and  800  brave  men.  went 
instantly  to  the  bottom.  The  Eagle,  Captain  Hancock,  and  the  Romneynnd 
firebrand,  were  also  lost.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  escaped,  Oct.  22,  1707."  Sif 
Cloudesley's  body,  being  found,  was  conveyed  to  London,  and  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SCOTLAND.  See  Caledonia.  This  important  member  of  the  British  empire 
was  governed  by  a  king  before  the  Romans  visited  England,  and  continued 
an  independent  kingdom  t-;il  the  death  of  the  English  queen  Elizabeth, 
when  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  the  most  immediate  heir,  was  called  to  the 
throne  of  England,  and  constantly  resided  in  the  latter ;  he  and  his  suc- 
cessors calling  themselves  kings  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  eacli 
country  having  a  separate  parliament,  till  the  year  1707,  in  the  reign  of 
queen  Anne,  when  both  kingdoms  were  united  under  the  general  name  «.f 
Great  Britain.  See  England  and  Scotland.  Tabular  Views,  p.  75.,  et  seq. 

SCREW.  This  instrument  was  known  early  to  the  Greeks.  The  pumping- 
screw  of  Archimedes,  or  screw-cylinder  for  raising  water,  invented  236  B.  c., 
is  still  in  use,  and  still  bears  that  philosopher's  name.  The  power  of  the 
screw  is  astonishing  ;  it  being  calculated  that  if  the  distance  between  the 
two  spirals  or  threads  of  the  screw  be  half  an  inch,  and  the  length  of  each 
handle  twelve  inches,  the  circle  that  they  describe  in  going  round  will  be 
seventy-five  inches,  and  consequently  150  times  greater  than  half  an  inch, 
the  distance  between  the  two  spirals.  Therefore  one  man  can,  with  the 
assistance  of  this  screw,  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much  as  150  men  could 
do  without  it.  This  power  increases  in  proportion  to  the  closeness  of  the 
spirals  and  the  length  of  the  handles. —  Greig. 

SCULPTURE.  The  origin  of  this  art  cannot  be  traced  with  any  certainty. 
The  invention  is  given  by  some  ancient  writers  to  the  Egyptians,  and  by 
others  to  the  Greeks.  It  is  referred  by  some  historians  to  1020  B.  c.,  and 
sculpture  in  marble  to  872  B.  c.  Pausanias  refers  the  nearest  approach 
to  perfection  in  the  art  to  560  B.  c.  According  to  sacred  history,  Bezaleel 
and  Aholiab,  who  built  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  and  made  all  the 
vessels  and  ornaments,  were  the  first  architects  and  sculptors  of  repute,  and 
their  excellence  is  recorded  as  the  gift  of  God.  Exodus  xxxi.  Diposnus  and 
Scyllis,  statuaries  at  Crete,  established  a  school  at  Sicyon.  Pliny  speaks  of 
them  as  being  the  first  who  sculptured  marble  and  polished  it ;  all  statues 
before  their  time  being  of  wood.  568  B.  c.  This,  however,  can  only  be  fact 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  western  world  ;  for  in  the  eastern  countries  the  art 
was  known  long  before.  Alexander  gave  Lysippus  the  sole  right  of  making 
his  statues.  326  B.  c.  He  left  no  less  than  600  pieces,  some  of  which  were 
so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  that  they  sold  for  their  weight  in 
gold.  Sculpture  never  found  any  very  distinguished  followers  among  the 
Romans,  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  fell  into  disuse.  With  the  revival  of 
the  sister  art,  painting,  it  revived  also ;  and  Donato  di  Bardi,  born  at 
Florence,  A.  D.  1383.  was  the  earliest  professor  among  the  moderns.  Sculp- 
ture was  revived,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Medici  family,  about  1460  — 
Abbt  Lenglet. 

SCYTHIA.    The  country  situate  on  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  generally  denominated  European  and 
25 


578  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  BSK 

Asiatic.  The  most  northern  parts  of  Scythia  were  uninhabited,  on  account 
of  the  extreme  coldness  of  the  climate.  The  boundaries  of  Scythia  were 
unknown  to  the  ancients,  as  no  traveller  had  penetrated  beyond  the  vast 
tracts  of  lands  which  lay  at  the  north,  east,  and  west.  The  Scythians  made 
several  irruptions  upon  the  more  southern  provinces  of  Asia,  especially  B.  c. 
624.  when  they  remained  in  possession  of  Asia  Minor  for  twenty-eight 
years;  and  we  find  them  at  different  periods  extending  their  conquests  in 
Europe,  and  penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt.  In  the  first  centuries  after  Christ 
they  invaded  the  Roman  empire. 

SEAS  SOVEREIGNTY  OF  THE.  The  claim  of  England  is  of  very  ancient  date. 
Arthur  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas  fur  Britain, 
and  Alfred  afterwards  supported  this  right.  The  sovereignty  of  England 
over  the  British  seas  was  maintained  by  Selden.  and  measures  were  taken 
by  government  in  consequence,  8  Charles  1. 1633.  The  Dutch,  after  the  death 
of  Charles  I.,  made  some  attempts  to  obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated 
by  Blake  and  other  admirals.  Russia  and  other  parts  of  the  North,  armed, 
to  avoid  search,  1780  ;  again  1800.  See  Armed  Neutrality  and  Flag. 

SECRETARY  OF  STATE.  The  first  in  England  was  lord  Cromwell,  A.  D.  1529. 
Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign  two  secretaries  were  appointed  ; 
and  upon  the  union  with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third,  as  secretary  for 
Scotch  affairs :  this  appointment  was  afterwards  laid  aside :  but  in  the 
reign  of  George  III.  the  number  was  again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the 
American  department.  In  1782  this  last  was  abolished  by  act  of  par- 
liament ;  and  the  appointments  as  at  present  subsequently  took  place,  the 
secretaries  being  now  home,  foreign,  and  colonies.  The  first  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  was  Thomas  Jefferson/appointed  by  Washington, 
Sept.  26.  1789.  For  his  successors  see  Administrations.  There  is  a  Secre- 
tary of  State  in  each  of  the  States,  appointed  by  the  executive  or  elected 
by  the  people. 

SECTS.  See  them  severally  through  the  volume.  The  great  vicissitude  of 
things  is  the  vicissitude  of  sects.  True  religion  is  built  upon  a  rock ;  all 
others  are  tossed  upon  the  waves  of  time. — Bacon.  Assuming  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe  to  be  one  thousand  and  fifty  millions,  the  following  divi- 
sion, with  reference  to  their  religious  worship,  will  appear. — M.  Ba&. 


Jews         ....      4,500.000 
Christians      -  -  -      -  225,000,000 

Mahometans        -  -  -  155,OOOjOOO 


Idolaters,  &c.,  not  professing  the 
Jewish,  Christian,  or  Maho- 
metan worship  -  -  665,500,000 


SEDAN  CHAIRS.  So  called  from  Sedan,  on  the  Meuse,  in  France.  The  first 
seen  in  England  was  in  1581.  One  was  used  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  by 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  to  the  great  indignation  of  the  people,  who  ex- 
claimed that  he  was  employing  his  fellow-creatures  to  do  the  service  of 
beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into  fashion  in  London  in  1634,  when  sir  Fran- 
cis Duncomb  obtained  the  sole  privilege  to  use,  let,  and  hire  a  number  of 
such  covered  chairs  for  fourteen  years.  They  became  in  very  general  use 
in  1649. 

SEDUCTION.  For  this  offence  the  laws  of  England  have  provided  no  other 
punishment  than  a  pecuniary  satisfaction  to  the  injured  family.  And 
even  this  satisfaction  is  only  obtained  by  one  of  the  quaintest  fictions  in 
the  world ;  the  father  bringing  his  action  against  the  seducer  for  the  loss 
of  his  daughter's  services  during  her  pregnancy  and  nurturing. — Paky's 
Moral  Philosophy.  A  law  for  the  punishment  of  seduction  was  passed  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  in  1844. 

BF.MPACH  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Swiss  and  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria.  The 
heroic  Swiss,  after  prodigies  of  valor,  gained  a  great  and  memorable  vic- 
tory over  the  duke,  who  was  slain  July  9,  1386.  By  this  battle  they  es- 


SEX  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  579 

tablishe  I  the  liberty  of  their  country ;  and  it  is  still  annually  commemo* 
rated  with  great  solemnity  at  Sempach. 

SEPTEMBER.  The  ninth  month  of  the  year,  reckoned  from  January,  and  the 
seventh  from  March,  whence  its  name,  from  Septimus,  seventh.  It  became 
the  ninth  month  when  January  and  February  were  added  to  the  year  by 
Numa,  713  B.  c.  The  Roman  senate  would  have  given  this  month  the  name 
of  Tiberius,  but  that  emperor  opposed  it ;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his 
own  name,  Germanicus ;  the  senate  under  Antoninus  Pius  gave  it  that  of 
Antoninus ;  Commodus  gave  it  his  surname,  Herculeus ;  and  the  emperor 
Tacitus  his  own  name,  Tacitus.  But  these  appellations  are  all  gone  into 
disuse. 

sJEPTUAGINT  VERSION  OP  THE  BIBLE,  made  277  B.  c.  Seventy-two  trans- 
lators  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells ;  each  pair  translated  the  whole  ;  and 
on  subsequent  comparison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or 
letter. — Justin  Martyr.  St.  Jerome  affirms  they  translated  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch ;  but  St.  Justin  and  others  say  they  translated  the  whole.  Pto- 
lemy gave  the  Jews  about  a  million  sterling  for  a  copy  of  the  T^sta.  nent, 
and  seventy  translators  half  a  million  more  for  the  translation. — Josephus. 
Finished  in  seventy-two  days. — Hewlett, 

SERINGAPATAM,  BATTLES  OP,  called  also  the  battle  of  Arikera,  in  which  the 
British  defeated  Tippoo  Saib,  May  15.  1791.  Battle,  in  which  the  redoubts 
were  stormed,  and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  Cornwallis,  Feb.  6,  1792. 
After  this  capture,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  and  Tippoo  agreed 
to  cede  one  half  of  Mysore,  and  to  pay  33,000,000  of  rupees  (about 
3,300.000Z.  sterling)  to  England,  and  to  give  up  to  lord  Cornwallis  his 
two  eldest  sons  as  hostages.  In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army  arrived  be- 
fore Seringapatam,  April  5,  1799 ;  it  was  joined  by  the  Bombay  army,  April 
14 ;  and  the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  by  major-general  Baird,  May  4, 
same  year.  In  this  engagement  Tippoo  was  killed.  See  India. 

SERPENTS.  The  largest,  the  record  of  which  is  in  some  degree  satisfactorily 
attested,  was  that  which  disputed  the  passage  of  the  army  led  by  Regulus 
along  the  banks  of  the  Bagrada.  It  was  120  feet  long,  and  had  killed  many 
of  his  soldiers.  It  was  destroyed  by  a  battering-ram ;  and  its  skin  was 
afterwards  seen  by  Pliny  in  the  capitol  at  Rome.—  Pliny.  The  American 
papers  have  frequently  chronicled  the  appearance  of  a  sea-serpent  on  the 
coast,  but  its  existence  has  been  generally  doubted.  Haydn  quotes  from 
Phillips  that  a  sea-serpent  was  cast  on  shore  on  the  Orkney  Islands,  which 
was  fifty-flve  feet  long,  and  the  circumference  equal  to  the  girth  of  an 
Orkney  pony,  1808. 

SERVANTS.  In  England,  an  act  laying  a  duty  on  male  servants  was  passed  in 
1775.  This  tax  was  augmented  in  1781,  et  seq.  A  tax  on  female  servants 
was  imposed  in  1J85  ;  but  this  latter  act  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on 
servants  yielded  in  1830  about  250.000^.  per  annum,  but  in  1840  the  revenue 
from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482^. 

SEVILLE.  The  capital  of  Spain  until  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court  s  t 
Madrid,  A.  D.  1563.  This  city  is  the  Hispalis  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the 
Julia  of  the  Romans.  The  peace  of  Seville,  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  and  also  a  defensive  alliance  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed  Nov. 
9,  1729.  Seville  surrendered  to  the  French,  Feb.  1, 1810;  and  was  taken  by 
assault  by  the  British  and  Spaniards,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  Aug.  27, 
1812. 

SEXTANT.  This  instrument  is  used  in  the  manner  of  a  quadrant,  and  contains 
sixty  degrees,  or  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle.  It  is  for  taking  the  altitude  of 
the  planets,  &c.  Invented  by  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburgh, 


580 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Sffi 


in  1560. — Vinces  Astron.  The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the  Caliphs  are 
said  to  have  had  a  sextant  of  fifty-nine  feet  nine  inches  radius,  about  A.  o 
995.— Ashe. 

SHEEP.  They  were  impoliticly  exported  from  England  to  Spain,  and,  the  breed 
being  thereby  improved,  produced  the  tine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved 
detrimental  to  our  woollen  manufacture,  8  Edward  IV.  1467. — Anderson. 
Their  exportation  prohibited  on  pain  of  tine  and  imprisonment,  1522.  The 
number  of  sheep  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  variously  stated — by  some 
at  43,000,000,  by  others  at  49,000,000,  and  by  more  at  60,000,000,  in  1840. 

SHERIFF.  The  office  of  sheriff  is  from  shire-reve,  governor  of  a  shire  01 
county.  London  had  its  sheriffs  prior  to  William  1/s  reign ;  but  some  say 
that  sheriffs  were  first  nominated  for  every  county  in  England  by  William 
in  1079. 

SHERIFFMUIR,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  royal  army  under  the  duke  of  Ar- 
gyle,  and  the  Scotch  rebel  forces  who  favored  the  Pretender  (the  chevalier 
de  St.  George,  son  of  James  II.),  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Mar;  the  insur- 
gents were  defeated,  and  several  persons  of  rank  were  taken  prisoners.  The 
battle  was  fought  on  the  very  day  on  which  the  rebel  forces  in  the  same 
cause  were  defeated  at  Preston,  Nov.  12,  1715. 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  art  is  attributed  to  the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inven- 
tors ;  the  first  ship  (probably  a  galley)  being  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece 
by  Danaus,  1485  B.  c. — Blair.  The  first  double-decked  ship  was  built  by 
the  Tyrians,  786  B.  c. — Lenglet.  The  first  double-decked  one  built  in  Eng- 
land was  of  1000  tons  burthen,  by  order  of  Henry  VII.  1509  ;  it  was  called 
the  Great,  Harry,  and  cost  14.000^. — Siowe.  Before  this  time  24-gun  ships 
were  the  largest  in  the  navy,  and  these  had  no  port-holes,  the  guns  being 
on  the  upper  decks  only.  Port-holes  and  other  improvements  were  invented 
by  Descharges,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII. ,  about 
1500.  Ship-building  was  first  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste,  1696.  A  74- 
gun  ship  was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van  Diemen's  Land,  to  be  sheathed 
with  India-rubber.  1829.  For  beautiful  models  and  fast  sailing,  the  shipping 
of  the  United  States — especially  the  packet  ships  and  steamers  sailing  from 
New  York — are  not  surpassed,  and  probably  not  equalled,  by  any  in  the 
world.  See  Navy  and  Steam  Vessels. 

SHIPPING  or  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  Shipping  was  first  registered  in  the 
river  Thames  in  1786 ;  and  throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  the  shipping  of  England  was  but  half  a  million  of  tons 
— less  than  London  now.  In  1840.  the  number  of  ships  in  the  British  em- 
pire was  29,174;  tonnage,  3;277,338;  seamen.  205,904.  These  returns  were 
exclusive  of  ships  and  boats  propelled  by  steam.  See  Steam  Vessels. 

SHIPPING  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.    Tonnage  at  different  periods. 


Year*.        Tonnage. 

years.        Tonnage. 

Years.        Tonnage. 

Years.        Tonnage. 

1791         -       50-2,146 

1S06         -     1,208,735 

1821 

1,298.958 

1835 

1,824,940 

1792 

664,437 

1807 

1.268,548 

1822 

1,324^99 

1836 

1.892,102 

1793 

491.780 

1808 

1,242,595    1823 

1,336,565 

1837 

1,896,685 

1794 

628.817 

1809 

1,350,281    1824 

1,389,163 

1838 

1,995,635 

1795 

747,964 

1810 

1  ,424.783  i  1S25 

1,423,112 

1839 

2,096.478 

1796 

831,900 

1811 

1,232,502  I  1826 

1,534,190 

1840 

2,18C;704 

1797 

876.913 

1812 

1,269,997    1827 

1,620,606 

1841 

2,130.741 

1798 

398,328 

1813 

1,666,628 

1828 

1,741,392 

1842 

2,092,390 

1799 

946,408 

1814 

1,159.209 

1829 

1.260,978 

1843 

2.158,6C« 

1800 

97*,492 

1815 

1,368.127 

1830 

1,191,776 

1844 

2.280.P93 

1801 

1,033,219 

1316 

1,372.213 

1831 

1,267,846 

1845 

2,417,002 

1802 

892,101 

1817 

1,399.911 

1S32 

1,439,450 

1846 

2,562,084 

1803 

949,147 

1818 

1,225.184 

1833 

1,601.150 

1847 

S-PSK^ 

1804 

1,042,404 

1819 

1,260.75; 

1834 

1,758,907 

1848 

aiisoJiot 

1805 

1,140,369 

1820 

1.280,ISC 

BHR  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  581 

SHIP-MONEY  It  was  first  levied  A.  D.  1007,  and  caused  great  commotions. 
This  impost  being  illegally  levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1634,  led  to  the  revolu- 
tion. He  assessed  London  in  seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men ; 

I      Yorkshire  in  two  ships,  of  600  tons,  or  12,OOOZ. ;  Bristol  in  one  ship  of  100 

,  tons ;  Lancashire  in  one  ship  of  400  tons.  The  trial  of  the  patriot  Hamp- 
den  for  refusing  to  pay  the  tax,  which  he  at  first  solely  opposed,  took  place 
in  1638.  Ship-money  was  included  in  a  redress  of  grievances  in  1641. 
Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with  prince  Rupert,  and  died  Juiifl 
24,  1643. 

SHIPWRECKS,  AND  DISASTERS  AT  SEA.     See  Wrecks  of  Skipping. 

SHIRTS.  This  now  almost  universal  garment  is  said  to  have  been  first  gener- 
ally worn  in  the  west  of  Europe  early  in  the  eighth  century. — Du  Fresnoy. 
Woollen  shirts  were  commonly  worn  in  England  until  about  the  38th  of 
Henry  III.,  1253,  when  linen,  but  of  a  coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period 
from  abroad),  was  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish  artisans. — 
Stowe. 

SHOES.  Among  the  Jews  they  were  made  of  leather,  linen,  rush,  or  "wood. 
Moons  were  worn  as  ornaments  in  their  shoes  by  the  Jewish  women. — Isaiah 
iii.  18.  Among  the  Greeks  shoes  were  of  various  kinds.  Pythagoras  would 
have  his  disciples  wear  shoes  madn  of  the  bark  of  trees;  probably,  that 
they  might  not  wear  what  were  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  as  they  re- 
frained from  the  use  of  every  thing  that  had  life.  Sandals  were  worn  by 
women  of  distinction.  The  Romans  wore  an  ivory  crescent  on  their 
shoes ;  and  Caligula  wore  his  enriched  with  precious  stones.  The  Indians, 
like  the  Egyptians,  wore  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  the  papyrus.  In  Eng- 
land the  people  had  an  extravagant  way  of  adorning  their  feet ;  they  wore 
the  beaks  or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long,  that  they  encumbered  themselves 
in  walking,  and  were  forced  to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees ;  the  fine  gentlemen 
fastened  theirs  with  chains  of  silver,  or  silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces. 
This  custom  was  in  vogue  from  A.  D.  1462.  but  was  prohibited,  on  the  for- 
feiture of  20s.  and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by  the  clergy,  7  Edward  IV.  1467. 
See  Dress.  Shoes  as  at  present  worn  were  introduced  about  1633.  The 
buckle  was  not  used  till  1668. — Stowe ;  Mortimer. 

SHOP-TAX,  IN  ENGLAND.  The  act  by  which  a  tax  was  levied  upon  retail  shops 
was  passed  in  1785 ;  but  it  caused  so  great  a  commotion,  particularly  in 
London,  that  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  repeal  it  in  1789.  The  statute 
whereby  shop-lifting  was  made  a  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  was 
passed  10  and  11  William  III.  1699.  This  statute  has  been  repealed.  See 
Acts. 

SHREWSBURY,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  royal  army  of  Henry  IV.  and  the 
army  of  the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (surnamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  duke  of 
Northumberland,  who  had  conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Each  army  con- 
sisted of  about  12  000  men,  and  the  engagement  was  most  bloody.  Henry 
was  seen  every  where  in  the,  thickest  of  the  fight ;  while  his  valliant  son, 
who  was  afterwards  the  renowned  conqueror  of  France,  fought  by  his  side, 
and  though  wounded  in  the  face  by  an  arrow,  still  kept  the  field,  and  per- 
formed astonishing  acts  of  valor.  On  the  other  side,  the  daring  Hotspur 
supported  the  renown  he  had  acquired  in  many  bloody  engagements,  and 
every  where  sought  out  the  king  as  a  noble  object  of  his  vengeance.  2300 
gentlemen  were  slain,  and  about  6000  private  men.  The  death  of  Hotspur 
by  an  unknown  hand  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day,  and  gave  the  victory 
to  the  king,  July  21,  1403.— Hume.  [See  Shakspcar'e's  Henry  IV] 

SHROPSHIRE,  BATTLE  OF,  in  which  the  Britons  were  completely  subjugated, 
and  Caractacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures,  became,  through  the 
treachery  of  the  queen  of  the  Briganti,  a  prisoner  of  the  Romans,  A.  D.  61 


582 


THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


SIC 


While  Caractacus  was  being  led  through  Rome,  his  eyes  were  dazzled  by 
the  splendors  that  surrounded  him.  "  Alas !"  he  cried,  "  how  is  it  possiblu 
that  a  people  possessed  of  such  magnificence  at  home  could  envy  me  an 
humble  cottage  in  Britain  1"  The  emperor  was  affected  with  the  British 
hero's  misfortunes,  and  won  by  his  address.  He  ordered  him  to  be  unchained 
upon  the  spot,  and  set  at  liberty  with  the  rest  of  the  captives. — Goldsmith. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  In  the  season  of  Lent,  after  the  people  had  made  con- 
fession.  according  to  the  discipline  of  the  ancient  church,  they  were  per- 
mitted to  indulge  in  festive  amusements,  although  not  allowed  to  partake 
of  any  repast  beyond  the  usual  substitutes  for  flesh ;  and  hence  arose  the 
custom  yet  preserved  of  eating  pancakes  and  fritters  at  Shrovetide,  the  Greek 
Christians  eating  eggs,  milk,  &c.  during  the  first  week  in  Lent.  On  these 
days  of  authorized  indulgence  the  most  wanton  recreations  were  tolerated, 
provided  a  due  regard  was  paid  to  the  abstinence  commanded  by  the  church ; 
and  from  this  origin  sprang  the  Carnival.  On  Shrove  Tuesday  the  people  in 
every  parish  throughout  England  formerly  confessed  their  sins;  and  the 
parish  bell  for  the  purpose  was  rung  at  ten  o'clock.  In  several  ancient  par- 
ishes the  custom  yet  prevails  of  ringing  the  bell,  and  obtains  in  London  the 
name  of  pancake-bell.  Observed  as  a  festival  before  1430. 

SIBYLS.  The  Sibylla?  were  certain  women  inspired  by  heaven,  who  flourished 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Their  number  is  unknown.  Plato  speaks 
of  one,  others  of  two,  Pliny  of  three.  ^Elian  of  four,  and  Varro  of  tea,  an 
opinion  which  is  universally  adopted  by  the  learned.  An  Erythrean  sibyl  is 
said  to  have  offered  to  Tarquin  II.  nine  books  containing  the  Roman  desti- 
nies, demanding  for  them  300  pieces  of  gold.  He  denied  her,  whereupon 
the  sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into  the  fire,  and  asked  the  same  price  for 
the  other  six,  which  being  still  denied,  she  burned  three  more,  and  again 
demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that  remained ;  when  Tarquin,  conferring 
with  the  pontiffs,  was  advised  to  buy  them.  Two  magistrates  were  created 
to  consult  them  on  all  occasions,  531  B.  c. 

SICILY.  See  Naples.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  the  Sicani 
a  people  of  Spain,  and  Etruscans,  who  came  hither  from  Italy,  1294  B.  c.  A 
second  colony,  under  Siculus,  arrived  80  years  before  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
1264  B.  c. — Lenglet.  The  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  some  colonies  here, 
find  at  last  the  Carthaginians  became  masters  of  the  whole  island,  till  they 
were  dispossessed  of  it  by  the  Romans  in  the  Punic  wars.  Some  authors 
suppose  that  Sicily  was  originally  joined  to  the  continent,  and  that  it  was 
separated  from  Italy  by  an  earthquake,  and  that  the  straits  of  the  Charyb- 
dis  were  formed. — Justin ;  Livy. 

Arrival  of  Ulysses. — Homer 


He  puts  out  the  eye  of  Polyphemus 

Syracuse  founded. — Evsebius 

Gela  founded. — Thucydides 

Arrival  of  the  Messenians     - 

Plularis,   tyrant   of  Agrigentum,    put   to 

death.— See  Brazen  Dull 
Hippocrates  becomes  tyrant  of  Gela 
Law  of  Petalism  instituted         *  •  k 
R  jjcn  of  Dionysius 
U  Tended  with  the  freedom  of  the  philo 

sopher  Plato,  the  tyrant  sells  him  for 

slave. — Stanley 

Plato  ransomed  ty  his  friends    - 
Damon  and  Pythias  flourish. — See  Damon 

and  Pythias  ... 

The  sway  of  Timoleon    • 
Usurpation  of  Agathocles     - 
Defeat  of  Hamilcar 
Pillage  of  die  temples  of  Lepari 


1186 
1186 
732 
713 

663 

552 
496 
466 
405 


301 


The  Romans  arrive  in  Sicily     •  B.  o 

Agrigentum  taken  by  the  Romans 
Palermo  besieged  by  the  Romans 
Archimedes  flourishes 
The  Romans  take  Syracuse,  and  make  ai 

Sicily  a  province 
The  servile  war  began.— Livy 


264 


254 
236 


212 
135 


321 


Conquered  by  the  Saracens       -  AD. 

[They  made  Palermo  the  capital,  and  the 

standard  of  Mahomet  triumphed  for  200 

years.] 
They  are  driven  out  by  a  Norman  r  rince, 

Roger  I.,  son  of  Tancred,  who  takes  the 

title  of  count  of  Sieily     -  -  -    1090 

Roger  II.,  son  of  the  above-named,  unites 

Sicily  with  Naples,  and  is  crowned  king 

of  the  Two  Sicilies  •     -  1131 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  to  St.  Louis,  king 

of  France,  Conquers  Naples  and  Sicily, 


J 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


583 


SICILY,  continued. 
deposes  the  Norman  princes,  and  makes 
himself  king         -  -  .    A.  D.  1266 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Sici- 
lians, a  general  massacre  of  the  invaders 
takes  place,  one  Frenchman  only  escap- 
ing.— See  Sicilian  Vespers  -  -  1288 

la  the  same  year  Sicily  is  seized  by  a  fleet 
sent  by  the  kings  of  Arragon,  in  Spain ; 
but  Naples  remains  to  the  house  of  An- 
jou,  which  expires  -  -  -  1382 

ar.e.  the  late  sovereign,  having  left  her 
crown  to  Louis,  duke  of  Anjou,  his  pre- 
tensions are  resisted  by  Charles  Du 
ratzo,  cousin  of  Jane,  who  ascends  the 
throne  -  -  -  -  -  -  1386 

Alphonsus,  king  of  Arragon,  takes  posses- 
sion of  Naples  ....  1458 

Th !  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united 
tu  the  Spanish  monarchy  -  -  -  1504 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  causes  an 
insurrection,  excited  by  Masaniello,  a 
fisherman,  who,  in  fifteen  days,  raises 
two  hundred  thousand  men  -  -  1647 

Henry  duke  of  Guise,  taking  advantage  of 
these  commotions,  procures  himself  to 
be  proclaimed  king ;  but  is,  in  a  few 
days,  delivered  up  to  the  Spaniards  by 
his  adherents  -  -  -  •  -  1647 


Ceded  to  Victor,  duke  ot  Savoy,  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  -  -  A.  D.  1713 

Ceded  by  him  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI., 
Sardinia  being  given  to  him  as  an  equi- 
valent -  -  -  -  -  1721 

The  Spaniards  having  made  themselves 
masters  of  both  kingdoms,  Charles,  son 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  ascends  the  tnrone, 
with  i  he  ancient  title  renewed,  of  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  -  -  -  1784 

Order  of  St.  Januarius  instituted  by  king 
Charles  -  -  -  1738 

The  throne  of  Spain  becoming  vacant, 
Charles,  who  is  heir,  vacates  the  throne 
of  the  two  Sicilies  in  favor  ol  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  agreeably  to  treaty  -  -  17£9 

Dreadful  earthquake  at  Messina,  in  Sicily, 
which  destroys  40,000  persons  -  -  1793 

Naples  preserved  from  the  power  of  the 
French  by  the  British  forces  under  admi- 
ral Nelson  -  1J  99 

Violent  earthquake  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Naples  -  -  -  -  1&06 

The  French  invade  Naples,  depose    I  °->g 
Ferdinand  IV.,  and  give  the  crown  of  .fie 
Two  Sicilies  to  Joseph  Bonaparte,  bro- 
ther to  the  emperor  of  the  French  -  1806 
For  subsequent  events,  see  Naples. 


KINGS    OF   THE   TWO    SICILIES. 

A.D.  1713.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy  ;  he  .  1806.  Joseph  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

resigned  it  lo  the  emperor  Charles  I  1808.  Joachim  Murat;  he  was  shot,  October  13, 


VI.,  in  1718,  and  got  Sardinia  in 

lieu  of  it. 

1718.  Charles  VI.  emperor. 
1734.  Charles,  second   son  to  the  king  of 

Spain,  resigned  in  1759. 
1759.  Ferdinand  IV.,  third  son  of  the  former 

king. 


1815. 

1815.  Ferdinand  I. ;  formerly  Ferdinand  IV.  of 
Naples,  and  intermediately  Ferdinand 
HI.  of  Sicily  ;  now  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1826.  Francis  I. 

1830.  Ferdinand  II.,  Nov  8. 


SICILIAN  VESPERS.  The  memorable  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  known 
by  this  name,  commenced  at  Palermo,  March  30,  1282.  The  French  had 
become  hateful  to  the  Sicilians,  and  a  conspiracy  against  Charles  of  Anjou 
was  already  ripe,  when  the  following  occurrence  led  to  develop  and  accom- 

Elish  it.  On  Easter  Monday,  the  chief  conspirators  had  assembled  at  Pa- 
;rmo ;  and  while  the  French  were  engaged  in  festivities,  a  Sicilian  bride 
happened  to  pass  by  with  her  train.  She  was  observed  by  one  Drochet.  a 
Frenchman,  who,  advancing  towards  her,  began  to  use  her  rudely,  under 
pretence  of  searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian,  exasperated  at  this  af- 
front, stabbed  him  with  his  own  sword ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French 
were  instantly  murdered.  The  enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city, 
crying  out  "  Let  the  French  die !"  and.  without  distinction  of  rank,  age, 
or  sex,  they  slaughtered  all  of  that  nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  ol 
8000.  Even  such  as  had  fled  to  the  churches  found  no  sanctuary  there — the 
massacre  became  general  throughout  the  island. 

SIEGES.  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psammetichus  the  Powerful,  held  out 
for  nineteen  years. — Usher.  It  held  out  for  twenty-nine  years. — Herodotus. 
This  was  the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity.  The  sieg« 
of  Troy  was  the  most  celebrated,  occupied  ten  years,  1184  B.  c.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  and  most  memorable  sieges  since  the  twelfth  cea 
tary : — 


Acre,  1192,  1799,  by  Bona-  I  Algiers,  1681 ;  Bomb-vessels 
parte  ;  siege  raised  after  \  jirst  used  by  a  French  en- 
60  days,  open  trenches.  I  gineer  named  Renau,  1816 

Algesiras,  1341.  |  Alkmaer.  1573. 


Almeida,  August  27,  1610 
Amiens,  1597. 
Ancona,  1798. 
Angouleme,  1345 


584 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


SIEGES,  continued,. 

Antwerp,  1576.  I  'se  of  in- 
fernal machines  1583,1585 
1706,  1792,  1814. 

Arras,  1414. 

Ath,  1745. 

Avignon,  1226. 

Azoff,  1736. 

Badajos,  March  11, 1811.  Ta- 
ken by  escalade  on  the 
night  of  April  6,  1812. 

Bagdad,  1248. 

Bangalore,  March  6,  1791. 

Barcelona,  1697,  1714. 

Bayonne,*1451. 

Beauvais,  1472. 

Belgrade,  1439,  1455,  1521, 
1688,  1717,  1739,  1769, 

Bellegarde,  1793,  1794. 

Belle-Isle,  April  7,  1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  1588,  1622, 
1747,  1814. 

Berwick,  1293. 

Besancon.  1668,  1674. 

Bethune,  1710. 

Bois-le-Duc,  1603,  1794. 

Bologna,  1512,  1796. 

Bornmel ;  the  invention  of 
the  covert-way,  1794. 

Bonifacio,  1553. 

Bonn,  1587,  1689,  1703 

Bordeaux,  1451,  1653. 

Bouchain,  1_676,  1711. 

Boulogne,  1545. 

Brannau,  1744,  1805. 

Breda,  1590,  1625,  1793. 

Brescia,  1512,  17%,  1799. 

Breslau,  Jan.  8,  1807. 

Brisac,  1639,  1703. 

Brussels,  1695,  1746. 

Buda,  1526, 1541,  1686. 

Burgos,  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  22, 
1812 ;  raised.  The  French 
in  their  retreat  blew  up  the 
works,  June  13,  1813. 

Cadiz,  1812. 
.     Caen,  1346,  1450. 

Calais,  1347,  ( British  histo- 
rians affirm  that  cannon 
were  used  at  Cressy,  1346, 
and  here  in  1347.  First 
used  here  in  1388.— RY- 
MER'S  FCED.)  1558,  1596. 

Calvi,  1794. 

Campo-Mayor,Mar.  23,1811. 

Candia ;  the  largest  cannon 
then  known  inEurope  used 
here  by  the  Turks,  1667. 

Capua,  1501. 

Carthagena,  1706. 

Castillon,  1452,  1586. 

Outa,  1790. 

Chalons,  1 199. 

Charleroi,  1672,  1677,  1693, 
1736,  1794. 

Chartres,  1568,  1591. 

Chaves,  March  25, 1809. 

Cherbourg,  1450. 

Chincilla.  Oct.  30,  1812. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  170o;  July 
10,  1810 ;  Jan.  19,  1812. 

Oolberg,  1760,  1807. 

Colchester,  1645. 


Compiegne  (Joan  of  Arc), 

1430. 

Conde,  1676,  1792,  1794, 
Coni,  1691,  1744. 
Constantinople,  1453. 
Copenhagen,  1700, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu,  1715. 

Courtray,  1302,  et  seq.  1794. 
Cracow,  1772. 
Cremona,  1702. 
Dantzic,  1734,  1793, 1807, 1813 

to  Jan.  12,  1814. 
Dendermonde,  1667. 
Dole,  1068,  1674. 
Douay,  1710. 
Dover,  1216. 
Dresden,  1745,  1813. 
Drogheda,  1649. 
Dublin,  1500. 
Dunkirk,  1646,  1793. 
Edinburgh,  1093. 
Figueras,  Aug.  19,  1811. 
Flushing,  Aug.  15,  1809. 
Fomenoy,  1242. 
Frnderickshal ;  Charles  XII. 

killed,  1718. 
Frederickstein,    August    13, 

1814. 

Fumes,  1675,  1744,  1793. 
Gaeta,  14-33,  1707,  1734, 1799, 

July,  1806,  1815. 
Genoa  1747,  1800. 
Gerona,  Dec.  10,  1809. 
Ghent,  1576,  1708. 
Gibraltar,    1704,   1779.  (See 

Gibraltar),  1782. 
Glatz,  1742,  1807. 
Gottingen,  1760. 
Graves,  1602,  1674,  1794. 
Gravelines,  1644 
Grenada.  1491,  1492. 
Groningen,  1580,  1672,  1795. 
Guastalla,  1702. 
Gueldres,  1637,  1640,  1703. 
Haerlem,  1572,  1573. 
Ham,  1411. 
Harfleur.  1415,  1450. 
Heidelberg,  1688. 
Herat,  June  28,  1838. 
Huningen,  1815. 
Ismael:  the  merciless  Suwar- 

row  butchered  30,000  men, 

the    brave  garrison,  and 

6000  women,  in  cold  blood, 

Dec.  22,  1790. 
Kehl,  1733,  1796. 
Landau,  1702,  et  sea.,  1713, 

1792,  and  1793. 
Landrecis,  1543,  1712. 
Laon,  991,  1594. 
Lripsic.,  1637,  et  sea.,  1813 
Lemberg.  1704. 
Lerida,  1647,  1707, 1807. 
Leyden,  1574. 
Liese,  1468.  1702. 
Lille,  1667,  1708,  1792. 
Li  to,  1747. 

Limerick,  1651.  1691. 
Londonderry,  1689. 
Louisbourg,  1758. 
Lyons,  1793. 
Maastricht.  1576,  1673.    Vau- 


ban  first  came  into  nottet, 

167<  1743,  1794. 
Magdebourg,  1631,  1806. 
Malaga,  1487. 
Malta,  1565,  1798,  1800. 
Mantua,  1734,  1797,  1799. 
Marseilles,  1544. 
Meniz,  by  Charles  V.,  IKjK 

1689,  1792  et  sea..  1797. 
Melun,  1420,  1559. 
Menin,  1706,  1744. 
Mequinenza,  June  8,  1810. 
Messina,  1282,  1719. 
Metz,  1552. 
Mezieres,  1521. 
Middleburgh,  1572. 
Mons,  1572,  1691,  1709,  1746. 

1792,  1794. 
Mtnt-argis,  1427. 
Montauoan,  1621. 
Montevideo.  Jan.  >  908. 
Mothe :  theFrench,  taught  fry 

a  Mr.  Muller,  an  English 

engineer,  first  practised  tht 

art  of  throwing-  she/Is,  1634. 
Murviedro,  Oct.  25.  1811. 
Namur,  1692,  1746,  1792. 
Naples,  1381, 1435, 1504. 1557. 

1792,  1799,  1806. 
Nice,  1705. 
Nieuport,  1745,  1794. 
Olivenza,  Jan.  22,  1811. 
Olmutz,  1758. 
Orleans,  1423,  1563. 
Ostend,  1701,  1706,  1745. 
Oudenarde,  1708,  1745. 
Padua,  1509. 

Pampeluna,  Oct  31,  1813. 
Paris,  1429,  1485,  1594. 
Parma  1248. 
Pavia,  1525,  1655,  1796. 
Perpignan,  1542,  1642. 
Philipville,  157S. 
Philipsburg,  1644, 1675, 168S, 
first  experiment  of  firing 

artillery    a-ricochet.   1734, 

1795. 

Plattsburg,  Sept.  11,  1814. 
Pondicherry,  1748,  1792. 
Prague,  1741,  1743,  1744. 
Puebla,  (col.  Child)  1847. 
Quesnoy,  1794. 
Rennes,  1357. 
Rheims,  1359. 
Rhodes,  1522. 
Riga,  1700,  1710. 
Rochelle,  1573,  1627. 
Rome,  1527,  1798. 
Romorer.tin ;    artillery  firti 

used  in  sieges  -VOLTA.IAS 

1256. 

Rosas,  1645.  1795,  1808 
Rouen,  1449,  1562,  1591. 
Roxburgh,  1460. 
St.  Sebastian,  Sept.  8,  181X 
Salamanca,  June  27  1812. 
Salisbury,  1349. 
Saragossa,  1710,  1809. 
Saverne,  1675. 

Schweidnitz ;    first   experi- 
ment to  reduce  aftrrtrcM 


8IL 


1ICT10NARY    05    DATES. 


585 


SIEGES,  continued. 

by  springing  globes  of  com- 
pression, 1762,  180?. 

Scio  (see  Greece),  1822. 

Seringapatam.  1799. 

Seville  10%,  1248. 

Smolensko,  1611. 

Soissons,  1414. 

Stralsund  ;  the  method  of 
throwing  red  hot  balls  first 
practised  with  certainty, 
16754Z13,  1807. 

TarifarDec.  20,  1811. 

Tarragona,  May  1813. 

Temeswar,  1716. 

Thionville,  1643,  1792. 


Thorn,  1703. 

Thouars,  1372,  1793. 

Tortosa,  Jan.  2,  1811. 

Toulon,  1707,  1793. 

Toulouse,  1217. 

Tournay,  1340,  1352,  1581. 
1667,  1709,  (this  was  the 
best  defence  ever  drawn 
from  countermines),  1745. 
1794. 

Treves,  1675. 

Tunis,  1270,  1535 

Turin,  1640,  1706,  1799. 

Urbino,  1799. 


Valencia,  Dec.  25,  1811. 

Valencienes,  1677,  1794. 
Vannes,  1343. 
Venloo,  1702,  1794. 
Verdun,  1792. 

Vera  Cruz,  (gen.  Scott)  18IJ 
Vienna,  1529,  1683. 
Wakefield,  1460. 
Warsaw,  Sept,  8,  1831. 
Xativa,  1707. 
Xeres,  1262.    . 
Ypres.  1648,  1744,  1791 
Zurich,  1544. 
I  Zutphen,  1572,  15S6. 


SIERRA  LEONE.  Discovered  in  A.  D.  1460.  In  1786.  London  swarmed 
free  negroes  living  in  idleness  and  want ;  and  400  of  them,  with  60  whites, 
mostly  women  of  bad  character  and  in  ill  health,  were  sent  out  to  Sierra 
Leone,  at  the  charge  of  government,  to  form  a  settlement,  December  9,  1786. 
The  settlement  attacked  by  the  French.  September  1794 :  by  the  natives, 
February  1802.  Sir  Charles  Macarthy,  the  governor  of  the  colony,  murder- 
ed by  the  Ashantee  chief,  Jan.  21,  1824. 

SILK.  Wrought  silk  was  brought  from  Persia  to  Greece,  325  B.  c.  Known  at 
Rome  in  Tiberius's  time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate,  prohibiting  the 
use  of  plate  of  massy  gold,  and  also  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves 
by  wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women.  Heliogabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of 
silk.  A.  D.  220.  Silk  was  at  first  of  the  same  value  with  gold,  weight  for 
weight,  and  was  thought  to  grow  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton  on  trees. 
Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the  sixth  century.  Char- 
lemagne sent  Offa.  king  of  Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests,  A.  D.  780. 
The  manufacture  was  encouraged  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  at  Palermo,  1130, 
when  the  Sicilians  not  only  bred  the  silk-worms,  but  spun  and  weaved  the 
silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spain  and  also  into  the  south 
of  France,  a  little  before  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  about  1510;  and  Henry  IV. 
propagated  mulberry-trees  and  silk-worms  throughout  the  kingdom,  1589. 
In  England,  silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's  ladies  at  a  ball  at 
Kenilworth  Castle.  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by  the  English  clergy  in  1534. 
Manufactured  in  England  in  1604 ;  and  broad  silk  wove  from  raw  silk  in 
1620.  Brought  to  perfection  by  the  French  refugees  in  London,  at  Spital- 
fields,  1688.  A  silk-throwing  mill  was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up  at 
Derby,  by  sir  Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of  London,  modelled  from  the  ori- 
ginal mill  then  in  the  king  of  Sardinia's  dominions,  about  1714. 

SILVER.  It  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  found  mixed  with  other 
ores  in  various  mines  in  Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America 
are  far  the  richest.  A  mine  was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in 
1660.  which  was  so  rich  that  the  silver  of  it  was  often  cut  with  a  chisel. 
In  1749,  one  mass  of  silver,  weighing  370  Ibs.  was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a 
mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Royal  Museum 
at  Copenhagen,  weighing  560  Ibs.  and  worth  1680/.  In  England  silver-pk;* 
and  vessels  were  first  used  by  Wilfrid,  a  Northumberland  bishop,  a  lofty 
and  ambitious  man.  A.  D.  709.—  Tijrell's  Hist,  of  England.  Silver  knivea. 
spoons,  and  cups,  were  great  luxuries  in  1300. 

SILVER  COIN.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  the  Lydians,  some  say,  others,  by 
Phidon  of  Argos.  869  B.  c.  At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  I'ictor, 
269  B.  c.  Used  in  Britain  25  B.  c.  The  Saxons  coined  silver  pennies,  which 
were  22j  grains  weight.  In  1302,  the  penny  was  yet  the  largest  silver  cohi 
in  England.  See  Shillings,  &c.,  and  Coin.  From  1816  to  1840  inclusive, 
25* 


58C  THE  WORLD'S  PRO  DRESS.  f  SLA 

were  coined  at  the  Mint  in  London,  11,108,265Z.  155.  in  silver,  being  a  yearly 
average  of  444,33(M.— Parl.  Ret. 

SIMONTANS.  An  ancient  sect  of  Christians,  so  called  frirn  their  founder 
Simon  Magus,  or  the  Magician.  He  was  the  first  heretic,  and  went  to  Roma 
about  A.  D.  41.  His  heresies  were  extravagant  and  presumptuous,  yet  ho 
had  many  followers,  A.  D.  57.  A  sect  called  St.  Simonians  sprung  up  in 
France ;  and  lately  attracted  considerable  attention  in  that  country ;  and 
the  doctrine  of  Simonianism  has  been  advocated  in  England,  and  particu- 
larly by  Dr.  Prati,  who  lectured  upon  it  at  a  meeting  iu  London,  held  Jan. 
24,  1834. 

SINGING.  See  Music.  The  singing  of  psalms  was  a  very  ancien.  custom  both 
among  the  Jews  and  Christians.  St.  Paul  mentions  this  practice,  which 
was  continued  in  all  succeeding  ages,  with  some  variations  as  to  the  modo 
and  circumstance.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Orthodox  Christians  by  the 
empress  Justina,  mother  of  the  then  young  Valentinian  II.  A.  D.  386,  eccle- 
siastical music  was  introduced  in  favor  of  the  Arians.  "  At  this  time  it 
was  first  ordered  that  hymns  should  be  sung  after  the  manner  of  Eastern 
nations,  that  the  devout  might  not  languish  and  pine  away  with  A  tedious 
sorrow."  The  practice  was  imitated  by  almost  all  other  congregations  of 
the  world. — St.  Augustin.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  refined  upon  the  church 
music,  and  made  it  more  exact  and  harmonious ;  and  that  it  might  be  ge- 
neral, he  set  up  singing-schools  in  Rome,  A.  D.  602. 

SIRNAMES,  first  came  up  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  and  arose  in  great  acts  and 
distinctions ;  as  Soter,  from  Saviour ;  Nicator,  conqueror ;  Euergetes,  or  Be- 
nefactor ;  Pkilopater,  lover  of  his  father ;  PhUometer,  lover  of  his  mother, 
&c.  Strato  was  surnamed  Physicus,  from  his  deep  study  of  nature ;  Aris- 
tides  was  called  the  Just ;  Phociou  the  Good ;  Plato,  the  Athenian  Bee ; 
Xenophon,  the  Attic  Muse;  Aristotle,  the  Stagy rite ;  Pythagoras,  the  Samian 
Sage ;  Menedaemus,  the  Eretrian  Bull ;  Democritus.  the  La.ughing  Philoso- 
pher ;  Virgil,  the  Mantuan  Swain,  &c.  Sirnames  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by  the  nobility,  A.  D.  1100.  The  old 
Normans  used  f*itz,  which  signifies  son,  as  Fitzherbert.  The  Irish  used  0, 
for  grandson,  as  O'Neal,  O'Donnel.  The  Scottish  Highlanders  employed 
Mac.  as  Macdonald.  son  of  Donald.  The  Saxons  added  the  word  son  to  the 
father's  name,  as  Williamson.  Many  of  the  most  common  sirnames,  such 
as  Johnson,  Wilson,  Dyson,  Nicholson,  &c.,  were  taken  by  Brabanters  and 
other  Flemings,  who  were  naturalized  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  1435. — 
Rymer's  Fazdera,  vol.  x. 

SLAVERY.  Slavery  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  With  other  abomi- 
nable customs,  the  traffic  in  men  spread  from  Chaldea  into  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  all  over  the  East,  and  at  length  into  every  known  region  under  heaven. 
In  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  all  prisoners  of  war  were  treated  as  slaves. 
The  Lacedemonian  youth,  trained  up  in  the  practice  of  deceiving  and 
butchering  slaves,  were  from  time  to  time  let  loose  upon  them  to  show  their 
proficiency  in  stratagem  and  massacre ;  and  once,  for  their  amusement  only, 
they  murdered  3000  in  one  night.  Alexander,  when  he  razed  Thebes,  sold 
the  whole  people,  men,  women,  and  children,  for  slaves,  335  B.  c.  See 
Helots. 

SLAVERY  IN  ROME.  In  Rome  slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  * 
great  man's  house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feast. 
By  one  of  the  laws  of  the  XII.  Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent 
debtors,  and  keep  them  in  their  houses  till,  by  their  serfi^es  or  labor,  they 
had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed.  C.  Pollio  threw  such  slaves  as  jav« 
him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish-ponds,  *o  fatten  his  lampieys,  42  B.  c 
Caecilius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  4116  slaves  12  B.  c. 


Bi,A  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATESs  587 

SLAVERY  IN  ENGLAND.  Slavery  was  very  early  known;  and  laws  respect- 
ing the  sale  of  slaves  wat  made  by  Alfred.  The  English  peasantry  were  so 
commonly  sold  for  slaves  in  Saxon  and  Norman  times,  that  children  were 
sold  in  Bristol  market  like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  sent  to  Ire- 
land, and  others  to  Scotland.  A  statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a 
runaway,  or  any  one  who  lived  idly  for  three  days,  should  be  brought  before 
two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  marked  V  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  breast,  and 
adjudged  the  slave  of  him  who  brought  him  for  two  years.  He  was  to  take 
the  slave,  and  give  him  bread,  water,  or  small  drink,  and  refuse  me&£,  and 
cause  him  to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  otherwise  ;  and  if,  within  that 
space,  he  absented  himself  fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked  on  the  forehead 
or  cheek,  by  a  hot  iron,  with  an  S,  and  be  his  master's  slave  for  ever — second 
desertion  was  made  felony.  Lawful  to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  his  neck, 
arm,  or  leg.  A  beggar's  child  might  be  put  apprentice,  *nd,  on  running 
away,  become  a  slave  to  his  master,  1547. 

BLAVE  TRADE.  The  slave  trade  from  Congo  and  Angola  was  begun  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1481  Volumes  have  been  written,  confined  to  facts  alone, 
describing  the  horrors  of  this  traffic.  The  commerce  in  man  has  brutalized 
a  tract  15  degrees  on  each  side  the  equator,  and  40  degrees  wide,  or  of  four 
millions  of  square  miles ;  and  men  and  women  have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the 
Christian  nations  during  the  last  250  years,  and  wars  carried  on  to  make  pri- 
soners for  the  Christian  market.  The  Abb£  Raynal  computes  that,  at  the 
time  of  his  writing.  9.000,000  of  slaves  had  been  consumed  by  the  Europeans, 
"Add  1.000.000  at  least  more,  for  it  is  about  ten  years  since,"  says  Mr. 
Cooper,  who  published  letters  on  this  subject  in  1787.  In  the  year  1768. 
the  slaves  taken  from  their  own  continent  amounted  to  104,100.  In  1786, 
the  annual  number  was  about  100,000 ;  and  in  1807  (the  last  year  of  the 
English  slave  trade),  it  was  shown  by  authentic  documents,  produced  by 
government,  that  from  1792  upwards  of  3,500,000  Africans  had  been  torn 
from  their  country,  and  had  either  miserably  perished  on  the  passage,  or  been 
sold  in  the  West  Indies.* — Butler.  Bull  of  pope  Gregory  against  the  slave 
trade,  Dec.  1830.  Quintuple  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade, 
allowing  mutual  right  of  search,  signed  at  London,  by  the  representatives 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  December  20,  1841. 
King  of  Sweden  abolishes  slavery  in  the  island  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Oct. 
9,  1847. 

•SLAVE  TRADE  OF  ENGLAND.  Captain,  afterwards  sir  John  Hawkins,  was 
the  first  Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  who  made  a  traffic 
of  the  human  species.  His  first  expedition  with  the  object  of  procuring 
negroes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  conveying  them  for  sale  to  the  West 
Indies,  took  place  in  October,  1563.  See  Guinea.  Queen  Anne  directed  the 
colonial  government  of  New  York  to  take  care  "  that  the  Almighty  should 


*  European  avarice  has  been  glutted  with  the  murder  of  180,000,000  of  our  fellow-creatures, 
recollecting  (hat  for  every  one  slave  procured,  ten  are  slaughtered  in  their  own  land  in  war,  and 
that  a  fifth  die  on  the  passage,  and  a  third  in  the  seasoning.— HOOPER'S  LETTERS  ON  THE  SULY» 
TRADE.  "  But,"  says  BUTLER,  "  this  monstrous  colossal  crime  has  not  been  perpetrated  with  Im- 
punuy.  Not  only  its  prosecution,  but  its  effects  have  in  some  measure  called  down  upon  us  th* 
Frowns  and  the  judgments  of  heaven. 

"  By  foreign  wealth  are  British  morals  changed, 
And  Afric's  sons,  and  India's,  smile  avenged." 

1M  trade  was  abolished  in  Austria  in  1782.  By  the  French  convention  in  1794.  By  the  United 
States  in  1807.  By  England  (see  above)  in  1807.  The  Allies,  at  Vienna,  declared  against  it,  February 
1815.  Napoleon,  in  the  hundred  days,  abolished  the  trade,  March  29,  1815.  Treaty  with  Spain, 
1817;  with  the  Netherlands,  May,  1818 ;  with  Brazil,  Nov.  1826.  But  this  horrid  traffic  contina«» 
to  be  cncoiraged  in  several  states. — Haydn. 


588 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[  3511 


ue  devoutly  and  duly  served,  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  also  that  the  Royal  African  Company  should  be  encouraged,  and 
ihat  the  colony  should  have  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  merchantable 
negroes  at  moderate  rates."  In  the  year  1786,  England  employed  130  ships, 
and  carried  off 42,000  slaves  ;  Bristol  and  Liverpool  were  chiefly  engaged  in  it ; 
and  such  was  the  extent  of  British  commerce  in  human  flesh,  that  at  the  pe- 
riod of  slave  emancipation  in  the  British  plantations  in  1833,  the  number  of 
slaves,  which  had  previously  been  considerably  more,  yet  then  amounted  to 
770,280.  The  slave-trade  question  was  debated  in  the  British  parliament 
in  1787.  The  debate  for  its  abolition  lasted  two  days  in  April  1791.  The 
motion  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  88  to  83,  April  3,  1798. 
After  several  other  efforts  of  humane  and  just  HKO,  the  question  was 
introduced  under  the  auspices  of  lord  Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox,  then  minis- 
ters. March  31,  1806;  and  the  trade  was  finally  abolished  by  parliament, 
March  25,  1807. 

SLAVERY  OP  THE  AMERICAN  INDIANS  IN  EUROPE. 


Many  of  the  early  navigators  to  Ame- 
rica, including  Columbus  himself, 
carried  considerable  numbers  of  the 
aborigines  to  Europe,  where  they 
were  sold  into  slavery.  Queen  Isa- 
bella commanded  the  liberation  of 
Indians  held  in  bondage  in  her  pos- 
sessions, in  -  -  -  1501 


SLAVERY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.     See 

The  first  negro  slaves  in  the  English 
colonies  of  North  America  were 
brousht  to  Virginia  in  a  Dutch  vessel 
ofwa'r  -  -1620 

Negroes  "  who  had  been  fraudulently 
brought  from  Guinea"  to  Massachu- 
setts (the  first  in  New  England),  were 
sent  home  at  the  public  expense  by 
the  general  court  of  that  colony  -  1646 

Gorton  and  Roger  Williams  made  a  de- 
cree against  slavery  in  Rhode  Island  1652 

White  slaves  were  sold  in  England,  to 
be  transported  to  Virginia:  average 
price  for  5  years'  service,  JE5— while 
a  negro  was  worth  JE25. — Bancroft  •  1672 

Virginia  had  one  slave  to  50  whites     - 1650 

The  Quakers  abolished  slavery  among 
themselves  ....  1754 

Resolutions  against  the  slave  trade 
passed  by  the  firs',  congress  of  the 
colonies  ....  1774  in  1810 

Act  against  the  external  slave  trade  In  1820 

passed  by  congress  of  the  United  In  1830 

Slates 1789     In  1840 


— but  the  next  /ear  the  slavery  of  Ji- 
dians  was  recognized  as  lawful ;  and 
the  practice  of  "selling  the  natives  of 
North  America  into  foreign  bondage 
continued  for  nearly  two  centuries. 
The  excellent  Winthrop  enumerates 
Indians  among  his  bequests. — Ban- 
croft. 

Slave  Trade. 

[Slavery  had  been  already  prohibited 
in  most  of  the  northern  States  in  their 
constitutions.l 

Act  of  congress  against  fitting  out  ves- 
sels for  slave  trade  -  -  •  1794 

Act  forbidding  any  citizen  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  from  holding  property  in 
foreign  slave  vessels,  linked  States 
vessels  authorized  to  seize  slavers  -  1801 

Act  forbidding,  under  heavy  penalties, 
the  introduction  of  slaves  into  the 
United  States  -  -  -  -  180 

Act  declaring  the  slave  trade  piracy, 
punishable  with  death  -  - 1820 

[Slavery  has,  however,  been  continued 
in  thirteen  of  the  States.  See  Mis- 
souri. ] 

The  number  of  slaves  in  the  United 
States  in  1790  was       •       -        -    697,697 

In  1800 


896,849 
1,191,364 
1,538,0(54 
2,010,436 

2,467  ,:i>5 


SLAVES.  EMANCIPATION  OP.  Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the 
British  colonies,  and  for  the  'promotion  of  industry  among  the  manumitted 
slaves,  and  for  the  compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto  entitled  to  the  ser- 
vices of  such  slaves,  by  the  grant  from  parliament  of  20;000,000i.  sterling, 
passed  3  and  4  William  IV..  Aug.  28,  1833.  By  the  operation  of  this  act, 
slavery  terminated  in  the  British  possessions  on  Aug.  1,  1834,  and  770,280 
slaves  became  free. 

BLEEP.  We  are  told  that  while  Epimenides  was  at  Athens,  and  was  one  day 
attending  his  flocks,  he  entered  a  cave,  and  there  fell  asleep.  His  sleep  con- 
tinued, according  to  some  writers,  forty  or  forty-seven  years  ;  Pliny  says  h« 
slept  fifty-seven  years ;  and  when  he  awoke,  he  found  evei  y  object  so  al» 
tered  he  knew  not  where  he  was.  It  is  supposed  that  he  lived  289  years, 


BOD  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  589 

696  B.  c.  We  have  many,  and  even  very  late,  instances  of  persons  in 
these  countries  sleeping  continuously  for  weeks  and  months. 
SMALL-POX.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoculation  for  the 
small-pox  from  Turkey,  her  own  son  having  been  inoculated  with  perfect 
success  at  Adrianople,  A.  D.  1718.  She  was  allowed,  by  way  of  experiment, 
to  inoculate  seven  capital  convicts,  who,  on  their  recovery,  were  pardoned. 
Inoculation  for  the  small-pox  was  encouraged  under  the  auspices  of  Dr. 
Mead.  A  small-pox  hospital  was  instituted  in  London,  1746,  but  the  pie- 
sent  building  was  not  opened  till  1756.  See  Inoculation  and  Vaccination. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  Founded  by  will  of  James  Smithjon,  a  na. 
tural  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  who  died  1835:  and  left  £100,000 
"  to  the  United  States  of  America,  to  found  at  Washington  an  institution 
for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  Act  of  Congress 
accepting  the  bequest,  and  providing  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  trust,  1846. 
Corner  stone  of  the  building  laid,  May  1,  1847. 

SMOLENSKO,  BATTLE  OP.  One  of  the  most  memorable  of  the  celebrated 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies.  The 
French  in  this  most  sanguinary  engagement  were  three  times  repulsed,  but 
they  ultimately  succeeded,  and,  on  entering  Smolensko,  found  the  city, 
which  had  been  bombarded,  burning  and  partly  in  ruins.  Barclay  de  Tolli, 
the  Russian  commander-in-chief,  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor 
Alexander,  because  he  retreated  after  the  battle,  and  Kutusotf  succeeded 
to  the  command,  Aug.  17,  1812. 

SMUGGLERS  IN  ENGLAND.  The  customs  duties  were  instituted  originally  to 
enable  the  king  to  afford  protection  to  trade  against  pirates ;  and  they  af- 
terwards became  a  branch  of  the  public  revenue.  A  severe  penalty  against 
smuggling  was  enacted  in  1736. 

SNUFF-TAKING.  This  practice  took  its  rise  in  England  from  the  captures 
made  of  vast  quantities  of  snuff  by  sir  George  Rooke's  expedition  to  Vigo 
in  1702.  The  prize  of  the  forces  having  been  sent  home  and  sold,  the  vice 
soon  obtained  from  which  the  revenue  now  draws,  with  tobacco,  consider- 
ably more  than  3,000  OOOOZ.  per  annum.  In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1840, 
there  were  imported  L622:493  Ibs.  of  snuff,  of  which  196;305  Ibs.  were 
entered  for  home  consumption  ;  the  duty  was  88.2632.  See  Tobacco. 

SOAP.  This  article  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  ancients.  The  first  express 
mention  of  it  occurs  in  Pliny  and  Galen ;  and  the  former  declares  it  to  be 
an  invention  of  the  Gauls,  though  he  prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap. 
In  remote  periods  clothes  were  cleansed  by  being  rubbed  or  stamped  upon 
in  water.  Nausicaa  and  her  attendants,  Homer  tells  us,  washed  theirs  by 
treading  upon  them  with  their  feet  in  pits  of  water. —  Odyssey,  book  vi. 
The  manufacture  of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before  which  time  it 
was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per  pound. 

SOBRAON,  BATTLE  OF  ;  INDIA.  The  British  army,  35:000  strong,  under  Sir 
Hugh  (now  lord)  Gough,  attacked  the  Sikh  force  on  the  Sutlej.  The  ene- 
my was  dislodged  after  a  dreadful  contest,  and  all  their  batteries  taken ; 
and  iu  attempting  the  passage  of  a  river  by  a  floating  bridge  in  their  rear, 
the  weight  of  the  masses  that  crowded  upon  it  caused  it  to  break  down,  and 
more  than  10,000  Sikhs  were  killed,  wounded,  or  drowned.  The  British 
loss  was  2383  men ;  fought  Feb.  10,  1846. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS  seized  by  the  French  admiral,  Dupetit  Thouars,  and 
queen  Pomare  deposed,  Nov.  9,  1843,  but  the  transaction  was  disavowed  by 
the  French  government. 

SOCIALISM.  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  doctrine  which  teaches  that  all 
men  have  common  interests,  and  that  society  ought  to  be,  accordingly,  or 


590  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  soa 

gammed  on  that  principle.  It  has  been  taught,  more  or  less  distinctly,  in 
all  ages  and  nations :  by  Pythagoras  B.  c.  466,  and  Plato  B.  c.  422,  among 
the  Greeks  ;  by  the  sect  of  Essenes,  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  among  tho 
Jews ;  by  the  first  Christians  A.  D.  34 ;  by  several  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Church ;  by  sir  Thomas  More,  in  his  Utopia,  A.  D.  1515 ;  by  Campunella, 
A.  D.  1623  ;  and  byBabeau.  in  France,  A.  D.  ;  but  the  principal  modern 

teachers  of  it  have  been  Charles  Fourier,  who  was  bornatBesanconin  1772; 
and  who  published  a  variety  of  able  works  on  the  subject ;  by  Claude  Henri 
St.  Simon,  born  also  in  France,  at  Paris,  in  A.D.  1760 ;  and  by  Robert  Owen,  of 
England,  who  first  taught  it  publicly  in  "London  in  1834.  Through  the  instru 
mentality  of  their  writings  it  has  been  been  spread  over  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  the  United  States,  where  socialism,  in  different  forms,  has  a 
considerable  number  of  disciples.  In  February,  1848,  an  attempt  was  made 
by  Louis  Blanc,  one  of  the  Provisional  Government  of  Paris,  to  organize 
labor  on  socialist  principles,  but  without  success.  A  great  many  religious 
sects,  such  as  the  Moravians,  the  Rappites,  the  Zoarites,  and  '.he  Shakers, 
adopt  the  doctrine  of  common  property  in  their  social  arrangements. 

SOCINIANS.  So  called  from  their  founders.  Faustus  and  Lae^us  Socinus. 
They  taught  that  Jesus  was  a  mere  man.  who  had  no  existence  before  h« 
was  conceived  by  the  Virgin  ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  a  distinct  per- 
son ;  and  that  the  Father  only  is  truly  God.  They  maintained  that  Christ 
died  only  to  give  mankind  a  pattern  of  heroic  virtue,  and  to  seal  his  doc- 
trines with  his  death.  Original  sin,  grace,  and  predestination  they  treated 
as  mere  chimeras.  Socinianism  was  propagated  about  A.  D.  1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH.  These  cities,  with  all  their  inhabitants,  destroyed 
by  fire  from  heaven.  1897  B.  c. — Bible,  Blair,  Usher.  The  offence  of  sodomy 
was  first  sown  in  England  by  the  Lombards.  By  an  old  English  law,  the  cri- 
minal was  burnt  to  death,  though  Fleta  says  he  should  be  buried  alive 
The  crime  was  subject  to  ecclesiastical  censure  only  at  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.,  who  made  it  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1533.  Confirmed  by 
statute  5  Elizabeth,  1562. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM.  The  system  nearly  as  now  accepted,  after  the  investiga- 
tions and  discoveries  of  many  enlightened  centuries  and  ages,  was  taught 
by  Pythagoras  of  Samos,  about  529  B.  c.  In  his  system  of  the  universe  he 
placed  the  sun  in  the  centre,  and  all  the  planets  moving  in  elliptical  orbits 
round  it — a  doctrine  deemed  chimerical  and  improbable,  till  the  deep  in- 
quiries of  the  philosophy  of  the  sixteenth  century  proved  it,  by  the  most 
accurate  calculations,  to  be  true  and  incontestable.  The  system  of  Pytha- 
goras was  revived  by  Copernicus,  and  it  is  hence  called  the  Copernican 
system.  Its  truth  was  fully  demonstrated  by  sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  1695. 
How  truly  the  poet  says — 

"  He  who  through  vast  immensity  can  pierce, 

See  worlds  on  worlds  compose  one  universe, 

Observe  how  system  into  system  runs, 

What  other  planets  circle  other  suns, 

What  varied  beings  people  every  star, 

May  tell  why  Heaven  has  made  us  what  we  are." — Pope, 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.  The  foundation  laid,  480  years  after  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt,  1012  B.  c.  The  temple  solemnly  dedicated.  Friday,  October 
30,  1004  B.  c.,  being  1000  years  before  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer.—  Usler, 
Lengiet. 

SORCERERS  AMD  MAGICIANS.  A  law  was  enacted  against  their  seductions. 
38  Henry  VIII.  1541 ;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was  passed  6  Eli- 
zabeth. 1563.  The  pretension  to  sorcery  and  witchcraft  and  the  conversing 
with  evil  spirits  was  made  capital,  1  James  I.,  1603.  For  shocking  instance! 
of  the  punishment  of  son  erers,  see  Witchcraft. 


DICTIONARY  OF  DATES. 


591 


SOUDAN  OR  SOUJAH.  The  title  of  the  lieutenant-generals  of  the  caliphs, 
which  they  went  by  in  their  provinces  or  armies.  These  officers  afterward* 
made  themselves  sovereigns.  Saladin,  general  of  the  forces  of  the  Nora- 
dine,  king  of  Damascus,  was  the  first  that  took  upon  him  this  title  in  Egypt, 
A.  D.  1165.  after  having  killed  the  caliph  Caym. 

SOUND.  Fewer  than  thirty  vibrations  in  a  second  give  no  sound  ;  and  when 
the  vibrations  exceed  7520  in  a  second,  the  tones  cease  to  be  discriminated. 
Robesval  states  the  velocity  of  sound  at  the  rate  of  560  feet  in  a  second  ; 
Gassendus,  at  1473 ;  Derham,  at  1142  feet.  At  Paris,  where  cannon  were 
fired  under  many  varieties  of  weather  in  1738,  it  was  found  to  be  1107  feet. 
The  fire  of  the  British  on  landing  in  Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles 
on  the  sea.  See  Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.  Captain  Ross,  of  H.  M.  S.  (Edipus,  took  extraordinary 
soundings  at  sea.  One  of  them  was  taken  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena, 
where  it  extended  to  the  depth  of  5000  fathoms.  Another  sounding  was 
made  in  latitude  of  33  degrees  S.  and  longitude  9  degrees  W..  about  300 
mile  froia  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  2266  fathoms  were  sounded  ;  the 
weight  employed  amounted  to  450  Ibs.,  1840. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  One  of  the  United  States;  first  settlement  was  made 
under  Governor  Sayle,  at  Port  Royal,  in  1670.  and  at  Charleston  1671 ;  re- 
ceived a  colony  of  French  refugees,  exiled  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  1690 ;  church  of  England  established  by  law,  1703 ;  proprietary 
government  in  the  two  Carolinas  superseded  by  one  established  by  the  peo- 
ple in  1719  ;  the  country  purchased  of  the  proprietors  by  the  English  par- 
liament in  1729,  when  the  country  was  divided  into  North  and  South 
Carolina  ;  received  colonies  of  Swiss.  Germans,  and  Irish  at  various  times. 
This  State  early  resisted  the  claims  of  the  mother  country,  and  was  active 
in  the  revolutionary  war.  Charleston  and  a  large  part  of  the  State  taken  by 
the  British  in  1780 ;  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  1781 ;  Federal  Constitution 
adopted  May  23,  1788,  by  149  to  73 ;  "  nullification  ordinance "  passed 
Nov.  1832.  Population  in  1790  was  249000;  in  1810,  415.115;  in  1830. 
581,458;  in  1840,  594,398,  including  327:538  slaves. 

bOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.  This  destructive  speculation  was  commenced  in 
1710 ;  and  the  company  incorporated  by  statute,  1716.  The  bubble,  which 
ruined  thousands  of  families,  exploded  in  1720,  and  the  directors'  estates, 
to  the  value  of  2  014.000Z.  were  seized  in  1721.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier, 
absconded  with  100.000Z. ;  but  he  compounded  the  fraud  for  10.00W.,  and 
returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost  all  the  wealthy  persons  in  the  king- 
dom had  become  stock-jobbers  and  speculators  in  this  fatal  scheme.  The 
artifices  of  the  directors  had  raised  the  shares,  originally  of  1CKM.,  to  the 
enormous  price  of  1000Z.  See  Law's  Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA.    See  Impostors,  &c. 

SPAIN.  The  first  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  progeny  of  Tubal. 
fifth  son  of  Japheth.  The  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  successively 
planted  colonies  on  the  coasts  ;  and  the  Romans  possessed  the  whole  coun- 
try. In  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  Spain  was  seized  by  the  Vandals, 
Alans,  and  Suevi ;  afterwards  subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  who  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  present  monarchy.  See  Tabular  Views,  p.  65,  et  seq. 


The  Vandals  and  Suevi  wrest  Spain 

from  the  Romans  -  -  A.  p.  412 

The  Visigoths  enter  Spain  under  their 

leader,  Euric  -  ...  472 

The  Saracens  from  Arabia  invade  the 

country  -  -  -  713  et  seq. 

Pelagiup,  a  royal  Visigoth,  proclaimed 

tang  of  Asturias          -          .          .   718 


Alphonsus  II.  refusing  to  pay  the  Sara- 
cens the  annual  tribute  of  100  virgins, 
war  is  declared ;  Alphonsus  is  victo- 
rious, and  obtains  the  appellation  of 
"  the  chaste"  -  -  A.  D.  791  st  teg. 

Inisjo.  first  king  of  Navarre,  &c.  -   83C 

Ferdinand  I.,  count  of  Castile,  talros  the 
title  of  king  -  -  ••  r*  •  I*1* 


092 


THE    WORLDS    .»ROGRE3S. 


SPAIN,  continued. 

Union  of  Navarre  and  Castile    -     A.  D.  1031 
The  kingdom  of  Arragon  commenced 

under  Ramirez  I.  -  -  -      -  1035 

Leon  and  Asturias  united  to  Castile     •  1037 
Portugal  taken  from  the  Saracens  by 

Henry  of  Bourbon       -  -  -1087 

The  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the 
Christians,  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors 
from  Africa,  who  seize  the  dominions 
they  came  to  protect,  and  subdue  the 
Saracens  •  •  -  1091  et  seq 

The  Moors  defeated  in  several  battles 

by  Alphonsus  I.  of  Navarre  -  -1118 

Twelve  Moorish  kings  overcome  in  one 

great  pitched  battle          -  -      •  1 135 

University  of  Salamanca  founded        -  1200 
Leon  and  Castile  re-united  -  -      -  1226 

Cordova,  the  residence  of  the  first  Moor- 
ish kings,  taken  by  Ferdinand  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon    -  1236 
The  kingdom  of  Granada  begun  by  the 
Moors,  their    last  refuge  from    the 
power  of  the  Christians         •           -1238 
Reign  of  Alphonsus  the  Wise        -      -  1252 
The  crown  of  Navarre  passes  to  the 

royal  family  of  France  •  •  1276 

200,000  Moors  invade  Spam  -      -  1327 

They  are  defeated  by  Alphonsus  XI., 

with  great  slaughter    -  -  -  1340 

The  infant  Don  Henriquez,  son  of  John 
the  First  of  Castile,  first  had  the  title 
of  prince  of  Asturias  ...  1388 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Arragon  marries  Isa- 
bella of  Castile ;  and  nearly  the  whole 
Christian  dominions  of  Spain  are  uni- 
ted in  one  monarchy    -  -  -  1474 
Granada  taken  after  a  two  years'  siege ; 
and  the  power  of  the.  Moors  finally 
extirpated  by  the  valor  of  Ferdinand  -  1492 
Columbus  issent  from  Spain  to  explore 

the  western  world  -  -      -  1492 

Ferdinand  conquers  the  greater  part  of 

the  kingdom  of  Navarre         -  -  1512 

Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the 

throne  of  Spain  '  •  -  1516 

Charles  V.  ol  Spain  and  Germany  re- 
tires from  the  world         .  -      -  1556 
Philip  I.  commences  his  bloody  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants        -  -  1561 
The  Escurial  began  building    -           - 1562 
Portugal  united  to  Spain    -           -      -  1580 
The  invincible  Spanish  Armada  de- 
stroyed.   See  Armada,  and  Naval 
Battles            -           -           -  .  1588 
Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moors  and  their 
descendants,  to  the  number  of  900,000, 
from  Spain            •           •           -        1610 
Philip  IV.  loses  Portugal          -  -  1640 
Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English      -      -  1704 
Philip  V.  invades  Naples          -  -  1714 
Charles  III.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 

succeeds  to  the  crown  -  1759 

Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent    •    Feb.  14,  1797 
Spanish  treasure-ships,  valued  at  3.000,- 
000  dollars,  seized  by  the  English 

Oct.  29,  1804 
Battle  of  Trafalgar.     See  Trafalgar, 

Battle  of          •  •          Oct.  31, 1505 

Sway  of  the  prince  ol  Peace     -  -  1806 

Conspiracy  of  the  prince  of  Asturias 
against  his  father 


Treaty  of  Fontainebleau 


July  25,  1807 
Oct.  27, 1807 


The  French  take  Madrjc  A..  D.  Ma'Ch,  18U8 
The  prince  of  Peace  disn  fssed  by  he 

king  of  Spain  -  March  18,  ia« 

Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favor  of 

Ferdinand  -  -     March  19.  180tf 

And  at  Baycnne,  in  favor  of  his  "  friend 
and  ally,"   Napoleon,   when  Ferdi- 
nand relinquished  the  crown,   May  1,  ]80h 
The  French  are  massacred  at  Madrid, 

May  2,  1H03 
Napoleon    assembles  the   notables  at 

Bayonne  -  -  May  25.  1308 

Joseph  Bonaparte  enters    Madrid,  as 

king  of  Spain  -  -  July  12,  1808 

He  retires  from  the  capital   -   July  29,  1808 
Supreme  Junta  installed       •       Sept.  1606 
Madrid  retaken  by  the  French,  ar.d  Jo- 
seph restored  -  -    Eec.  2.  1808 
The  royal  family  of  Spain  imprisoned 
in  the  palace  of  Chambery,  in  Savoy, 

Dec.  5,  1008 

[Spain  now  becomes  the  scene  of  the 
struggle  called  the  Peninsular  War, 
for  the  events  of  which  see  the  arti- 
cles severally.] 

Constitution  of  the  Cortes  -  May  8,  1812 
Ferdinand  VII.  restored  -  May  14,  1814 
Spanish  revolution  began  -  Jan.  1,  1820 
Ferdinand  swears  to  the  constitution  of 

the  Cortes  •  -       March  8,  1821 

Removal  of  the  king  to  Seville,  and 

thence  to  Cadiz       -  March  20,  1823 

The  French  enter  Spain    -        April  7,  1823 
They  invest  Cadiz        -        -    June  25,  1823 
Battle  of  the  Trocadero  -       -  Aug.  31,  1823 
Despotism   resumed ;   the   Cortes  dis- 
solved ;  executions  -  Oct.  1823 
Riego  put  to  death           -        Nov.  27,  1823 
The  French  evacuate  Cadiz  •  Sept.  21,  1828 
Cadiz  made  a  free  port      -       Feb.  24,  1829 
Salique  law  abolished    -       March  25,  1830 
Queen  of  Spain  appointed  regent  dur- 
ing the  king's  indisposition,  and  a 
complete  change  made  in  the  minis- 
try                                          Oct.  25,  1832 
Don  Carlos  declares  himself  legitimate 
successor   to    his    brother's  throne, 
should  the  king  die        -        April  29, 1833 
Death  of  Charles  IV..  and  his  queen 
assumes  the  title  ol  governing  queen, 
until  Isabella  II.,  her  infant  daughter, 
attains  her  majority        -      Sept.  29,  1833 
The  royalist  volunteer?  ui.-armed,  wnh 

some  bloodshed,  at  Madrid  -  Oct.  27,  1833 
Don  Carlos  lands  at  I'orinmouth  with 

his  family  -  -       June  18,  1834 

He  suddenly  appears  among  his  ad- 
herents in  Spam  -         July  10,  1831 
The  peers  vote  the  perpetual  exclt-sion 
of  Don  Carlos  from  the  throne,  Aug.  30, 1034 
[Here  commences  the  desolating  evil 
war,  in  which  British  auxiliaries  take 
the  side  of  the  queen.] 
Espartero  gains  the  battle  of  Bilboa, 

and  is  ennobled        -  •   Dec.  25,  1831 

General  Evans  retires  from  ine  com- 
mand of  the  auxiliary  legion,  and  ar- 
rives in  London,  after  having  achieved 
various  successes  in  Spain  -  June 20,  1837 
Madrid  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siege. 

Aug."  11, 18J7 
[Espartero  and  ither  Chrislino  ge  lerale 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


593 


SPAIN,  continued. 

engage  with  the  C&.-  ists,  and  nume- 
rous conflicts  take  place  with  various 
success.  ] 

Madrid  is  again  declared  in  a  slate  of 
siege  -  -  A.  D.  Oct.  30,  1838 

The  Spanish  Cortes  dissolved  •  June  1,  1839 

The  Carlists  under  Marota  desert  Don 
Carlos  -  -  -  Aug.  25.  1839 

Marota  and  Espartero  conclude  a  treaty 
of  peace  -  -  Aug.  29,  1839 

Don  Carlos  seeks  refuge  in  France 

Sept.  13,  1839 

Cabrera,  the  Carlist  general,  unable  to 
maintain  the  war,  enters  France  with 
a  body  of  his  troops  -  July  ~,  1340 

The  British  auxiliaries  evacuate  St.  Se- 
bastian and  Passages  -  Aug.  25,  1840 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid  -  -  -  Oct.  5,  1840 

The  queen  regent  appoints  a  new  min- 
istry, who  are  nominated  by  Espar- 
tero ....  Oct.  5.  1840 

The  abdication  of  the  queen  regent  of 
Spain  -  -  Oct.  12,  1840 

[She  subsequently  leaves  the  kingdom ; 
visits  France ;  next  settles  in  Sicily ; 
but  returns  to  France.] 

Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,  expels  the 
papal  nuncio  -  -  Dec.  29,  1840 

The  Spanish  cortes  declare  Espartero 
regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  queen  -  -  Apr.  12.  1841 

Insurrection  in  favor  of  Christina  is 
commenced-  at  Pampeluna  by  Gen. 
O'Donnell's  army  -  -  Oct.  2,  1841 

It  spreads  to  Vittoria  and  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom  -  -  Oct.  1841 

Don  Diego  Leon  attacks  the  palace  at 
Madrid,  and  his  followers  are  repuls- 
ed, and  numbers  of  them  slain  by  the 
queen's  guard  -  -  Oct.  7,  1841 

Don  Diego  Leon,  having  been  seized,  is 
shot  at  Madrid  -  -  Oct.  15,  1841 

Zurbano  captures  Bilboa    -      Oct.  21.  1841 

Roilil,  the  constitu'ional  general,  enters 
Vittoria  -  -  -  Oct.  21,  1841 

Espartero  decrees  the  suspension  of 
queen  Christina's  pension  -  Oct.  26,  1841 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid  -  -  Nov.  23,  1841 

An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Barce- 
lona ;  the  national  guard  joins  the 
populace  -  -  Nov  13,  1842 

Battle  in  the  streets  between  the  national 
guard  and  the  troops :  the  latter  lose 
500  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  retreat 
to  the  citadel  -  -  Nov.  15,  1842 


The  troops  evacuate  the  citadel,  and 
retire  to  Moutjuich  -  Nov.  17, 184S 

The  regent  Espartero  arrives  before 
Barcelona,  anit  demands  its  uncondi- 
tional surrender  -  -  Nov.  29,  1842 

Bombardmer.t  of  Barcelona  -    Dec.  2,  1848 

It  capitulates  •  -        Dec.  4,  1S42 

The  disturbances  of  Malaga  -  May  25,  1843 

The  revolutionary  junta  is  re-establish- 
ed •<!  Barcelona  -  -  June  11,  184) 

[Cormna,  Seville,  Burgos,  Santiago, 
and  numerous  other  towns,  shortly 
afterwards  "  pronounce"  against  the 
regent  Espartero.] 

Arrival  of  Gen.  Narvaez  at  Madrid, 
which  surrenders  -  -  July  15,  1843 

Espartero  bombards  Seville  -  July  21,  1843 

The  siege  is  raised     -        -       July  27,  1843 

[The  revolution  is  completely  success- 
ful, and  Espartero  flies  to  Cadiz,  and 
embarks  on  board  her  Majesty's  shin 
Malabar.  ] 

The  new  government  deprive  Espartero 
of  his  titles  and  rank  -  Aug.  16,  1843 

Espartero  and  his  suite  and  friends  ar- 
rive in  London  -  -  Aug.  23,  1843 

Reaction  against  the  new  government 
breaks  out  at  Madrid  -  Aug.  29,  1843 

The  youns  queen  Isabella  II.,  13  years 
old,  is  declared  by  the  cortes  to  be  of 
age  -  -  -  Nov.  8,  1843 

The  queen-mother.  Christina,  returns  to 
Spain  -  -  -  March  23,  1844 

Don  Carlos,  from  Bourges,  formally  re- 
linquishes his  right  to  the  crown,  in 
favor  of  his  son  -  -  May  18,  1845 

Narvaez  and  his  ministry  resign,  Feb. 
12;  they  return  to  power,  March  17  ; 
and  again  resign  -  -  March  28,  184G 

The  queen  is  publicly  affianced  to  her 
cousin,  don  Francisco  d'Assiz,  duke 
of  Cadiz  -  -  -  Aug.  27,  1846 

Escape  of  Don  Carlos  and  others  from 
France  -  -  -  Sept.  14,  1846 

Marriage  of  the  queen ;  and  marriage 
also  of  the  infanta  Louisa  to  the  duke 
de  Mompensier  •  -  Oct.  10,  1816 

[The  Montpensier  marriage  occasions 
the  displeasure  of  England,  and  dis- 
turbs the  friendly  relations  of  the 
French  and  English  governments.] 

Amnesty  granted  by  the  queen  to  po- 
litical offenders  -  -  Oct.  18,  1846 

The  queen  has  a  son  born,  who  dies  the 
same  day  •  -  •  July  1,  1803 


KINGS   3V   SPAIN. 


JL.P.  406.  Alaricl.,  king  of  the  Goths ;  murdered. 
411.  Athalsus;  murdered  by  his  soldiers. 
415.  Wallia. 

420.  Theodoric  I.;  killed  in  battle. 
450.  Torrismunn ,  assassinated  by  his  fa- 
vorite. 

452.  Theodoric  II. 
466.  Euric. 

484.  Alaric  II. ;  killed  in  battle. 
507.  Gesalric;  killed  in  battle. 
511.  Aiualaric;  killed  in  battle. 
tlil  Theodat;  assassinated  by  a  madman 


648.  Theodisele ;  murdered  for  female  ri» 

lation. 

549.  Agila;  taken  prisoner  ami  put  to  death. 
5T>4.  Athanasild. 
507.  From  this  year  to  the  year  687  rxtow 

kings  reigned. 
687.  Egica  or  Egiza. 
697.  Vitizza. 
74t.  Roderick;  killed  intaUteinTM 

An  interregnum  till 
718.  Pelagius. 
736.  Favila;  killed  by  a  boar  in  huntirv 


594 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


SPAIN,  continual. 

738.  Alpho.isus  I. ;  Catholic. 
757.  Froila  I. ;  killed  by  his  brother  Aure- 

lius. 

768.  Aurelius. 
774.  Silo. 
783.  Mauregat. 
789.  Veremond. 

791.  Alphonsus  II. ;  the  chaste. 
324.  Ramiro  I. ;  he  put  70,000  Saracen?  to 

the  sword  in  one  battle. 
860.  Ordogno  I. 
8to.  Alphonsus  III. ;  eurnamed  the  great; 

deposed  by  his  son. 
910.  Garcias. 
914.  Ordogno  II. 

923.  Froila  II. 

924.  Alphonsus  IV. ;  abdicated. 
931.  Ramiro  II. ,  killed  in  battle. 
950.  Ordogno  HI. 

955.  Ordoano  IV. 

956.  Sancho  I.,  the  Fat;  poisoned  with  an 

apple 

967.  Ramiro  III. 
982.  Veremund  II. ;  the  Gouty. 
999.  Alphonsus  V. ;   killed  at  the  siege  of 

Viscu. 

1028.  Veremund  III. ;  killed  in  battle. 
103f>.  Ferdinand  the  Great,  king  of  Leon  and 

Castile. 
1065.  Sancho  II.,  the  Strong,  king  of  Castile  ; 

Alphonsus  in  Leon  and  Asturias ;  and 

Garcias  in  Galicia. 
1072.  Alphonsus  VI.,  the  Valiant;  in  Castile 

and  Leon. 

1109.  Alphonsus  VII. 
1122.  Alphonsus  VIII. 

1157.  Sancho  III.,  the  Beloved,  In  Castile; 

Ferdinand  in  Leon. 

1158.  Alphonsus  IX.,  in  Castile. 
1214.  Henry  I. 

1236. Ferdinand  HI.  the  Holy;  in  him  Cas- 
tile and  Leon  were  reunited,  and  per- 
petually annexed. 

1252.  Alphonsus  the  Wise ;  deposed. 

1284  Sancho  IV..  the  Brave ;  Peter  HI.  in 
Arragon. 

1295.  Ferdinand  IV. 

1312.  Alphonsus  X. ;  John  in  Arragon. 


1350.  Peter  tl-.  Ciuel ;  deposed.  Reinstate* 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  of  Eng 
land;  afterwards  beheaded  by  hi 
subjects. 

1368.  Henry  II.,  the  Gracious ;  poisoned  tf 
a  monk. 

1379.  John  I. ;  he  united  Biscay  to  CastiU . 

1390.  Henry  III.,  the  Sickly. 

1406.  John  II. 

1454.  Henry  IV    the  Impotent. 

1474.  Ferdinand  V.,  the  Catholic,  in  wl»m, 
by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  th« 
kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon 
were  united. 

1504.  Philip  I.  of  Austria,  and  his  queer> 
Joan. 

1506.  Joan  alone  over  both  kingdoms. 

1516.  Charles  I.,  and  emperor  of  Germany, 
resigned  both  crowns,  and  retired  to 
a  monastery. 

1555.  Philip  II.,  married  Mary,  queen-reg- 
nant of  England. 

1598.  Philip  III.,  son  of  the  preceding;  he 
drove  the  Moors  from  Grenada  and 
the  adjacent  provinces. 

1621.  Philip  IV.,  his  son  j  a  reign  of  nearly 
continuous  and  unfortunate  wars  with 
the  Dutch  and  France. 

1665.  Charles  II. 

1700.  Philip  V.,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  to 
Louis  XIV.  of  France :  resigned. 

1724.  Lewis  I. ;  who  reigned  only  a  few 
months. 

1724.  Philip  V. ;  again. 

1745.  Ferdinand  VI.,  surnamedthe  Wise ;  he 
distinguished  his  reign  by  acts  of 
liberality  and  beneficence. 

1759.  Charles  III.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1788.  Charles  IV. ;  abdicated  in  favor  of  hia 
son  anil  successor. 

1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  whom  Napoleon,  of 
of  France,  also  forced  to  resign. 

1808.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napo- 
leon; deposed. 

1814.  Ferdinand  VII. ;  restored ;  succeeded 
by  his  daughter. 

1833.  Isabella  II.,  Sept.  29 ;  who  came  to  tna 
tnrone  wnen  tnree  years  of  age. 


While  nearly  all  the  other  nations  of  the  world  have  been  at  peace,  this  coun- 
try, for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  has  been  a  prey  to  the  most  deplor- 
able commotions,  and  almost  continuous  and  destructive  civil  war.  From 
the  death  of  Ferdinand,  the  intrigues  of  Christina,  the  queen-mother,  and 
the  parties  in  her  interest,  have  led  to  successive  revolutions  in  the  state, 
and  caused,  in  1840,  her  own  abdication  of  the  regency,  and  expulsion  from 
the  kingdom. 

SPANISH  ARMADA  AGAINST  ENGLAND.    See  article  Armada. 

SPARTA.  The  capital  of  Laconia,  one  of  the  most  considerable  republics  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  formidable  rival  of  Athens.  Though  without 
walls,  it  resisted  the  attacks  of  its  enemies  by  the  valor  of  its  citizens,  for 
eight  centuries.  The  epoch  of  its  foundation  is  much  disputed.  Lelex  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  king.  1516  B.  c.  From  Lacedaemon  the  fourth 
king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spoken  of  as  the  founders  of  the 
city,  it  obtained  the  names  by  which  it  was  most  known.  The  history  of 
Lacedaemon  may  be  divided  into  five  eras,  viz.,  1st.  Under  the  ancient  kings, 
from  Lelex  to  the  settlement  of  the  Keraclidae,  comprising  about  four  hun- 


»P1  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  595 

drcd  and  twelve  years.  2d.  Under  the  Heraclidsc  as  absol.tte  monaiehs,  till 
Lycurgns  instituted  a  senate,  by  which  the  people  obtained  a  share  in  the 
government,  including  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  years.  3d.  From  the 
establishment  of  the  senate,  to  the  introduction  of  ephori,  or  five  inspectors 
by  Theoporapus,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  years.  4th.  From  the 
appointment  of  the  ephori,  to  the  total  abolition  of  royalty,  about  five  hun- 
dred and  forty  years.  5th.  From  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  to  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  country  to  the  Roman  power,  a  period  of  about  seventy- 
two  years,  147  B.  c. — Abbe  Lenglet.  See  Tabular  V'iews :  Greece,  page  7,  et 
seq.  See  also  Greece.  The  Lacedaemonians  were  a  nation  of  soldiers.  They 
cultivated  neither  the  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  nor  agriculture.  All  their 
laws,  all  their  institutions,  all  their  education,  in  a  word,  the  very  constitu- 
tion of  their  republic,  were  calculated  to  make  them  warriors.  And  never 
were  men  brought  into  the  field  more  capable  of  enduring  fatigue.  They 
hardened  their  bodies  by  stripes,  and  by  manly  exercises,  accustoming  them- 
selves to  undergo  hardships,  and  even  to  die  without  fear  or  regret.  'Ihe 
women  were  as  courageous  as  the  men,  and  celebrated  with  festivals  the  fall 
of  their  sons,  when  killed  in  battle,  or  coolly  put  them  to  death  with  their 
own  hands,  if  by  a  shameful  flight,  or  the  loss  of  their  arms,  they  brought 
disgrace  upon  their  country. — Abbe  Lenglet. 

SPECTACLES  AND  READING-GLASSES.  See  Optics.  Spectacles  were  un- 
known to  the  ancients.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  invented 
in  the  13th  century,  by  Alexander  de  Spina.  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy, 
about  A.  D.  1285. — Gen.  Hist.  They  were  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  our  own 
illustrious  countryman,  according  to  Dr.  Plott.  The  hint  was  certainly 
given  by  Bacon  about  1280.  Some  affirm  that  the  real  inventor  was  Salvi- 
no ;  and  Mr.  Manni  gives  proofs  in  favor  of  Salvino  in  his  Treatise  an  Spec- 
tacles. 

.SPHERES.  The  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes,  and  also  sun-dials,  were  invent- 
ed by  Anaximander,  552  B.  c.  The  armillary  sphere  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Eratosthenes  about  255  B.  c.  The  planetarium  was  constructed 
by  Archimedes  before  212  B.  c.  It  was  maintained  by  Pythagoras  that  the 
motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds,  inaudible  to 
*  the  ears  of  mortals,  which  he  called  the  music  of  the  spheres. 

SPINNING.  The  art  of  spinning  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Minerva,  the 
goddess  of  wisdom,  such  was  their  veneration  for  it.  Areas,  king  of  Arca- 
dia, taught  his  subjects  the  art  of  spinning  about  1500  B.  c.  Lucretia  with 
her  maids  was  found  spinning,  when  her  husband  Collatinus  paid  a  visit  to 
her  from  the  camp.  The  wife  of  Tarquin  was  an  excellent  spinner ;  and  a 
garment  made  by  her,  worn  by  Servius  Tullius.  was  preserved  in  the  tej»- 
ple  of  Fortune.  Augustus  Caesar  usually  wore  no  garments  but  such  as 
were  made  by  his  wife,  sister,  or  daughter.  The  spinning-wheel  was  in- 
vented at  Brunswick,  about  A.  D.  1530.  Till  1767,  the  spinning  of  cotton 
was  performed  by  the  hand-spinning-wheel,  when  Hargrave,  an  ingenious 
mechanic,  near  Bls-ckburn,  made  a  spinning-jenny,  with  eight  spindles. 
Hargrave  also  erected  the  first  carding-machine.  with  cylinders.  Arkwright's 
machine  for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension  of  the  principle  of  Har- 
grave's ;  but  he  also  applied  a  large  and  small  roller  to  expand  the  thread, 
and.  for  this  ingenious  contrivance,  took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  first,  h« 
worked  his  machinery  by  horses;  but  in  1771  he  built  a  mill  on  the  stream 
of  the  Derweiit,  at  Cromford.  In  1779,  Crompton  invented  the  mule,  which 
is  a  further  and  wonderful  improvement  of  this  art. — P  attips. 

SPIRES.  In  ancient  times  the  emperors  held  many  diets  at  Spires,  and  it  WM 
the  seat  of  the  imperial  chamber  till  1689.  when  the  city  was  burnt  by  the 
French,  and  not  rebuilt  till  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  The  diet  t« 


59G  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  STA 

condemn  the  reformers  was  held  at  Spires,  called  there  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  1529.    This  was  the  era  of  Protestantism.     See  Protestants. 

SPIRITS.  See  Distillation.  No  human  invention  has  ever  tended  more  to  cor- 
rupt the  morals,  and  ruin  the  character,  constitution,  and  circumstances  of 
numbers  of  mankind,  than  distillation.  In  all  nations  spirituous  liquors 
have  been  considered  as  a  proper  subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support 
of  the  state.  In  1840,  England  made  about  ten  millions  of  gallons  of  spirits, 
Scotland  made  about  seven  millions  of  gallons,  and  Ireland  about  nine  ir.il- 
lions  of  gallons.  In  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  duty  was  paid,  in  1840, 
on  the  following  quantities  of  spirits,  viz. — Rum,  2  830.263  gallons ;  brandy, 
1,167,756  gallons;  Geneva,  18,640  gallons;  on  other  foreign  spirits,  8,758 
gallons;  and  on  British,  Irish,  and  Scotch  spirits,  25,190,843  gallons;  mak- 
ing in  the  whole  nearly  thirty  millions  of  gallons,  upon  which  the  duty 
amounted  to  about  eight  millions  of  pounds  sterling ! — Parl.  Returns. 

SPITZBERGEN.  Discovered  in  1533.  by  sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  who  called  it 
Greenland,  supposing  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  western  continent.  In  1595,  it 
was  visited  by  Barentz  and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,  who  pretended  to  be 
the  original  discoverers,  and  called  it  Spitzbergen,  or  sharp  mountains,  from 
the  many  sharp-pointed  and  rocky  mountains  with  which  it  abounds. 

STAMP-DUTIES  IN  ENGLAND!  The  first  institution  of  stamp-duties  was  by 
statute  5  and  6  William  and  Mary,  June  23,  1694,  when  a  duty  was  imposed 
upon  paper,  vellum,  and  parchment.  The  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  was 
commenced  in  1713,  and  every  year  added  to  the  list  of  articles  upon  which 
stamp-duty  was  made  payable.  The  American  Stamp  Act.  a  memorable 
statute,  one  of  those  imposts  levied  by  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
which  produced  the  American  war,  and  led  to  the  independence  of  the 
United  States,  was  passed  March  22,  1765.  Stamp-duties  in  Ireland  com- 
menced 1774.  Stamps  on  notes  and  bills  of  exchange  in  1782.  The  stamp- 
duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800,  the  revenue  of  3.126,535/. ;  and  in 
1840,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  6.726  817/.  See  Newspapers,  &c. 

STANDARDS.  See  Banners,  Flags,  &c.  The  practice  in  the  army  of  using  the 
cross  on  standards  and  shields  arose  in  the  miraculous  appearance  of  a  cross 
to  Constantine,  previously  to  his  battle  with  Maxentius  :  this  fact  rests  on 
the  authority  of  Eusebius,  who  states  that  he  had  received  it  from  the  em- 
peror himself,  A.  D.  312.  For  the  celebrated  French  standard,  see  Lily. 
STANDARD  of  MAHOMET  ;  on  this  ensign  no  infidel  dare  look.  It  was  car- 
ried in  procession  about  1768.  when  several  hundred  Christians  who  igno- 
rantly  looked  upon  it,  were  massacred  by  the  Turkish  populace  The 
IMPERIAL  STANDARD  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London,  and  on  Bed- 
ford Tower,  Dublin,  and  displayed  by  the  Foot  Guards,  on  the  union  of  the 
kingdoms,  Jan.  1,  1801. 

WAR-CHAMBER,  COURT  or.  So  called  haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished 
with  stars. — Cake.  This  court  of  justice,  so  tremendous  in  the  Tudor  and 
part  of  the  Stuart  reigns,  was  called  Star-chamber,  not  from  the  stars  on  its 
roof  (which  were  obliterated  even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth\ 
but  from  the  S/arra,  or  Jewish  covenants,  deposited  there  by  order  of  Ri- 
chard I.  No  Star  was  allowed  to  be  valid  except  found  in  those  reposito- 
ries, and  here  they  remained  till  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  by  Edward  I. 
The  court  was  instituted  2  Henry  VII.  1487,  for  trials  by  a  committee  of 
the  privy  council.  In  Charles  I.'s  reign,  it  exercised  its  power,  independent 
of  any  law,  upon  several  bold  innovators  in  liberty,  who  only  gloried  in 
theii  sufferings,  and  contributed  to  render  government  odious  and  con- 
teiuptible. — Goldsmith.  It  was  abolished  16  Charles  I.,  1641.  There  wer* 


STE] 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


597 


from  26  to  42  judges,   the  lord-chancellor  having  the  casting  f  oioe.— • 
Gibbon. 

STARS.  They  were  classed  into  constellations,  it  is  supposed,  about  1200  B.  c 
Hicetas,  of  Syracuse,  taught  that  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  motionless,  and 
that  the  earth  moved  round  them  (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  and  probably 
gave  the  first  hint  of  this  system  to  Copernicus),  about  344  R.  c.  Job,  He- 
siod,  and  Homer,  mention  several  of  the  constellations.  The  Royal  Library 
at  Paris  contains  a  Chinese  chart  of  the  heavens,  made  about  600  B.  c.,  in 
which  1460  stars  are  correctly  inserted.  The  aberration  of  the  stars  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727.  See  Astronomy  and  Solar  System, 

SI  ATES-GENERAL  OF  FRANCE.  An  ancient  assembly  of  France.  Pre- 
viously to  the  Revolution  it  had  not  met  since  A.  D.  1614.  The  states  con- 
sisted of  three  orders,  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  commons.  They  were  con- 
vened by  Louis  XVI.,  and  assembled  at  Versailles,  May  5,  1789.  Here  a 
a  eontest  arose,  whether  the  three  orders  should  make  three  distinct  houses, 
or  but  one  assembly.  The  commons  insisted  upon  the  latter,  and,  assuming 
the  title  of  the  National  Assembly,  declared  that  they  were  competent  to 
proceed  to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  two  other  orders,  if 
they  refused  to  join  them.  The  nobility  and  clergy  found  it  expedient  to 
concede  the  point,  and  they  all  met  in  one  hall.  See  National  Assembly. 

STATIONERS.  Books  and  paper  were  formerly  sold  only  at  stalls,  hence  the 
dealers  were  called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of  London  is  of 
great  antiquity,  and  existed  long  before  printing  was  invented ;  yet  it  was 
not  incorporated  until  3  Philip  and  Mary,  1555.  Their  old  dwelling  was  in 
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 

STATUES.  See  Moulds,  Sculpture,  &c.  Phidias,  whose  statue  of  Jupiter 
passed  for  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  was  the  greatest  statuary  among 
the  ancients,  440  B.  c.  He  had  previously  made  a  statue  of  Minerva  at  the 
request  of  Pericles,  which  was  placed  in  the  Parthenon.  It  was  made  with 
ivory  and  gold,  and  measured  39  feet  in  height.  Acilius  raised  a  golden 
statue  to  his  father,  the  first  that  appeared  in  Italy.  Lysippus  invented  the 
art  of  taking  likenesses  in  plaster  moulds,  from  which-  he  afterwards  cast 
models  in  wax,  326  B.  c.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  greatest  artist  among 
the  moderns.  The  first  equestrian  statute  erected  in  Great  Britain  was  that 
of  Charles  I.  in  1678. 

STEAM  ENGINE.  This  is  the  most  important  prime  mover  that  the  inge- 
nuity of  man  has  yet  devised.  The  first  idea  of  it  was  suggested  by  the 
marquis  of  Worcester  in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  as  :'a  way  to  drive  up 
water  by  fire,"  A.  D.  1663.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  the  noble  in- 
ventor could  ever  interest  the  public  in  favor  of  this  great  discovery. 


Papin's  digester  invented       -      A.  D.  1681 

Captain  Savery's  engine  constructed 
for  raising  water  -  -  -  1698 

Papin's  engine,  exhibited  to  the  Royal 
Society,  about  -  -  -  1699 

Atmospheric  engine  by  Savery  and 
Newcomen  ....  1713 

First  idea  of  steam  navigation  set  forth 
in  a  patent  obtained  by  Hulls  •  1736 

Watt's  invention  of  performing  conden- 
sation in  a  separate  vessel  from  the 
cylinder  ....  1765 

His  first  patent  •  ...  1769 

His  sngines  upon  a  large  scale  erected 
in  manufactories,  and  his  patent  re- 
newed by  act  of  parliament  -  -  1775 

Thomas  Paine  proposed  the  application 
of  steam  in  America  ....  1778 

Engine  made  to  give  a  rotary  mc'^n  -  1778 


Watt's  expansion  engine  -        -       -    •  1778 

Double  acting  engines  proposed  by  Dr. 
Falck  on  Newcomen's  principle  •  1779 

Watt's  double  engine,  and  his  first  pa- 
tent for  it  granted  ....  1781 

The  marquess  Jouffroy  constructed  an 
engine  on  the  Sa6ne  -  -  -  1781 

Fitchs'  experiments  in  steam  naviga- 
tion on  the  Delaware,  (See  Smith's 
Im.  Curios.)  ....  1783-t 

Oliver    Evans'  experiments  in  the 
same 1785-6 

Rumsey 's  experiments  in  the  same  in 
Virzinia      1787 

W.  Syminston  made  a  passage  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal  -  ...  1789 

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by 
Henry  Jackson 1791 

Jouffroy's  experiment*  in  fnat*  -       •  17* 


598 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[STI 


STEAM  ENGINE,   continued. 

Chancellor  Livingston  builds  a  steamer 
on  the  Hudson 1797 

First  experiment  on  the  Thames  •        -  1801 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  Symington  re- 
peated with  success  ....  1802 

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine       -  1802 

Oliver  E  vans'  experiments  in  locomo- 
tive engines  in  Penn.  ...  1804 

Woolfs  double  cylinder  expansion  en- 
gine constructed  ....  1804 

Manufactories  warmed  by  steam         -  1806 

Fulton  started  a  steam-boat  on  the  river 
Hudson,  built  by  himself,  and  named 
"The  North  River;"  engine  by  Boul- 
ton  and  Watt ;  passage  to  Albany  in  33 
hours:  FIRST  STEAM  NAVIGATION  on 
record  -  -  -  1807 

The  next  three  steam-boats  in  the  world 
were  the  Car  of  Neptune,  -  -  1808 

The  Paragon 1811 

The  Richmond 1812 

all  in  New  York. 

Steam  power  to  convey  coals  on  a  rail- 
way, employed  by  Blenkinsop  •  -1811 

Steam  vessels  first  commenced  plying 
on  the  Clyde  (FIRST  in  EUROPE)  - 1812 


Steam  applied  to  printing  in  too  Timet 
office.  See  Press  •  •  -  -  1814 

There  were  five  steam  vessels  in  Scot- 
land (Part.  Returns)  in  -  -  -  1813 

First  steam  vessel  on  the  Thames 
brought  by  Mr.  Dodd,  from  Glasgow  18W 

The  first  steamer  built  in  England  (.Part. 
Returns) 1816 

The  Savannah  •/.earner,  of  350  tons, 
went  from  New  York  to  Liverpool 
in  26  days  -  -  -  -  July  15,  1819 

First  steamer  in  Ireland        -        -        -  1820 

Captain  Johnson  obtained  10,000f.  for 
making  the  first  steam  voyage  to  In- 
dia, in  the  Enterprise,  which  sailed 
from  Falmouth  -  •  Aug.  16,  132£ 

Locomotive  steam  carriages  on  rail- 
ways, at  Liverpool  -  -  Oct.  1829 

The  Railway  opened  (see  Liverpool)  - 1830 

The  Great  Western  arrives  from  Bris- 


tol at  New  York,  and  the  Sirius  from 
Cork,  same  day,  being  their  first  voy- 
age, in  18  days       -        •        June  17,  1838 
War  steamers  built  in  England    -        - 1838 
First  steamer  ol  the  Cunard  line  was 
the  Britannia  to  Boston ;  after  a  pas- 
sage of  14  ds.  8  hrs.,  arrived  July  18,  1840 

STEAM  BOATS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In  1838  returns  from  23  States 
gave  an  aggregate  of  700  vessels — whole  tonnage,  153,600  tons ;  but  these 
returns  were  not  complete.  The  increase  from  1838  to  1850  was  very  great : 
probably  there  are,  in  1850,  at  least  1500  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  300,000 
tons.  The  first  American  ocean  steamer  of  any  note  was  the  Washington, 
which  made  her  first  passage  to  Southampton  in  June  1847.  The  whole 
number  of  steam-boats,  locomotive  and  stationary  engines,  in  the  United 
States,  in  1838,  was  3,010. 

STEAM  VESSELS  OF  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

•TEAM  VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  AT  THE  FOLLOWING  PERIODS  ; 


Year.               England. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

Dependencies. 

Total. 

1814     -       •        n 

5 

0 

1 

6 

1815         .       -     3 

5 

0 

2 

10 

1820      -        -       17 

14 

3 

9 

43 

1825         •        •  112 

36 

3 

17 

168 

1830      -       .     203 

61 

31 

20 

315 

1835         -        -344 

86 

68 

48 

545 

1845      .       -     694 

139 

79 

89 

1001 

STEEL- YARD.  A  most  ancient  instrument,  the  same  that  is  translated  bi* 
lance  in  the  Pentateuck  The  Statera  Romana,  or  Roman  steel-yard,  is  men- 
tioned in  315  B.  c. 

STENOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  writing  in  short-hand  is  said  to  have  been  prac- 
tised by  most  of  the  ancient  nations.  It  is  said  to  have  followed  from  the 
hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  also  attributed  to  the  poet  Ennius, 
improved  upon  by  Tyro,  Cicero's  freed-man,  and  still  more  by  Seneca.  The 
An,  Scribendi  Character  is,  printed  about  A.  D.  1412,  is  the  oldest  system  ex- 
tant. Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman,  published  on  stenography  in  1690. 
There  are  now  numerous  systems  of  it,  many  of  them  of  easy  acquirement 
and  great  simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY.  The  instrument  by  which  is  compassed  the  art  of  taking 
the  contents  of  vessels  of  liquids  by  gauging,  invented  about  A.  D.  1350. — 
Anderson. 

STEREOTYPE  See  Pnvting.  It  is  said  that  stereotyping  was  known  in 
1711 ;  but  this  is  doubted.  It  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  Wm.  <?ed 


STO  J  DICTIONARY    OP    L<ATES.  5i/9 

of  Edinburgh,  1735. — Nichols.  This  species  of  printing  is  ascribed  by 
others  to  Mr.  Tilloch,  1779.  The  invention  of  it  is  also  attributed  to  Fran- 
cis Ambrose  Didot,  of  Paris,  about  that  year. — Ferguson.  But  stereotype 
printing  was  in  use  in  Holland,  in  the  last  century ;  and  a  quarto  Bible  and 
Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed  there. — Phillips.  Stereotyping  was  intro- 
duced into  London,  by  Wilson,  in  1804. — Idem. 

STEREOTYPING.  The  foregoing  is  from  Haydn.  But  this  art  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Cadwallader  Colden  of  New  York,  who  sent  the  details  of  hia 
plan  in  1779  to  Dr.  Franklin,  then  in  Paris.  Franklin  communicated  the  plan 
to  Didot,  the  famous  printer,  and  Herbau,  a  German,  who  had  been  an  assist- 
ant of  Didot,  took  it  up  in  opposition  to  Didot.  It  is  affirmed,  on  good  au- 
thority, that  Herbau's  method  of  stereotyping  is  precisely  similar  to  that 
which  Colden  invented.  Stereotyping  was  first  actually  practised  in  New 
York  in  1813,  when  John  Watts  stereotyped  the  Larger  Catechism.  In 
June  1815  the  Bruces  of  New  York  stereotyped  a  duodecimo  Bible. — Dr. 
J.  W.  Francis. 

STOCKINGS.  Those  of  silk  were  first  worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547.  In 
1560,  queen  Elizabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  black  knit  silk  stock- 
ings, by  her  silk-woman,  Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones 
any  more. — Hoicell.  He  adds,  "  Henry  VIII.  wore  ordinarily  cloth  hose, 
except  there  came  from  Spain,  by  great  chance,  a  pair  of  silk  stockings ; 
for  Spain  very  early  abounded  with  silk."  Edward  VI.  was  presented  with 
a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  merchant,  sir  Thomas  Gresham ;  and 
the  present  was  then  much  taken  notice  of. — Idem.  Others  relate  that  Wil- 
liam Rider,  a  London  apprentice,  seeing  at  the  house  of  an  Italian  merchant, 
a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings  from  Mantua,  ingeniously  made  a  pair  like 
them,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  the  first  of  the  kind 
made  in  England,  1564. — Stowe. 

STOCKS.  The  public  funding  system  originated  in  Venice,  and  was  introduced 
into  Florence  in  1340.  The  English  funding  system  may  be  said  to  have 
had  its  rise  in  1694.  The  number  of  stockholders  in  1840  amounted  to 
337,481.  By  a  return  of  the  average  price  of  the  public  funds  by  the  com- 
missioners for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt,  it  appears  that  Consols 
averaged  in  the  year — 


1780  -  JE63  13  6 
1785  -  -  68  6  6 
1790  71  2  6 


1795  -  JB74  8  6 
1800  -  -66  3  3 
1805  -  58  14  0 


1810  -  J667  16  3 
1815  -  -  58  13  9 
1820  •  68  12  0 


1825  .  j690  0  8 
1830  -  -  89  15  7 
1840  -  89  17  6 


See  Public  Debt. 

STOICS.  Disciples  of  Zeno,  the  cynic  philosopher ;  they  obtained  the  name 
of  stoics  because  they  listened  to  his  instructions  and  harangues  in  a  porch 
or  portico  at  Athens,  called  in  Greek  Stoa.  Zeno  taught  that  man's  su- 
preme happiness  consisted  in  living  according  and  agreeable  to  nature  and 
reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  world.  The  Pharisees  atfected 
the  same  stiffness,  patience,  apathy,  austerity,  and  insensibility,  which  this 
sect  is  famous  for. — Stanley. 

STONE.  Stone  buildings  were  introduced  into  England,  A.  D.  670.  A  stone 
bridge  was  built  at  Bow  in  1087,  and  is  accounted  the  first ;  but  a  bridge 
exists  at  Crowland,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  860.  See  Bridges 
Tha  first  stone  building  in  Ireland  was  a  castle,  1161.  See  Building.  Stone 
china-ware  was  made  by  Wedgwood  in  1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statues 
was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan,  and  introduced  into  England,  177»>. 
Stone  paper  was  made  in  1796. 

STONF.HENGE.  Among  the  most  celebrated  monuments  of  British  antiquity. 
Said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  counsel  of  Merlin  by  Aurelius  Ambrosiaa 
in  memory  of  460  Britons  who  were  murdered  by  Hengist,  the  Saxon,  A.  j 


600 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[sxc 


476.- -Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  Erected  as  a  sepulchral  monumtnt  of  Am- 
brosius,  A.  D.  600. — Polydare  Vergil.  An  ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  ii» 
which  the  Druids  officiated. — Dr.  Stukeley.  The  Britons  had  annual  meet- 
ings at  Abury  and  Stonehenge,  where  laws  were  made, and  justice  adminis- 
tered, and  heinous  crimes  punished,  by  burning  alive  in  wicker-baskets. 

STORMS.  The  following  are  among  the  best  authenticated  and  most  memo- 
rable. In  London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,  A.  D.  944 
One  in  several  parts  of  England,  the  sky  being  very  dark,  the  wind  coming 
from  the  S.W. ;  many  churches  were  destroyed  ;  and  in  London  600  houses 
fell,  October  5,  1091.  One  on  the  coast  of  Calais,  when  Hugh  de  Beauvais, 
and  several  thousand  foreigners,  on  their  voyage  to  assist  king  John  against 
the  barons,  perished,  1215. — Holinshed. 


It  thundered  15  days  successively,  with  tem- 
pests of  rain  and  wind,  A. p.  \'£SA. 

A  storm  with  violent  lightnings ;  one  flash 
passed  through  a  chamber  where  Edward 
I.  and  his  queen  were  conversing,  did  them 
no  damage,  but  killed  two  of  their  attend- 
ants: Yi&.—Hoveden. 

A  violent  storm  of  hail  near  Chartres,  in 
France,  which  fell  on  the  army  of  Edward 
III.,  then  on  its  march.  The  hail  was  so 
large  that  the  army  and  horses  suffered 
very  much,  and  Edward  was  obliged  to 
conclude  a  peace,  1339. — Matt.  Paris. 

When  Richard  II. 's  queen  came  from  Bohe- 
mia, on  setting  foot  on  shore  an  awful 
storm  arose,  arid  her  ship  and  a  number 
of  others  were  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  har 
bor,  Jan.  1382.— Holinshed. 

Richard's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm 
with  her  to  the  English  coasts,  in  which 
the  king's  baggage  was  lost,  and  many 
ships  cast  away,  1389  — Idem. 

A  hurricane  throughout  Europe,  which  did 
very  considerable  damage  ;  more  remark- 
ed in  England,  happening  Sept.  3, 1658,  the 
day  that  Cromwell  died. — Moi'tirner. 

A  storm  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  England ; 
200  colliers  and  coasters  lost,  with  most  of 
their  crews,  1690. 

The  storm  called  the  "Great  Storm,"  one  of 
the  most  terrible  that  ever  raged  in  Eng- 
land. The  devastation  on  land  was  im- 
mense; and  in  the  harbors,  and  on  the 
coasts,  the  loss  in  shipping  and  in  lives 
was  still  greater,  Nov.  26,  1703." 

A  snow  storm  in  Sweden,  when  7000  Swedes, 
it  is  said,  perished  upon  the  mountains,  in 
their  march  to  attack  Drontheim,  A.  D. 
1719. 

One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels were  cast  away,  a  fleet  of  Indiamen. 


greatly  damaged,  and  some  ships  lost,  and 
30,000  pei-sons  perished,  Oct.  11,  1737. 

A  dreadful  hurricane  at  the  Havana;  many 
public  edifices  and  4048  houses  were  de- 
stroyed, and  1000  inhabitants  perished, 
Oct.  25,  1768.—  Annual  Register. 

An  awful  storm  in  the  north  of  England,  in 
which  many  vessels  were  destroyed,  and 
4  Dublin  packets  foundered.  Oct.  29, 1775. 

At  Surat,  in  the  East  Indies ;  destroyed  700C 
of  the  inhabitants,  April  22,  1782. 

One  hundred  and  thirty-one  villages  ami 
farms  laid  waste  in  France,  1785. 

A  dreadful  hurricane,  which  ravaged  the 
Leeward  Islands,  from  20th  to  22d  Sept. 
1819.  At  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas  alone, 
104  vessels  were  lost. 

At  Gibraltar,  where  more  than  a  hundred 
vessels  were  destroyed,  Feb.  18,  1828. 

Awful  hurricane  on  the  western  coast  of 
England,  and  in  Ireland.  The  storm  raged 
through  Cheshire,  Staffordshire,  and  War- 
wickshire ;  'M  persons  were  killed  in  Li- 
verpool, by  the  falling  of  buildings,  and 
100  were  drowned  in  the  neighborhood ; 
the  coast  and  harbors  were  covered  with 
wrecks ;  the  value  of  two  of  the  vessels 
lost  being  nearly  half  a  million  sterling.  In 
Limerick,  Galway,  Athlone,  and  other 
places,  more  than  200  houses  were  blown 
down,  and  as  many  more  were  burnt,  the 
wind  spreading  the  fires.  Dublin  suffer- 
ed dreadfully ;  London  and  its  neighbor- 
hood scarcely  sustained  any  damage.  Jan. 
6-7,  1839.  ' 

Hurricane  at  Havana,  92  vessels  sunk,  1275 
houses  destroyed,  and  1038  injured.  Oct 
10-11,  1846. 

Hurricane  at  Antigua,  St.  Thomas,  ic.  Aug. 
21.1848. 


rfTOVES.    The  ancients  used  stoves  which  concealed  the  fire,  as  the  German 
stoves  yet  do.    They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the  middle,  of 


*  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calculated  at  2,000,000/.  sterling.  The  number  of  per 
sons  drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and  lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in 
•hips  blown  from  their  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought  to  have  been  8000.  T»  el  vo 
men-of-war,  with  more  than  1800  men  on  board,  were  lost  within  sight  of  their  own  shore.  Treei 
were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  17,000  of  them  in  Kent  alone.  The  Eddysione  light-house  was  destroyed. 
AIM!  in  it  the  ingenious  contriver  of  it,  Winsianley.  ami  the  persons  who  were  with  him.  The  bi 
«hop  ol  Itaih  itnd  Wells  and  his  lady  were  killed  in  be>l  in  their  palace,  in  Somersetshire.  MulU 
tuUM  of  cattle  wern  also  lost;  In  one  level  15,000  sheep  were  drowned. 


SCO  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  601 

the  room,  the  roof  being  open.    Apartments  were  wanned  too  by  port- 
able braziers.     See  Chimneys. 

STRASBURG.  The  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city  of  Strasburg,  I  y  Louis- 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  nephew  of  the  deceased  emperor,  aided  by  two  offi- 
cers and  some  privates,  which  was  instantly  suppressed  by  the  arrest  of 
the  parties.  The  prince  was  afterwards  snipped  off  to  America  by  the 
French  government,  Oct.  29,  1836.  This  enthusiast  made  another  attempt, 
by  a  descent  at  Boulogne,  Aug.  6,  1840.  See  France. 

STRATTON-HILL,  BATTLE  OP,  in  Devonshire,  between  the  royal  army  and  the 
forces  of  the  parliament,  headed  by  the  poet  Waller ;  in  this  battle  the 
victory  was  gained  over  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  Waller  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Bristol ;  fought  May  16, 
1643. 

STUCCO-WORK.  The  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  much  prized 
by  them,  particularly  by  the  Romans,  who  excelled  in  it. — AM6  Lenglet. 
It  was  revived  by  D'Udine  about  A.  D.  1550;  and  is  now  exquisitely  per- 
formed in  Italy  and  France,  and  is  advancing  rapidly  to  perfection  in 
England. 

STYLE.  The  style  was  altered  by  Augustus  Caesar's  ordering  leap-year  to  be 
but  once  in  four  years,  and  the  month  Sextillis  to  be  called  Augustus,  8  B.C. 
Again  at  Rome,  by  taking  twelve  days  off  the  calendar.  A.  D.  1582.  See 
Calendar.  Introduced  into  most  of  the  other  states  of  Europe,  1710.  Act 
passed  to  change  the  style  in  England  from  the  Julian  to  the  Gregorian, 
1751.  It  took  effect  Sept.  3,  1752.  See  New  Style  and  Year. 

STYLE.  ROYAL,  OP  THE  KINGS  OF  ENGLAND.  See  articles  Majesty  and 
Titles. 

SUBSIDIES.  Subsidies  to  the  kings  of  England  formerly  granted  in  kind,  par- 
ticularly in  wool ;  30.000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  III.  on  account  of  the 
war  with  France,  1340. — Anderson.  Subsidies  raised  upon  the  subjects  of 
England  for  the  last  time  by  James  I.,  1624,  but  they  were  contained  in  a 
bill  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  1639.  England  granted  subsidies  to  fo- 
reign powers  in  several  wars,  particularly  in  the  war  against  the  revolution- 
ists of  France,  and  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  latter  was  June  20.  1800,  when  a  treaty  of  subsidies  was  ratified  at 
Vienna,  between  Austria  and  England,  stipulating  that  the  war  should  be 
vigorouslj  prosecuted  against  France,  and  that  neither  of  the  contracting 
powers  should  enter  into  a  sej>arate  peace.  Subsidies  to  Austria,  Prussia, 
Russia,  the  Porte,  and  other  powers,  were  afterwards  given  by  England,  to 
the  amount  of  many  tens  of  millions  sterling. — Phillips. 

SUB-TREASURY.  Bill  providing  for  the  safe  keeping  of  the  moneys  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  passed  the  Senate  by  24  to  18.  Jan.  23,  1840 ;  repealed 
Aug.  9,  1841.  Re-enacted  in  a  new  form,  184-. 

SUCCESSION,  ACT  op.  The  memorable  act  to  exclude  Roman  Catholics 
from  ascending  the  throne  of  Great  Britain  was  passed  in  1689 ;  and  th« 
crown  of  England  was  settled  upon  the  present  royal  family  by  the  act  cf 
June  12,  1701. 

SUCCESSION,  THE  WAR  OF.  This  celebrated  war,  alike  distinguished  by 
the  glorious  achievements  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  its  barren  and 
unprofitable  results,  arose  in  the  question  whether  an  Austrian  or  a  French 
prince,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Our  court  opposed  Louis,  and  Marlborough  was  victorious ;  but  the  allies 
withdrew,  one  after  another,  and  the  French  prince  succeeded;  1702  to 
1713.  See  UtreM,  Peace  of. 

SUGAR,  Sa*.-charum  offidnarum.    Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  th» 
26 


602  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  8Ui 

ancient  Jew  s.  Found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander, 
32.')  B.  c. — Strabo.  An  oriental  nation  in  alliance  with  Pompey  used  the 
juice  of  the  cane  as  a  common  beverage. — Lucan.  The  best  sugar  was 
produced  in  India. — Pliny.  It  was  prescribed  as  a  medicine  by  Galen.— 
Encyclop.  Brought  into  Europe  from  Asia,  A.  D.  625.  In  large  quantities, 
1150.  It  was  attempted  to  be  cultivated  in  Italy;  but  not  succeeding,  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about  1510. — Robertson's 
History  of  Charles  V* 

SUGAR-REFINING.  The  art  of  refining  sugar  was  made  known  to  the  Er- 
ropeans  by  a  Venetian,  A.  D.  1503.  It  was  first  practised  in  England  in  1659, 
though  some  authorities  say  that  we  had  the  art  among  us  a  few  years 
sooner.  Sugar  was  first  taxed  by  name,  1  James  II.,  1685. — Anderson;  Mor- 
timer. See  Beet  Root. 

SUICIDE.  The  first  instance  of  it  (passing  that  of  Samson)  recorded  in  Jewish 
history  is  that  of  Saul,  1055  B.  c. — Apollodorus.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
philosophers  deemed  it  a  crime,  and  burned  the  offending  hand  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  body.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Roman  history,  the  only  in- 
stance recorded  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  I.,  when  the  soldiers,  think- 
ing themselves  disgraced  by  being  ordered  to  make  common  sewers,  des- 
troyed themselves,  606  B.  c.  Instances  afterwards  occurred,  however,  of 
illustrious  men  committing  suicide,  as  Cato,  45  B.  c.  In  the  Catholic  church, 
ii  the  sixth  century,  it  was  ordained  that  no  commemoration  should  be 
made  in  the  Eucharist  for  such  as  committed  self-murder.  This  ecclesias- 
tical law  continued  till  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  admitted  into  the 
statute  law  of  England  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  with  the  confiscation 
of  land  and  goods. 

A  FEW   OP   THE   MOST   MEMORABLE   RECENT   OASES   OP    SUICIDE   IN  ENGLAND,   &C. 


Suicide  of  sen.  Pichegru  -  April  7,  1804 
Of  marsharBerthier  -  -  June  1,  1815 
Of  Samuel  Whitbred,  esq.  -  Sept.  8,  1815 
Of  sir  Samuel  Romilly  -  -  Nov.  2,  1818 
Of  Christophe,  king  of  Hayti  Oct.  8,  1820 
Of  marquess  of  Londonderry  Aug.  12,  1822 
Of  hon.  colonel  Stanhope  -  Jan.  26,  1825 


Of  Mr.  Simpson,  the  traveller  July  24,  1840 
Of  lord  James  Beresford  •  April  27,  1841 
Of  the  earl  of  Munster  -  March  20.  1842 
Of  Laman  Blanchard  -  -  Feb.  25,  1845 
Of  col.  Gurwood  -  -  Dec.  29,  1845 


Of  Haydon,  the  eminent  painter 


June  22,  1845 


There  have  been  only  three  instances  of  self-destruction  by  fire ;  that  of 
the  philosopher  Empedocles,  who  threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount 
Etna;  of  a  Frenchman,  who,  in  imitation  of  him,  threw  himself,  in  1820, 
into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  ;  and  of  an  Englishman,  who  jumped  into  the 
furnace  of  a  forge  about  the  year  1811.  Plutarch  relates  that  an  unaccount- 
able passion  for  sircide  seized  the  Milesian  virgins,  from  which  they  could 
not  be  prevented  by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  friends ;  but  a  decree 
being  issued  that  the  body  of  every  young  maid  who  did  self-murder  should 
be  drawn  naked  through  the  streets,  a  stop  was  soon  put  to  the  extraordi- 
nary frenzy.  In  England,  the  body  was  buried  in  cross-roads,  a  stake  being 
previously  driven  through  it,  until  the  statute  4  George  IV.,  1823. 
STJLTAN.  A  Turkish  title,  from  the  Arabic,  signifying  king  of  kings,  and 
given  to  the  grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.  It  was  first  given  to  the 
Turkish  princes  Angrolipex  and  Musgad,  about  A.  D.  1055. —  Vattier.  It 

*  About  the  year  1138  the  susar-cane  was  transported  from  Tripoli  and  Syria  to  Sicily,  thence 
to  Madeira,  ana  finally  to  the  West  Indies  and  America.  It  is  not  known  at  what  date  stu  ;.r 
was  intrsdiiced  into  England,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Mr. 
Whittaker,  in  the  History  of  Whalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  earlier  instance,  in  1497.  A  manuscript 
letter,  from  sir  Edward  Wotton  to  lord  Cobham,  dated  Calais,  6th  March,  1546,  advertises  him  that 
sir  Edward  had  taken  up  for  his  lordship,  25  sugar  loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  "  whiche  is  eighte 
l>encoa  pounde."  In  1840,  tho  imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  Kinsilotn  were  nearly  5,000,000  cwts., 
of  which  nearly  four  millions  were  for  home  consumption;  and  the  duty  amounted  to  about  fiv» 
million1!  and  a  half  sterling. 


StJP]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  603 

was  first  given,  according  to  others,  to  the  emperor  Mahmoud,  in  the  fourth 
century  of  the  Hegira. 

STJMMATRA,  ISLAND  OP.  The  Malays  at  Qualla  Battoo  having  committee 
piracies  on  American  vessels,  the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  United  States 
frigate  Potomac,  and  150  Malays  killed,  Feb.  6,  1832. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS.  Laws  to  restrain  excess  in  dress,  furniture,  eating,  &c. 
Those  of  Zaleucus  ordained  that  no  woman  should  go  attended  by  more 
than  one  maid  in  the  street  unless  she  were  drunk ;  and  that  she  should 
not  wear  gold  or  embroidered  apparel,  unless  she  designed  to  act  unchastely, 
450  B.  c. — Diog.  Laert.  This  law  checked  luxury.  The  Lex  Orchia  among 
the  Romans  limited  the  guests  at  feasts,  and  the  number  and  quality  of  the 
dishes  at  an  entertainment ;  and  it  also  enforced  that  during  supper,  which 
was  the  chief  meal  among  the  Romans,  the  doors  of  every  house  should  be 
left  open.  The  English  sumptuary  laws  were  chiefly  in  the  reigns  of  Ed- 
ward III.  and  Henry  VIII.  See  Dress,  Luxury,  &c. 

SUN.  Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one  of  the  twelve  spheres,  about 
529  B.  c.  The  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated 
geometrically  by  Aristarchus,  who  also  maintained  the  stability  of  the  sun, 
about  280  B.  c.  Numerous  theories  were  ventured  during  fifteen  centuries, 
and  astronomy  lay  neglected  until  about  A.  D.  1200.  when  it  was  brought 
into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain.  The  Copernican  system 
was  made  known  in  1530.  See  Copernican  System  and  Solar  System.  Ga- 
lileo and  Newton  maintained  that  the  sun  was  an  igneous  globe.  Maculas 
were  first  discovered  byChr.  Scheiner,  1611.  Transit  of  Mercury  observed 
by  Gassendi.  By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  a  spot  which  darkened 
the  sun's  disk  in  July  and  August,  1676,  he  established  the  certainty  of  its 
motion  round  its  own  axis.  Parallax  of  the  sun,  Dr.  Halley,  1702.  A  ma- 
cula, three  times  the  size  of  the  earth,  passed  the  sun's  centre,  April  21, 
1766,  and  frequently  since.  Herschel  measured  two  spots  whose  length 
taken  together  exceeded  50.000  miles,  April  19,  1779. 

SUN-DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  -B.C.— Pliny,  1,  2.  The  first 
erected  at  Rome  was  that  by  Papirius  Cursor,  when  the  time  was  divided 
into  hours,  293  B.  c.  Sun-dials  were  first  set  up  in  churches,  A.  D.  613.— 
Abbe  Lenglet. 

SUNDAY,  OR  LORD'S  DAY.  Sunday  was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,  di- 
vine adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun.  Among  Christians  it  is  called  the 
Lord's  day,  on  account  of  our  Saviour's  rising  from  the  dead  on  that 
day,  which,  according  to  the  Jewish  account,  was  the  next  day  after  the 
sabbath.  The  apostles  transferred  that  religious  rest  observed  by  the  Jews 
on  the  sabbath  to  this  day.  The  first  civil  law  for  its  proper  observance 
was  made  by  Constantino,  A.  D.  321. — Eusebius.  The  council  of  Orleans 
prohibited  country  labor,  338.  The  Book  of  Innocent  Sunday  Sports,  au- 
thorizing certain  sports  and  pastimes  after  divine  service  on  Sundays,  pub- 
lished in  England  14  James  I.  in  1617,  was  violently  opposed  by  the  clergy 
and  puritans.  Its  sanction  by  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  was  a  primary 
cause  of  the  civil  war  which  ended  in  his  death.  This  book  was  burnt  by 
the  hangman,  and  the  sports  suppressed  by  order  of  parliament. — Rapin. 
Sunday  schools  were  established  in  England  first  by  Mr.  Raikes  in  1780. 
Act  of  parliament  closing  all  the  post-offices  on  Sunday  passed  May  1850. 

SUPREMACY  OVER  THE  CHURCH.  The  supremacy  of  the  king  over  the 
.hurch  as  well  as  sovereignty  over  the  state,  whereby  the  king  was  made 
head  of  the  church  of  England,  was  established  in  1534,  when  Henry  VHI. 
ghook  off'  the  yoke  of  Rome,  and  settled  the  supremacy  in  himself.  Oui 
kings  have  from  that  time  had  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  church  con- 
ferred upon  then,  by  parliament.  The  bishop  of  Rochester  (Fisher)  and 


604  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  sw» 

tli  2  ex-lord  chancellor  (sir  Thomas  More)  were,  among  numerous  others, 
beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  1535. — Haydn. 

/URGERY.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Hippocrates  that  diseases  were  made 
a  separate  study  from  philosophy.  &c.,  about  410  B.  c.  Hippocrates  mentions 
the  ambe,  the  ancient  instrument  with  which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones. 
Celsus  flourished  about  A.  D.  17  ;  Galen,  170 ;  ^Etius,  600  ;  Paulus  ^Egineta 
in  640.  The  Arabians  revived  surgery  about  900 ;  and  in  the  16th  century 
sprung  up  a  new  era  in  the  science ;  between  these  periods  surgery  was 
confined  to  ignorant  priests  or  barbers.  Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  the 
illustrious  Vesalius,  the  father  of  modern  surgery,  in  1538.  In  England 
surgeons  and  doctors  were  exempted  from  bearing  arms  or  serving  on  juries, 
1513,  at  which  period  there  were  only  thirteen  in  London. 

SURGEONS,  COLLEGE  OF.  The  first  charter  for  surgeons  was  granted  by  Hen- 
ry VIII.,  1540.  Formerly  barbers  and  surgeons  were  united,  until  it  was 
enacted  that  "  no  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall 
occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter,  excepting  only  the 
drawing  of  teeth."  The  surgeons  obtained  another  charter  in  1745 ;  and 
a  new  charter  in  1800. 

SURPLICES.  First  worn  by  the  Pagan  priests.  First  used  in  churches,  A.  D  , 
316,  and  generally  introduced  by  pope  Adrian,  786.  Every  minister  saying 
public  prayers  shall  wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,  Can.  58.  The 
garb  prescribed  by  Stat.  2  Edward  VI.,  1547  j  and  again  1  Elizabeth,  1568 ; 
and  13  and  14  Charles  II.,  1662. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.  The  greatest  and  oldest  in  the  world  is  in  China, 
near  King-tung ;  it  is  formed  of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from 
rocks  to  rocks,  are  also  of  Chinese  origin.  In  these  realms  chain  suspen- 
sion bridges  are  of  recent  construction.  The  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait 
is  the  most  surprising  work,  every  way  considered,  of  modern  times. 

SUTTEES,  OR  THK  BURNING  OF  WIDOWS.  This  custom  began  in  India  from 
one  of  the  wives  of  "  Bramah,  the  son  of  God,"  sacrificing  herself  at  his 
death,  that  she  might  attend  him  in  heaven.  So  many  as  seventeen  widows 
have  burned  themselves  on  the  funeral  pile  of  a  rajah  ;  and  in  Bengal  alone, 
700  have  thus  perished,  until  lately,  in  each  year.  Mr.  Holwell  was  present 
at  many  of  these  sacrifices.  On  February  4.  1743,  he  saw  a  young  and 
beautiful  creature,  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  the  mother  of  two  children, 
thus  sacrifice  herself,  with  a  fortitude  s».nd  courage  that  astonished  every 
witness  of  the  scene. — Holwell.  The  English  government  in  India  have  dis- 
couraged these  self-immolations,  while  yet  avoiding  any  undue  interference 
with  the  religion  and  prejudices  of  the  natives.  Suttees  were  abolished  by 
English  colonial  law,  Dec.  7,  1829 ;  but  they  have  since  occasionally,  though 
rarely,  taken  place. 

SWEARING  ON  THE  GOSPEL.  First  used  A.  u  628.  Introduced  in  judicial 
proceedings  about  600. — Rapin.  FROFANE  SWEARING  made  punishable  by 
fine ;  a  laborer  or  servant  forfeiting  Is.,  others  2s.  for  the  first  offence ;  for 
the  second  offence,  4s. ;  the  third  offence,  6s. ;  6  William  III.,  1696.  Seo 
OaUts. 

SWEDEN.  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Fins,  now  the  modern  inhabi- 
tants of  Finland,  a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory 
on  the  appearance  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Goths,  who  have  ever  since  been 
masters  of  the  country. 

Oylf  reigns  in  Sweden  -        -        -B.C.     57  I       barbarians,  falls  upon  the  NorA  >. 
During  (his  reign,  Odin,  surnamed  the  Europe,  making  vasts  conquest*  .  * 

Divine,  at  the  head  of  a  swarm  ot          | 


•WE  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


605 


SWEDEN,  continued. 

Yrige,  founder  of  the  family  of  the  Yn- 
lingars,  reigns  -  -  -  B.C. 

JThe  early  history  of  the  kingdom  is 
altogether  involved  in  fables  and  ob- 
scurity.] 


32 


Olif  the  Infant  is  baptized,  and  intro- 
duces Christianity  among  his  people, 
about      ....    A.D.  1000 
Gothland,  so  celebrated  for  its  warlike 
people  and  invasions  of  other  coun- 
tries, is  annexed  to  Sweden    -  -  1132 
Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark  subdues  Ru- 

gen,  and  destroys  the  Pagan  temples   1168 
Stockholm  founded         -  -  -  1260 

Magnus  Lade  I  us  establishes  a  regular 

form  of  government    -  -  -  1279 

The  crown  of  Sweden,  which  had  been 
hereditary,  is  made  eleciive  ;    and 
Steenchel  Magnus,  surnamed  Smeek, 
or  the  Foolish,  king  of  Norway,  is 
elected  .....  1318 
Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste  -          -  1361 
The  crown  made  elective    -  •        1320 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns   -  -  1365 

Sweden  united  to  the  crown  of  Denmark 

and  Norway,  under  Margaret     -         1394 
University  of  Upsal  founded         -        -1476 
Christian  11.,  "  the  Nero  of  the  North," 
massacres  all  the  Swedish  nobility,  to 
fix  his  despotism         -  -  -  1520 

Th«  Swedes  delivered  from  the  Danish 

yoke  by  the  valor  of  Gustarus  Vasa  1523 
He  makes  the  crown  hereditary,  and 

introduce?  the  reformed  religion        -  1544 
The  titles  of  .ountand  baron  introduced 

by  Eric  XIV.    ....  1561 
The  conquests  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 

between  1612  and        -  •  -  1617 

He  is  slain  at  Lutzen      -  -  -  1633 

Rugen  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark  -  1643 
Abdication  of  Christina  -  -  -1654 

Charles  X.  overruns  Poland      -  -  1657 

Arts  and  sciences  begin  to  flourish        -  1660 
Charles    XII.,  ''  the   madman  of  the 

North,"  begins  his  reign         -  -  1699 

He  makes  himself  absolute-    abolishes 
the  senate         -  -  •  **' 

KINGS   OP 

A,  D.  825  Regnard  Lobrock. 
*  * "    Reigns  uncertain.] 

966  Eric,  the  Victor. 

994  Oluf,  or  Olil'Sckotkong. 
1026  Edmund  Jacobson. 
1035  Edmund,  or  Amand  III. 
1041  Haquin. 

1056  Steukell,  or  Steenchel. 
1060  Ingo  1. ;  assassinated  by  his  brother. 
1064  Halstan. 
JOSO  Philip. 

1100  Ingo  11.  ;  died  in  a  monastery. 
1130  Ragwald;  murdered  by  the  Visigoths. 
1133  Magnus  I. ;  assassinated  in  Scania. 
1144  Suercherll. 
1150  Eric  X. ;  beheaded  by  rebels. 

1162  Charles  VII. ;  made  prisoner  by  Ca- 

nute, who  reigns. 

1163  Canute,  son  of  Eric  X. 

1192  Suercher  HI.,  SOP.  of  Charles ;  killed  in 

battle. 

1211  Eric  XL 
1Z4  John  I. 


Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Chai!i«  U 
defeated  by  the  czar  of  R.ssia.  See 
Pultowa  •  •  -AD.  170S 

He  escapes  to  Bender,  where  after  Uree 
years'  protection,  he  is  made  prison- 
er by  the  Turks  -  -  - 1713 

He  is  restored  •  and  after  ruinous  wars, 
and  fighting  numerous  battles,  he  is 
at  length  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frede- 
rickshail  -  -  -  Dec.  11,  1718 

Queen  Ulrica  Eleanor  abolishes  despot- 
it  government ....  1719 

Royal  Academy  founded  by  Linne,  af- 
terwards called  Linnaeus  -  - 1741 

Conspiracy  of  counts  Brahe  and  Home, 
who  are  beheaded  -  -  1756 

Despotism  re-established  •  •  1772 

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted        -      -  1772 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  III.  by  count 
Ankerstrom,  at  a  ball,  March  16:  he 
expired  the  29th  -  1792 

The  regicide  was  dreadfully  scourged 
with  whips  of  iron  thongs  three  suc- 
cessive days ;  his  right  hand  was  cut 
off,  then  his  head,  and  his  body  im- 
paled -  -  -  May  13.  1792 

Gustavus  IV.  dethroned,  and  the  go- 
vernment assumed  by  his  uncle,  the 
duke  of  Sudermania  -  March  13,  1809 

Sweden  cedes  Finland  to  the  czar  of 
Russia  -  -  -  Sept.  17,  1809 

Marshal  Bernadotte,  the  prince  of  Ponte 
Corvo,  is  chosen  the  crown  prince  of 
Sweden  -  -  Aug.  21,  1810 

Gustavus  IV.  arrived  in  London, 

Nov.  12,  1810 

Swedish  Pomerania  seized  by  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  -  -  Jan.  9,  1812 

Alliance  with  England        •      July  12,  1812 

Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against 
Napoleon  -  March  13,  1813 

Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  trea- 
ty of  Kiel  -  -  Jan.  14,  1814 

Bernadotte  ascends  the  throne  of  Swe- 
den as  Charles  John  XIV.  -  Feb.  5,  181S 

Treaty  of  navigation  between  Great 
Britain  and  Sweden  -  May  19,  1826 

SWEDEN. 
1223  Eric  XII. 
1250  Waldemar. 
1276  Magnus  II. 
1290  Uirgerll. 

1318  Magnus  IIL ;  dethroned  by  111*  iubj»ct« 
1365  Albert. 
1397  Margaret. 
1411  Eric  XIII.;  abdicated. 
1441  Christopher. 
1448  Charles  VIII. 
1458  Christian  I. 
1497  John  II. 
1520  Christian  II. 
1528  Gustavus  I.,  Vasa. 
1556  Eric  XIV. ;  died  in  prison. 
1569  John  III. 

1592  Sigismond  I.,  kinj  <<  Poland 
1606  Charles  IX. 
1611  Gustavus  Adolphus  II. 
1632  Christina;  resigned  her  crovm  '« 
1654  Charles  X.,  Gustavus  duke  of  Dt  t» 

Fonts. 
1660  Charles  XI. 


606 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


SWEDEN,  continued. 

!S99  Charles  XII.;   killed  at  the  siege  of 

Frederickshall. 
1718  Ulrica  Eleanora;  resigned  when  her 

husband  was  elected. 

1720  Frederick,  landgrave  of  Hesse- Cassel. 
1751  Adolphus  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein. 


1771  Gustavus  III.,  Adolphus. 

1792  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV. 

1809  Charles  XIII. 

1818  Charles  John  XIV.,  Bernadotte,  Feb.  ft 

1844  Oscar,  his  son,  March  8. 


SWEDENBORGIANS.  A  sect  of  mystics,  so  called  from  the  learned  but  ec- 
centric Emanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish  nobleman.  He  considered  the  New 
Jerusalem,  foretold  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  be  a  church  now  about  to  be  es- 
tablished, in  which  will  be  known  the  true  nature  of  God  and  of  man.  of 
the  Word,  of  heaven  and  of  hell — concerning  all  which  subjects  error  and 
ignorance  now  prevail,  and  in  which  church  this  knowledge  will  bear  its 
proper  fruits — love  to  the  Lord  and  to  one's  neighbor,  and  purity  of  life. 
His  first  work  on  theology  was  published  in  1743  ;  his  sect  rose  about  1760, 
but  it  did  not  spread  in  England  until  1782.  His  doctrines  have  a  conside- 
rable number  of  respectable  advocates  in  the  United  States. 

SWITZERLAND.  The  ancient  Helvetians  were  a  Gaulish  people,  conquered 
by  Julius  Caesar,  and  afterwards  subject  to  the  Burgundians  and  Germans. 
Many  Franks  also  settled  here  in  the  early  ages.  The  canton  of  Schweitz 
was  peopled  by  the  Cimbrians,  who,  leaving  their  original  habitation  in 
Scandinavia,  invaded  Italy,  and  were  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Marius ; 
after  which  they  fled  into  Helvetia,  about  100  B.  c.  This  canton  has  given 
name  to  the  whole  confederacy.  * 


The  Helvetian',  converted  to  Christian- 
ity by  Irish  missionaries     -        A.  D.    612 
Helvetia  ravaged  by  the  Huns    -         -    909 
Becomes  subject  to  Germany         -      -  1032 
Fribourg  built  by  Berthold  IV.   -          -1179 
Tyranny  of  Geszler,  which  occasions 
the  memorable  revolt  under  the  pa- 
triot William  Tell.  -  -  1306 
Swiss  independence        -           Nov.  7,  1307 
A  malignant  fever  carries  off,  in  the  can- 
ton of  Basle,  1  l,aX)  souls        -  -  1314 
Form  of  government  made  perpetual  -  1315 
Lucerne  joins  ihe  confederacy  -  1335 
Tlje  canton  of  Zurich  joins,  and  be- 
comes head  of  the  league       -  -  1350 
Berne,  Claris,  and  Zug  join           -      -  1351 
The  Grisons  league  (see  Caddee)       •  1400 
Second  league  of  the  Grisons         -      -1424 
The  third  league  of  the  Grisons  -  1436 
Swiss  soldiers  tirst  enter  into  the  pay 

of  France,  under  Louis  XI.         -      -1480 
Union  of  Fribourg  and  Soleure  •  1481 

Maximilian  I.   emperor,  acnowledge* 

Swiss  independence    -  -  -  1499 

Schaff  hausen  joins  the  union         -      -  1501 
The  Swiss  confederacy  acknowledged 

by  France  and  other  powers  •  1516 

The  Reformation  begins  at  Basle ;  the 

bishop  compelled  to  retire  -  1519 

The  Gnson  leagues  join  the  Swiss  an- 

federacy  as  allies        -  -  -  1544 

Appenzel  joins  the  other  cantons         •  1597 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  attempts 
Geneva  by  surprise,  scales  the  walls, 
and  penetrates  the  town ;  but  in  the 
end  is  defeated  •  -  -  1602 

[This  circumstance  gives  rise  to  an  an- 
nual festival  commemorative  of  their 
escape  from  tyranny.] 


Independence  of  Switzerland  recognized 
by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (see 
Westphalia,  Peace  of)  -  A.  D.  1648 

[From  this  period  until  the  French  Re- 
volution the  canton  enjoyed  tranquil- 
lity, disturbed  only  by  the  changes 
arising  out  of  their  various  constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance  with  France  -     May  25,  1777 

Domestic  strife  in  Geneva,  between  the 
aristocratic  and  democratic  parties; 
France  interferes  -  -  -  1781 

1000  fugitive  Genevans  seek  an  asylum 
in  Ireland  (see  Geneva)  -  -  1782 

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France    -  1792 

Helvetic  confederation  dissolved ;  its 
subjugation  by  France  -  -  1798 

The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  19 ; 
the  federal  government  restored ;  and 
a  landamman  appointed  by  France, 

May  12,  1802 

Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Underwald  separate 
from  the  republic  -  July  13,  1802 

Switzerland  joins  France  with  6,000 
men  -  -  -  Aug.  24,  1811 

The  Allies  entered  Switzerland  in  the 
spring  of  1814.  The  number  of  can- 
tons increased  to  22,  and  the  indepen- 
dence of  Switzerland  secured  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  -  -  -  1815 

Federal  diet  opened        -  Oct.  16,  1847 

—  passes  resolves  against  the  Sonder- 
bund,  and  troops  ol  Uri  attack  canton 
Tessino  Nov.  4,  1847 

Forces  of  the  diet  attack  Friburg,  Nov. 
10,  and  take  Lucerne  -  Nov.  24,  1847 

Neufchatel  .leclares  independence, 

Feb.  29,  1848 


DWORDS.    They  were  formed  of  iron  taken  from  a  mountain  by  the  Chinese, 
1879   B,  ;. —  Univ.   Hisl.      The  sword   is  one  of  the  earliest  irnplementf 


•TR] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES, 


607 


of  wai ,  The  Roman  swords  were  from  20  to  30  inches  long.  The  broad- 
sword and  scimitar  are  of  modern  adoption.  The  sword  of  state  carried  at 
an  English  king's  coronation  by  a  king  of  Scotland,  1194.  Damascus  steel 
swords  are  the  most  prized ;  and  next,  the  sword  of  Ferrara  steel.  The 
Scotch  Highlanders  were  accustomed  to  procure  the  latter  from  a  celebrated 
artificer,  named  Andrea  di  Ferrara,  and  used  to  call  them  their  Andicuj 
Ferraras.  The  broad-sword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  Edinburgh  in 
3724. 

SYCAMORE-TREE.  This  tree  is  called  by  some  the  Egyptian  Fig-tree.  The 
date  of  its  being  planted  in  England  is  not  known,  but  it  was  very  early. 
In  JVlrs.  Jamieson's  Memoirs  of  Female  Sovereigns,  we  are  told  that  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  brought  over  from  France  a  little  sycamore-tree,  which  she 
planted  in  the  gardens  of  Holyrood,  and  that  from  this  little  tree  have 
spnung  all  the  beautiful  groves  of  sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Scotland. 

SYDNEY",  NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  Founded  by  governor  Philip,  on  a  cove  of  Port 
Jackson,  in  1788,  as  a  British  settlement  for  the  colony  of  convicts  originally 
intended  for  Botany  Bay  ;  but  now  the  principal  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  colony.  It  was  denominated  Sydney  in  compliment  to  lord  Sydney. 
The  town  is  now  becoming  considerable  in  extent  and  population ;  and  it 
has  a  legislative  council,  which  was  lirst  held  July  13,  1829.  See  New  South 
Wales ;  Convicts,  tf-c. 

SYNAGOGUE.  Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  time  when  the  Jews  first  had 
synagogues.  Some  refer  it  to  the  time  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and  others 
to  the  times  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  In  Jerusalem  were  480  syna- 
gogues. There  are  in  London  six  synagogues. 

SYNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called  by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by 
Christian  princes ;  but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of  his 
legates  usually  presiding  (see  Councils).  National,  were  those  of  one  nation 
only.  The  first  of  this  kind  held  in  England  was  at  Hertford,  A.  D.  673  :  the 
last  was  held  by  cardinal  Pole  in  1555.  Made  unlawful  to  hold  synods  but 
by  royal  authority,  25  Henry  VIII.,  1533. 

3YN9D  OF  DORT.  The  famous,  or  general  assembly  of  Dort  in  Holland,  to 
which  deputies  were  sent  from  England  and  all  the  reformed  churches  in 
Europe,  to  settle  the  difference  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin, 
and  Arminius,  principally  ujon  the  points  of  justification  and  grace,  1618. 
— Attzema. 

SYRACUSE.  Founded  by  Archias,  732  B.  c.—Eusebius.  749  B.  c.—  Univ.  Hist. 
Taken  by  Marcellus,  when  Archimedes,  the  illustrious  mathematician,  was 
slain,  212  B.  c.  (see  Sicily).  S3rracuse  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  with 
^any  thousands  of  its  inhabitants,  January  1693.  Again  nearly  destroyed, 
Aug.  6,  1757.  ^ 

SYRIA.  Of  the  early  history  of  ancient  Syria,  a  few  particxilars  are  gleaned 
from  Scripture ;  and  it  otherwise  affords  nothing  peculiar,  bein£  involved 
in  the  histories  of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  empires  (w.ixcA 
see).  The  capital  of  Syria  was  originally  Damascus ;  but  after  th3  battle 
of  Ipsus.  Seleucus  (the  chief  of  the  Seleucidse)  founded  the  celebrated  city 
of  Antioch. 


Seleucus,  surnamed  Nicator,  i.  e.  Con- 
queror, enters  Babylon  -  -  B.C.  312 

JEra.  of  the  Seleucidde  (ichich  see)       -   312 

Great  Battle  of  Ipsus,  defeat  and  death 
of  Antigonus  -  -  -  -  301 

City  of  Antioch  founded     -  -          299 


Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  falling  in 
love  with  his  fathe.s'  queen,  Straton- 
ice,  he  pines  away  nearly  to  death  , 
but  the  secret  being  discovered,  eht 
is  divorced  by  the  lather  arid  marner, 
by  the  son."  -  -  -  B.  c.  2W 


*  This  is  related  as  one  of  the  most  strange  events  connected  with  the  early  history  of  rmvsic. 
Erasistratus,  the  illustrious  father  of  anatomy  (jointly  with  Herophilus),  had  observed,  than  wnen 


608 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


SYRIA,  continued. 

Battle  of  Cyfopaedion         -          -B.C.  281 

Seleucus  is  ibully  assassinated  by  Ce- 
raunui,. — Lengtet.  -  -  -  280 

Ar.tiachus  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  takes 
the  name  of  Soter,  or  Saviour  -  275 

Rei?n  of  Antiochus  11.,  surnamed  by  the 
Milesians  Theos,  or  God !  -  -  2C1 

Seleucus  II.  makes  a  treaty  of  alliance 
•with  S;nyrna  anil  Magne.sia*  -  -  243 

Reiffr.  of  Seleucus  III.,  surnamed  Ce- 
raunus.  or  Thunder  -  -  -  226 

Battle  of  Raphia,  i".  which  Antiochus 
III.  is  signally  defeated  -  -  217 

Antiochus^  conquest  of  Judea  -  -   204 

V-'ar  with  the  Romans  begins  -  -    192 

Reign  of  Antiochus  IV.,  who  assumes 
the  title  of  Theos-Epiphanes,  or  the 
Hlustiious  God !  -  175 

He  sends  Appolomus  into  Judea ;  Jeru- 
salem is  taken;  the  tei>ple  pillaged; 
40,000  inhabitants  destroyed ;  and 
40.000  more  sold  as  slaves  -  -  170 

Cleopatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son 
Seleucus  with  her  own  hand  -  124 

Reisn  of  her  son  Antiochus  Grypus, 
whom  she  attempts  to  poison ;  but  he 
compels  his  mother  to  swallow  the 
deadly  draught  herself  •  •  123 

Reign  of  Cyzicenus  at  Damascus,  and 
ot  Grypus  at  Antioch  -  -  111 

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Pompey,  who  en- 
ters Syria,  and  dethrones  Antiochus 
Asiatichus,  about  -  -  -  65 

Conquest  of  Syria  -  -     A.D.    970 

[This  conquest  is  made  by  the  Fatimite 

caliphs  who  rule  in  Egypt.] 
Revolt  of  the  emirs  of  Dair.ascus         •  1067 
The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt      -  -1068 

The  Crusades  from  Europe  commence 

(see  article  Crusades)  •  •  1095 

[The  Christians  ultimately  conquer  that 

part  of  Syria  called  the  Holy  Land.— 

See  Jerusalem  ] 


Noureddin  conqunrs  Syria  -  A.D.  1166 
Saladin  puts  an  end  to  the  j.ower  of  '.he 

Fatimue  dynasty  -  -  - 1171 

The  Tartars  overrun  all  Syria  -  -  125f 

Recovered  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  who 

expel  the  Crusaders  -  -  -  129! 

Syria  overrun  by  Tamerlane  -  •  1400 

Conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Selim  -  151? 

After  the  conquest  by  Selim,  Syria  con- 
tinued in  possession  of  the  Turks  till 
the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French. 

July  i,  U9y 

Bonaparte  defeats  the  Mameluk-js  with 
great  loss  -  -  -  Aug.  6,  17f*~ 

He  overruns  the  country,  and  takes  Ga- 
za and  Jaffa  -  ...  170-- 

Siege  of  Acre      -    March  6  ts  Ma/  27,  17.CJ 

Bonaparte  returns  to  France  from  E- 
gypt  ....  Aug.  23,  1791) 

Egypt  is  evacuated  by  the  French  army 

Sept.  10,  1801 

Mehemct  Ali  attacks  and  captures  A  "re, 
and  overruns  the  whole  of  Syria,  183i-32 

Ibraham  Facha,  his  son,  defeats  the  ar- 
my of  the  grand  signior  -  July  30,  1832 

[Numerous  battles  and  conflicts  follow 
with  various  success.  ] 

Ibrahim  Pacha  defeats  the  Turkish  ar- 
my, making  10,000  prisoners,  June  25, 1839 

The  Tu  i  kish  fleet  arrives  at  Alexandria 
and  places  itself  at  the  disposal  of 
Mehemet  Ali  -'  -  -  July  14,  1839 

The  Five  Powers  propose  to  the  Pone 
to  negotiate  with  Mehemet  Ali,  July 

16,  1839 

Death  of  the  celebrated  lady  Hester 
Stanhope  -  -  -  June  23,  1840 

Treaty  of  London  (not  signed  by  offend- 
ed  France)  -  -  July  15,  1840 

Capture  of  Sidon          •  Sept.  27,  1S40 

Fall  of  Beyrout  (see  Beyrout)  Oct.  1C  1840 

Fall  of  Acre  (see  Acre)          •    Nov.  3, 1840 


After  much  expostulation  with  the  sultan,  the  four  powers,  England,  Aus- 
tria, Russia,  and  Prussia,  prevail  upon  him  to  make  the  pr.chalic  of  Egypt 
hereditary  :n  the  family  of  Mehemet  Ali,  who  surrenders  to  the  Turkish 
fleet,  and  whose  troops  evacuate  Syria.  A  treaty  to  that  effect  signed  at 
London,  between  the  representatives  of  those  powers,  July  13.  1841.  This 
result  conciliates  France,  and  promises  peace  in  the  East,  and  its  3<  utinu- 
ance  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 


•yet  the  queen  appeared,  the  young  prince  her  step-son  blushed,  a  tremor  overspread  his  frania, 
his  pulse  quickened,  and  his  voice  grew  weak.  She  was  of  his  own  age.  and  of  exceeding  beauty. 
Oa  discovering  the  true  cause  of  his  patient's  disorder.  Erasistratus  adopted  an  expedient  which 
was  the  foundation  of  his  great  fame.  He  informed  tr.e  king  that  his  heir  must  die,  as  he  languished 
under  a  hopeless  passion.  "Who,"  asked  Sdcucus,  il  is  the  object  of  his  lovel"  "My  wife" 
answ.red  the  physician.  " Then  resign  her  to  him,"  said  the  king.  "But  if,"  said  Erasistratus 
"  it  were  the  queen  he  loved,  would  you,  Seleucus,  yield  up  the  idol  of  your  affections  to  another  ?' 


M  Yes,'1   replied  Seleucus,  "  I  would  readily  relinquish  both  my  queen  and  kingdom  to  j?av« 
my  sen's  life."    "Then  be  at 
twice!" — Biog.  Diet. 


ease,"  Erasistratus  rejoined,  "  for  the  object  of  his  love  i»  Stra 


*  This  treaty  was  engraved  on  a  marble  column,  now  in  the  court  of  the  Theatre  of  Os.'uici    J 
was  presented  to  Oxford  by  the  earl  of  Arunde'   in  the  reign  of  Charles  IL 


FHBj  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  609 

T. 

TAHITI.    The  French,  or  abbreviated  name  for  Otaheite.    See  Otaheite. 

TALAVERA,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  united  British  and  Spanish  armies  under 
sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (19,000  British  and  30,000  Spaniards),  and  the  French 
army,  amounting  to  47,000,  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and  Sebastian!, 
July  27  and  28,  1809. 

1  ALMUD.  There  are  two  books  of  the  doctrine  of  the  religion  and  morality 
of  the  Jews, — the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon.  The 
one  composed  by  the  Rabbi  Juda  Hakkadosh,  about  the  close  of  the  second 
century ;  the  second,  being  commentaries,  &c.,  by  succeeding  rabbis,  wero 
collected  by  Ben  Eliezer,  about  the  sixth  century.  Abridged  by  Maimoo- 
ides  in  the  twelfth  century. 

1  AMERLANE.  The  conqueror  of  Persia,  India  and  Egypt,  and  plunderer  of 
Bagdad,  Delhi,  and  Cairo.  He  subdued  the  renowned  warrior  Bajazet.  sul- 
tan of  the  Turks,  whom  he  exposed  in  a  large  iron  cage,  the  fate  the  latter 
had  destined  for  his  adversary  if  he  had  been  the  victor.  Bajazet  dashed 
his  head  against  the  bars  of  this  prison,  and  killed  himself.  1403. — C/ialcon- 
dUa's  Hist.  Turk. 

TANNING.  Was  early  practised  by  various  nations.  The  use  of  tan  was  in- 
troduced into  these  countries  from  Holland  by  William  III.  for  raising 
orange-trees,  It  was  discontinued  until  about  1719.  when  ananas  were  first 
brought  into  England.  Since  then,  tan  has  been  in  general  use  in  garden- 
ing. Great  improvements  were  made  in  tanning  in  1795,  et  seq. 

TAPESTRY.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  hence 
its  original  workers  in  France  were  called  Sarazinois.  The  invention  of 
tapestry  hangings  belongs  [the  date  is  not  mentioned]  to  the  Netherlands. 
— Guicdardini.  Manufactured  in  France  under  Henry  IV.,  by  artists  in- 
vited from  Flanders,  1606.  The  art  was  brought  into  England  by  William 
Sheldon  ;  and  the  first  manufactory  of  it  was  established  at  Mortlake  by  sir 
Francis  Crane,  17  James  I.,  1619.— Salmon.  Under  Louis  XIV.  the  art  of 
tapestry  was  much  improved  in  France.  See  Gobelin  Tapestry.  Very  early 
instances  of  making  tapestry  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  also 
in  Scripture  ;  so  that  the  Saracens'  manufacture  is  a  revival  of  the  art.  For 
the  tapestry  wrought  by  Matilda  of  England,  see  Bayeux  Tapestry. 

1'ARENTUM,  WAR  OF.  The  war  which  the  people  of  Tarentum  suppoited 
against  the  Romans,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  arid  which  is 
greatly  celebrated  in  history.  This  war,  which  had  been  undertaken  B.  3 
281,  by  the  Romans,  to  avenge  the  insults  the  Tarentines  had  offered  to  their 
ships  when  near  their  harbors,  was  terminated  after  ten  years ;  300,000  pri- 
soners were  taken,  and  Tarentum  became  subject  to  Rome. 

TARTARY.  This  name  is  given  to  several  nations  of  the  East.  The  Tartar 
race  was  known  and  celebrated  in  antiquity  under  the  name  of  Scythians. 
It  was  during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  that  these  tribes  began  per- 
manently to  forsake  their  own  plains,  in  search  of  more  fertile  regions ;  and 
the  first  of  these  ravagers  whose  terror  and  fame  reached  the  frontier  of 
Italy  were  the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  race  of  Mongols.  The 
first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  vast  country  was  the  famous  Jenghis 
Khan,  >.,  D.  1206.  His  empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia,  and  all 
Central  Asia,  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established ;  but  it 
was  split  into  parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  again  conquered 
Persia,  again  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  1402,  and 
founded  a  dynasty  in  India,  which  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia, 
till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

TAVERNS.   In  England,  were  places  of  entertainment,  under  various  name* 
26* 


610  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  TBA 

in  ancient  times.  Taverns,  as  so  called,  may  be  traced  to  the  13th  century. 
"  In  the  raigne  of  king  Edward  the  Third  only  th/ree  taverns  were  allowed 
in  London :  one  in  Chepe,  one  in  Walbroke.  and  the  other  in  Lombard- 
street." — Sir  Henry  Spelman.  The  Boar's  Head,  in  Eastcheap,  existed  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  the  rendezvous  of  prince  Henry  and  his 
dissolute  companions.  Shakspeare  mentions  it  as  the  residence  of  Mrs. 
Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  sir  John  Falstaff's  merriment. — Skakspearel 
Henry  IV.  Of  little  less  antiquity  is  tho  White  Hart,  Bishopsgate,  estab- 
lished in  1480 :  this  house  was  rebuilt  in  1829.  Taverns  were  restrained  by 
an  act  of  Edward  T  I..  1552.  to  40  in  London,  8  in  York,  4  in  Norwich,  3 
in  Westminster.  6  in  Bristol.  3  in  Lincoln.  4  in  Hull,  3  in  Shrewsbury,  4  in 
F!xeter.  3  in  Salisbury.  4  in  Gloucester,  4  in  Chester,  3  in  Hereford,  3  in 
Worcester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in  Canterbury,  3  in  Ipswich.  3  in  Winchester, 
3  in  Oxford,  4  in  Cambridge,  3  in  Colchester,  4  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Taverns  were  licensed  in  1752. 

T./£XES.  The  first  levied  on  the  people  was  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legis- 
lator, 540  B.  c.  The  first  class  of  citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver, 
about  55L  English  money.  The  next  was  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 
which  was  a  land-tax  by  assessment,  and  deemed  so  odious  that  his  subjects 
styled  him,  by  way  of  derision,  Darius  the  Trader,  480  B.  c. — D Eon's  His- 
toire  des  Finances.  Taxes  in  specie  were  first  introduced  into  England  by 
William  I.,  1067.  and  he  raised  them  arbitrarily ;  yet  subsidies  in  kind,  as 
in  wool,  corn,  leather,  and  other  products  of  the  country,  continued  till 
the  accession  of  Richard  II.,  1377. — Camden.  First  taxation  of  the  British 
colonies  in  America,  1764 ;  produced  active  resistance,  1765 ;  stamp  act 
repealed,  1766:  re-enacted  1767.  See  Income,  Revenue,  Cost  of  Govern- 
ment, &c. 

YE  DEUM.  A  kind  of  hymn  or  song  of  thanksgiving  used  in  the  church, 
beginning  with  the  words  Te  Deum  laudamus — We  praise  thee,  O  God.  It 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  composition  of  Augustin  and  Ambrose, 
about  A.  D.  390;  and  is  sung  in  the  Romish  church  with  extraordinary  pomp 
and  solemnity  on  some  happy  event,  such  as  a  national  thanksgiving  for  a 
great  victory  or  for  a  bounteous  harvest. 

TEA.  First  known  in  Europe,  being  brought  from  India  by  the  Dutch,  1610. 
Brought  into  England  in  1666,  by  lord  Ossory  and  lord  Arlington,  from 
Holland ;  and  being  admired  by  persons  of  rank,  it  was  imported  from 
thence,  and  generally  sold  for  60  shillings  per  pound,  till  our  East  India 
Company  took  up  the  trade. — Anderson.  Green  tea  began  to  be  used  in  1715 
The  duty  imposed  on  tea  in  America,  1767.  This  tax  occasioned  the  de- 
struction of  17  chests  at  New  York,  and  340  at  Boston,  November  1773, 
and  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 

TEAS   IMPORTED   INTO   ENGLAND   OR  CHARGED   WITH    DITV   IN   THE  FOLLOWING  TEARS. 


1726.  -   IDS.   700,000 

1766.  -     -    7,000,000 

1792.  -     .  13,185,000 

1800.  -     •   23,723,000 


1805.    -   IDS.  24.133,0001  1825.    -  Ibs.  27.803,668 


1810.  .  -  25,414,000 
1815.  -  -  26,368.000 
1820.  -  •  25,662.474 


1830.  .  -  30,544.404 
1835.  -  -  44.360.550 
1640.  -  -  33,068,556 


In  England,  the  duty  derived  on  tea  is  now  about  4,000.0002.  annually. 
Millions  of  pounds  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice,  and  ash-tree  leaves,  are  every 
year  mixed  with  Chinese  teas  in  England. — Report  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
1818.  The  consumption  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  exclusively  of  Eng- 
land, is  about  22  000  000  of  pounds,  while  the  annual  consumption  in  Great 
Britain  is  30000000.—  Evidence  in  the  House  of  Commons.  1830.  The  first 
tea-sale  in  London  on  the  abolition  of  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  East 
India  Company,  Aug.  19,  1834.  The  value  of  teas  imported  into  the  United 
States  for  one  year,  ending  July  1, 1847,  was  $4  278  463  ;  while  that  of  coffe« 
was  89,102  872. 


TEM  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  611 

FEA-TREE.  Thea  Bohea.  Brought  to  England  from  China,  abo&t  1768. 
The  finest  tea-plant  known  in  England  was  raised  in  Kew  Gardens ;  but  tha 
first  that  ever  flourished  in  Europe  was  one  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Nor- 
thumberland at  Sion. 

TELEGRAPHS.  They  were  early  in  use.  Polybius  calls  the  different  in- 
struments used  by  the  ancients  for  communicating  information  pyrsia, 
because  the  signals  were  always  made  by  fire.  The  most  ingenious  of  the 
moderns  had  not  thought  of  such  a  machine  as  a  telegraph  until  1663,  when 
Mie  plan  was  suggested  by  the  marquis  of  Worcester.  The  first  idea  of  a 
telegraph  on  the  modern  construction  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684. 
M.  Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  telegraphs  about 
this  period.  It  was  not  till  1793  that  the  instrument  was  applied  to  useful 
purposes :  M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used  by  the  French. 
Two  erected  over  the  admiralty-office,  London,  1796.  The  Semaphore  was 
erected  there  1816.  The  naval  signals,  by  telegraph,  enable  400  previously- 
concerted  sentences  to  be  transmitted  from  ship  to  ship,  bv  varying  the 
combinations  of  two  revolving  crosses ;  and  also  to  spell  any  particular 
words,  letter  by  letter.  See  Electric  T'legraph. 

TELESCOPES.  This  invention  is  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1671. 
Roger  Bacon,  about  A.  D.  12-50,  described  telescopes  and  microscopes  ex- 
actly, and  yet  neither  were  made  till  one  Metius,  at  Alkamaer,  and  Jansen, 
of  Middleburgh,  made  them  about  the  same  time ;  the  latter  from  an  ac- 
cidental discovery  made  by  his  children,  1590 — 1609.  Galileo  imitated 
their  invention  by  its  description,  and  made  three  in  succession,  one  of 
which  magnified  a  thousand  times.  With  these  he  discovered  Jupiter's 
moons  and  the  phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes  became  very  popular,  and 
were  improved  by  Zucchi,  Huygens,  Gregory,  and  Newton;  and  finally  by 
Martin.  Hall,  Dolland.  and  Herschel.  Achromatic  telescopes  were  made  by 
More  Hall,  about  1723.  A  telescope  was  made  in  London  for  the  observa- 
tory of  Madrid,  which  cost  ll.CKXM.  in  1802 ;  but  the  Herschel  telescope, 
made  1789 — 1795,  is  superior:  it  has  the  great  speculum  48  inches  in  dia- 
meter, 3J  inches  thick,  weighs  2118  Ibs..  and  magnifies  6400  times.  See 
Hersckel  Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  American  people  that 
the  first  £reat  public  movement  in  behalf  of  temperance  was  made  in  this 
country.  Temperance  societies  began  to  be  formed  in  1825-6.  One  of  the 
most  prominent  of  tha  first  promoters  of  the  reform  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hewitt 
of  Connecticut,  who  was  worthily  styled  the  Apostle  of  Temperance.  The 
exertions  of  this  and  other  energetic  advocates  of  temperance  and  total 
abstinence  have  effected  a  wonderful  change  for  the  better  in  the  general 
habits  of  the  people.  Several  thousand  temperance  societies,  under  various 
names,  have  been  formed,  and  a  large  number  of  vessels  now  sail  from 
various  ports  of  the  United  States,  the  crews  of  which  are  unsupplied  with 
spirituous  liquors  of  any  kind.  The  movement  has  spread  to  some  extent 
in  Europe,  but  by  far  the  most  successful  of  its  promoters  has  been  the 
Rev.  Theobald  Mathew,  a  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  in  Ireland,  who  has 
administered  the  "total  abstinence"  pledge  to  about  two  millions  of  his 
countrymen.  He  commenced  his  ministry  in  this  cause  in  1830.  In  Ger- 
many there  were  300  temperance  societies  in  1846. 

TEMPLARS.  The  first  military  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  founded  in 
A.  D.  1118  by  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  The  templars  were  numerous 
in  several  countries,  and  came  to  England  in  1185.  The  order  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  council  of  Vienna,  and  its  revenues  were  bestowed  upon 
other  orders  in  1312.  Numbers  of  the  order  were  burnt  alive  and  hanged, 
and  it  suftvred  great  persecutions  throughout  Europe,  particularly  in  France 


612  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [TEW 

in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Valois,  1342.    They  were  several  times  suppressed 
in  England,  and  finally  in  1340. 

TEMPLE,  LONDON.  Thus  called,  because  it  was  anciently  the  dwelling  house 
of  the  Knights  Templars.  At  the  suppression  of  that  order,  it  was  purchased 
by  the  professors  of  the  common  law.  and  converted  into  inns.  They  are 
called  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple. 

TEMPLES.  They  originated  in  the  sepulchres  built  for  the  dead. — Eusebius, 
The  Egyptians  were  the  first  who  erected  temples  to  the  gods. — Herodotus. 
The  first  erected  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  Deucalion. — ApoUonius.  For  tem- 
ple of  Belus,  see  Babel.  The  temple  of  Jerusalem,  built  by  Solomon,  1012 
B.  c.  Fired  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  587  B.  c.  Rebuilt,  536  B.  c.  Pillaged  by 
Antiochus,  170  B.  c.  Rebuilt  by  Herod,  18  B.  c.  Destroyed  by  Titus,  A.  D. 
70. — The  temple  of  Apollo,  at  DELPHOS,  first  a  cottage  with  boughs,  built 
of  stone  by  Trophorius.  about  1200  B.  c.  Burnt  by  the  Pisistratidae,  548  B.C. 
A  new  temple  raised  by  the  family  of  the  Alcmaeonidae,  about  513  B.  c. — 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  built  seven  times ;  planned  by  Ctesiphon,  544 
B.  c.  Fired  by  Erostratus,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  356  B.  c.  To  rebuild  it, 
employed  220  years.  Destroyed  by  the  Goths,  A.  D.  260.— The  Temple  of 
Piety  was  built  by  Acilius,  on  the  spot  where  once  a  woman  had  fed  w,  th 
her  milk  her  aged  father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and  excluded 
from  all  aliments. — Vol.  Max.  Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  years  B.C., 
is  at  this  day  the  most  perfect  ancient  edifice  in  the  world. — The  heathen 
temples  were  destroyed  throughout  the  Roman  empire  by  Constantino  the 
Great.  A.D.  331.  See  Heathen  Temples. 

TENNESSEE.  One  of  the  United  States  ;  was  originally  included  in  the  char- 
ter of  North  Carolina  by  Charles  II.  in  1664  ;  first  settlement  on  Wetanga 
river,  1757  ;  attacked,  and  200  men,  women,  and  children  massacred  by  the 
Indians  in  1760 ;  the  Indians  chastised  next  year,  but  continued  frequent 
contests  with  the  colonists  for  several  years.  The  territory  ceded  by  North 
Carolina  to  the  United  States  in  1790  ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State, 
1796.  Population  in  1790,  35691;  in  1810,  261,727;  in  1830,  681.904;  in 
1840,  829,210,  including  183,059  slaves. 

TESr  ACT.  The  statute  of  Charles  II..  directing  all  officers,  civil  and  mili- 
tary, under  government,  to  receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  forms  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  to  take  the  oaths  against  transubstantiation, 
&c.,  was  enacted  March  1673 ;  repealed,  1828. 

TEUTON!,  OR  TETJTONES.  A  people  of  Germany,  who  with  the  Cimbri 
made  incursions  upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to  pieces  two  Roman  armies.  They 
were  at  last  defeated  by  the  consul  Marius,  and  an  infinite  number  made 
prisoners,  101  B.  c.  See  Cimbri. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.  The  order  of  military  knights  established  in  the  Holy 
Land  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  institution  arose  in 
the  humanity  of  the  Teutones  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Chri*tian 
army  under  the  celebrated  Guy  of  Lusignan  when  before  Acre.  The 
order  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Caelestine  III.,  A.  D.  1191.  See 
Prussia.  &c. 

TEWKSBURY,  BATTLE  OP,  in  which  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Lancastrians.  Queen  Margaret,  the  consort  of  Henry  VI.,  and  her  son, 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London, 
where  king  Henry  expired  a  few  days  after  this  fatal  engagement ;  being, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  murdered  by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  after- 
wards Richard  HI.  The  queen  was  ransomed  in  1475,  by  the  French  k.'ng, 
Lewis  XI.,  for  50  000  crowns.  This  was  the  last  battle  between  the  honset 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  May  4,  1471.  See  Roses. 


THE]  DICTIONARY    OP   DATES.  613 

I EXAS.  One  of  the  United  States  ;  first  settled  by  the  Spaniards  at  San  Fran- 
cisco  in  1690 ;  made  one  of  the  federal  States  of  Mexico,  in  conjunction 
with  the  adjacent  State  of  Coahuila,  on  the  formation  of  the  Mexican  re- 
public— an  unpopular  Union  to  the  Texans,  and  productive  of  the  first  dip- 
agreement  with  the  central  government ;  colonization  of  Texas  by  emigrant 
from  the  United  States,  commenced  1821 ;  war  with  Mexico  for  indeper 
dence  rommenced  1833,  and  ended  by  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  Mexican 
president,  Santa  Anna,  at  San  Jacinto,  21st  April,  1836,  which  secured  the 
independence  of  Texas ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  (the  28th), 
after  active  opposition  with  reference  to  the  exclusion  of  slavery,  Feb.  20, 
1845.  Population  at  that  time  about  200,000.  [The  first  treaty  for  its  an- 
nexation  was  rejected  by  the  United  States  Senate,  35  to  1C,  June  8,  1844.] 

THAMES  TUNNEL.  Projected  by  Mr.  Brunei,  to  form  a  communication 
between  the  two  sides  of  the  river,  at  Rotherhithe  and  Wapping,  the  most 
extraordinary  construction  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  The  shaft  was 
begun  in  1825.  At  a  distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft  the  first  irruption 
took  place,  May  18,  1827.  The  second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen 
perished,  Jan.  12,  1828.  The  length  of  the  tunnel  is  1300  feet;  its  width 
is  35  feet ;  height,  20  feet ;  clear  width  of  each  archway,  including  footpath, 
about  14  feet ;  thickness  of  earth  beneath  the  crown  of  the  tunnel  and  the 
bed  of  the  river,  about  15  feet.  The  tunnel  was  opened  throughout  for  foot 
passengers,  March  25,  1843. 

THANE.  A  title  much  in  use  anciently,  and  which  sometimes  signified  a 
nobleman,  sometimes  a  freeman,  and  sometimes  a  magistrate ;  but  most 
properly,  an  officer  under  the  king.  The  Saxons  had  a  nobility  called 
thanes,  and  the  Scots  also.  The  title  was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Con- 
quest, upon  the  introduction  of  the  feudal  system.  Abolished  in  Scotland 
by  king  Malcolm  III.,  when  the  title  of  earl  was  adopted,  1057. 

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,  built  by  Philos,  420  u.  c.,  was  the 
first  erected.  Marcellus'  theatre  at  Rome  was  built  about  80  B.  c.  Theatres 
were  afterwards  numerous,  and  were  erected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.  There 
was  a  theatre  at  Pompeii  where  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  were 
assembled  on  the  night  of  August  24,  A.  D.  79,  when  an  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius covered  Pompeii.  Scenes  were  introduced  into  theatres,  painted  by 
Balthazar  Sienna,  A.  D.  1533.  The  first  royal  license  for  a  theatre  in  England 
was  in  1574,  to  master  Burbage  and  four  others,  servants  of  the  earl  of 
Leicester,  to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside.  See  Globe.  But  long  before 
that  time,  miracle  plays  were  represented  in  the  fields.  The  prices  of  ad- 
mission in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  were,  gallery,  2d. ;  lords'  room,  Is. 
— Dickens.  The  first  play-bill  was  dated  April  8,  1663.  and  issued  frc^» 
Drury-lane ;  it  runs  thus :  "  By  his  Majestic,  his  company  of  Comedians  at 
the  New  Theatre  in  Drury  Lane,  will  be  acted  a  comedy  called  the  Humov- 
rovs  Lieutenant."  After  detailing  the  characters,  it  concludes  thus :  "  The 
play  will  begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly."  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  was  opened 
in  1695.  The  first  attempt  at  theatrical  performances  in  the  United  States 
was  the  acting  of  Otway's  Orphan,  in  Boston,  in  1750;  but  all  such  exhibi- 
tions were  immediately  afterwards  prohibited  there.  A  strolling  company 
acted  in  a  sail-loft  in  New  York  in  1758.  The  first  regular  theatre  was  in 
New  York  in  1793 ;  the  second  in  Boston ;  and  the  third  in  Philadelphia 
soon  after.  Dunlap's  History  of  the  American  Theatre  was  published  in  New 
York,  1832.  See  Dra-ma,  Plays,  &c. 

THEBES.  The  ancient  celebrated  city  of  Thebais  in  Egypt,  called  also  Heca- 
tompylos,  on  account  of  its  hundred  gates,  and  Diospolis,  as  being  sacred  to 
Jupiter.  In  the  time  of  its  splendor,  it  extended  above  twenty-three  miles, 
and  upon  any  emergency  could  send  into  the  field,  by  each  of  its  hundred 


614  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  run 

gates,  20;000  fighting  men  and  200  chariots.  Thebes  was  ruined  by  Cam. 
byses.  king  of  Persia,  and  few  traces  of  it  were  seen  in  the  age  of  Juvenal. 
— Plutarch.  Also  Thebes,  the  capital  of  the  country  successively  called 
Aonia,  Messapia.  Ogygia.  Hyantis,  and  Bceotia.  See  Baotia.  Thebes  was 
called  Cadmeis,  from  Cadmus;  the  founder  of  the  city.  It  rose  to  a  cele- 
brated republic,  styled  the  Theban,  about  820  B.  c.  It  was  dismantled  by 
the  Romans,  145  B.  c. — Livy ;  Thucydides. 

THEFT.  This  offence  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among  the  Jews.  By  death 
at  Athens,  by  the  laws  of  Draco.  See  Draco.  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominal- 
ly punished  theft  with  death,  if  above  12d.  value ;  but  the  criminal  could 
redeem  his  life  by  a  ransom.  In  the  9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemp- 
tion was  taken  away.  1108.  The  laws  against  theft,  until  lately,  were  very 
severe  in  England ;  they  were  revised  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Robert)  Peel'h 
acts,  9  and  10  George  IV. 

THEISTS.  The  sect  so  called  came  in  with  the  Restoration,  about  1660.  and 
they  taught  a  union  with  all  men  who  believed  in  one  God.  but  who  reject- 
ed  public  worship  and  exterior  forms  of  religion.  They  maintained  that 
their  religion  was  better  because  older  and  more  simple  than  that  which  waa 
given  by  God  to  the  Hebrews. 

THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS.  The  first  in  the  United  States  was  that  at  Ando- 
Ter,  founded  1808. 

THERMOMETER.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  several 
scientific  person  all  about  the  same  time.  Invented  by  Drebbel  of  Alcmaer, 
A.  D.  1609. — Boerhaave.  Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609. — Fulgentw.  Invent^ 
ed  by  Sanctorio  in  1610. — Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  invented 
about  1726 ;  and  the  scale  called  Reaumur's  soon  after,  1730.  The  mode  of 
construction  by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits  was  invented  some  years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPYLAE.  BATTLE  OF.  Leonidas  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans,  at  the 
defile  of  Thermopyla3,  withstands  the  Whole  force  of  the  Persians  during  three 
days,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Trachinian,  perfidiously  leading  the  enemy  by  a  se- 
cret path  up  the  mountains,  brings  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who, 
thus  placed  between  two  assailants,  devote  themselves  to  the  good  of  their 
country,  and  perish  gloriously  on  heaps  of  their  slaughtered  foes.  Of  300 
heroes  who  engaged  in  this  conflict  with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  Per- 
sians, one  man  only  returned  home,  and  he  was  received  with  reproaches  and 
insults  for  having  fled  from  a  battle  in  which  his  brave  companions,  with 
their  royal  leader,  had  fallen.  Twenty  thousand  Persians  perished  by  the 
hands  of  the  Spartans,  Aug.  7,  480  B.  c.—  -Vossius  de  Grezc.  Hist. 

THESSALY.  This  country  is  much  celebrated  in  classical  history,  as  being 
the  seat  of  many  of  the  adventures  described  by  the  poets.  The  first  king 
of  whom  we  have  any  certain  knowledge  was  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from 
whom  his  subjects  were  Called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended  to  nil 
Greece.  From  Thessaly  the  most  powerful  tribes  of  Greece  derived  their 
origin,  as  the  Achasans,  the  ^Etolians.  the  Dorians,  the  Hellenists,  &c.  The 
two  most  remarkable  events  in  the  early  history  of  this  country,  are  the 
deluge  of  Deucalion,  1503  B.  c.,  and  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  1263. 
See  them  severally. 

rHRACE.  So  called  from  Thrax,  the  son  of  Mars.  Conquered  by  Philip  and 
Alexander,  and  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  empire  about  335  B.  c. ;  and  it 
so  remained  till  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  168  B.  c.  By- 
zantium was  the  capital  of  Thrace,  on  the  ruins  of  which  Constantinople 
was  built.  The  Turks  took  th«  country  under  Mahomet  11.,  A.  D  1463.  - 
Priestley. 


Tl.«  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  615 

TIIR  ASHING  -MACHINES.  The  flail  was  the  only  instrument  formerlj  in  use. 
The  Romans  used  a  machine  called  the  tribulum,  a  sledge  loaded  with  stones 
or  iron,  drawn  over  the  corn-sheaves  by  horses.  The  first  machine  attempted 
in  modern  times  was  invented  by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about 
1732  ;  Miekles,  in  1776. 

THRASYMENUS,  BATTLE  OF.  A  most  bloody  engagement  between  the  Car- 
thaginians under  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217  B.  c.  No 
less  than  15.000  Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10  000  taken 
prisoners ;  or,  according  to  Livy,  6000 ;  or  Polybius,  15,000.  The  loss  of 
Hannibal  was  about  1500  men.  And  about  10  000  Romans  made  their  es- 
cape, all  covered  with  wounds. — Livy ;  Polybius. 

THUMB-SCREW.  An  inhuman  instrument  which  was  commonly  used  in  the 
first  stages  of  torture  by  the  Spanish  inquisition.  It  was  in  use  in  England 
also.  The  Rev.  Wm.  Carstairs  was  the  last  who  suffered  by  it  before  the 
privy  council,  to  make  him  divulge  secrets  entrusted  to  him,  which  he  firmly 
resisted.  After  the  revolution  in  1688,  the  thumb-screw  was  given  him  as  a 
present  by  the  council  King  William  expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it 
on.  bidding  the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw  ;  but  at  the  third  turn  he  cried  out, 
"Hold  !  hold!  doctor;  another  turn  would  make  me  confess  any  thing." 

THURSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  the  week,  derived  from  Thor,  a  deified  hero 
worshipped  by  tjie  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  northern  nations,  particularly 
by  the  Scandinavians  and  Celts.  The  authority  of  this  deity  extended  over 
the  winds  and  seasons,  and  especially  over  thunder  and  lightning.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  valiant  of  the  sons  of  Odin.  This  day,  which 
was  consecrated  to  Thor,  s-till  retains  his  name  in  the  Danish,  Swedish,  and 
Low-Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the  English.  Thursday,  or  Thors-day, 
has  been  rendered  into  Latin  by  dies  Jovis,  or  Jupiter's  day. 

TIDES.  Homer  is  the  earliest  profane  author  who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posi- 
donius  of  Apamea  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon, 
about  79  B.  c. ;  and  Caesar  speaks  of  them  in  his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic 
War.  The  theory  of  the  tides  was  first  satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler. 
A.  D.  1598;  but  the  honor  of  a  complete  explanation  of  them  was  reserved 
for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  laid  hold  of  this  class  of  phenomena  to  prove 
universal  gravitation,  about  1683. 

TILSIT,  PEACE  OP.  The  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  France  and  Rus- 
sia, when  Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  terri- 
tories, and  Russia  recognized  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  ele- 
vation of  Napoleon's  three  brothers.  Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones 
of  Naples,  Holland,  and  Westphalia.  Signed  July  7,  1807,  and  ratified  July 
19  following. 

TILTS  AND  TOURNAMENTS.  Were  greatly  in  vogue  in  England  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  Notwithstanding  many  edicts  against  them, 
and  anathemas  from  Rome,  they  were  not  abolished  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.,  about  A.  D.  1400. — Rapin.  They  first  took  their  rise  in  Italy  upon  the 
suppression  of  the  gladiators  in  the  fifth  century.  They  were  suppressed  in 
France  in  1560. —  Voltaire's  Gen.  Hist. 

TIMBER.  The  annual  demand  of  timber  for  the  British  navy,  in  war,  is  60  000 
loads,  or  40,000  full-grown  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  which  thirty-five  will  stand 
on  an  acre ;  in  peace,  32  000  tons,  or  48,000  loads.  A  seventy-four  gun  ship 
consumes  3000  loads,  or  2000  tons  of  trees,  the  produce  of  fifty-seven  acres 
in  a  century.  Hence  the  whole  navy  consumes  102  600  acres,  and  1026  pel 
annum. — Allnut.  England  imports  about  800  000  loads  of  timber  annually, 
exclusively  of  masts,  yards,  staves,  lath  wood,  &c.,  together  with  about  8,000,- 
000  of  deals  and  deal-ends. — Parl.  Ret. 


616  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [TOS 

TIME-MEASURE.  That  of  Scipio  Nasica  was  invented  159  B.  o.  Early  au- 
thors inform  us  that  Alfred's  time-keeper  was  six  large  wax  tapers,  each 
twelve  inches  long;  but  as  they  burnt  unequally,  owing  to  the  wind,  he  in- 
vented a  lantern  made  of  wood,  and  thin  plates  of  ox-horns,  glass  being  f 
great  rarity,  A.  D.  887.  The  ancients  had  three  time-measures :  hour-glasses, 
sun-dials,  and  a  vessel  full  of  water  with  a  hole  in  its  bottom.  See  Clocks^ 
Watches,  &c. 

TIN.  The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for  this  article  for  more  than  1100 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  It  is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them 
commercial  importance  in  the  ancient  world.  Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin- 
mines  appear  to  have  been  neglected  ;  but  after  the  coming  in  of  the  Nor- 
mans, they  produced  considerable  revenues  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall,  par- 
ticularly to  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III. ;  a  charter  and  various  immuni- 
ties were  granted  by  Edmund,  earl  Richard's  brother,  who  also  framed  the 
stannary  laws,  laying  a  duty  on  the  tin,  payable  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall. 
Edward  III.  confirmed  the  tinners  in  their  privileges,  and  erected  Cornwall 
into  a  dukedom,  with  which  he  invested  his  son.  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
1535.  Since  that  time,  the  heirs-apparent  to  the  ciown  of  England,  if  eldest 
sons,  have  enjoyed  it  successively.  Tin-mines  were  discovered  in  Germany, 
which  lessened  the  value  of  those  in  England,  till  then  the  only  tin-mines  in 
Europe,  A.  D.  1240. — Anderson.  Discovered  in  Barbary  1640 ;  in  India,  1740 ; 
in  New  Spain,  1782.  England  exports  at  present,  on  an  average,  1500  tons 
of  unwrought  tin,  besides  manufactured  tin  and  tin-plates,  of  the  value  of 
400,0002. 

TITHES  AND  TENTHS.  Were  first  given  by  Moses  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1490 
B.  c. — Josephus.  For  the  first  800  years  of  the  Christian  church  they  were 
given  purely  as  alms,  and  were  voluntary. —  Wickliffe.  "I  will  not  put  the 
title  of  the  clergy  to  tithes  upon  any  divine  right,  though  such  a  right 
certainly  commenced  and  I  believe  as  certainly  ceased,  with  the  Jewish  the- 
ocracy."— Blackstone.  The  first  mention  of  them  in  any  English  written  law, 
is  a  constitutional  decree  made  in  a  synod  strongly  enjoining  tithes,  A.  D.  786. 
Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  gave  unto  the  church  the  tithes  of  all  his  kingdom,  to 
expiate  for  the  death  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  whom  he  had 
caused  to  be  basely  murdered,  A.  D.  794. — Burn's  Eccles.  Law.  Tithes  were 
first  granted  to  the  English  clergy  in  a  general  assembly  held  by  Ethelwold, 
A.D.  844. — Henry's  Hist,  of  Eng.  They  were  established  in  France  by 
Charlemagne,  about  800. — Henaulk.  Tenths  were  confirmed  in  the  Lateran 
councils,  1215. — Rainaldi. 

TITLES  ROYAL.  The  following  is  the  succession  in  which  the  royal  titles 
swelled  in  England.  Henry  IV.  had  the  title  of  "Grace"  and  "  My  liege" 
conferred  upon  him,  1399.  The  title  of  "  Excellent  Grace"  was  conferred 
upon  Henry  VI.,  1422.  Edward  IV.  had  that  of  "  Most  High  and  Mighty 
Prince,"  1461.  Henry  VII.  had  the  title  "  Highness,"  1485 ;  and  Henry  VIII. 
had  the  same  title,  and  sometimes  "  Grace,"  1509,  et  seq.  But  these  two  last 
were  absorbed  in  the  title  of  "  Majesty,"  being  that  with  which  Francis  I. 
of  France  addressed  Henry  at  their  memorable  interview  in  1520. — See  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  and  last  king  who  was  styled 
"  Dread  Sovereign."  James  I.  coupled  to  '•  Majesty"  the  present  '•  Sacred," 
or  "  Most  Excellent  Majesty."  "  Majesty"  was  the  style  of  the  emperors  of 
Germany ;  the  first  king  to  whom  it  was  given  was  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
about  1463. 

TOBACCO,  Nicotiana  Tabacum.  This  plant  received  its  name  from  Tabacco, 
a  province  of  Yucatan,  New  Spain.  Some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago, 
one  of  the  Caribees ;  others,  from  Tabasco,  in  the  gulf  of  Florida.  It  wag 
first  observed  at  St.  Domingo,  A.  D.  1496 ;  and  was  used  freely  by  the  Span- 


TOPj  DICTIONARY    Of    DATES.  617 

iards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  Tobacco  was  first  carried  to  England,  7  Elizabeth, 
1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins ;  but  sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  sir  Francis  Drake 
are  also  mentioned  as  having  first  introduced  it  there.  It  was  manufactured 
only  for  exportation  for  some  years. — Stance's  Chron.  In  1584  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  against  it.  King  James  I.  issued  his  famous  Counter-Blast 
against  Tobacco  in  16  .  The  star-chamber  ordered  the  duties  to  be  6s.  1(W. 
per  pound,  1614.  Its  cultivation  was  prohibited  in  England  by  Charles  II. 
An  act  laying  a  duty  on  the  importation  was  passed,  1684.  The  cultivation 
was  allowed  in  Ireland  1779.  The  tax  was  increased,  and  put  under  the 
excise,  1789. — Anderson;  Ashe.  Various  statutes  have  passed  relative  to 
tobacco.  Act  to  revive  the  act  prohibiting  the  culture  of  tobacco  in  lie- 
land  passed  1831.  Act  directing  that  tobacco  grown  in  Ijreland  be  purchased 
in  order  to  its  being  destroyed,  1832.  The  quantity  consumed  in  England 
!n  1791  was  nine  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829  about  fifteen 
millions  of  poundsx — Chan,  of  the  Ex.  In  1840,  the  quantity  had  reached 
to  forty  millions  of  pounds. — Parl.  Ret.  In  the  United  States,  tobacco  is 
grown  chiefly  in  Maryland  and  Virginia ;  but  to  some  extent  in  all  t'ae 
southern  states.  The  value  of  the  crop  exported  in  1848  was  $7,551,122 
Tobacco  is  produced  also  in  France,  in  India,  &c. ;  that  of  the  United 
States  is  considered  the  best  in  flavor,  but  that  of  Cuba  is  preferred  for 
smoking.  Several  works  have  been  published  on  the  evil  effects  and  bad 
taste  of  this  weed. 

TOBAGO.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  A.  D.  .642.  Taken  by  the  English,  1672;  re- 
taken. 1674.  In  1748  it  was  declared  a  neutral  island  ;  but  in  1763  it  was 
ceded  to  the  English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French  under  De  Grasse 
in  1781.  and  confirmed  to  them  in  1783.  Again  taken  by  the  English.  April 
14,  1793,  but  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Oct.  6, 1802.  The  island  was 
once  more  taken  by  the  British  under  general  Grinfield,  July  1,  1803,  and 
was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 

TOLERATION  ACT.  To  William  III.  is  due  the  honor  and  wisdom  of  the 
first  toleration  act  known  in  the  history  of  this  country,  passed  in  1689.  The 
dissenters  have  ever  since  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  this  act  without  interrup- 
tion, though  their  liberties  were  greatly  endangered  in  the  latter  end  of 
queen  Anne's  reign. 

TOLLS.  They  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the  Stade  on  the  Elbe,  A.  D. 
1109.  They  were  first  demanded  by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound, 
1341.  Toll-bars  in  England  originated  in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for 
every  wagon  that  passed  through  a  certain  manor.  Toll-gates  or  turnpikes 
were  used  in  1663. 

TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.  An  ancient  duty  levied  on  wine  and  other  goods, 
commenced  in  England  about  21  Edward  III..  1346.  The  first  granted  to 
the  kings  of  England  for  life,  6  Edward  IV.,  1465.  Cumngham's  Hist. 
Taxes. 

TONTINES.  Loans  given  for  life  annuities  with  benefit  of  survivorship,  so 
called  from  the  inventor  Laurence  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on 
foot  at  Paris  to  reconcile  the  people  to  cardinal  Mazarin's  government,  by 
amusing  them  with  the  hope  of  becoming  suddenly  rich.  A.  D.  1653. —  Vol- 
taire. The  late  celebrated  Mr.  Jennings  was  an  original  subscriber  for  a 
100Z.  share  in  a  tontine  company ;  and  being  the  last  survivor  of  the  share- 
holders his  share  produced  him  3000Z.  per  annum.  He  died  worth  2,116,- 
244Z.,  aged  103  years,  June  19,  1798.— Haydn. 

TOPLITZ.  BATTLE  OF.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Toplitz  between  the  Austrians 
and  Prussians,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated.  1762.  Battle  of  Toplitz, 
August  30,  1813.  Here  the  allied  sovereigns  had  their  head-quarters  a 
considerable  time  in  this  latter  year.  Treaty  of  Toplitz,  being  a  tripl* 


618  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

alliance  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Sept.  9,  1813.  Treaty  ol 
Toplitz,  between  Austria  and  Great  Britain,  Oct.  3,  same  year. 
TORTURE.  It  has  disgraced  humanity  in  the  earliest  ages  in  every  country. 
It  was  only  permitted  by  the  Romans  in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was 
used  early  in  the  Catholic  church  against  heretics.  Occasionally  used  in 
England  so  late  as  the  1st  Elizabeth.  1558 ;  and  in  Scotland  until  1690. 
The  trial  by  torture  was  abolished  in  Portugal.  1776 ;  in  France,  by  order 
of  Louis  XVI..  in  1780.  although  it  had  not  been  practised  there  some  time 
before.  Ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  Sweden  by  Gustavus  III.,  1786.  It 
yet  continues  in  other  countries. 

TORY.  Various  authors  have  differently  described  this  term.  It  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  an  Irish  word,  originally  signifying  a  savage,  or  rather  a  col- 
lector of  tithes  and  taxes. — Eiicyclop.  The  names  of  Cavaliers  and  Round- 
heads, which  existed  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  were  changed,  some  tell  us, 
into  those  of  Tories  and  Whigs.  The  Tories  were  those  who  vindicated 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  held  high  notions  of  their  prerogatives ; 
while  "  the  Whigs  "  denoted  a  friend  to  civil  and  religious  liberty. — Ashe. 
The  name  of  Tory  was  given  by  the  country  party  to  the  court  party,  com- 
paring them  to  Popish  robbers ;  and  arose  out  of  the  Meal-tub  plot  (which, 
see},  in  1679.  The  terms  are  defined  by  extreme  politicians,  as  of  two  par- 
ties in  the  aristocracy :  the  Whigs,  who  would  curb  the  power  of  the  crown  ; 
and  the  Tories,  who  would  curb  the  power  of  the  people. — Phillips.  In  our 
revolutionary  war  the  term  was  applied  to  the  royalists ;  but.  oddly  enough, 
at  the  time  of  president  Jackson,  it  was  given  to  the  ultra  democratic  party, 
while  the  other  great  party  called  themselves  Whigs.  See  Whigs. 

TOULON,  FRANCE.  In  1706  this  town  was  bombarded  by  the  allies,  both  by 
land  and  sea,  by  which  almost  the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of 
ruins,  and  several  ships  burned ;  but  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  raise 
the  siege.  It  surrendered.  August  23,  1793,  to  the  British  admiral,  lord 
Hood,  who  took  possession  both  of  the  town  and  shipping  in  the  name  of 
Louis  XVII.,  under  a  stipulation  to  assist  in  restoring  the  French  constitu- 
tion of  1789.  A  conflict  took  place  between  the  English  and  French 
forces,  when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  Nov.  15,  1793.  Toulon  was  evacuated 
by  the  British,  Dec.  19,  same  year,  when  great  cruelties  were  exercised 
towards  inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favorable  to  the  British. 

TOULOUSE,  FRANCE.  Founded  about  615  B.  c.  A  dreadful  tribunal  was  es- 
tablished here  to  extirpate  heretics,  A.  D.  1229.  The  troubadours,  or  rheto- 
ricians of  Toulouse,  had  their  origin  about  A.  D.  850,  and  consisted  of  a  frater- 
nity of  poets,  whose  art  was  extended  throughout  Europe,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  Italian  and  French  poetry.  See  Troubadours. 

TOULOUSE.  BATTLE  OP.  The  final  battle  between  the  British  Peninsular  army 
under  lord  Wellington  and  the  French — one  of  the  most  bloody  that  had 
been  fought  from  the  time  lord  Wellington  had  received  the  command  of 
the  troops  in  Portugal.  The  French  were  commanded  by  marshal  Soult, 
whom  the  victorious  British  hero  forced  to  retreat,  after  twelve  hours  fight- 
ing, from  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  seven  at  night,  the  British 
forcing  the  French  intrenched  position  before  Toulouse.  The  loss  of  the 
allies  in  killed  and  wounded  was  between  four  and  five  thousand  men ;  that 
of  the  French  exceeded  10,000.  At  the  period  of  this  battle  Bonaparte 
had  abdicated  the  throne  of  France ;  but  neither  of  the  commanders  was 
aware  of  that  fact,  or  the  close  of  the  war  at  Paris.  Fought  April  10,  1814. 

TOURNAMENTS  OR  JOUSTS.  Some  authors  refer  them  to  Trojan  origin, 
such  as  Ascanius  instituted  among  the  Romans.  The  tournament  is  a  mar- 
tial sport  or  exercise  which  the  ancient  cavalieis  used  to  perform,  to  show 


tOW  I  DICTIONARY  OF   DATES.  619 

their  bravery  and  address.  It  is  derived  from  the  French  word  tourner, 
"  to  turn  round,"  because,  to  be  expert  in  these  exercises,  much  agility, 
both  of  horse  and  man,  was  necessary.  They  were  much  practised  A.  D. 
890;  and  were  regulated  and  countenanced  by  Henry  I.,  emperor,  about 
919.  The  Lateran  council  published  an  article  against  their  continuance 
in  1136.  One  was  held  in  Smithtield  so  late  as  the  12th  century,  when  the 
taste  for  them  declined  in  England.  Henry  II.  of  France,  in  a  tilt  with  the 
count  de  Montgomery,  had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused 
the  kirg's  death  in  a  few  days,  June  29.  1559.  Tournaments  were  from 
this  event  abolished  in  France,  and  with  them  "  the  age  of  chivalry  is 
fled."  A  magnificent  and  costly  feast  and  splendid  tournament  took 
place  at  Eglinton  castle,  August  29,  1839,  and  the  following  week  :  many 
of  the  visitors  assumed  the  characters  of  ancient  knights,  lady  Seymour 
being  the  •'  Queen  of  Beauty,"  as  fairest  of  the  female  throng.  But  this  fes- 
tivity is  not  likely  to  lead  to  a  revival  of  the  old  tournament. 

TOURNAY.  Taken  by  the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  but  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  place  a  garrison 
in  it  as  one  of  the  barrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  ge- 
neral Labourdonnaye.  Nov.  11, 1792.  Battle  near  Tournay,  by  the  Austrians 
and  British  on  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  the  former  victorious, 
May  8,  1793.  Another  battle  was  fought  between  the  British  and  French, 
when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  at  Rousalaer,  losing  200  men  and  three  field- 
pieces,  May  6,  1794. 

TOURS,  BATTLE  OP.  One  of  the  glorious  victories  of  Charles  Martel,  and  that 
which  most  established  his  fame,  gained  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours, 
and  from  which  he  acquired  the  name  of  Martel,  signifying  fiammer.  We 
are  told  that  but  for  this  timely  victory  of  Charles  Martel,  all  Europe,  as 
well  as  Asia  and  Africa,  must  have  become  Mahornedan;  October  10, 
A.  D.  732. 

TOWERS.  That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we  read,  built  in  the  plains  of 
Shinar  (Genesis  xi.),  2247  B.  u.  See  Babel.  The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at 
Athens,  built  550  B.  c.  The  Tower  of  Pharos  (see  Pharos},  280  B.  c.  Tow- 
ers were  built  early  in  England  ;  and  the  round  towers  in  Ireland  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  ancient  curiosities.  They  were  the  only  struc- 
tures of  stone  found  in  Ireland  before  the  first  arrival  of  the  English, 
except  some  buildings  in  the  maritime  towns  founded  by  the  Danes. 
These  towers  were  tall,  hollow  pillars,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  narrowing 
towards  the  top,  pierced  with  lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  high  above 
the  ground,  and  covered  with,  conical  roofs  of  the  same  materials.  Of  these 
productions  of  old  Irish  masonry,  fifty-six  still  remain,  from  50  to  130  feet 
high. 

TOWER  or  LONDON.  Anciently  a  royal  palace,  and  consisted  of  no  more 
than  what  is  now  (Jailed  the  White  Tower,  which  appears  to  have  been  first 
maiked  out  by  William  the. Conqueror,  A.  D.  1076,  commenced  in  1078,  and 
completed  by  his  son  William  Rufus,  who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it  with  walls, 
and  a  broad,  deep  ditch.  Several  succeeding  princes  made  additions  to  it, 
and  king  Edward  III.  built  the  church.  In  1638  the  White  Tower  was  re- 
built; and  since  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  II.  it  has  been  thoroughly 
repaired,  and  a  great  number  of  additional  buildings  made  to  it.  Here  are 
the  Armory,  Jewel-office,  and  various  other  divisions  and  buildings  of 
peculiar  interest ;  and  here  were  many  executions  of  illustrious  persons, 
and  many  murders  See  England. 

TOWTON,  BATTLE  OP.  This  gieat  battle  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  fierce  and 
bloody  that  ever  happened  in  any  domestic  war.  It  was  fought  between 
the  houses  of  York  (Edward  IV.)  and  Lancaster  (Henry  VI.),  to  the  lattet 


620  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  «u 

of  whom  it  was  fatal,  and  on  whose  side  more  than  37,000  of  his  subject* 
fell.  Edward  issued  orders  to  give  no  quarter,  and  the  most  merciless 
slaughter  ensued.  Henry  was  made  prisoner  and  confined  in  the  Tower  ; 
his  queen,  Margaret,  fled  to  Flanders :  fought  March  29,  1461. 

TRAFALGAR,  BATTLE  OP,  the  greatest  naval  victory  ever  obtained  by  Eng- 
land, fought  by  the  British,  under  command  of  the  immortal  Nelson,  against 
the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  commanded  by  admiral  Villeneuve 
and  two  Spanish  admirals.  The  enemy's  force  was  eighteen  French  and 
fifteen  Spanish  vessels,  all  of  the  line  ;.  that  of  the  British  twenty-seven  ships 
After  a  bloody  and  protracted  fight,  admiral  Villeneuve  and  the  other  ad- 
mirals were  taken,  and  nineteen  of  their  ships  captured,  sunk,  or  destroyed. 
But  the  hero  of  England  lost  his  life  in  this  memorable  battle ;  and  admiral 
Collingwood  succeeded  to  the  command.  Nelson's  ship  was  the  Victory ;  and 
his  last  signal  on  going  into  the  engagement,  was  "  England  expects  every 
man  to  do  his  duty."  Oct.  21,  1805. 

TRAGEDY.  That  of  Alcestis  was  the  first  represented  by  Thespis,  the  first 
tragic  poet  at  Athens,  636  B.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  Prizes  instituted,  and  the 
first  gained  by  ^Eschylus,  486  B.  c. — Ibid.  Another  prize  carried  by  Sopho- 
cles, 470  B.  c. — Ibid.  Another  by  Euripides,  442  B.  c. — Ibid.  Another  by 
Astydamus,  377  B.  c. — Ibid.  See  Drama ;  Plays ;  Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S  PILLAR.  Erected  A.  D.  114,  by  the  directions  of  the  emperor 
Trajan,  and  executed  by  Apollodorus.  This  column,  which  still  exists  at 
Rome,  was  built  in  the  large  square  called  the  Forum  Romanum ;  it  is 
140  feet  high,  of  the  Tuscan  order,  and  commemorates  the  victories  of  the 
emperor. 

TRANSFUSION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  It  began  to  be  practised  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  was  successful  in  France,  where  Louis  XL,  when  dying,  went 
farther  still,  and  drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  pro- 
longing life,  A.  D.  1483. — Henault.  After  trials  of  the  efficacy  of  transfusion 
upon  animals,  M.  Denis  revived  the  practice  in  Paris,  where,  out  of  five 
persons  upon  whom  he  operated,  two  died,  and  the  magistracy  prohibited 
the  experiment  upon  human  bodies  afterwards,  1668.  Lower,  an  English 
physician,  who  died  in  1691.  practised  in  this  way. — Friend's  Hist,  of  Phys 
Transfusion  again  attempted  in  France,  in  1797  ;  and  recently  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, but  seldom  with  success.  See  article  Blood. 

TRANSPORTATION  OF  FELONS  IN  ENGLAND.  The  first  criminals  were 
ordered  for  transportation  instead  of  execution,  A.  D.  1690 ;  but  banishment 
for  lighter  offences  than  those  adjudged  death  was  much  earlier.  England 
is  reproached  abroad  for  transporting  persons  whose  offences  are  compara- 
tively venial.  John  Eyre,  esq.,  a  man  of  fortune,  was  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  stealing  a  few  quires  of  paper,  Nov.  1,  1771. — Phillips.  More 
recently,  the  reverend  Dr.  Halloran,  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Chesterfield,  was 
transported  for  forging  a  frank,  (IQd.  postage)  Sept.  9,  1818.  The  first 
transportation  of  felons  to  Botany  Bay  was  in  May  1787 ;  they  arrived  at  the 
settlement  in  January  1788.  Returning  from  transportation  was  punished 
with  death  until  1834,  when  an  act  passed  making  the  offence  punishable 
by  transportation  for  life. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.  This  doctrine  was  first  introduced  by  a  friar,  about 
A.  D.  840.  It  became  a  confirmed  article  of  Christian  faith  about  1000.  It 
was  opposed  in  England  about  1019  ;  but  the  English  church  admitted  the 
doctrine  before  1066.  Belief  in  it  as  necessary  to  salvation  was  finally  es- 
tablished by  the  council  of  Placentia,  1096.  The  word  "  transubstantiation' 
was  first  used  by  Peter  of  Blois  about  1166.  John  Huss,  in  subsequent 
times,  was  the  first  opposer  of  this  doctrine;  he  was  burnt  by  order  of  thi 
council  of  Constance,  A.  D.  1416. — Caws  Hist.  Lit. 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


621 


TRAPPTSTS,  OR  MONKS  OF  LA  TRAPPE.  A  French  order  in  the  depart- 
ment  of  Orne,  famed  in  the  days  of  superstition  for  their  austerity  of  dis- 
cipline, and  for  keeping  a  perpetual  silence.  This  order  was  charged  with 
rebellion  and  conspiracy  in  France,  and  64  English  and  Irish  Trappists  were 
shipped  by  the  French  government  at  Painboeuf,  Nov.  19,  and  were  landed 
from  the  Hebe  French  frigate  at  Cork,  Nov.  30,  1831.  They  have  established 
themselves  at  Mount  Melleray,  county  of  Waterford ;  but  do  not  maintain 
there  the  extreme  rigor  of  their  order. 

RAVELLING  ABROAD.  See  article  Absentees.  In  order  to  discourage 
English  subjects  from  travelling  to  foreign  countries  and  spending  money 
there,  a  tax  was  levied  (but  of  very  inadequate  amount)  by  way  of  license 
for  going  abroad,  and  paid  to  the  crown,  10  Charles  I.,  1635. — Rapin. 

TREAD-MILL.  An  invention  of  the  Chinese,  and  used  in  China  to  raise 
water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  fields.  The  'read-mill  lately  introduced  into 
the  prisons  of  Great  Britain  is  of  a  more  complicated  construction.  It  is 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Cubitt  of  Ipswich.  The  first  was  erected  at  Brixton 
jail,  1817.  This  punishment  has  not  been  introduced  in  the  United  States. 

TREASON.  See  High  Treason.  It  wa*  punished  in  England  only  by  banish- 
ment till  after  Henry  I. — Baker's  Chronicle.  Ascertained  by  law,  Edward 
III.,  1349.  Trials  regulated,  and  two  witnesses  required  to  convict,  1695. 
The  laws  relating  to  treason  are  numerous,  and  formerly  the  punishment 
was  dreadful — hanging,  quartering,  beheading,  &c.,  and  even  burning  alive. 
Mr.  Martin  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of  burning  alive  for  treason, 
which  passed  both  houses  in  1788.  PETTY  TREASON  may  happen  three 
ways  :  a  wife's  murder  of  her  husband  ;  a  servant's  murder  of  his  master ; 
and  an  ecclesiastical  person's  murder  of  his  prelate  or  other  superior — so 
declared  by  statute  25  Edward  III.,  1350. 

TREATIES.  The  first  formal  and  written  treaty  made  by  England  with  any 
foreign  nation  was  entered  into  A.  D.  1217.  The  first  commercial  treaty  was 
with  the  Flemings,  1  Edward,  1272 ;  the  second  with  Portugal  and  Spain, 
1308. — Anderson.  The  chief  treaties  of  the  principal  civilized  nations  of 
Europe  will  be  found  described  in  their  respective  places :  the  following 
forms  an  index  to  them.  See  Conventions ;  Coalitions;  Leagues,  &c. 


Abo,  peace  of  - 

Aix-la-Chapelle        -  - 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of 
Akermann,  peace  of 
Alt  Radstadt       •  • 

America,  peace  wilh  • 

Amiens,  peace  of 
Armed  Neutrality    •  - 

Arras,  treaty  of  .. 

Arras,  ditto    ... 
Au2sburgh,  league  of   - 
Baden,  peace  of  • 

Barrier  treaty     -  - 

Basle,  peace  of 
Bassein,  India     -  . 

Bayonne,  treaty  of    -  • 

Belgium,  treaty  of  London 
Belgrade,  peace  of    -  - 

Berlin,  peace  of  • 

Berlin  decree  -  • 

Berlin  :onvention          • 
Breda  peace  of        .. 
Bretisny,  peace  of 
Bucharest,  treaty  of 
Cambray,   league  of     • 
Cambray,  peace  of  - 

Gunpo-Formio,  treaty  of 
Carlo witz,  peace  of 


1743 

Carlsbad,  congress  of    • 

1668 
1748 

Cateau-Cambresis,  peace  of 
Chaumont,  treaty  of 

1826 

Chunar,  India 

1706 

Cintra,  convention  of    - 

1783 

Closterseven,  convention  of 

1802 

Coalition,  first,  against  France 

1800 

Coalition,  second,  ditto 

1435 
1482 

Coalition,  third,  ditto 
Coalition,  fourth,  ditto 

1686 

Coalition,  fifth,  ditto      •          • 

1714 

Coalition,  sixth,  ditto 

1715 

Concordat           - 

1795 

Conflans,  treaty  of 

1802 

Constantinople,  peace  of 

1808 

Constantinof  !e,  treaty  of    « 

ia39 

Copenhagen,  peace  of 

1739 

Cressy            ... 

1742 

Dresden 

1806 
1808 

Family  compact 
Fontainebleau.  peace  of           • 

1667 

Fontainebleaui  treaty  of 

1360 

Fontainebleau,  concordat  at     • 

1812 

Friedwald,  treaty  of 

1508 

Fuessen,  peace  of          »          • 

1529 

Ghent,  pacification  of          » 

1797 

Ghent,  peace  of   America) 

1699     Golden  Bull 

-1811 
1554 

-  1814 
-1781 

-  1801? 
1757 

-  1792 

-  1799 

-  1805 

-  1806 

-  1809 

-  1813 
.  1801 
.  1463 

1712 
1833 

-  1660 

-  1544 
.  1745 

1761 

-  1679 

-  1785 

-  1813 

-  1551 

-  1745 
157S 

-  1814 

-  135f 


622 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


TTJH 


TREATIES,  continued. 

Grand  Alliance  -  • 

Greece,  treaty  of  London    • 

Hague,  treaty  of  the 

Hague,  treaty  of  the 

Halle,  treaty  of 

Hamburgh,  peace  of 

Hanover  treaty   • 

Holland,  peace  with  • 

Holy  Alliance 

Hubertsberg,  peace  of 

Interim     .... 

Kiel,  treaty  of 

Laybach,  congress  of     •  • 

League  ... 

Leipsic,  alliance  of 

Leoben,  peace  of  « 

Lisbon,  peace  of 

London,  treaty  of  (Greece) 

London,  convention  of  (Turkey) 

Lubeck,  peace  of  • 

Luneville,  peace  of 

Madrid,  treaty  of 

Methuen  treaty   -  ••    4 

Milan  decree 

Munster,  peace  of          •  « 

Nantes,  edict  of        - 

Naumberg,  treaty  of 

Nice,  treaty  of 

Nimeguen,  peace  of      •    '       • 

Noyon,  treaty  of 

Nuremberg,  treaty  of    • 

Olivia,  peace  of 

Paris,  peace  of  (see  Paris) 

Paris,  treaty  of 

Paris,  peace  of  (Sweden) 

Paris,  capitulation  of 

Paris,  treaty  of   •  -  » 

Paris,  peace  of 

Paris,  treaty  of   • 

Partition,  first  treaty 

Partition,  second  treaty  •  - 

Passarowitz,  peace  of 

Passau,  treaty  of      ,.-     ».'       -f 

Petersburg,  peace  of 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of   - 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of    • 

Peterswalden,  convention  of 

Pilnitz,  convention  M"    • 

Poland,  partition  of  - 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

Prague,  peace  of 

Presburg.  peace  of  - 

Public  good,  league  for  the        -  .„.      .. e, ,  _. 

TREATIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.— Some  of  the  most  important: 


•  1689 
•  1829 

Pyrenees,  treaty  of  the 
Quadruple  Alliance 

-      •  16T.9 
•  1718 

-  1659 

Radstadt,  peace  of  - 

•      •  1714 

-  1669 

Radstadt,  congress  of     •           • 

-1797 

•  1610 

Ratisbon,  peace  of  -           « 

•      -1630 

-  1762 

Ratisbon,  treaty  of         •           • 

•  1906 

-  1725 

Religion,  peace  of    - 

•      •  1556 

-1784 

Rhine,  Confederation  of  the 

•  1806 

-1815 

Ryswick.  peace  of  • 

•      -1697 

-  1763 

St.  Germain's,  peaco  of 

•  i570 

•  1548 

St.  Germain-en-  Laye 

•      •  i679 

-1814 

St.  Ildefonso,  alliance  of  Spain 

with 

-1721 

France  .... 

-1795 

-1570 

Seville,  peace  of       - 

•      -  1792 

-1631 

Sicirod,  peace  of  - 

•  1613 

•  1797 

Smalcald,  league  of- 

•      -1529 

-1668 

Spain,  pacification  of  (London) 

•1834 

-  1829 

Siettin,  peace  of 

•      -  1570 

•  1840 

Stockholm 

-  1630 

-  1629 

Stockholm,  peace  of 

•      -  1719 

-1801 

Stockholm,  treaty  of 

-  1724 

-  1526 

Stockholm,  treaty  of 

•      -  1813 

-1703 

Temeswar,  truce  of 

•  1664 

-  1807 

Teschen,  peace  of   •           • 

-1779 

-  1648 

Teusin,  peace  of 

•  1595 

-  1598 

Tilsit,  peace  of 

•      -1807 

-  1564 

Tolentino,  treaty  of 

•1793 

-  1518 
-  1678 

Toplitz.  treaty  of     -           • 
Triple  Alliance   ... 

.      -  1813 
-1717 

-  1516 

Triple  Alliance  of  the  Hague 

•      -1668 

-  1532 

Troppau,  congress  of     - 

•  1820 

•  1660 

Troyes,  treaty  of 

•      -1420 

-  1763 

Turkmauchay,  peace  of          « 

•  1828 

-  1796 

Ulm.  peace  of 

.      -  1620 

•  1810 

Utretht,  union  of 

-  1579 

•  1814 

Utrecht,  peace  of     - 

•      -  1713 

-  1814     Valenjay,  treaty  of 

-1813 

-  1815     Verona,  congress  of 

•      -1822 

•  1817  :  Versailles,  peace  of 

-  178S 

-  1698     Vienna,  treaty  of     - 

.      -  1725 

-1700     Vienna,  treaty  of  alliance 

.1731 

•  1718     Vienna,  definitive  peace 

•      .1737 

•  1552     Vienna,  peace  of 

.1809 

-  1762     Vienna,  treaty  of,  March  23 

-      •  1815 

-  1772     Vienna,  treaty  of,  May  31 

•1815 

-  1805     Vienna,  treaty  of,  June  4     • 

-      -  1815 

-  1810     Vossem.  peace  of 

-1673 

-  1813     Warsaw,  treaty  of  - 

-      -1768 

-  1791     Warsaw,  alliance  of      - 

-1683 

•  1795     Westminster,  peace  of 

-      -  1674 

-  1439     Westminster  (with  Holland)     • 

•  1716 

-  1713  i  Westphalia,  peace  of 

•      -1648 

•  1653     Wilna,  treaty  of  - 

-1561 

1805     Worms,  edict  of 

•      •  1521 

•  1464     Wurtzburg,  treaty  of     - 

•  1610 

Alliance  with  France  •       Feb.  6.  1779 

Treaty  of  Paris  (independence  secured) 

Sept.  3,  1783 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Prussia       -  1785 
Treaty  with  Morocco     -  -  -  1787 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain 

(Jay's)  -  ...  1794 

Treaty  with  the  Six  Nations  and  other 

Indian  tribes    -  -  1794 

Treaty  with  Spain,  by  Pinckney ;  and 

Algiers,  by  Humphries    -  -      -  1796 

Treaty  with  Tunis ;  with  Prussia  (by 

J.  Q.  Adams)  -  -  -  1799 

Treaty  with  France,  by  Ellsworth,  Pa- 
trick Henry  &c.  Sept.  30, 180!) 


Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  by  Monroe 
and  Pinckney — rejected  by  the  Ame- 
rican government       -  -  -  18M 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  with  Great  Britain, 
signed  by  J.  Q.  Adams,  Gallatin,  and 
H.  Clay,  for  the  .  •  ited  States,  clos- 
ing th«  "war  of  1812,"  iut  leaving 
the  original  dispute  much  as  before-  1814 
Ratified  by  the  United  States,    Feb.  17, 1915 
Treaty  with  the  Choctaws  and  Chero- 

kees 1816 

Treaty  with  the  republic  of  Colombia  -  132S 
Treaty  with  the  Creeks,  Osases,  Ac.      132S 
Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  indemnify- 
ing American  citizens  for  spoliation! 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


TKI  J 

TREATIES,  continued. 

during  the  war  with  Napoleon 

Nov.  13,  1826 

Treaty  wilh  Brazil       •       March  18,  1829 
Treaty  with  Turkey  -        May  7,  1830 

Treaty  with  Mexico  (commercial)  Ap.5, 1831 
Treaty  with  do.        -  -     April  5,  1832 

Treaty  with  Naples       -  Oct.  14,  1832 

Treaty  with  Russia  (commercial) 

Dec.  18,  1832 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  respecting 
the  N.  E.  boundary,  signed  at  Wash- 
ington by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Mr. 
Webster :  ratified  by  the  senate  (39 
to  9)  -  -  -  Aug.  20,  1842 

Treaty  with  China,  negotiated  by  C. 


623 


Cushing ;   ratified  by  the  Be:  ate 

Jan.  16, 1S4< 

Treaty  of  peace  will.  Mexico,  signed  at 
Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  2,  1848 ; 
ratified  by  the  senate  (with  modifica- 
tions) ;  ratified  at  Queretaro  by  Ame- 
rican commissioners  Sevier  and  Clif 
ford,  and  Mexican  minister  Rosas 

May  30,  184? 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  respecting 
Nicaragua,  on  the  Isthmus  between 
North  and  South  America ;  signed 
at  Washington  by  Sir  II.  L.  Bulwer 
and  J.  M.  Clayton  -  June,  185C 


Elms,  in  Switzerland,  335  yeajs. 

Cedars  on  Lebanon,  800  years. 

Olives,  in  the  Garden  of  Olives,  Jerusalem. 
800  years. 

Banian,  in  Hindostan,  3,000  years. 

Cypresses,  at  Grenada,  800  years. 

[For  proofs  and  details  see  the  article  re- 
ferred to.] 


TREES,  AGE  OF.  Among  others  mentioned  in  an  article  in  the  American  Al- 
manac for  1838,  p.  102,  are, 

The   Wallace  oak  at    Ellerslie,  Scotland, 

700  years. 
(Someoaksare  supposd  to  have  lived  1,500 

years.) 
Oak  on  estate  of  James  Wadsworth,  Gene- 

seo,  New  York,  500  years. 
Yetc  trees  at  Fountain's  Abbey,  England, 

1,200  years ;  and  in  Scotland,  said  to  be 

2,500  years. 

TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF.  This  celebrated  council  is  reckoned  in  the  Catholic 
church  as  the  eighteenth  or  last  general  council.  Its  decisions  are  impli- 
citly received  as  the  standard  of  faith,  morals,  and  discipline  in  that  church. 
The  first  council  assembled  A.  D.  1545,  and  continued  (but  with  interrup- 
tions) under  pope  Paul  III.,  Julius  III.,  and  Pius  IV.,  to  1563,  when  the  last 
council  was  held. 

TRIALS.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  been  the  contriver  of  trial  by  jury ;  but  thero 
is  good  evidence  of  such  trials  long  before  his  time.  In  a  cause  tried  at 
Hawarden,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a 
list  of  the  twelve  jurors  ;  confirmed,  too,  by  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of 
one  of  them,  of  the  name  of  Corbyn,  of  the  Gate,  still  preserve  their  name 
and  residence  at  a  spot  in  the  parish  yet  called  the  Gate. — Phillips. 

TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Tribuni  Pletns.  Magistrates  of  Rome,  first 
chosen  from  among  the  commons  to  represent  the  people,  492  B.  c.,  at  the 
time  the  people,  after  a  quarrel  with  the  senators,  had  retired  to  Mons  Sa- 
cer.  The  first  two  were  C.  Licinius.  and  L.  Albinus;  but  their  number  was 
soon  after  raised  to  five,  and  37  years  after  to  ten,  which  remained  fixed. 
Their  office  was  annual,  and  as  the  first  had  been  created  on  the  4th  of  the 
ides  of  December,  that  day  was  ever  after  chosen  for  the  election. 

TRINIDAD.  This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was  taken 
from  the  Spaniards  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595 ;  but  the  French  took  it 
from  the  English  in  1676.  Taken  by  the  British,  with  four  ships  of  the 
line,  and  a  military  force  under  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  to  whom 
the  island  capitulated.  Feb.  21.  1797;  they  captured  two,  and  burnt  three 
Spanish  ships  of  war  in  the  harbor.  This  possession  was  confirmed  to  Eng- 
land by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  insurrection  of  the  negroes 
occurred  Jan.  4,  1832.  See  Colonies. 

ITIIN1TY  AND  TRINITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  received  by 
all  Christian  sects  except  those  called  Unitarians  (which  see~).  Theophilus, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century,  the  first  who  used 
the  terra  Trinity,  to  express  the  three  sacred  persons  in  the  Godhead.  His 
Defence  of  ChristianUy  was  edited  by  Gesner,  at  Zurich,  in  1546. —  Wat-kin* 


624  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  {"  TEC 

An  order  of  the  Trinity  was  founded,  A.  D.  1198,  b>  John  de  Matha  and  Felix 
de  Valois.  The  Trinity  fraternity,  originally  of  lifteen  persons,  was  insti- 
tuted at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri.  in  1548.  An  act  to  exempt  from  penal- 
ties persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  passed  in  England  in 
1813. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  This  celebrated  treaty  of  alliance  was  ratified  between 
the  States-General  and  England,  against  France,  for  the  protection  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands ;  Sweden  afterwards  joining  the  league,  it  was  known 
as  the  Triple  Alliance,  Jan.  28.  1668. 

TRIUMPHS.  The  triumph  was  a  solemn  honor  done  generals  of  armies  after 
they  had  won  great  victories,  by  receiving  them  into  the  town  with  great 
magnificence  and  public  acclamations.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  two 
sorts — the  great,  that  was  called  simply  the  triumph  ;  and  the  little,  styled 
the  ovation.  They  also  distinguish  triumphs  into  land  and  sea  triumphs, 
accordingly  as  the  battles  were  fought.  See  Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI.  Three  magistrates  appointed  equally  to  govern  the  Roman  state 
with  absolute  power.  These  officers  gave  a  fatal  blow  to  the  expiring  inde- 
pendence of  the  Roman  people,  and  became  celebrated  for  their  different 
pursuits,  their  ambition,  and  their  various  fortunes.  The  first  triumvirate, 
B.  c.  60,  was  in  the  hands  of  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who  at  the 
expiration  of  their  office  kindled  a  civil  war.  The  second  and  last  triumvi- 
rate, B.  c.  43,  was  under  Augustus.  Mark  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  through 
whom  the  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  Augustus  disagreed  with  his 
colleagues,  and  after  he  had  defeated  them,  he  made  himself  absolute  in 
Rome.  The  triumvirate  was  in  full  force  at  Rome  for  about  12  years.  See 
Rome. 

TROUBADOURS  OR  JONGLEURS.  They  first  appeared  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  were  so  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  court  of  Poitou,  and  by 
several  powerful  princes,  that  they  spread  in  process  of  time  throughout 
Europe.  They  cultivated  poetry  and  music,  and  refinement  followed  in 
their  steps,  greatly  improving  the  taste  and  temper  of  the  times.  To  the 
troubadours  we  owe  Latin  and  French  poetry. 

TROY.  The  history  of  Troas,  or  Phrygia  Minor,  is  at  best  but  obscure,  and 
more  particularly  so  in  times  prior  to  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  who  came 
hither  from  Italy  (or  Crete)  about  the  year  1506  B.  c.,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Teucer,  prince  of  the  country,  whom  he  succeeded.  Dardanus 
built  a  city,  and  named  it,  after  himself,  Dardania :  Troas,  the  second  in 
succession  from  Dardanus,  changed  the  name  to  Troy;  and  Ilus,  his  succes- 
sor, converted  it  into  Ilium. 

Arrival  of  Scamander  in  Phrygia  Mi-  War  of  Hercules  and  Laodemon    B.C.  1231 

nor.—  Blair  •  •       B.C.  1546     Reign  of  Priam  or  Podarces          -     -  1224 

Teucer  succeeds  his  father  -          1502  |  Rape  of  Helen,  by  Alexander  Paris, 

Dardanus  succeeds  Teucer,  and  builds  son  of  Priam,  20  years  before  the 


the  city  of  Dardania         infl  •  1480 

Reign  of  Ericlhonius          •  -     - 1449 

Reign  of  Troas,  from  whom  the  peo- 
ple are  called  Trojans  -  •  1374 
The  rape  of  Ganymede       -  -  1341 


sacking  of  Troy.— Warner's  Iliad, 
book  xxiv.,  line  9&4,  Pope's  edit.  •  1204 

Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the 
Greeks  to  recover  Helen  -  -  1198 

Troy  taken  and  burned  in  the  night  of 


Ilus,  son  of  Troas,  reigns          -  •  1314  I       the  llth  of  June,  i.  e.  23d  of  the 


Reign  of  Laomedon  •  •     -  1260 

Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia;  He- 
sione  delivered  from  the  sea-monster. 


month  Thargelion.— Parian  Mar- 
hies.  408  years  before  the  first 
Olympiad. — Apollodorus  •  •  1184 

jEneas  arrives  in  Italy. — Lenglet       •  1183 


—Blair,  Usher          .  .  -1225 

Some  time  after  the  destruction  of  old  Troy,  a  new  city  was  built,  about 
thirty  stadia  distant  from  the  old  site ;  but  though  it  bore  the  same  name, 
And  received  ample  donations  from  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expe- 


TUN  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  625 

dition,  it  never  rose  to  much  importance,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo  WM 
nearly  in  ruins.  — Priestley. 

TROY  WEIGHT.  The  Romans  left  their  ounce,  now  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  in 
Britain. — ArbuShnot.  The  present  ounce  of  this  weight  was  brought  from 
Grand  Cairo  into  Europe,  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  A.  D.  1095.  It 
was  first  adopted  at  Troyes,  a  city  of  France,  whence  the  name ;  and  is  used 
to  weigh  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones.  The  troy  weight,  Scots,  was  es- 
tablished by  James  VI.  (our  James  I.)  in  1618. 

TROYES  TREATY  OF,  between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy,  whereby  it 
was  stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles 
VI.,  be  appointed  regent  of  France,  and  after  the  death  of  Charles  should 
inherit  the  crown,  May  24,  1420.  The  French  were  driven  from  Troyes  by 
the  allied  armies,  Feb.  7  ;  it  was  retaken  by  Napoleon,  Feb.  23 ;  and  was 
finally  reoccupied  by  the  allies,  March  4,  1814. 

TRUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trum- 
pet to  the  Tyrrhenians,  and  others  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  in  use  in  the 
time  of  Homer,  but  not  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  First  torches,  then 
shells  of  fish,  sounded  like  trumpets,  were  the  signals  of  primitive  wars. — 
Potter.  The  speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  336  B.  c.  Trumpets  were  first  sounded  before  the  king  in  the  time 
of  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  A.  D.  790.  Speaking-trumpets  were  improved  by 
Kircher  in  1652.  Made  by  Salland,  1654.  Philosophically  explained  by 
Moreland,  1671. 

TUESDAY.  The  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called,  as  it  is  supposed,  from  Tu- 
isco,  or  Tiw,  a  Saxon  deity,  that  was  particularly  worshipped  on  this  day. 
Tuesday,  in  Latin  Dies  Martis,  was  called  the  third  day  among  the  Jews. 
See  Week  Days. 

I'UILERIES,  PARIS.  One  of  the  royal  palaces  of  that  city,  commenced  by 
Catharine  de  Medici,  after  the  plans  of  Philibert  de  Lorme,  A.  D.  1564  ;  con- 
tinued by  Henry  IV. ;  and  finished  by  Louis  XIV.  This  palace  was  the 
scene  of  great  events  during  the  three  memorable  revolutions,  particularly 
those  of  1789  and  1848. 

TULIPS.  They  came  to  England  from  Vienna,  A.  D.  1578,  and  have  always 
been  among  our  most  esteemed  flowers.  They  became  an  object  of  com- 
merce in  the  16th  century ;  and  it  is  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  city  of 
Alcmaer.  in  Holland,  that  in  the  year  1639,  120  tulips,  with  the  offsets,  sold 
for  90,000  florins ;  and  in  particular,  that  one  of  them,  called  the  viceroy, 
sold  for  4203  guilders !  The  States  at  last  put  a  stop  to  this  extravagant 
and  ruinous  passion  for  flowers.  The  tulip-tree,  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  was 
carried  to  England  from  America,  about  1663. 

TUNBRIDGE-WELLS.  The  celebrated  springs  here  were  first  discovered  by 
Dudley  lord  North,  who  had  retired  into  the  neighborhood  in  the  last  stage 
of  consumption,  and  became  perfectly  restored  to  health  by  the  use  of  its 
waters.  A.  D.  1606. 

UNIS  AND  TRIPOLI.  The  former  stands  near  where  Carthage  was  built.  The 
territories  of  both  formed  part  of  the  celebrated  Carthaginian  state,  and 
were  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Romans  after  the  third  Punic  war,  148  B.  c, 
Besieged  by  Louis  IX.  of  France.  1270.  It  remained  under  African  kings 
till  taken  by  Barbarossa,  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent.  Barbarossa  was 
expelled  by  Charles  V. ;  but  the  country  was  recovered  by  the  Turks,  under 
Selim  II.  Taken,  with  great  slaughter,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V..  when 
10,000  Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  1535.  The  bey  of  Tunis  was 
first  appointed  in  1570.  Tunis  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blakfc,  on  the  bey 
refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives,  1656. 
27 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Till 


TURBAN.  The  head-dress  of  many  of  the  Eastern  nations,  consisting  of  tw« 
parts,  a  cap  and  a  sash,  the  latter  artfully  wreathed  about  tfap  head.  The 
sash  of  the  Turk's  turban  is  white  linen;  that  of  the  Persians,,  ied  woollen. 
These  are  the  distinguishing  marks  of  their  different  religions.  Sophi,  king 
of  Persia,  being  of  the  sect  of  Ali,  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  red  color, 
to  distinguish  himself  from  the  Turks,  who  are  of  the  sect  of  Omar. 

TURIN.  The  French  besieged  this  city  in  1706  ;  but  prince  Eugene  defeated 
their  army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege.  In  1798,  the  French 
republican  army  took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong  j-laces  and 
arsenals  of  Piedmont,  and  obliged  the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  In  1799,  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians 
and  Russians  ;  but  shortly  afterwards  the  city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered 
to  the  French.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to  the  allies,  when  they  restor- 
ed it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

TURKEY.  The  Turks  themselves  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Tartars ,  but  by 
reason  of  the  number  of  people  whom  they  conquered,  and  with  whom  they 
became  incorporated,  the  modern  Turks  must  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of 
many  races  of  men. 


Birth  of  Mahomet  the  prophet,  at  Mecca 


571 


604 
610 
6ti> 
622 
631 
-  1095 


(see  Mecca)        -  -  -AD. 

His  imposture  commenced  (see  Maho- 
melanism)  .... 

The  Koran  written  (see  Koran) 

Flight  to  Medina  (see  Medina) 

JEm  of  the  Hegira  (see  Hegira) 

Death  of  Mahomet 

Holy  ware  begin  (see  Crusades) 

The  Turkish  empire  first  formed  under 
Othman  at  Byihinia  -  -  -  1298 

The  Turks  penetraie  into  Thrace,  and 
bike  Adrianople  -  -  -  1360 

Amuraih  I.  institutes  the  Janizaries,  a 
guard  composed  of  Christian  slaves 
bred  Mahometans  -  -  -  1362 

Bajazet  I.  overruns  the  provinces  of  the 
Eastern  empire  -  -  1389,  et  seq. 

He  lays  siege  to  Constantinople ;  but  is 
at  length  taken  by  Tamerlane  (see 
Tamerlane)  ....  1403 

The  Turks  invading  Hungary,  are  re- 
pelled by  Huniades  -  -  -  1450 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  un- 
der Mahomet  II.,  which  ends  the 
Eastern  Roman  empire  •  •  1453 

Greece  made  subject  to  the  Mahome- 
tans (see  Greece)  •  •  •  1458 

The  Turks  penetrate  into  Italy,  and 
take  Otranto,  which  diffuses  terror 
throughout  Europe  •  -  -  1480 

Selim  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ja- 
nizaries; he  murders  his  father,  bro- 
thers, and  (heir  sons  ...  1512 

He  lakes  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago 
from  the  Christians  -  -  ~  -  1514 

He  overruns  Syria          ...  J516 

Adds  Egypt  to  his  empire         •  -  1516 

Solyman  II.  takes  Belgrade        -  -  1521 

Rhodes  taken  from  the  knights  of  St. 
John,  who  go  to  Malta  -  -  1522 

Solyman  II..  with  250,000 naen,  is  repuls- 
ed before  Vienna         -  -  •  1529 
Cyprus  taken  from  the  Venetians         -  1571 
Great  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  puts  an 
end  to  the  fears  of  Europe  from  Turk- 
ish power  (see  Lejxintu)        •  •  1571 
Amurath  II.  ascends  the  throne  ;  stran- 
f lea  his  five  brothers  -           -  -  1574 


[Dreadful  persecutions  of  the  Christians 

during  tnis  reign] 
The  Turks  driven  out  of  Persia  by  the 

famous  Schah  Abbas  •  •    A.  D.  1585 

Bloody  reign  of  Mahomet  III.    -  -  1595 

Great  fire  in  Constantinople      -  -  1606 

Reign  of  Amurath  IV.,  who  strangles 

his  father  and  four  brothers  -      "    •  1624 
The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians,  and  take 

the  city  of  Bagdad       -  -  -  1639 

The  island  of  Candia,  or  Crete,  taken 

after  a  25  years'  siege  -  -  1669 

Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.,  but 

relieved  by  John  of  Poland    -  -  1683 

Mahomet  IV.  deposed  by  Solyman      •  1687 
Peace  of  Carlovuz          -  -  -  1699 

Mustapha  III.  deposed    •  -  •  1703 

The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks         -  1715 
Belgrade  taken  from  Austria;  and  Rus- 
sia relinquishes  Azoff  -  -  1739 
Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel  of  Scio ; 
the  English  and  Russian  fleets  defeat 
the  Turkish      ....  1770 
The  Crimea  falls  to  Russia       -     Jan.  1783 
[This  ends  the  disastrous  war  with  Rus- 
sia and  Austria  (begun  in  1787),  the 
Turks  having  lost  more  than  200,000 
men. — Ashe.} 

War  against  Russia     -  -  Dec.  30,  1806 

Passage  and  repassage  of  the  Darda- 
nelles effected  by  'he  British  fleet,  but 
with  great  loss  v  •ee  Dardanelles) 

Feb.  19,  1807 

The  sultan  Selim  is  deposed  and  mur- 
dered, and  Mustapha  IV.  called  to 
the  throne  May  29,  ISlW 

Treaty  of  Bucharest  (ickid,  see)  May 

28,   813 

A  caravan  consisting  of  2000  souls,  re- 
turning from  Mecca,  destroyed  by  a 
pestilential  wind   in   the  deserts  of 
Arabia  ;  20  only  wt  re  saved    Aug.  9,  1812 
Subjection  of  the  Wai-habees    -  -  1819 

Ali  Pacha  of  .lanina,  in  Greece,  declares 

himself  independent    -  •  -1820 

Insurrection  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia 

March  6,  1821 

The  Greek  Patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople  -  -  Ap ril  23,  '821 


TtJR  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


627 


TURKEY,  continue i. 

Horrible  massa:re  at  Scio;  the  most 
dreadful  in  modern  history  (see  note 
to  Greece)  -  •  •  April  23,  1822 

Sea-fight  near  Mltylene  -    Oct.  6, 1824 

New  Mahometan  army  announced  to  be 
organized  -  -  -  May  29,  1826 

Insurrection  of  the  Janizaries  at  Con- 
stantinople -  -  -  June  14,  1826 

Firman  of  the  sitan  abolishing  the  Ja- 
nizaries ....  1826 

Fire  at  Consta  ninople ;  6000  houses  re- 
duced to  ashes  -  •  August  30,  1826 

Battle  of  Navarino ;  the  Turkish  fleet 
destroyed  by  the  fleets  of  England, 
France,  and  Russia  (see  Navarino) 

Oct.  20.  1827 

Banishment  of  132  French,  1 20  Engl  ish, 
and  85  Russian  settlers,  from  the 
Turkish  empire  -  January  5,  1828 

War  with  Russia        -  -  April  26,  1828 

The  emperor  Nicholas  takes  the  field 
against  the  Turks  -  May  20,  1828 

The  Russian  emperor  arrives  before 
Varna  ....  Aug.  5,  1828 

Battle  of  Akhalzic       -  -  Aug.  24,  1828 

Fortress  of  Bajazet  taken        -  Sept.  9,  1828 

The  sultan  leaves  his  capital  for  the 
camp,  bearing  with  him  the  sacred 
standard  -  -  Sept.  20,  1828 

Dardanelles  blockaded       •         Oct.  I,  1828 

Suirender  of  Varna      -  -  Oct.  15,  1828 


Russians  retreat  from  I  efore  Schurala, 

October  16,  1K8 

Surrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to 
the  French  -  -  -  Oct.  .'!0,  1828 

Siege  of  Silistria  raised  by  the  Russians 

Nov.  10,  1828 

Victory  of  the  Russians  at  Kulertsaa 
near  Schumla  -  •  June  11,  1629 

Adrianople  is  entered  by  the  Russian 
troops  -  -  -  Aug.  20,  1829 

Armistice  between  the  Russian  and 
Turkish  armies  -  -  Aug.  29,  1849 

Treaty  of  peace  -  -  Sept.  14.  182£ 

Treaty  with  the  U.  States      -     May  7,  1830 

St.  Jean  d'Acre  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pa- 
cha son  of  Mehemet  Ali  -  July  2,  1832 

He  defeats  the  army  of  ti.e  sultan  in  Sy- 
ria, with  great  loss  -  -  Juvly  30. 1832 

A  series  of  successes  brings  the  ar  ny  of 
Ibrahim  Pacha  within  eighty  leagues 
of  Constantinople,  and  the  sultan  has 
recourse  to  the  aid  of  Russia  -  Jan.  1833 

A  Russian  force  enters  the  Turkish  ca- 
pital ....  April  3,  1833 

Treaty  with  Russia,  offensive  mil  de- 
fensive -  -  •  July  S  1833 

Office  of  grand  vizier  abolished  by  the 
sultan  -  -  -  March  30,  1838 

Insurrection  in  Wallachia        June  18,  1848 

Mehemet  Ali  dies  at  Alexandria  Aug.  2,  1849 


1296  Ossman,  or  Ottoman  I. 
1325  Orcham,  his  youngest  son. 
1359,Amurath  I.,  his  son  ;  assassinated. 
1388  Bajazet  I.,  his  son  ;  died  in  prison. 
brother. 


1397  Isa  Belis;  killed  by  his  b 
1403  Solyman  ;  killed  by  his  brother. 
1410  Musa;  strangled  by  his  brother. 
1413  Mahomet  I.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1421  Amurath  II.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1451  Mahomet  11.  ;   left  the  empire  to  his 

two  sons. 
1481  Co  lacus,  his  grandson  ;  succeeded  by 

his  father. 
1481  Xemin  ;  obliged  to  abdicate  in  favor  of 

his  brother. 

1481  Bajazet  II.  ;  deposed  by  his  son. 
1520  Solyman,  the  Magnificent. 
1566  Selim  II.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1512  Selim  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1574  Amurath  III.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1595  Mahomet  HI.  .  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1604  Achmet  ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1617  Mustapha  I.;  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
16  17  Osman'I.  ;  strangled  by  the  Janizaries, 


TURKISH   EMPERORS. 

and  his  uncle  restored. 

1622  Mustapha  I.  ;  again  deposed  and  suc- 

ceeded by  his  grandson. 

1623  Amu  rath  IV.,  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1640  Ibrahim,  strangled  by  the  Janizaries, 

succeeded  .by  his  son. 
1655  Mahomet  IV.,  deposed ;  succeeded  by 

his  brother. 
1687  Sulyman  III. ;  succeeded  by  his  bio- 

ther. 

1691  Achmet  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 
1695  Musiapha  II.,  eldest  son  of  Mahomet 

IV.,  deposed  and  succeeded  by  hw 

brother. 

1703  Achmet  HI. ;  deposed. 
1730  Mahomet  V.;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1754  Osman  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1757  Mustapha  HI. ;  succeeded  by  his  br» 

ther. 

1774  Abelhamet,  or  Achmet  IV. 
1789  Selim  HI. 

1807  Mustapha  IV. 

1808  Man.  Khan  II. 

1S39  Abdul-Medjid,  June  27. 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA  FOWLS.  First  brought  to  England  A,  D,  1524,  and 
to  France  in  1570.  Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were,  consequent- 
ly, unknown  to  the  ancients.  Mr.  Pennant  has  established  this  fact  by  vari- 
ous particulars  in  the  history  of  these  birds ;  evincing  that  they  are  nativea 
neither  of  Europe,  Asia,  nor  Africa ;  a  circumstance  since  placed  beyond 
controversy,  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Beckmann.  Wild  turkeys  are  met 
with  in  flocks  of  some  thousands  in  parts  of  the  new  world,  and  except  be- 
ing larger  do  not  differ  from  ours. — Smyth. 

TURNING.  According  to  Pliny  this  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom 
articles  of  wood,  ivory,  iron,  and  gold  were  formed,  The  precious  Tases 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


f  TYK 


enriched  with  figures  in  half  relief,  which  at  this  day  adorn  the  cabinets  of 
the  antiquary  and  curious,  were  produced  by  turning.  The  lathes  made  for 
turnery  in  England  are,  many  of  them,  wonderful  in  their  machinery ;  and 
in  some  of  our  dock-yards,  blocks  and  other  materials  for  our  ships  of  war 
are  now  produced  by  almost  instantaneous  processes,  from  rough  pieces  oi 
oak.  by  the  machinery  of  Mr.  Brunei. 

TURNPIKES.  See  Tolls.  Turnpike-gates  for  exacting  tolls,  which  were  other- 
wise  previously  collected,  were  set  up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  1663.— 
Chalmers.  The  statutes  relating  to  turnpike-roads  are  very  numerous. 

11 TSC ANY.  This  country  was  created  into  a  dukedom,  A.  D.  1530.  It  came 
into  the  Austrian  family  in  1737.  It  was  seized  by  the  French  iu  March 
1799.  Ferdinand  IV.,  the  grand  duke,  was  dispossessed  by  France,  and  his 
dominions  given  to  Louis,  son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  with  tie  title  of  king 
of  Etruria,  February  26,  1801.  He  died  June  30,  1803 ;  and  soon  after- 
wards this  state  was  transformed  into  an  appendage  to  the  crown  of  Italy ; 
but  was  restored  to  Austria  in  1814.  The  present  granu-  JUKC  Leopold  IT 
(cousin  to  the  emperor),  ascended  June  18,  1824. 


Disturbances  and  revolutions  of  1847-8 
began  at  Leghorn  -  -  Sept.  2,  1847 

Grand-duke  grants  a  national  militia. 

The  grand-duke  granted  a  liberal  con- 
stitution ....  Feb.  1848 

Insurrection  at  Leghorn        -     Sept.  5,  1848 

The  grand-duke  flees  from  Florence 


The  chambers  meet. 

Provisional  government  proclaimed, 

Feb.  9,  1&49 

Leghorn  attacked  and  carried  by  Tus- 
can troops  -  -  -  May  10,  1841 

The  grand-duke  re-enters  Florence  and 
resumes  his  authority  -  July  27,  1849 


TWELFTH-DAY.  The  church-festival  called  the  Epiphany,  or  manifestation 
of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  See  Epiphany.  The  custom  of  drawing  king 
and  queen  on  this  day  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who,  on 
the  tabernacle,  or  Christmas  festivals,  drew  lots  for  kings,  by  putting  a  piece 
of  money  in  the  middle  of  a  cake,  which  whoever  found,  was  saluted  as 
king. 

TYLER,  WAT,  HIS  INSURRECTION.  It  arose  in  the  opposition  of  the  people  to 
the  poll-tax,  which  was  levied  in  1378.  Owing  to  the  indecent  rudeness  of 
one  of  the  collectors  to  Tyler's  daughter,  with  a  view  to  prove  her  of  suffi- 
cient age  (fifteen)  to  pay  the  tax  (Tyler  striking  him  dead  for  the  offence), 
the  provoked  populace  gathered  upon  Blackheath  to  the  number  of  100,000 
men.  The  king,  Richard  II.,  invited  Tyler  to  a  parley  at  Smithfield,  where 
the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a  somewhat  menacing  manner,  now  and 
again  lifting  up  his  sword.  His  insolence  raised  the  indignation  of  the 
mayor,  Walworth,  who  stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of  his  mace,  and  one  of 
the  knights  attending  the  king  dispatched  him.  The  death  of  their  leader 
awed  the  multitude,  to  whom  Richard  promised  a  charter,  and  they  dis- 
persed, 1381. 

TYRE.  This  great  city  was  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built 
1257  B.  c.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Assyrians,  719  B.  c.,  and  they  retired  from 
before  it,  after  a  siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  B.  c.  Taken  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 572  B.  c.,  and  the  city  demolished,  when  the  Tyreans  removed 
to  an  opposite  island,  and  built  a  new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken 
by  Alexander  with  much  difficulty,  and  only  after  he  had  joined  the  island 
to  the  continent  by  a  mole,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  Aug.  20,  332  B.  c. 
— S/rabo.  Two  of  the  most  atrocious  acts  in  the  history  of  human  crimes 
were  the  «,iege  and  destruction  of  Tyre  by  Alexander,  and  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus.  Histories  which  laud  such  monsters  ought  to  be  consigned  to  the 
flames — Phillips. 

VYRE,  ERA  OP.  Began  on  the  19th  of  October,  125  B.  c.,  with  the  month  Hy- 
perberetseus  The  month  was  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era, 
and  the  year  is  similar  to  the  Julian  year.  To  reduce  this  era  to  ours,  sub 


ran] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  629 


tract  124 ;  and  ir*  the  given  year  be  less  than  126,  deduct  it  from  126,  and 
the  remainder  will  be  the  year  before  Christ. 

U. 

ITBIQUARIANS.  A  sect  of  Lutherans  which  arose  and  spread  through  Ger- 
many and  other  countries,  and  who  believed  the  natural  body  of  Christ  to 
be  every  where  present.  This  sect  arose  under  Brentius,  about  A.  D.  1640. 

UKRAINE.  The  name  signifies  a  frontier.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  ar»i 
Poland,  these  states  divided  the  Ukraine  in  1693.  Poland  having  the  west 
side  of  the  Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  But  the  whole  country  (the  bor- 

l      ders  of  Poland,  Russia,  and  Little  Tartary)  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the 

\     treaty  of  Partition  in  1795. 

ULM,  PEACE  OF,  by  which  Fredrick  V.  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from 
it  previously),  July  3,  1620.  Ulm  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1776.  Great 
battle  between  the  French  and  Austrians.  in  which  the  latter,  under  gen- 
eral Mack,  were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss,  by  marshal  Ney,  whose  vic- 
tory was  consummated  by  the  surrender  of  Ulm,  and  36;000  men,  the  flower 
of  the  Austrian  army,  Oct.  17,  19,  1805.  From  this  time  the  ruin  of  the 
confederates,  and  grandeur  and  power  of  Napoleon,  had  their  date. 

JMBRELLA.  Described  in  early  dictionaries  as  "a  portable  pent-house  to 
carry  in  a  person's  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."  Umbrel- 
las are  very  ancient :  it  appears,  by  the  carvings  at  Persepolis.  that  umbrel- 
las were  used  at  very  remote  periods  by  the  Eastern  princes.  Niebuhr,  who 
visited  the  southern  parts  of  Arabia,  informs  us  that  he  saw  a  great  prince 
of  that  country  returning  from  a  mosque,  preceded  by  some  hundreds  ot 
soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each  of  the  princes  of  his  numerous  family  caused 
a  large  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side.  The  old  china-ware  in  our  pan- 
tries and  cupboards  show  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an  umbrella.  It  is  said 
that  the  first  person  who  used  an  umbrella  in  the  streets  of  London  was 
the  benevolent  Jonas  Hanway,  who  died  in  1786.* 

UNCTION,  EXTREME.  Unction  was  frequent  among  the  Jews.  At  their 
feasts,  and  other  times  of  rejoicing,  they  anointed  sometimes  their  whole 
body,  and  at  other  times  their  head  or  feet  only :  their  kings  and  high 
priests  were  anointed  at  their  inauguration;  they  also  anointed  the  vessels 
of  the  temple  to  consecrate  them.  None  of  the  emperors,  it  is  said,  were 
anointed  before  Justinian,  Aug.  1,  A.  D.  527.  As  a  religious  rite,  extreme 
unction  was  in  common  use,  A.  D.  550.  St.  Asaph  was  the  first  who  received 
unction  from  the  pope,  590. — Bayle.  It  is  administered  in  dying  cases  as 
extreme  unction.  See  Anointing. 

UNIFORMS.    Military  uniforms  were  first  used  in  France,  "  in  a  regular  man- 

*  For  a  long  while  it  was  not  usual  for  men  to  carry  them  without  incurring  the  brand  of  effe- 
minacy. At  first,  a  single  umbrella  seems  to  have  been  kept  at  a  coffee-house  for  extraordinary 
occasions — lent  as  a  coach  or  chair  in  a  heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly  carried  by  the  walkers. 
The  female  Tattler  advertises  "  The  young  gentleman  belonging  to  the  Custom-house  who,  in 
(ear  of  rain,  borrowed  the  umbrttlafrom  Wilks's  Coffee-house,  shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  ID 
the  maid's  pattens,"  As  late  as  1778,  one  John  Macdonald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life, 
informs  us,  that  he  had  "a  fine  silk  umbrella,  which  he  brought  from  Spain;  but  he  could  not 
with  any  comfort  to  himself  use  it,  the  people  calling  out  'Frenchman!  why  don:t  you  get* 
•  coach  V  "  The  fact  was,  the  hackney-coachmen  and  chairmen,  joining  with  the  true  esprit  de  corps, 
i  were  clamorous  against  this  portentous  rival.  The  footman  in  1778,  gives  us  some  farther 
'information.  "At  this  time,  there  were  no  umbrellas  worn  in  London,  except  in  noblemen's  and 
gentlemen's  houses,  where  there  was  a  large  one  hung  in  ihe  hall  to  hold  Jver  a  lady  if  it  rained, 
between  the  door  and  her  carriage. '•'  This  man's  sister  was  compelled  to  Quit  1  is  arm  one  day 
from  the  abuse  he  drew  down  on  himself  and  his  umbrella.  But  he  adus,  th.it  "he  persisted 
for  three  months,  till  they  took  notice  of  this  novelty.  Foreigners  begnn  (a  use  theirs,  and  then 
the  English.  Now  it  is  become  a  great  trade  in  London." — New  Monthly  Magazine. 


63(5  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  ONI 

r.  . -,    ?'-T     Tfi,-'1      '     • 

ner,"  by  Louis  XIV.,  1668.    In  England  the  uniform  was  soon  afterwards 
adopted. 

UNIFORMITY,  ACT  OF.  An  Act  of  Uniformity  passed  1  Elizabeth,  1559.  But 
the  statute  known  as  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  13  and  14  Charles 
IT.,  1661,  2.  It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matters  of  religion,  and  obliged  all 
clergy  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  use  the  same  form  of 
worship,  and  same  book  of  common  prayer.  This  act  caused  upwards  of 
2000  conscientious  ministers  to  quit  the  Church  of  England,  and  take  their 
lot  among  the  dissenters,  who  thereby  received  so  large  an  addition  to  their 
numbers  that  they  may  be  considered  as  the  fathers  of  the  dissenting  interest. 

UNION  OP  THE  CROWNS.    The  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  were  united 
by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  I.  of  England,  March 
24,  1603.    The  legislative  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  attempted  in  1604, 
but  the  project  failed.    It  was  again  attempted,  but  again  failed,  in  1670.    In 
the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  once  more  tried,  and  in  the  end  with  better  suc- 
cess.   Commissioners  were  appointed,  the  articles  discussed,  and,  notwith- 
.   standing  great  opposition  made  by  the  Tories,  every  article  in  the  union 
was  approved  by  a  great  majority,  first  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  af- 
terwards by  the  peers,  July  22,  1706,  and  ratified  by  the  Scottish  parlia- 
.    ment,  Jan.  16,  1707.    It  became  a  law,  May  1,  same  year. 

UNION  WITH  IRELAND.  The  UNION  of  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND,  propos- 
ed in  the  Irish  parliament,  Jan.  22,  1799.  The  act  passed  in  the  British 
parliament,  July  2,  1800.  j 

UNITARIANS.  This  sect  began  A.  D.  1550.  The  Unitarians  believe  in  and 
worship  only  one  self-existent  God,  in  opposition  to  those  who,  besides  the 
Father,  worship  his  Son  Jesus.  They  arose  under  Servetus.  This  learned 
man,  excited  by  the  discussions  of  the  reformers,  began  to  read  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  conducted  his  researches  with  so  free  a  spirit,  that  he  printed  a 
tract  in  disparagement  of  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In  1533. 
proceeding  to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin  induced  the  magistrates  to 
arrest  him  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  and  heresy  :  and  refusing  to  retract 
his  opinions,  he  was  condemned  to  the  flames,  which  sentence  was  carried 
into  execution,  October  27,  1553.  Servetus  is  numbered  among  those  ana- 
tomists who  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  before  Harvey  established  that  doctrine.  In  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  England,  the  Unitarians  form  a  large,  intelligent,  and  in- 
fluential portion  of  the  community.  The  celebrated  philanthropist  and 
eloquent  writer,  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing,  was  a  Unitarian. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  The  British 
realm  was  so  named,  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  1,  1801,  when  a  new 
imperial  standard  was  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London  and  Castle  of  Dub- 
lin. See  Union. 

UNITED  PROVINCES,  THE  SEVEN.  Established  by  throwing  off  the  Span- 
ish yoke.  A.  D.  1579.  The  revolted  states,  with  William,  prince  of  Orange, 
at  their  head,  after  long  deliberations  at  the  Hague,  published  an  edict  ex- 
cluding king  Philip  from  any  sovereignty,  right,  or  authority  over  the  Ne- 
therlands. The  deputies  from  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand.  Utrecht, 
Friesland.  Groningen,  Overyssell,  and  Guelderland,  met  at  Utrecht.  Jan.  23. 
1579 ;  signed  a  treaty  for  their  mutual  defence ;  appointed  the  prince  of 
Orange  as  their  stadtholder;  and  formed  the  alliance  ever  since  known  as 
the  '•  Union  of  Utrecht,"  the  basis  of  the  commonwealth  so  renowned  by 
the  appellation  of  the  <;  Seven  United  Provinces."  Their  independence  was 
acknowledged  in  1607.  United  to  France  in  1796.  Louis  Bonaparte  was 
crowned  king  bythe  authority  of  Napoleon,  June  5,  1806.  Louis  abdicated. 


WI  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


631 


July  1,  1810.     Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and    Belgium  annexed 
,     Nov.  18,  1813.    Belgium  separated  from  Holland,  and  Leopold  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  elected  king,  July  12,  1831.     See  Holland  and  Belgium. 

DNITED  STATES  OP  AMER  CA.  See  America;  and  the  separate  States, 
Maine,  <fec.  The  first  colonial  Congress,  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  con- 
sisting  of  delegates  from  the  several  colonies,  met  at  New  York,  June  7, 
1765.  The  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  adopts  Declaration  of 
Rights,  1774 ;  revolutionary  war  commenced  at  Lexington,  April  19,  1775 
See  War.  Declaration  of  Independence  adopted  by  the  Congress,  July  4, 
1776.  The  title  of  "  United  States  "  adopted  by  Congress,  Sept.  0,  1776. 
Independence  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  in  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 
Sept.  23,  1783.  Constitution  adopted  Sept.  17,  1787.  War  against  Great 
Britain  declared  by  Congress,  June  19,  1812.  Treaty  of  peace  signed  at 
Ghent,  Dec.  3,  1814.  War  with  Mexico  commenced  April,  1846.  Treaty 
of  peace  signed  May  30,  1848.  See  Wars  of  the  United  States.  &c. ;  also 
Naval  Battles ;  also  Administrations,  Exports.  National  Debt,  Treaties,  Po- 
pulation, &c.  [The  various  occurrences  in  the  history  of  the  United  States 
are  given  more  at  large  under  that  head  in  the  Pabular  Views  in  this 
vol.,  page  122,  et.  seq.] 

UNIVERSALISTS.  Those  who  believe  in  the  final  salvation  of  all  men.  Sects 
of  Universalists  existed  in  various  countries  and  ages.  The  learned  and 
celebrated  Dr.  Tillotson  appears  from  some  of  his  sermons  to  have  adopted 
the  opinion  of  this  universal  salvation. — Johnson.  Certain  it  is,  about  1691, 
he  entertained  a  design  for  forming  a  new  book  of  homilies ;  and  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  before  the  queen  (Mary)  against  the  absolute  eternity 
of  hell  torments,  involved  this  doctrine. 

UNIVERSITIES.  They  sprang  from  the  convents  of  regular  clergy,  and  from 
the  chapters  of  cathedrals  in  the  church  of  Rome.  The  most  ancient  uni- 
versities in  Europe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris,  Salamanca,  and 
Bologna.  The  British  universities  were  vested  with  the  lands  of  ex-Catho- 
lics, and  permitted  to  send  members  to  Parliament  by  James  I.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  universities  in  Europe : 


Aberdeen  founded 

. 

-  1494 

Dublin     - 

. 

•  15S)i 

Abo,  Finland 
Aix,  1409  ;  re-established 

•      .     * 

-1640 
-1603 

Edinburgh,  founded  by  James  VL 
Erfurt,  Thuringia;  enlarged 

•  15SJ 
-  1390 

Alba  Julia,  Transylvania 

.           . 

-  1629 

Florence,  Italy  ;  enlarged 

. 

-1438 

Altorf,  Franconia 

. 

-1581 

Frankfort-orx-the-Oder 

. 

-  1506 

Andrew's,  St.,  Scotland 

. 

-  1411 

Fribourg,  Germany 

. 

-  1460 

Angers,  chiefly  law 

. 

-1398 

Geneva          ... 

. 

-1365 

Anjou,  1349  ;  enlarged 

.           . 

-1364 

Glasgow  • 

. 

-1450 

Avignon..  France             • 

- 

-1388 

Gottingen 

-  1734 

Bamberg 

.           . 

-  1585 

Granada,  Spain  - 

. 

-1537 

Baale,  Switzerland 

. 

-  1458 

Gripswald     -           -       .,  • 

-1547 

Berlin 

. 

-1812 

Groningen,  Friesland     • 

. 

-  1614 

Besan^on,  Burgundy 

. 

-  1540 

Halle,  Saxony          •           • 

. 

•  1694 

Bologna,  Italy 

. 

-   423 

Heidelberg 

. 

•  1346 

Bruges,  French  Flanders 

. 

-  1665 

Ingoldstadt.  Bavaria 

. 

.  1573 

Caen,  Normandy 

. 

-  1417 

Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia 

. 

-  1548 

Cambridge,  began,  626  —  a 

ccording 

to 

Kiel,  Holstein 

. 

-166ft 

others,  900.    See  Cambridge. 

King's  College,  London 

. 

-1829 

Cambridge,  New  England. 

projected 

-1630 

Konigsberg,  Prussia 

. 

•  1544 

Cologne,  in  Germany,  re-fi 

unded 

-1389 

Leipsic,  Saxony  -           . 

. 

-1409 

Compostella,  Spain 

-1517 

Leyden,  Holland 

. 

•  1575 

Coimbra,  Portugal 

-  1301  I  Lima,  in  Peru     - 

. 

-1614 

Copenhagen.  1497;  enlarged 

-1539 

Lisbon,  1290  ;  removed  to  Coimbra 

•  1391 

Cordova,  Spain   - 

. 

-    968  :  London  University 

. 

•  1826 

Cracow,  Poland,  700  ;  enla 

rged      - 

-  1402     Louvaine,  Flanders,  926  ;  enl 

urged 

•  1427 

Dijon,  France 

. 

•  1722  \  Lyons,  France     - 

. 

•    830 

Diltingin,  Swabia     • 

*  •>  '  ;  fit 

-  1565     Mechlin,  Flanders    - 

. 

-  1440 

Dole,  Burgundy  - 

-     ... 

-  1426  ;  Mentz 

. 

•  1482 

Douay,  French  Handera 

. 

•  J562     Montpelier    - 

. 

.1196 

Dvasden,  S  'xouy            • 

!-»  !V 

•  1694     Moscow    - 

• 

•175< 

632 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


UNIVERSITIES,   continued. 

Munster         1491 
Naples      1216 

Orleans,  France    1312 
Oxford  (see  Oxford)       •        •        •    •   886 
Paderbom      1592 
Padua,  Italy      1179 
Palenza,  1209  ;  removed  to  Salamanca  1249 
Paris,  792  ;  renovated   •        .        -        -  1100 
Parma       1599 
Pa  via,  791  ;  enlarged    ....  1361 
Perpienan         1349 
Perugia,  Italy        1307 
Petersburg!)      1747 
Pisa,  1339  ;  enlarged     ....  1552 
Poictiers    1430 
Prague  1348 
Rheims,  1145;  enlarged  •        •        •    •  1560 
Rome  Sapienza    .....  1303 
Rostock,  Mecklenburgh   -        -        -    -  1419 
Salamanca     1240 
Salerno       1233 

Saragossa,  Arragon                   •        >    •  1474 

Siguenza,  Spain    ....          1517 
Sorbonne,  Paris       -        -        -        .1253 
Strasburg       1538 
Toledo.  Spain   151f 
Treves,  Germany          -       -        -          147; 
Tubingen,  Wirtemberg    ...       1473 
Turin     -        -       -       .                .          1403 
ITpsal,  Sweden          ....       1477 
Utrecht,  Holland  ....          1636 
Valence,  Dauphine  ....      1475 
Valencia  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Valladolid      134< 

Wirtemberg      -       -               •              1502 
Wittenberg    ...               .          1502 
Wnrtzbnrp                                                        1403 

UNIVERSITIES  IN  UNITED  STATES.     See  Colleges. 

UNKNOWN  TONGUE.  A  disturbance  in  the  Rev.  Mr.  Irving  s  chapel,  in 
London,  occasioned  by  a  Miss  Hall  interrupting  a  discourse  on  prophecy, 
by  holding  forth  in  what  was  denominated  the  "  Unknown  Tongue."  She 
was  removed  to  the  vestry.  On  the  same  evening,  a  Mr.  Taplin  rose,  and 
commenced,  with  the  permission  of  Mr.  Irving,  a  violent  harangue  in  the 
same  unknown  language.  A  scene  of  most  alarming  confusion  ensued,  the 
whole  congregation  rising  from  their  seats  in  affright,  and  the  females 
screaming,  while  Mr.  Irving  listened  with  the  most  profound  attention  to 
the  ravings  of  the  inspired  teacher,  October  16,  1831.  From  this  period, 
much  of  the  same  mummery,  followed  by  a  translation  into  English  rhap- 
sody, was  played  off;  and  large  crowds  assembled,  not  on  Sundays  only,  but 
as  early  as  six  o'clock  on  the  mornings  of  week-days  also,  some  to  be  edi- 
fied by  prophetic  spirits,  and  some  to  laugh  at  the  ravings  of  fanatics. — 
Ann.  Register. 

fRANUS.  This  planet,  with  its  satellites,  was  discovered  by  Herschel,  by 
whom  it  was  called  the  Georgian  planet,  in  honor  of  his  majesty  George  III. 
The  name  of  Herschel  is  also  given  to  it,  in  compliment  to  its  illustrious 
discoverer,  by  the  astronomers  of  Great  Britain ;  but  by  foreigners  it  is 
asually  called  Uranus.  It  is  about  twice  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  the 
planet  Saturn;  and  was  discovered  on  the  13th  March,  1781. 

USURY.  Forbidden  by  parliament,  1341.  Two  shillings  per  week  were  given 
for  the  loan  of  twenty,  in  1260.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  43Z.  6s.  Sd  per 
annum  for  100Z.,  which  was  restrained  by  an  act,  1275,  against  the  Jews. 
Until  the  fifteenth  century  no  Christians  were  allowed  to  receive  interest 
of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and,  therefore,  often  banished 
and  persecuted  (see  Jews).  By  the  37th  of  Henry  VIII..  the  rate  of  interest 
was  fixed  at  10  per  cent.,  1545.  This  statute  confirmed  by  the  13th  Eliza- 
beth. 1570.  Reduced  to  8  per  cent.,  21  James  I.,  1623.  when  the  word  in- 
terest was  first  used  for  the  word  usury.  Reduced  to  5  per  cent.,  13  Anne, 
1714.  See  Interest. 

U  fRECHT,  TREATY  OF,  &c.  The  Union  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  began 
here  (see  United  Provinces),  A.D.  15  "9.  The  celebrated  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
which  terminated  the  wars  of  queen  Anne,  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of 
Great  Britain  and  France,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other  allies,  except  the  minis- 
ters of  the  empire.  The  most  important  stipulations  of  this  treaty  were 
the  security  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  England,  the  disuniting  the 


PAL]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  633 

French  and  Spanish  crowns,  the  destruction  of  Dunkirk,  the  enlargement 
of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations  in  America,  and  a  full  satisfaction 
for  the  claims  of  the  allies,  April  11,  1713.  Utrecht  surrendered  to  the 
Prussians,  May  9,  1787  ;  and  was  possessed  by  the  French,  Jan.  18,  1796. 

V. 

FACCINE  INOCULATION.  Variola  vaccina,  discovered  by  Dr.  Jenner.  He 
made  the  first  experiment  in  vaccination,  by  transferring  the  pus  from 
the  pustule  of  a  milk-maid,  who  had  caught  the  cow-pox  from  the  cows,  to 
a  healthy  child,  in  May  1796.  Dr.  .Tenner  subsequently  published  the  result 
to  the  world,  and  the  cure  became  general  in  1799.  The  cure  was  intro- 
duced Jan.  21,  in  that  year.  The  genuine  cow-pox  appears,  in  the  form  of 
vesicles,  on  the  teats  of  the  cow.  Dr.  Jenner  received  10,000^.  for  the  dis- 
covery from  parliament  in  1802 ;  and  the  first  national  institution  for  the 
promotion  of  the  cure,  called  the  Royal  Jennerian  Institution  was  founded 
Jan.  19,  1803.  Vaccination  was  practised  throughout  all  Europe  previously 
to  1816. 

VAGRANTS.  After  being  whipped,  a  vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return 
to  the  place  where  he  was  born,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three  years.  22  Henry 
VIII.,  1530.  A  vagrant  a  second  time  convicted,  to  lose  the  upper  part  of 
the  gristle  of  his  right  ear,  27  Henry  VIII..  1535  ;  and  a  third  time  convicted, 
death.  By  1  Edward  III.,  a  vagabond  to  be  marked  with  a  V.  and  be  a 
slave  for  two  years.  Vagrants  were  punished  by  whipping,  jailing,  boring 
the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second  offence,  14  Elizabeth,  1571.  The  milder 
statutes  were  those  of  17  George  II. ;  32,  35,  and  59  George  III.  The  laws 
against  vagrancy  are  still  very  severe  in  England,  and  operate  unequally  as 
respects  the  character  of  the  offender. 

VALENCIA.  Its  university  was  founded,  it  is  said,  in  the  13th  century,  and 
was  revived  in  1470.  Valencia  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in 
1705.  but  was  soon  lost  again.  It  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the 
French,  under  Suchet,  with  a  garrison  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  im- 
mense stores,  Jan.  9,  1812. 

VALENCIENNES,  SIEGE  OP.  This  city  was  besieged  from  May  23  to  July  14, 
when  the  French  garrison  surrendered  to  the  allies  under  the  dnke  of  York, 
1793.  It  was  retaken,  together  with  Conde".  by  the  French,  on  capitulation, 
the  garrison  and  1100  emigrants  made  prisoners,  with  immense  stores,  viz. 
— 300  pieces  of  cannon,  one  million  pounds  of  gunpowder,  eight  millions 
of  florins  in  specie,  six  millions  of  livres,  1000  head  of  cattle,  and  vast 
quantities  of  other  provisions,  Aug.  30.  1794. 

VALENCAY,  TREATY  OF,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Ferdinand  VII. 
of  Spain,  whereby  the  latter  was  put  in  full  possession  of  that  kingdom,  OB 
agreeing  to  maintain  its  integrity.  This  celebrated  treaty  was  signed  De- 
cember 8,  1813. 

VALENTINE'S  DAY.  The  practice  of  "choosing  a  Valentine,"  as  it  it 
called,  on  this  day,  is  too  well  known  to  need  explanation.  The  origin  of 
the  custom  has  been  much  controverted  ;  it  is  indisputably  of  very  ancient 
date.  Valentine  was  a  presbyter  of  the  church,  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome.  A.  D.  271.  It  is  said  that  on  this  day 
the  birds  choose  their  mates ;  whence,  probably,  came  the  custom  of 
young  people  choosing  Valentines  or  particular  friends  on  the  feast  of 
Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS.  This  sect  of  enthusiastics  were  followers  of  the  opinion! 
of  one  Valentine,  a  priest,  who,  upon  being  disappointed  of  a  bishopri* 
27* 


634  THE  WORLD'S  pr.oGRESS.  [VEH 

forsook  the  Christian  faith,  and  published  that  there  were  thirty  gods  and 
goddesses,  fifteen  of  each  sex,  which  he  called  ^Eones,  or  Ages.  He 
taught  in  the  second  century,  and  published  a  gospel  and  psalms :  to 
these  his  followers  added  several  other  errors,  declaring  there  was  no  ob- 
ligation to  suffer  martyrdom ;  some  declared  against  baptism,  and  others 
practised  it  in  a  peculiar  manner,  and  all  indulged  themselves  in  licen- 
tiousness. 

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Vancouver  served  as  a  midshipman 
under  captain  Cook ;  and  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence 
of  any  navigable  communication  between  the  North  Pacific  aud  North 
Atlantic  oceans  being  determined  on,  he  was  appointed  to  command 
it.  He  sailed  in  1790,  and  returned  September  24,  1795.  He  compiled  an 
account  of  this  voyage  of  survey  of  the  Northwest  coast  of  America,  and 
died  in  1798. 

VANDALS.  The  Vandal  nations  began  their  ravages  in  Gem  uny  and  Gaul, 
A.  D  406-414.  Their  kingdom  in  Spain  was  founded  in  411.  They  invaded 
and  conquered  the  Roman  territories  in  Africa,  under  Genseric,  who  took 
Carthage,  Oct.  24,  439.  They  were  driven  out.  and  attacked  in  turn  by  the 
Saracen  Moors.  The  Vandalii  overran  a  vast  portion  of  Europe  and  spread 
devastation  wherever  they  appeared. 

VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND.  This  country  was  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1633. 
It  was  visited  by  Furneaux  in  1773  ;  by  captain  Cook  in  1777 ;  and  was 
deemed  the  south  extremity  of  New  Holland  until  1799.  A  British  settle- 
ment was  established  on  the  south-east  part,  within  the  mouth  of  the  Der- 
went,  and  named  Hobart  Town,  which  is  the  seat  of  government,  1804. 

VASSALAGE.  See  Feudal  Laws  and  Villanage.  Vassalage  was  introduced 
by  the  Saxons,  and  its  slavery  increased  under  William  I.  Under  the  Nor- 
man princes  there  were  vassal  boors  and  free  boors ;  those  who  were  sold 
with  the  land,  and  those  who  were  free  to  choose  an  employer.  To  this  day 
the  distinction  prevails  in  some  countries,  and  particularly  in  Russia,  where 
the  vassal  boors  are  divided  into  classes;  as  boors  belonging  to  the  sover- 
eign ;  mining  boors,  who  are  sold  with  the  property ;  and  private  boors,  who 
belong  to  the  nobility,  and  perform  the  labor  on  their  estates.  In  England, 
a  vassal  did  homage  to  a  lord  on  account  of  land,  &c.,  held  of  him  in  fee. 
Vassalage  was  abolished  in  Hungary  in  October  1786 ;  in  Holstein,  in  May 
1797 ;  and  Courland,  in  Sept.  1818. 

VATICAN.  The  magnificent  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  adjoining  St.  Peter's, 
said  to  contain  7000  rooms.  In  this  palace,  the  library,  founded  A.  D.  1448, 
is  noted  for  its  collection  of  MSS.,  but  the  number  of  books  is  compara- 
tively moderate.  See  Libraries.  The  phrase  "  thunders  of  the  Vatican," 
was  first  used  by  Voltaire,  1748. 

VENEZUELA.  Wben  the  Spaniards  landed  here  in  1499,  they  observed  some 
huts  built  upon  piles,  in  an  Indian  village  named  Cora,  in  order  to  raise  them 
above  the  stagnated  water  that  covered  the  plain ;  and  this  induced  them  to 
give  it  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  Little  Venice.  This  state  declared  in  a 
congressional  assembly  the  sovereignty  of  its  people,  in  July  1814.  It  sep- 
arated from  the  federal  union  and  declared  itself  sole  and  independent  in 
1830.  See  Colombia. 

VENI,  VIDI,  VICI. — "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered."  This  well-known  sen- 
tence formed  the  whole  of  Caesar's  dispatch  to  the  Roman  senate  when  ho 
vanquished  Pharnaces,  king  of  Cimmerian  Bosphorus.  47  B.  c.  See  Zcla 
Battle  of. 

VENICE.  So  called  from  the  Venetii  who  inhabited  its  site,  when  it  was  made 
a  kingdom  by  the  Gauls,  who  conquered  it  about  356  B.  c.  Marcellus  con- 


»    j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  635 

quered  it  for  the  Roman  republic,  and  slew  the  Gaulish  king,  221  u.  c.  Th« 
islands  on  vhich  the  city  is  built  began  to  be  inhabited,  A.  D.  421,  by  Ital- 
ians, who  fled  here  as  a  place  of  safety  from  the  Goths,  and  other  barbar- 
ous nations,  when  they  ravaged  Italy.  The  first  house  was  erected  on  the 
morass  by  Entinopus.  by  whom  the  people  of  Padua  were  assisted  in  build- 
ing the  eighty  houses  which  first  formed  the  city. — Priestley.  Venice  was 
first  governed  by  a  doge  (Anafesto  Paululio),  A.  D.  697.  The  republic  was 
not  completely  founded  until  803.  The  city  reduced  to  ashes,  1101.  The 
ceremony  of  the  doges  of  Venice  marrying  the  Adriatic  was  instituted  by 
pope  Alexander  III.  in  1173.  Venice  carried  on  a  vast  commerce  until  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape,  gav<* 
it  another  direction,  about  1500.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  ter- 
ritory to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Adige  were  ceded  to  Austria,  and  the 
rest  was  annexed  to  what  the  French  then  styled  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
1797.  This  disposition  was  altered  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  and  the 
whole  country  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1805.  Venice  returned 
under  the  power  of  Austria  in  1814.  The  city  declared  a  free  port,  Jan.  24, 
1830. 


Venice  declares  herself  an  independent 
republic  -  -  Aug.  18,  1848 

Provisional  government  decrees  an  as- 
sembly wilh  full  powers  to  be  elected 
by  universal  suffrage,  1  to  every  1,500 
inhabitants  -  -  Dec.  29,  IMS 


Venice,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  capi- 
tulates to  Marshal  Radetzky,  and  is 
again  in  the  power  of  Austria, 

Aug.  22,  1849 


VENTRILOQUISM.  Persons  who  had  this  art  were  by  the  Latins  called  Ven- 
triloqui.  and  by  the  Greeks,  Engastrimythoi.  i.  e.  people  that  speak  out  of. 
their  bellies,  or  who  have  the  art  of  throwing  out  the  voice  in  an  extraordi- 
nary manner.  Exhibitors  of  this  kind  have  appeared  in  England  in  various 
ages,  but  some  of  extraordinary  capabilities  in  their  art  exhibited  in  the 
last  century.  Mr.  Thomas  King  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  man  whose 
experimental  philosophy,  shown  in  this  line,  excited  great  wonder,  about 
1716.  One  of  the  most  accomplished  professors  of  ventriloquism  that  ever 
appeared  in  France  or  England,  was  M.  Alexandre,  about  1822. 

VENUS.  This  planet's  transit  over  the  sun,  it  was  ascertained  by  Horrox,  in 
1633,  would  take  place  Nov.  24,  1639.  He  was  the  first  who  predicted,  or 
rather  calculated  this  passage,  from  which  he  deduced  many  useful  obser- 
vations. Maskelyne  was  sent  to  St.  Helena  to  observe  her  transit,  in  Jan. 
1761.  Captain  Cook  made  his  first  voyage,  in  the  Endeavor,  to  Otaheita, 
to  observe  a  transit  of  Venus,  in  1769.  See  NOTE  to  article  Cook's  Voyages. 
The  diurrjal  rotation  of  Venus  was  discovered  by  Cassini  in  1712.  This 
planet  will  not  be  again  so  brilliant  as  in  1769  to  our  globe  until  1874. 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  by  colonists  from  Massachu- 
setts, 1723.  The  territory  was  claimed  by  New  Hampshire,  from  1741  to 
1764 :  claimed  also  by  New- York,  and  granted  to  that  colony  by  parliament 
in  1664  Owing  to  these  conflicting  claims,  the  state  was  not  admitted  into 
the  confederacy  during  the  Revolution,  but  it  still  performed  its  part  in 
that  struggle.  The  British  defeated  at  Bennington  by  gen.  Stark,  in  1777. 
Claims  of  New- York  withdrawn  on  payment  of  830,000,  in  1790.  The  state 
admitted  into  the  Union,  1791.  Population  in  1790,  was  86,689;  in  1810, 
217,895  ;  in  1830,  280,679;  in  1840,  291,948. 

VERSAILLES,  PALACE  OP.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  Versailles  was  only  a 
small  village,  in  a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit ;  and  here  this  prince  built  a 
hunting-seat  in  1630.  Louis  XIV..  in  1687,  enlarged  it  into  a  magnificent 
palace,  which  was  finished  in  1708.  and  was  the  usual  residence  of  the  kings 
of  France  till  1789,  when  Louis  XVI.  and  his  family  were  removed  from  it 
to  Paris.  Louis  Philippe  appropriated  the  whole  of  the  immense  building 


636  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [vw 

to  a  grand  national  museum  of  paintings  and  statues,  dedicated  a  tout  Jf\ 
gloires  de  France ;  and  freely  opened  to  the  public. 

VERSAILLES,  PEACE  OP.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  the  United  States,  signed  at  Paris ;  when  the  latter  power  was  ad- 
mitted to  be  sovereign  and  independent.  On  the  same  day.  the  definitive 
treaty  was  signed  at  Versailles  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain 
Sept.  3,  1783.  In  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Pondicherry  and 
Carical,  with  the  former  possessions  in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  Franca 
Trincomalle  at  the  same  time  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

VERSE,  BLANK.  Blank  verse  and  the  heroic  couplet,  now  in  general  use  few 
grave  or  elevated  themes,  are  both  of  comparatively  modern  date.  Surrey 
translated  part  of  Virgil's  ^Eneid  into  blank  verse,  which  is  the  first  composi- 
tion of  the  kind;  omitting  tragedy,  extant  in  the  English  language ;  and  the 
other  measure  was  but  little  affected  till  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  verse 
previously  used  in  our  grave  compositions  was  the  stanza  of  eight  lines,  the 
ottava  rima,  as  adopted  with  the  addition  of  one  line  by  Spenser  (in  his 
Faery  Queen),  who  probably  borrowed  it  from  Ariosto  and  Tasso.  the  Italian 
language  being  at  that  time  in  high  repute.  Boccaccio  first  introduced  it  into 
Italy  in  his  heroic  poem  La  Tcseide,  having  copied  it  from  the  old  French 
chansons. — Metropolitan.  Vrissino  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  introducer  of 
blank  verse  among  the  moderns,  about  1508. —  Vossius.  See  Poetry. 

VESTA.  The  planet  Vesta  (ths  ninth)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bre- 
men, on  March  28,  1807.  She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude.— 
Annual  Register. 

VESTALS.  Priestesses  of  the  goddess  Vesta,  who  took  care  of  the  perpetual 
fire,  consecrated  to  her  worship.  This  office  was  very  ancient,  as  the  mother 
of  Romulus  was  one  of  the  vestals.  ^Eneas  is  supposed  to  have  first  chosen 
the  Vestals.  Numa,  in  710  B.  c.,  first  appointed  four,  to  which  number  Tar- 
quin  added  two.  They  were  always  chosen  by  the  monarchs  ;  but  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  high-priest  was  intrusted  with  the  care 
of  them.  As  they  were  to  be  virgins,  they  were  chosen  young,  from 
the  age  of  six  to  ten;  and  if  there  was  not  a  sufficient  number  that 
presented  themselves  as  candidates  for  the  office,  twenty  virgins  were 
selected  and  they  upon  whom  the  lot  fell  were  obliged  to  become  priestesses. 
The  vestal  Minutia  was  buried  alive  for  violating  her  virgin  vow,  337  B.  c. 
The  vestal  Sextilia  was  buried  alive  for  incontinence,  274  B.  c. ;  and  the  ves- 
tal Cornelia  Maximiliana  on  the  same  charge,  A.  D.  92. — Bibliotheque  Uni- 
verselle. 

VESUVIUS,  MOUNT.  The  dreadful  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  when  it 
emitted  such  a  quantity  of  flame  and  smoke  that  the  air  was  darkened,  and 
the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Hemdaneum  were  overwhelmed  by  the  burning 
lava,  A.  D.  79.  More  than  250,000  persons  perished  by  the  destruction  of 
those  cities ;  the  sun's  light  was  totally  obscured  for  two  days  throughout 
Naples ;  great  quantities  of  ashes  and  sulphureous  smoke  were  carried  not 
only  to  Rome,  but  also  beyond  the  Mediterranean  into  Africa ;  birds  wore 
suffocated  in  the  air  and  fell  dead  upon  the  ground,  and  the  fishes  perished 
in  the  neighboring  waters,  which  were  made  hot  and  infected  by  it:  this 
eruption  proved  fatal  to  Pliny  the  naturalist.  Herculaneum  was  discovered 
in  1737,  and  many  curious  articles  have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  since  that 
time ;  but  every  thing  combustible  had  the  marks  of  having  been  burned  by 
fire.  Numerous  eruptions  have  occurred,  causing  great  devastation  and 
loss  of  lives.  In  1631  the  town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  with  4000  persons,  and 
a  great  part  of  the  surrounding  country,  were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most 
dreadful  eruptions  ever  known  took  place  suddenly,  Nov.  24,  1759.  The 
violent  burst  in  1767  was  the  thirty-fourth  from  the  the  time  of  Titus,  when 


Vt«J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  637 

Pompeii  was  buried.  One  in  1794  was  most  destructive  :  the  lava  flowed 
over  5000  acres  of  rich  vineyards  and  cultivated  lands,  and  the  town  ot 
Torre  del  Greco  was  a  second  time  hurned  ;  the  top  of  the  mountain  fell  in, 
and  the  crater  is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  There  have  been 
several  eruptions  since. 

VETOES  OF  THE  PRESIDENTS  or  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  power  of  can 
celling  acts  of  Congress  by  executive  veto,  was  exercised  as  follows : — by 
Washington,  twice;  Madison,  four  times;  Monroe,  once;  Jackson,  fiva 
times ;  Tyler,  three  times ;  Polk,  twice.  Bill  relating  to  steam-vessels  in  the 
navy  vetoed  by  president  Tyler,  and  afterwards  passed  by  vote  of  two  third* 
of  both  houses,  and  became  a  law :  the  first  instance  of  the  kind,  Februarj 
20,  1845.  River  and  Harbor  bill,  vetoed  by  president  Polk,  August  3,  1846 
French  Spoliation  Indemnity  bill,  by  the  same,  Aug.  8,  J846. 

VIENNA.  The  former  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  from  1806  the  ca- 
pital of  the  Austrian  dominions  only.  Vienna  was  made  an  imperial  city 
in  1136.  and  was  walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom  paid  for  Richard  I. 
of  England,  40,000/.,  in  1194.  Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the 
Magnificent,  with  an  army  of  300,000  men  :  but  he  was  forced  to  raise  the 
siege  with  the  loss  of  70  000  of  his  best  troops.  1529.  Again  besieged  in 
1683,  when  the  siege  was  raised  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  who 
totally  defeated  the  Turkish  army  of  100.000,  which  had  cannonaded  the 
city  from  July  24  to  the  beginning  of  November.  Vienna  was  taken  by 
the  French,  under  prince  Murat,  Nov.  14,  1805 ;  and  evacuated  January  12, 
following.  They  again  captured  it,  May  13,  1809 ;  but  restored  it  once 
more  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the  two  countries,  Oct.  14,  same 
year.  Conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  allies  and  France,  September  28, 
1814.  Congress  of  sovereigns,  Oct.  2,  1814.  See  Austria  and  Hungary. 
See  next  articles. 

VIENNA,  TREATY  OP,  WITH  SPAIN.  The  celebrated  treaty  signed  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to 
each  other  such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they  were  respectively 
possessed  of,  and  by  a  private  treaty  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a  force 
to  procure  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing 
the  Pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.  Spain  guaranteed  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  April  30,  1725. 

VIENNA,  TREATY  or  ALLIANCE,  between  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  king 
of  Great  Britain,  and  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  gua- 
ranteed, and  the  disputes  as  to  the  Spanish  succession  terminated  (Spain 
acceded  to  the  treaty  on  the  22d  of  July) ;  signed  March  16,  1731. 

VIENNA,  TREATY  OF  WITH  FRANCE.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  king  of  France,  by  which  the  latter  power  agreed 
to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France  ; 
signed  Nov.  18,  1738. 

VIENNA,  PEACE  OF,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Francis  (II.  of  Germany) 
I.  of  Austria.  By  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol.  Dalmatia, 
and  other  territories,  which  were  shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united 
to  France  under  the  title  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and  engaging  tc  adhere 
to  the  prohibitory  system  adopted  towards  England  by  France  and  Russia, 
October  14,  1809. 

VIENNA,  THE  ATI  KS  OF.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they  had  acted  by 
the  treaty  of  Chaumont,  March  1,  1814;  signed  March  23,  1815.  Th* 
treaty  of  Vienna  between  the  king  of  the  Low  Countries  on  the  one  part, 
Mid  Great  Britain,  Russia.  Austria,  and  Prussia,  on  the  other,  agreeing  to 


638  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

the  enlargement  of  the  Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the  sovereignty  in  tha 
house  of  Orange.  May  31,  1815.  The  treaty  of  Vienna :  Denmark  cedes 
•Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for  Laueriburg, 
June  4,  1815.  The  federative  constitution  of  Germany  signed  at  Vienna, 
June  8,  1815. 

VILLAIN.  The  name  of  a  vassal  under  the  Norman  princes,  his  hajd  labot 
being  the  tenure  by  which  he  lived  upon  the  land.  Of  and  pertaining  to 
the  vill  or  lordship;  was  a  servant  during  life,  and  was  devisable  as  chat- 
tels in  the  feudal  times.  Queen  Elizabeth  gave  the  principal  blow  to  this 
kind  of  severe  service,  by  ordering  her  bondsmen  of  the  western  counties 
to  be  made  free  at  easy  rates,  A.  D.  1574. — Stmoe's  Chran. 

VLME1RA,  BATTLE  OF,,  between  the  British,  under  sir  Arthtr  Wellesley,  and 
the  whole  of  the  French  and  Spanish  forces  in  Portugal,  under  marshal 
Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  whom  the  British  signally  defeated,  August  21, 
1808.  For  this  victory  the  British  hero  and  the  officers  and  soldiers  under 
his  command  were  voted  the  thanks  of  parliament,  the  first  of  many  si- 
milar honors  that  marked  sir  Arthur's  (now  duke  of  Wellington's)  triumph- 
ant career. 

VINCENT'S,  ST.  This  was  long  a  neutral  island ;  but  at  the  peace  of  1763. 
the  French  agreed  that  the  right  to  it  should  be  vested  in  the  English. 
The  latter,  soon  after,  engaged  in  a  war  against  the  Caribs,  on  the  windward 
side  of  the  island,  who  were  obliged  to  consent  to  a  peace,  by  which  they 
ceded  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  British  crown.  The  consequence  of  this 
was,  that  in  1779  they  greatly  contributed  to  the  reduction  of  this  island 
by  the  French,  who,  however,  restored  it  in  1783.  In  1795  the  French 
landed  some  troops,  and  again  instigated  the  Caribs  to  an  insurrection,  which 
was  not  subdued  for  several  months.  The  great  eruption  of  the  Scouffriei 
mountain,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  occurred  in  1812. 

VINE.  The  vine  was  known  to  Noah.  A  colony  of  vine-dressers  from  Phocea, 
in  Ionia,  settled  at  Marseilles,  and  instructed  the  South  Gauls  in  tillage, 
vine-dressing,  and  commerce,  about  600  B.  c.  Some  think  the  vines  are 
aborigines  of  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  sponta- 
neously on  the  Mediterranean  shores  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  The 
vine  was  carried  into  Champagne,  and  part  of  Germany,  A.  D.  279.  The 
vine  and  sugar-cane  were  planted  in  Madeira  in  1420.  It  was  planted  in 
England  in  1552;  and  in  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  an  old  and 
celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any  known  vine  in  Europe.  See  Grapes, 
and  Wine* 

VINEGAR.  Known  nearly  as  soon  as  wine.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds 
of  vinegar,  which  they  used  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers  were  accus- 
tomed to  take  it  in  their  marches.  The  Bible  represents  Boaz,  a  rich  ci- 
tizen of  Bethlehem,  as  providing  vinegar  for  his  reapers,  into  which  they 
might  dip  their  bread,  and  kindly  inviting  Ruth  to  share  with  them  in  their 
repast :  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  harvesters,  at  that  period,  partook  of 
this  liquid  for  their  refreshment ;  a  custom  still  prevalent  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  vinegar  which  the  Roman  soldiers  offered  to  our 
Saviour  at  his  crucifixion  was  that  which  they  used  for  their  own  drinking. 


*  The  following  is  a  tradition  in  relation  to  the  vine : — When  Adam  planted  the  first  vin«,  ami 
tsft  it,  Satan  approached  it,  and  said.  "  Lovely  plant !  I  will  cherish  thee  ;"  and  thereupon  taking 
three  animals,  a  lamb,  a  lion,  and  a  hog,  he  slaved  them  at  the  root  of  the  tree,  and  their  blood  has 
been  imbibed  by  the  fruit  to  this  day.  Thus,  if  you  take  one  goblet  of  wine,  you  are  cheered  by  its 
influence,  yet  are  mild  and  docile  as  the  lamb;  if  you  take  two  goblets,  you  becoT.e  furious,  and 
rave  and  bellow  like  the  lion ;  and  if  you  drink  of  the  third  goblet,  your  reasor.  nnkb.  and,  like  tin 
hog,  you  wallow  in  the  mire. — Aslte. 


t]  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES.  639 

There  was,  however,  a  kind  of  potent  vinegar,  which  was  not  proper  for 
drinking  till  diluted. 

AND  VIOLIN.  As  the  lyre  of  the  Greeks  was  the  harp  of  the  moderns, 
so  the  viol  and  vielle  of  the  middle  ages  became  the  modern  violin.  The 
viol  was  of  various  sizes  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  and  was  anciently  very 
much  in  use  for  chamber  airs  and  songs.  That  of  three  strings  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  by  the  jugglers  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  violin 
was  invented  towards  the  close  of  the  same  century. — Abbe  Lengiet.  The 
fiddle,  however,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  A.  D.  1200.  in  the  legendary  life  of 
St.  Christopher.  It  was  introduced  into  England,  some  say,  by  Charles  II. 

VIRGIN.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a  festival  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  in  honor  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of  Mary  into  heaven,  according 
to  their  belief,  August  15,  A.  D.  45.  The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin,  is  a 
feast  celebrated  November  21,  said  to  have  been  instituted  among  the 
Greeks  in  the  eleventh  century ;  its  institution  in  the  West  is  ascribed  to 
Gregory  XL,  1372.  A  distinguished  writer  says  :  "  The  Indian  incarnate 
god  Chrishna.  the  Hindoos  believe,  had  a  virgin-mother  of  the  royal  race, 
and  was  sought  to  be  destroyed  in  his  infancy,  about  900  years  B.  c.  It 
appears  that  he  passed  his  life  in  working  miracles  and  preaching,  and 
was  so  humble  as  to  wash  his  friends'  feet ;  at  length  dying,  but  rising 
from  the  dead,  he  ascended  into  heaven  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude. 
The  Cingalese  relate  nearly  the  same  things  of  their  Budda." — Sir  William 
Jones. 

\1RGINIA,  daughter  of  the  centurion  L.  Virginius.  Appius  Claudius,  the 
decemvir,  became  enamored  of  her,  and  attempted  to  remove  her  from  the 
place  where  she  resided.  She  was  claimed  by  one  of  his  favorites  as  the 
daughter  of  a  slave,  and  Appius,  in  the  capacity  and  with  the  authority  of 
judge,  had  pronounced  the  sentence,  and  delivered  her  into  the  hands  of  his 
friend,  when  Virginius,  informed  of  his  violent  proceedings,  arrived  from 
the  camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daughter,  and  when  this  re- 
quest was  granted,  he  snatched  a  knife  and  plunged  it  into  Virginia's  breast, 
exclaiming,  "  This  is  all,  my  daughter  !  I  can  give  thee,  to  preserve  thee 
from  the  lust  of  a  tyrant."  No  sooner  was  the  blow  given  than  Virginius 
ran  to  the  camp  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The  soldiers  were  as- 
tonished and  incensed,  not  against  the  murderer,  but  the  tyrant,  and  they 
immediately  marched  to  Rome.  Appius  was  seized,  but  he  destroyed  him- 
self in  prison,  and  prevented  the  execution  of  the  law.  Spurius  Oppius, 
another  of  the  decemvirs,  who  had  not  opposed  the  tyrant's  views,  killed 
himself  also ;  and  Marcus  Claudius,  the  favorite  of  Appius,  was  put  to 
death,  and  the  decemviral  power  abolished,  449  B.  c. 

VIRGINIA.  One  of  the  United  States;  sometimes  called  the  "  Old  Dominion," 
having  been  settled,  April,  1607,  at  Jamestown,  on  James  river — the  first 
white  settlement  in  the  United  States.  Named  Virginia  in  honor  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  who  had  granted  the  country  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  A  settle- 
ment attempted  by  Raleigh  but  failed,  and  the  grant  was  vacated  on  his 
attainder  and  execution.  The  country  granted  by  James  I.  to  two  compa- 
nies, the  London  and  the  Plymouth.  Jamestown  settled  by  the  former,  and 
named  in  honor  of  their  royal  patron.  The  colony  suffered  much  from  the 
Indians,  and  by  various  disasters ;  proved  loyal  during  the  English  revolu- 
tion; was  the  first  to  proclaim  Charles  II.  on  his  restoration;  established 
the  Church  of  England,  by  law,  1662;  took  an  early  and  prominent  part  in 
the  struggle  for  independence.  Surrender  of  the  British  army  under  Cortf- 
•wallis.  at  Yorktown.  October  19.  1782.  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
adopted  June  25.  1788,  by  89  to  79.  Virginia  has  given  birth  to  six  presi- 
dents of  the  United  States,  viz :  Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe, 


640  THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  [  WA« 

Hamsun,  and  Taylor ;  and  also,  Patrick  Henry,  John  Marshall,  and  many 
distinguished  patriots.  Population  in  1790  was  747,610;  in  1810,  974,622: 
in  1830,  1,211,272;  in  1840,  1,239,737,  including  448,937  slaves. 

VISIER  OR  VIZIER,  GRAND.  An  officer  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  first  appointed 
in  1370.  Formerly  this  officer  governed  the  whole  empire  immediately 
under  the  grand  seignior ;  he  is  sometimes  called  the  grand  seignior's  lieu- 
tenant, or  vicar  of  the  empire  ;  at  his  creation,  the  prince's  seal  is  put  into 
his  hand,  upon  which  is  engraven  the  emperor's  name,  which  he  places  in 
his  bosorn,  and  carries  away  with  him. — Kiwlles. 

VTTTORIA.  BATTLE  OF.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  recorded  in  ths 
annals  of  England,  obtained  by  Wellington  over  the  French  army  com- 
manded by  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  marshal  Jourdan,  June  21, 1813.  Mar- 
shal Jourdan  lost  151  pieces  of  cannon,  451  wagons  of  ammunition,  all  his 
baggage,  provisions,  cattle,  and  treasure,  with  his  baton  as  a  marshal  of 
France.  Continuing  the  pursuit  on  the  25th,  Wellington  totA  Jourdan's 
only  remaining  gun  ! 

VOLCANOES.  In  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  there  are  above  200 
volcanoes,  which  have  been  active  in  modern  times.  The  eruptions  of 
Mount  Etna  are  recorded  as  early  as  734  B.  a.  by  authentic  historians.  See 
Etna.  The  first  eruption  of  Vesuvius  was  in  A.  D.  79.  See  Vesuvius. 
The  first  eruption  of  Hecla  is  said  to  have  occurred  A.  D.  1004.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  awful  eruption  of  this  volcano  in  1783.  see  Iceland.  In  Mexico, 
a  plain  was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thousand  feet  in  height 
by  the  burning  lava  from  a  volcano  in  1759.  A  volcano  in  the  isle  of  Ferro 
broke  out,  Sept.  13.  1777,  which  threw  out  an  immense  quantity  of  red 
water,  that  discolored  the  sea  for  several  leagues.  A  new  volcano  appeared 
in  one  of  the  Azore  islands,  May  1,  1808. 

VOLUNTEERS.  This  species  of  force  armed  in  England,  in  apprehension  of 
the  threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France,  1794.  Besides  their  large 
army,  and  85;000  men  voted  for  the  sea.  England  subsidized  40,000  Germans, 
raised  the  militia  to  100.000  men,  and  armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers. 
Between  the  years  1798  and  1804,  when  this  force  was  of  greatest  amount, 
it  numbered  410,000  men,  of  which  70.000  were  Irish.  The  English  volun- 
teers were,  according  to  official  accounts,  341  600  on  Jan.  1,  1804.  In  the 
United  States,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war,  Congress  authorized 
the  enlistment  of  50.000  volunteers.  A  much  larger  number  responded, 
but  less  than  30.000  were  actually  needed  or  enrolled. 

VOYAGES.  The  first  great  voyage,  or  voyage  properly  so  called,  was  by  order 
of  Necho,  pharoah  of  Egjpt,  when  some  Phoanician  pilots  sailed  from 
Egypt  down  the  Arabic  Gulf,  round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  entered  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  coasted  along 
the  north  of  Africa,  and  at  length  arrived  in  Egypt,  after  a  navigation  of 
about  three  years,  604  B.  c. — Blair,  Herodotus.  The  first  voyage  round  the 
world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part  of  a  Spanish  squadron  which  had  been 
under  the  command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the  Philippine  Is- 
land in  a  skirmish)  in  1619-20.  The  era  of  voyages  of  discovery  wet 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  See  Circumnavigators,  and  A0r*£-  Weal 
Passage. 

W. 

WAGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  wages  of  sundry  workmen  in  England  were  first 
fixed  by  act  of  parliament,  25  Edward  III.,  1350.  Haymakers  had  but  one 
penny  a  day.  Master  carpenters,  masons,  tylers,  and  other  coverers  ot 
houses,  had  not  more  than  3rf.  per  day  (about  9d.  of  our  money) ;  and  their 


J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  641 

servants  l^d.—  Vincr's  Statutes.  By  the  the  23d  Henry  VI.,  14ii,  the  waget 
of  a  bailiff'  of  husbandry  was  23s.  id.  per  annum,  and  clothing  of  the  price 
of  5s.  with  meat  and  drink ;  chief  hind,  carter,  or  shepherd.  20s.,  clothiug 
4s. ;  common  servant  of  husbandry.  15s.,  clothing  40d. ;  woman-servant,  10s.. 
clothing  4s.  By  the  llth  Henry  VII.,  1495,  there  was  a  like  rate  of  wages, 
only  with  a  little  advance  ;  as,  for  instance,  a  free  mason,  master  carpenter, 
rough  mason,  bricklayer,  master  tyler,  plumber,  glazier,  carver,  or  joiner, 
was  allowed  from  Easter  to  Michaelmas  to  take  6d.  a  day,  without  meat  and 
drink  ;  or  with  meat  and  drink  4d. ;  from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate 
Id.  A  master  having  under  him  six  men  was  allowed  Id.  a  day  extra.  The 
following  were  the 

WAGES    OF  HARVEST-MEN   IN   ENGLAND   AT  DIFFERENT   PERIODS. 


Year.  a.  d  I    Year.  s.  d. 


In  1350       per  diem.        0 
In  1460  ditto  0 

In  1568  ditto  0    4 


In  1688       per  diem.        0 
In  1716  ditto  0    9 

In  1740  ditto  0  10 


In  1632  ditto  ')    6  j  In  1760  ditto  1    0 


year.  «.  d. 

In  178S  per  diem.  1    4 

In  1794            ditto  1    6 

In  1800           ditto  2    0 

In  1840            ditto  3    0 


EVAGRAM,  BATTLE  OF,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  in  which  the 
latter  was  completely  victorious,  and  the  former  entirely  overthrown.  The 
slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful ;  20.000  Austrians  were  taken  by  the 
French,  and  the  defeated  army  retired  to  Moravia,  July  5,  1809.  This 
battle  led  to  an  armistice,  signed  on  the  12th ;  and  on  Oct.  24,  to  a  treaty 
of  peace,  by  which  Austria  ceded  all  her  sea-coast  to  France,  and  the 
kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her  expense.  The  em- 
peror was  obliged  also  to  yield  a  part  of  his  plunder  of  Poland  in  Gallicia 
to  Russia.  The  emperor  also  acknowledged  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD.  BATTLE  or,  IN  ENGLAND,  between  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry 
VI.,  and  the  duke  of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain,  and  3000  Yorkiste 
fell  upon  the  field.  The  death  of  the  duke,  who  aspired  to  the  crown, 
seemed  to  fix  the  good  fortune  of  Margaret;  but  the  earl  of  Warwick  es- 
poused the  cause  of  his  son,  the  earl  of  March,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,  and 
the  civil  war  that  was  continued  from  that  time  devastated  all  England. 
This  battle  was  fought  December  31,  1460. 

WAKES.  Every  church  at  its  consecration  received  the  name  of  some  par- 
ticular saint ;  this  practice  existed  among  the  Romans  and  Britons,  and 
was  continued  among  the  Saxons. —  Whitaker.  Women  were  hired  among 
the  ancient  Romans  to  weep  at  funerals :  they  were  called  Carina.  The 
Irish  howl  originated  from  this  Roman  outcry  at  the  decease  of  their 
friends.  They  hoped  thus  to  awaken  the  soul,  which  they  supposed  might 
lie  inactive. 

1VALDENSES.  The  persecution  of  this  sect  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Office  or  Inquisition.  Tope 
Innocent  III.  had  commissioned  some  monks  to  preach  against  the  heresies 
of  the  Waldenses  in  Narbonne  and  Provence;  but  the  Catholic  bishops 
were  at  first  jealous  of  this  mission,  armed  as  it  was  with  great  power,  and 
the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  legates.  A.  D.  1203-4. 
One  of  the  monks  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateauneuf.  having  been  as- 
sassinated, the  aspiring  pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighboring  powers  to 
ma  -ch  into  the  heretical  district..  All  obstinate  heretics  were  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  commander  of  this  crusade,  and  the 
whole  race  of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses  were  ordered  to  be  pursued 
with  fire  and  sword.  Neither  sex.  age,  nor  condition  was  spared ,  the  coun- 
try became  a  wilderness,  and  the  towns  heaps  of  smoking  ruins.  Such  wag 
the  era  of  the  Inquisition.  Dominic  de  Guzman  wa*  constituted  first  inqui- 
sitor-general, 1208. 


642  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS  [  WAH 

WALES.  After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius  quitted  Britain,  Vortigern  wa» 
elected  king  of  South  Britain,  and  he  invited  over  the  Saxons  to  defend  his 
country  against  the  Picts  and  Scots ;  but  the  Saxons  perfidiously  sent  for 
reinforcements,  consisting  of  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they 
made  themselves  masters  of  South  Britain,  and  most  of  the  ancient  Britons 
retired  to  Wales,  and  defended  themselves  against  the  Saxons,  in  its  inac- 
cessible mountains,  about  A.  D.  447.  In  this  state  Wales  remained  uncon- 
quered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157  :  and  in  1282  Edward  I. 
entirely  reduced  the  whole  country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independency  by 
the  death  of  Llewellyn,  the  last  prince.  The  Welsh,  however,  were  not 
entirely  reconciled  to  this  revolution,  till  the  queen  happening  to  be  brought 
to  bed  of  a  son  at  Carnarvon  in  1284,  Edward  with  great  policy  styled  him 
prince  of  Wales,  which  title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  has 
borne  almost  ever  since.  Wales  was  united  and  incorporated  with  England 
by  act  of  parliament.  27  Henry  VIII.  1535.  See  Britain. 

WALES  PRINCE  OP.  The  first  prince  of  this  title  was  Edward,  the  son  of 
Edward  I.,  who  was  born  in  Carnarvon  castle  on  the  25th  April.  128%.  Im- 
mediately after  his  birth  he  was  presented  by  his  father  to  the  Welsh  tuief 
tains  as  their  future  sovereign,  the  king  holding  up  the  royal  infant  in  his 
arms,  and  saying,  in  the  Welsh  language,  "  Eick  Dyn"  literally  in  English. 
"This  is  your  man,"  but  signifying,  "This  is  your  countryman  and  king." 
These  words  were  afterwards  changed,  or  corrupted,  as  some  historians 
assert,  to  "7cA  Dien,"  which  is  the  motto  attached  to  the  arms  of  the  prince 
of  Wales  to  this  day.  Owing  to  the  premature  death  of  his  elder  brother,  this 
prince  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  by  the  title  of  Edward  II.,  in 
1307- — Myvyrian  Archaeology.  Hist.  Wales.  For  another  and  very  different 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  motto  "  Ich  Dien"  see  the  article  under  that 
head. 

WALLOONS.  The  people  who  fled  to  England  from  the  persecution  of  the 
cruel  duke  of  Alva.  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  for  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  On  account  of  the  duke's  religious  proscriptions,  those  countries 
revolted  from  Philip,  1566. — Mariana's  Hist,  of  Spain.  The  Walloons  were 
well  received  in  England.  A  large  Protestant  church  was  given  to  them  by 
queen  Elizabeth,  at  Canterbury,  and  many  of  their  posterity  still  remain  in 
this  part  of  England. — Pardon. 

WALPOLE'S  ADMINISTRATIONS.  Mr.  Walpole  (afterwards  sir  Robert, 
and  earl  of  Orford)  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1715.  He  resigned, 
on  a  disunion  of  the  cabinet,  in  1717,  bringing  in  the  sinking  fund  bill 
on  the  day  of  his  resignation.  Resumed  as  head  of  the  ministry,  on 
the  earl  of  Sunderland  retiring,  in  1721 ;  and  continued  as  premier  until 
1742,  when  his  administration  was  finally  shaken  by  its  unpopular  endeavors 
for  some  time  previously  to  maintain  peace  with  Spain. 

WANDERING  JEW.  The  following  is  the  strange  account  given  of  this  per- 
sonage : — His  original  name  was  Calaphilus,  Pontius  Pilate's  porter.  When 
they  were  dragging  Jesus  out  of  the  door  of  the  Judgment-hall  he  struck 
him  on  the  back,  saying,  "Go  faster,  Jesus  !  go  faster;  why  dost  thou  lin- 
ger 1"  Upon  which  Jesus  looked  on  him  with  a  frown,  and  said,  "I  am  in- 
deed going;  but  thou  shalt  tarry  till  I  come."  Soon  after  he  was  converted, 
and  took  the  name  of  Joseph.  He  lives  for  ever ;  but  at  the  end  of  every 
hundred  years  falls  into  a  fit  or  trance,  upon  which  when  he  recovers,  he 
returns  to  the  same  state  of  youth  he  was  in  when  our  Saviour  suffered, 
being  about  thirty  years  of  age.  He  always  preserves  the  utmost  gravitj 
of  deportment.  He  was  never  seen  to  smile.  He  perfectly  remembers  the 
death  and  resurrection  of  Christ. — Calmet's  Hist,  of  the  Bible. 


WAR  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


643 


War  is  called  by  Erasmus  "  the  malady  of  princes."  Scriptural  wri- 
ters date  the  first  war  as  having  been  begun  by  the  impious  son  of  Cain 
3563  B.  c.  Osymandyas  of  Egypt  was  the  first  warlike  king ;  he  passed 
into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria.  2100  B.  c. —  Usher.  He  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  The  most  famous  siege  recorded 
in  the  annals  of  antiquity  was  that  of  Troy,  1193 — 1184  B.  c.  The  longest 
siege  was  that  of  Azoth,  647  B.  c.  The  most  famous  sortie  was  that  of  the 
Platacans  from  their  city,  428  B.  c.  It  is  computed  that  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world  to  the  present  time,  no  less  than  6.860.000.000  of  men  have 
perished  in  the  field  of  battle,  being  about  seven  times  as  many  of  the  hu- 
man species  as  now  inhabit  our  whole  earth. 

WARS:  CIVIL,  OP  GRKAT  BRITAIN.  The  most  remarkable  civil  wars  of  Great 
Britain  are  the  following  : — That  of  A.  D.  1215-16.  The  war  of  the  barons 
against  Henry  III.,  1565;  of  the  usurpation  of  Henry  IV.,  1400;  of  th<> 
White  and  Red  Roses,  or  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  from  1452  to  1471. 
The  war  between  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.,  1485.  The  war  against 
Charles  I.  from  1642  to  1651.  The  Scottish  civil  war  under  the  Pretender, 
1715-16  ;  that  under  the  Young  Pretender,  1745.  In  Ireland,  that  under  Ty 
rone,  1599  ;  under  O'Neill,  1641 ;  and  that  produced  by  the  great  rebellion, 
1798. 

WARS.  FOREIGN,  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  The  wars  in  France,  in  which  England 
was  involved  for  nearly  two  centuries,  arose  from  the  dukes  of  Normandy 
being  kings  of  England.  They  held  Normandy  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of 
France ;  and  when  William  I.  conquered  England,  it  became  an  English 
province,  but  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  king  John,  1204.  The  wars  with 
France  were  many ;  the  English  princes  gained  bloody  victories  at  Cressy, 
Poictiers.  and  Agincourt ;  but  they  were  finally  driven  out  of  France  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI..  and  lost  Calais,  by  surprise,  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  It 
was  to  the  English  people  a  fortunate  loss ;  but  the  rival  policy  and  interests 
of  the  two  governments  have,  ever  since  then,  caused  half  as  many  years 
of  war  as  peace.  See  the  countries  respectively,  Battles,  &c. 

FOREIGN   WARS   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN   SINCE   THE   CONQUEST. 


War  with  Scotland,  1008 

Peac 

3        1092     War  with  Scotland, 

1542        Peace.      1546 

" 

France,     1116 

u 

1118 

" 

Scotland, 

1547 

'           1550 

• 

Scotland,  1138 

" 

1139 

« 

France, 

1549 

'           1550 

« 

France      1161 

" 

1186 

France, 

1557 

'           1559 

»i 

France 

1194 

" 

1195 

Scotland, 

1557 

'           1560 

« 

France 

1201 

" 

1216 

France, 

J562 

'           1564 

'' 

France 

1224 

« 

1234 

Spain, 

1588 

'           1604 

v 

France 

1294 

" 

1299 

Spain, 

Wst 

'           1629 

11 

Scotlan 

1,   1296 

< 

1323 

France, 

1627 

'•           1629 

11 

Scotlan 

d,   1327 

* 

1328 

Holland, 

1651 

'           1654 

" 

France 

1339 

* 

1300 

Spain, 

1655 

'           1660 

•" 

France 

1368 

' 

1420 

France, 

1666 

<           1668 

u 

France 

1422 

< 

1471 

Denmark, 

1666 

'           1668 

11 

France 

1492 

*i 

anie  year 

Holland, 

1666 

'           1668 

(I 

France 

1512 

* 

1514 

Algiers, 

1669 

'           1671 

11 

France 

1522 

» 

1527 

Holland, 

1672            "           1674 

11 

Scotland,  1522 

' 

1542 

" 

France, 

1689            "           1697 

The  general  peace  of  Ryswick  between  England,  Germany,  Holland,  Fiance, 
and  Spain,  was  sig-ned  by  the  ministers  of  these  powers,  at  the  palace  of 

Ryswick,  Sept.  20,1697 

It  concluded  this  last  war. 

THE   GRKAT  MODERN   AND   EXPENSIVE   WARS    OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


War  of  the  Succession,  commenced  May  4, 
1702.  Peace  of  Utrecht,  March  13,  1713. 

War  with  Spain  Dec.  16,  1718.  Peace  con- 
cluded 1721. 

War;  the  Spanish  War.  Oct.  23,  1739. 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  April  30,  1748. 


War  with  France,  March  31,  1744.     Closed 

also  on  April  30,  1748. 
War ;  the  Seven  years'  war,  June  9,  1756. 

Peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
War  with  Spain,  Jan.   4,   1762.     Genera 

peace  of  Feb.  10,  )?** 


644 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  WAB 


WARS,  FOREIGN,  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN — continued. 


War  with  the  United  States,  July  14,  1774. 

Peace  of  Paris,  Nov.  30.  1782. 
War  with  France,  Feb.  6,  1778.    Peace  of 

Paris.  Jan.  20,  1783. 
War  with  Spain,  April  17,  1780.    Closed 

same  time,  Jan  20,  1783. 
War  with  Holland,  Dec.  21,  1780.    Peace 

signed  Sept.  2, 1783. 


War  of  the  Revolution,  Feb.  1, 1793.  Peac« 
of  Amiens,  March  27,  1802. 

War  against  Bonaparte,  April  29,  1803.  Fi- 
nally closed,  June  18.  1815. 

War  with  the  United  States,  June  18,  1812. 
Peace  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814. 

For  the  wars  with  India  and  China,  see  three 
countries  respectively. 


In  the  war  against  Bonaparte,  the  great  powers  of  Europe  leagued  sometimes 
with,  and  sometimes  against  Great  Britain.  England  spent  65  years  in  war, 
and  62  in  peace,  in  the  127  years  previous  to  the  close  of  the  last  war  in 
1815.  In  the  war  of  1688,  she  spent  36  millions  sterling ;  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  62  millions ;  in  the  Spanish  war,  54  millions ;  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  112  millions ;  in  the  American  tear,  136  millions ;  in  the 
war  of  the  French  Revolution,  464  millions  ;  and  in  the  icar  against  Bona- 
parte, 1159  millions ;  thus  forming  a  total  expenditure  for  war.  in  127  years 
(from  the  Revolution  in  1688  to  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  in  1815),  of  2023 
millions  of  pounds  sterling.  M.  de  Pradt  estimates  the  loss  of  life  sustained 
by  the  French  forces  in  the  six  campaigns  of  the  Peninsular  war  at  six 
hundred  thousand  men.  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Spaniards  and  their 
allies  was  probably  as  great.  During  the  war  many  districts  of  the  Penin- 
sula were  from  time  to  time  laid  waste  by  the  contending  armies,  and  tbe 
inhabitants  were  victims  to  all  the  calamities  and  horrors  thus  produced. 
The  total  destruction  of  human  beings  in  this  last  war  must  have  amounted 
to  one  million  two  hundred  thousand. 

WAR;  REVOLUTIONARY,  ending  in  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  com- 
menced by  the  battle  of  Lexington.  April  19,  1775.  See  Battles.  Ended 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  1783.  This  war  cost  S135.193.700. 

WAR,  THE,  OF  1812,  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain : 

First  difficulty  respecting  the  search  of  i  War  declared   ...  June  19,  1812 

American  vessels        -           -           -1806  Gen.  H.  Dearborn  appointed  comman- 

Chesapeake  United  States  frigate  fired  der-in-chief. 

on                                                        -1807  [See  Battles  and  Naval  Battles.] 

Non-intercourse  act  passed        -           -  1809  j  The  war  opposed  in  New  England,  and 

United  States  frigate  President,  engag-  levies  of  troops  refused  by  Mass  , 

ed  the  British  sloop-of-war  Little  Belt  !      Conn.,  and  R.  I. 

May  16, 1811  Treaty  of  peace  ratified          -  Feb.  17, 1815 
President  Madison's  war  message  to 

congress          •           •           -  June  1, 1812  i 

VAR  AGAINST  ALGIERS,  to  punish  piracies,  <fcc.,  declared  by  the  United  States, 
1815.  Commodores  Decatur  and  Bainbridge  captured  two  Algerine  vessels 
and  "  conquered  a  peace,"  July  4, 

WAR  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  MEXICO.  [The  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States  having  been  completed  by  the  vote  of  the  senate 
of  Texas,  Dec.  22;  1845.] 


American  army  of  occupation,  (3500) 
under  Gen.  Taylor  took  post  on  the 
Rio  Grande  opposite  Matamoras, 

March  28,  1846 

First  collision — a  reconnoitring  party 
of  70  from  American  army  under  Col. 
Thornton,  fired  upon  and  taken  pri- 
soners by  the  Mexicans  -  April  24,  1846 

Gen.  Taylor  defeats  the  Mexicans  at 
Pnlo  Alto,  loses  48  killed  and  126 
wounded.  Mexicans,  262  killed  and 
355  wounded  -  -  May  8-9, 1846 

Bill  passed  both  houses  of  Congress  U. 
S..  declaring  that  war  with  Mexico 


already  existed,  by  act  of  that  power, 
and    authorizing    50.000   volunteers 

May  12,  ;»U 

Monterey  taken  by  Com.  Sloat,  July  6,  i847 
Santa  Fe  occupied  by  Gen.  Kearney 

Aug.  18.  l&K 

Mexican  ports  on  the  Pacific  blockaded 
by  Com.  Stockton  -  -  Aug.  19,  1846 

Battle  of  Monterey,  4700  Americans 
under  Taylor,  10,000  Mexicans  under 
Ampudia.  Monterey  surrendered.  A- 
merican  loss,  120  killed  368  wounded, 
Mexican  much  greater  -  Sept.  21-23,  1841 


WAR  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


645 


WAR  WITH  MEXICO;  contimted. 

Stevenson's  California  regiment  sailed 
from  New-York  -  -  Sept.  26,  1846 

1'obasco  bombarded    by  com.   Perry, 

Oct.  25,  1846 

Tampico  occupied  by   com.  Connor, 

Nov.  14,  1846 

Col.  Doniphan  with  450  Missouri  volun- 
teers defeated  1100  Mexicans  at  Bari- 
to,  the  latter  losing  63  killed  and  150 
wounded.  American  loss  6  wounded. 

Gen.  Kearney  defeats  the  "  revolted  " 
Californiaris,  at  San  Gabriel,  &c. 

Jan.  8.  1847 

Majoi  Borland,  Cassius  M.  Clay,  Major 
Gaines,  and  SO  men,  taken  prisoners 
by  the  Mexicans  at  Encarnacion, 

Jan.  23,  1847 

Revolt  against  Americans  in  N.  Mex- 
ico, American  governor  Bent  and  five 
others  murdered  -  -  Jan  14,  1847 

15GO  N.  Mexican  Indians  and  Mexicans 
defeated  by  col.  Price  -  Jan.  24,  1847 

Battle  of  Buena  Vista:  Americana 4759 
mostly  volunteers,  under  gen.  Taylor 
and  gen.  Wool ;  and  Mexicans  22,000 
unde'rSanta  Anna;  latter  defeated  and 
loss  6000  killed  and  wounded ;  Ameri- 
can loss  2(37  killed  and  456  wounded, 

Feb.  22-23,  1847 

Battle  of  Sacramento ;  American  col. 
Doniphan,  924  men,  defeated  4000 
Mexicans  under  Herridea,  latter  loss 
300  killed,  300  wounded  and  40  pri- 
soners;  American  loss,  1  killed  and  8 
wounded  -  -  -  Feb.  28,  1847 

Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  gen.  Scott 
and  com.  Perry;  American  loss  65 
killed  and  wounded  -  March  29,  1847 

Alvarado  surrendered  to  lieut.  Hunter, 

April  2,  1847 

Battle  of  Cerro-Gordo ;  Americans  8500 
under  gen.  Scott,  defeat  12,000  Mex- 
icans under  Santa  Anna,  5  generals 
and  3000  men,  taken  prisoners  by 
Scott:  American  loss  250,  Mexican 


Battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubtst«,o, 
American  gen.  Smith  drives  the  Mexi- 
cans from  these  fortified  posts  towards 
Mexico,  losing  1066  killed  and  wound- 
ed ;  Mexican  loss  6000  -  Aug.  20,  184 

Armistice  agreed  upon;  broken  by  the 
Mexicans."  Hostilities  recommenced 

Sept.  7,  1845 

Battle  of  Molino  del  Rey ;  American 
gen.  Worth  carried  the  fortifications 
defended  by  14,000  Mexicans  under 
Santa  Anna.  American  loss,  787  kil- 
led and  wounded  ;  Mexican  loss  3000, 

Sept.  8,  1847 

Battle  of  Chepultepec,  a  height  near 
Mexico,  carried  by  American  gene- 
rals Worth,  (Juitman,  and  Pillow, 
(under  gen.  Scott)  after  a  loss  of  862 

Sept.  12-13,  1847 

This  was  followed  by  the  surrender  of 
the  city  of  Mexico  -  -  Sept.  14,  1847 

Col.  Childs  with  400  men  and  1800 
sick  in  hospitals  besiesed  28  days  at 
Puebla,  but  compelled  the  Mexicans 
to  raise  the  siege  -  -  Oct.  12,  1847 

Contribution  of  $600,000  levied  in  Mex- 
ico for  protecting  public  property  in 
the  city  -  -  -  Sept.  17, 1847 

City  of  Huamantla  captured  by  Ame- 
rican gen.  Lane,  who  defeats  Santa 
Anna.  American  loss,  24  killed  and 
wounded ;  Mexican  loss  150,  Oct.  9,  1847 

Port  of  Guayamas  bombarded  and  cap- 
tured by  American  frigate  Congress, 
and  sloop  Portsmouth  -  Oct.  20,  1847 

A  tax  levied  upon  the  states  of  Mexico, 
and  duties  <fec.  laid  to  the  amount  of 
about  fr3,OfO,000  -  -  Dec.  31,  1847 

Gen.  Scott  superseded  by  Gen.  Butler. 

Feb.  18, 1843 

Treaty  of  peace  ratified  at  Queretaro, 
by  the  Hon.  A.  H.  Sevier  and  N. 
Clifford,  for  the  United  States,  and 
the  foreign  Mexican  minister,  Signer 
De  la  Rosa  -  -  -  May  30,  1848 

American    troops    finally    withdrawn 


Taspan  taken  by  com.  Perry,  April  18, 1847  I      from  the  city  of  Mexico,  -    June  12,  1848 

*'ARSAW.  Late  the  metropolis  of  Poland.  The  diet  was  transferred  to  this 
city  from  Cracow,  in  1556.  Warsaw  surrendered  to  Charles  XII.  in  1703. 
It  has  been  a  great  prey  to  war  of  late  years.  In  the  beginning  of  1794,  the 
empress  of  Russia  put  a  garrison  into  this  city,  in  order  to  compel  the  Poles 
to  acquiesce  in  the  usurpations  she  had  in  view  ;  but  this  garrison  was  ex- 
pelled by  the  citizens,  with  the  loss  of  2000  killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36 
pieces  of  cannon,  April  17.  1794.  The  king  of  Prussia  besieged  Warsaw  in 
July  1794.  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  in  September,  same  year. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  the  November  following.  See  next  article, 
Warsaw  was  constituted  a  duchy  and  annexed  to  the  house  of  Saxony 
in  August.  1807 ;  but  the  duchy  was  overrun  by  the  Russians  in  1813, 
and  soon  afterwards  Warsaw  again  became  the  residence  of  a  Russian  vice- 
roy. The  late  Polish  revolution  commenced  here,  November  29.  1830.  See 
Poland. 

WARSAW,  BATTLES  OP.  The  Poles  suffered  a  great  defeat  in  a  battle  with 
the  Russians,  Oct.  10. 12,  1794 ;  and  Suwarrow,  the  Russian  general,  aftei 
the  siege  and  destruction  of  Warsaw,  cruelly  butchered  30.000  Poles,  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  ia  cold  blood,  Nov.  8,  1794.  The  battle  preceding  the 


646  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

surreoier  was  very  bloody  ;  of  26.000  men,  more  than  10,000  were  killed, 
nearly  10.000  were  made  prisoners,  and  2000  only  escaped  the  fury  of  tli« 
merciless  conqueror.  Battle  of  Growchow,  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the  Rus- 
sians were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  7000  men.  Feb. 
20,  1831.  Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  the  city 
capitulated,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Russians.  Great  part  of 
the  Polish  army  retired  towards  Plock  and  Modlin.  This  last  battle  was 
fought  Sept.  7  and  8,  1831. 

W  ARSAW,  TREATIES  OF.  The  treaty  of  alliance  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria 
and  Poland,  against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which  John  Sobieski  assisted 
in  raising  the  siege  of  Vienna  (on  the  18th  of  September  following),  signed 
March  31,  1683.  Treaty  of  Warsaw,  between  Russia  and  Poland,  February 
24,  1768. 

WASHINGTON.  The  capita,  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  first 
made  the  seat  of  government  in  1800.  The  house  of  representatives  was 
opened  for  the  first  time,  May  30,  1808.  Washington  was  taken  in  the  late 
war  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Ross,  when  the  Capitol  and  the 
President'?  house  were  consumed  by  a  general  conflagration,  the  troops  not 
sparing  even  the  national  library,  August  24,  1814.  General  Ross  was  soon 
afterwards  killed  in  a  desperate  engagement  at  Baltimore,  Sept.  12,  follow- 
ing. See  United  Slates. 

WASHINGTON.  GEORGE.  Born  Feb.  22,  1732 ;  in  the  expedition  of  Brad- 
dock  against  fort  Du  Quesne  1755 ;  appointed  commander-in- chief  of  the 
American  army  1775  ;  elected  president  of  Convention  for  forming  Consti- 
tution 1787  ;  elected  President  of  the  United  States  1789;  again  in  1793; 
died  1799.  Washington  monument  at  New  York,  corner-stone  laid,  Oct.  19, 
1847.  National  monument  to  Washington,  corner-stone  laid  July  4,  1848: 
oration  by  Robt.  C.  Wiuthrop.  Virginia  monument  to  Washington,  corner- 
stone laid  by  President  Taylor,  Feb.  22,  1849. 

WATCHES.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nuremberg,  A.  D. 
1477 ;  although  it  is  affirmed  that  Robert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch 
about  A.  D.  1310.  Watches  were  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  by 
Purbach,  1500.  Authors  assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was  the  first 
who  hid  any  thing  that  might  be  called  a  watch,  though  some  call  it  a  small 
table-clock,  1530.  Watches  were  first  brought  to  England  from  Germany  in 
1577. — Hume.  Spring  pocket-watches  (watches  properly  so  called)  have 
had  their  invention  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke  by  the  English,  and  to  M.  Huy- 
gens  by  the  Dutc.:.  Dr.  Derham,  in  his  Artificial  CLockmaker,  says  that  Dr 
Hooke  was  the  inventor ;  and  he  appears  certainly  to  have  produced  what 
is  called  the  pendulum  watch.  The  time  of  this  invention  was  about  1658; 
as  is  manifest,  among  other  evidences,  from  an  inscription  on  one  yf  the 
double-balance  watches  presented  to  Charles  II.,  viz.,  "  Rob.  Hooke  in- 
ven.  1658.  T.  Tompion  fecit,  1675."  Repeating  watches  were  invented 
by  Barlowe,  1676.  Harrison's  time-piece  was  invented  in  1735;  improved 
1739.  1749,  1753.  In  1759,  he  made  the  time-piece  which  procured  him 
the  reward  of  20,00(K.,  offered  by  the  Board  of  Longitude,  1763.  Watches 
and  clocks  were  taxed  in  1797.  The  tax  was  repealed  in  1798.  See 
Clocks. 

SKATER.  Thales  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  looked  upon  water 
(as  also  did  Homer,  and  several  of  the  ancient  philosophers)  as  being  the 
original  principle  of  every  thing  besides,  about  594  B.  c. — Stanley.  It  is  the 
universal  drink  of  man.  The  ancients  usually  diluted  their  wines  with 
much  water ;  and  Hesiod  prescribes  three  measures  of  water  to  one  of  wina 
in  sumn.er. — Madame  Dacier.  In  the  Roman  church  water  was  first  mixed 


WAT  J  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  647 

with  the  sacramental  wine.  A.  D.  122. — Lenglet.     "  Honest  water  is  too  weak 
to  be  a  sinner ;  it  never  left  a  man  in  the  mire." — S/iakspeare. 

WATER-CLOCKS.  The  first  instruments  used  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time 
independently  of  the  sunshine,  were  clepsydra:  or  water-clocks.  These  were 
most  probably  vessels  of  water,  with  a  small  hole  through  the  bottom 
through  this  hole  the  water  ran  out  in  a  certain  time,  possibly  an  hour , 
after  which  the  vessel  was  again  filled  to  be  emptied  as  before.  This  in- 
vention was  a  manifest  improvement  on  the  old  sun-dials,  whose  perpendi- 
cular gnomon  gave  hours  of  different  length  at  the  various  seasons  of  the 
year.  Something  similar  to  the  hour-glass  was  occasionally  used;  and 
Alfred  the  Great,  probably  ignorant  of  these  methods,  adopted  the  burning 
of  a  taper  as  a  measure  of  time. 

W  ATER-MILLS.  Used  for  grinding  corn,  invented  by  Belisarius,  the  general 
of  Justinian,  while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths.  A.  D.  555.  The  ancients 
parched  their  corn,  and  pounded  it  in  mortars.  Afterwards  mills  were  in- 
vented, which  were  turned  by  men  and  beasts  with  great  labor ;  and  yet 
Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

WATER  TOFANA,  OR  WIVES' POISON.  See  article  Poisoning.  The  poisoii  so 
freely  administered  by  Italians  in  the  17th  century,  called  aqua  tofana,  from 
the  name  of  the  woman  Tofania.  who  made  and  sold  it  in  small  fiat  vials. 
She  carried  on  this  traffic  for  half  a  century,  and  eluded  the  police ;  but  on 
being  taken,  confessed  that  she  had  been  a  party  in  poisoning  600  people. 
Numerous  persons  were  implicated  by  her,  and  many  of  them  were  publicly 
executed.  All  Italy  was  thrown  into  a  ferment,  and  many  fled,  and  some 
persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction,  were  strangled  in  prison.  It  appeared 
to  have  been  chiefly  used  by  married  women  who  were  tired  of  their  hus- 
bands. Four  or  six  drops  were  a  fatal  dose  ;  but  the  effect  was  not  sudden, 
and  therefore  not  suspected.  It  was  as  clear  as  water,  but  the  chemists 
have  not  agreed  about  its  real  composition.  A  proclamation  of  the  pope  de- 
scribed it  as  aquafortis  distilled  into  arsenic,  and  others  considered  it  as  a 
solution  of  crystallized  arsenic.  The  secret  of  its  preparation  was  conveyed 
to  Paris,  where  the  marchioness  de  Brinvilliers  poisoned  her  father  and  two 
brothers ;  and  she  with  many  others  was  executed,  and  the  preparers  burnt 
alive. — Phillips. 

WATERLOO,  BATTLE  OP.  The  greatest  victory  ever  won  by  British  arms,  and 
the  most  decisive  and  happy  in  its  consequences.  In  this  great  battle  the 
French  army,  with  Napoleon  as  its  chief,  was  signally  overthrown  by  the 
British  and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  June  18,  1815.  Napoleon 
attacked  the  British,  whom  he  expected  to  overwhelm  by  superior  num- 
bers, but  they  maintained  their  ground,  and  repulsed  the  enemy  from  about 
nine  in  the  morning  till  seven  at  night,  when  the  French  line  began  to  waver. 
The  commander  then  gave  orders  to  charge  ;  a  total  rout  ensued,  and  Blu- 
cher,  who  opportunely  came  up  at  this  juncture,  joined  in  the  pursuit. 
On  both  sides  the  carnage  was  immense ;  but  that  of  the  French  was  double 
the  amount  of  the  British.  Napoleon  quitted  the  wreck  of  his  flying  army, 
and  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  attempted,  after  the  destruction  of  thref) 
great  armies,  to  raise  a  fourth ;  but  finding  this  impossible,  his  abdication 
followed.  See  Bonaparte  and  France. 

WATER-SPOUT.  Whirlwinds  and  water-spouts  proceed  from  the  same  cause, 
the  only  difference  being  that  water-spouts  pass  over  the  water,  and  whirl- 
winds over  the  land. — Dr.  Franklin.  Two  water-spouts  fell  on  the  Glata 
mountains  in  Germany,  and  caused  dreadful  devastation  to  Hautenbach,  and 
many  other  villages ;  a  prodigious  number  of  houses  were  destroyed,  and 
many  persons  perished,  July  13,  1827.  A  water-spout  at  Glanflesk.  near  Kil- 


648  THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  [ 

Jarney,  in  Ireland,  passed  over  a  farm  of  Mr.  John  Macarthy,  and  destroyed 
his  cottage,  two  other  farmhouses,  and  other  buildings,  of  which  not  a  ves- 
tige remained.  In  this  catastrophe  seventeen  persons  perished.  August  4, 
1831. 

WAX.  This  substance  came  into  use  for  candles  in  the  twelfth  century;  and 
wax  candles  were  esteemed  a  luxury  in  1300.  being  but  little  used.  In  China, 
candles  of  vegetable  wax  have  been  in  use  for  centuries.  See  Candlebcrry. 
Wax  candles  are  made  very  cheap  in  America,  from  the  berry  of  a  particu- 
lar species  of  myrtle,  which  yields  excellent  wax.  of  a  green  color.  Sealing- 
wax  was  not  brought  into  use  in  England  until  about  1556.  The  wax-tree. 
Ligustrum  lucidum,  was  brought  from  China  before  1794. 

WE.  The  common  language  of  kings  is  we,  which  plural  style  was  begun  with 
king  John,  A.  D.  1190. — Coke's  Insiit.  Before  this  time  sovereigns  used  the 
singular  person  in  all  their  edicts. — Idem.  The  German  emperors  and  French 
kings  used  the  plural  about  A.  D.  1200. — HenaulL  It  is  now  the  style  royal 
of  all  monarchs.  In  the  articles  of  public  journals  they  also  adopt  the  plu- 
ral, indicating  that  what  they  write  proceeds  from  a  plurality  of  pens. 

WEALTH.  This  is  a  relative  term ;  for  as  there  is  only  a  certain  amount  of 
property  in  a  country,  so  the  possession  of  a  large  share  by  one  man  is  the 
poverty  of  others.  The  wealth  of  individuals  is  therefore  no  benefit  to  the 
country,  while  as  to  others  it  is  the  cause  of  their  poverty.  The  instances 
of  wealth  in  the  early  ages  are  many  and  most  extraordinary.  The  mighti- 
est conflagration  of  wealth  on  record  is  that  of  Sardanapalus,  where  riches 
amounting  to  one  thousand  four  hundred  millions  sterling  were  destroyed. 
— Athenaus.  Caecilius  Isidorus  died  at  Rome  possessed  of  4116  slaves,  3600 
oxen.  200.000  head  of  other  cattle,  and  three  millions  of  our  money  in  coin, 
8  B.  c. —  Uidv.  Hist. 

WEAVING.  The  art  of  weaving  appears  to  have  been  practised  in  China  from 
the.  earliest  antiquity — more  than  a  thousand  years  before  it  was  known  in 
Europe  or  Asia.  Poets  assign  the  art  to  the  spider.  Women  originally 
spun.  wove,  and  dyed  ;  and  the  origin  of  these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  ancient 
nations,  to  different  women  as  women's  arts.  The  Egyptians  ascribed  it  to 
Isis ;  the  Greeks,  to  Minerva ;  and  the  Peruvians,  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Ca- 
pac.  In  most  easten  countries,  the  employment  of  weaving  is  still  per- 
formed by  the  women.  Our  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had  not  any  seam,  being 
woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  Perhaps,  says  Dr.  Dodd- 
ridge,  this  curious  garment  might  be  the  work  and  present  of  some  pious 
women  who  attended  him,  and  ministered  unto  him  of  their  substance,  L/uke 
viii.  3.  The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may  be  seen  in  Calmet's 
Dictionary,  under  the  word  Vestments. 

V»  E  AVING  IN  ENGLAND.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at  York,  where 
they  manufactured  woollens,  which,  says  king  Edward,  '-may  prove  of 
great  benefit  to  us  and  our  subjects,"  1331.  Flemish  dyers,  cloth-drapers, 
linen-makers,  silk-throwsters.  &c.  settled  at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colche* 
ter.  Southampton,  and  other  places,  on  account  of  the  duke  of  Alva's  perse- 
cution, 1667. 

WEDGWOOD  WARE.  A  fine  species  of  pottery  and  porcelain,  produced  b» 
Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood,  of  Staffordshire,  1762.  The  manufactories  for  this 
ware  employed  10000  families  in  England.  Previously  to  1763,  most  of  the 
superii  r  kinds  of  earthenwares  were  imported  from  France. 

WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  a  Saxon  idol,  call- 
ed Woden,  supposed  to  be  Mars,  worshipped  on  this  day.  The  name  given 
to  our  Wednesday  by  the  Saxons  was  Woden's  day,  which  was  afterward* 
corrupted  to  Wednesday.  See  next  article. 


WES  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  649 

IVEEK.  The  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be  first  used  among  the  Jews, 
who  observed  the  sabbath  every  seventh  day ;  they  had  three  sorts  of  weeks, 
the  first  the  common  one  of  seven  days,  the  second  of  years,  which  was 
seven  years,  the  third  of  seven  times  seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which  was 
the  jubilee.  All  the  present  English  names  are  derived  from  the  Saxon: — 
Latin.  English.  Saxon.  Presided  over  ty 

Dies  Saturni,  Saturday,  Saterne's  day,  Saturn. 

Dies  Solis,  Sunday,  Sun's  day,  The  sua. 

Dies  Lunae,  Monday,  Moon's  day,  The  moon. 

Dies  Martis,  Tuesday,  Tiw's  day,  Mars. 

Dies  Mercurii,  Wednesday,  Woden's  day,  Mercury. 

Dies  Jovis,  Thursday,  Thor's  day,  Jupiter. 

Dies  Veneris,  Friday;  Friga's  day,  Venus. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  These,  and  the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver 
money,  were  invented  by  Phydon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  895  B.  c.  et  seq. — Arunde- 
lian  Marbles.  Weights  were  originally  taken  from  grains  of  wheat,  the 
lowest  being  still  called  a  grain. — Chalmers.  The  standard  measure  was 
originally  kept  at  Winchester  by  the  law  of  king  Edgar,  ±  D.  972.  Stand- 
ards of  weights  and  measures  were  provided  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land by  the  sheriffs  of  London,  8  Richard  I.,  1197.  A  public  weighing- 
machine  was  set  up  in  London,  and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be  weighed 
by  the  city-officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do  justice  betwee.n 
buyer  and  seller,  statute  3d  Edward  II..  1309. — Sfowe.  The  first  statute, 
directing  the  use  of  avordupois  weight,  is  that  of  24  Henry  VIII.,  1532. — 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  65.  art.  3.  The  French  adopt  the  metre  of 
3.28084.  or  the  10  millionth  part  of  the  distance  from  the  Pole  to  the  Equa- 
tor, as  the  standard  of  measure ;  and  the  kilogramme,  equal  to  2  255  pounds 
avoirdupois,  as  the  standard  of  weight. 

WESLEYAN  METHODISTS.  A  large  body  of  Christians,  whose  sect  was 
founded  by  an  excellent  and  pious  man,  John  Wesley.  In  1730  he  and  his 
brother,  with  a  few  other  students,  formed  themselves  into  a  small  society 
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  edification  in  religious  exercises.  So  singular  an 
association  excited  considerable  notice,  and  among  other  names  bestowed 
upon  the  members,  that  of  Methodists  was  applied  to  them.  Mr.  Wesley 
went  to  Georgia  in  America,  in  1735,  with  a  view  of  converting  the  Indians. 
On  his  return  to  England,  he  commenced  itinerant  preacher,  and  gathered 
many  followers;  but  the  churches  being  shut  against  him,  he  built  spacious 
meeting-houses  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  For  some  time  he 
was  united  with  Mr.  Whitefield  ;  but  differences  arising  on  account  of  the 
doctrine  of  election,  they  separated,  and  the  Methodists  were  denominated 
according  to  their  respective  leaders.  Mr.  Wesley  was  indefatigable  in  his 
labors,  and  almost  continually  engaged  in  travelling  over  England,  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  His  society  was  well  organized,  and  he  preservedTlris 
influence  over  it  to  the  last.  He  died  in  London  in  1791. 

WEST  INDIES.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  he 
made  in  the  new  world,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night  between  the  llth 
and  12th  Oct.,  1492.  See  the  Islands  respectively. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  empire  was  divided  into  Eastern  and 
Western  by  Valentinian  and  Valens.  of  whom  the  former  had  the  western 
portion,  or  Rome,  properly  so  called,  A.  D.  364.  Odoacer.  a  chief  of  the 
Heruli,  entered  Italy,  defeated  Orestes,  took  Rome  and  Ravenna,  deposed 
Augustulus,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy.  August  23,  which  ended 
the  Western  empire.  507  years  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  A.  D.  476.  See 
Eastern  Empire. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.     As  regards  this  magnificent  cathedral,  the  mirac» 
lous  stories  of  monkish  writers  and  of  ancient  historians  have  been  quw» 
28 


650  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  WHB 

tioned  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  was  employed  to  survey  the  present 
edifice,  and  who,  upon  the  nicest  examination,  found  nothing  to  countenance 
the  general  belief  that  it  was  erected  on  the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  His- 
torians, agreeably  to  the  legend,  have  fixed  the  era  of  the  first  abbey  in  the 
sixth  century,  and  ascribed  to  Sebert  the  honor  of  erecting  it.  This  church 
becoming  ruinous,  it  was  splendidly  rebuilt  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  be- 
tween A.  D.  1055  and  1065 ;  and  he  stored  it  with  monks  from  Exeter.  Pope 
Nicholas  II.  about  this  time  constituted  it  the  place  for  the  inauguration  of 
the  kings  of  England.  The  church  was  once  more  built  in  a  magnificent 
and  beautiful  style  by  Henry  III.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.,  Edward  III., 
and  Richard  II.,  the  great  cloisters,  abbot's  house,  and  the  principal  mo- 
nastic buildings  were  erected.  The  western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles 
were  rebuilt  by  successive  monarchs,  between  the  years  1340  and  1483.  The 
west  front  and  the  great  window  were  built  by  those  rival  princes,  Richard 
III.  and  Henry  VII. ;  and  it  was  the  latter  monarch  who  commenced  the 
magnificent  chapel  which  bears  his  name,  and  the  first  stone  of  which  was 
laid  Jan.  24, 1502-3.  The  abbey  was  dissolved,  and  made  a  bishopric,  1541 ; 
and  was  finally  made  a  collegiate  church  by  Elizabeth,  1560. 

K  CSTMINSTER  HALL.  One  of  the  most  venerable  remains  of  English  ar- 
chitecture, first  built  by  William  Rufus  in  1097,  for  a  banqueting-hall ;  and 
here  in  1099,  on  his  return  from  Normandy.  "  he  kept  his  feast  of  Whit- 
suntide very  royally."  Richard  II.  held  his  Christmas  festival  in  1397,  when 
the  number  of  the  guests  each  day  the  feast  lasted  was  10,000. — Stcwe. 
The  courts  of  law  were  established  here  by  king  John. — Idem.  Westmin- 
ster-hall is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe  unsupported 
by  pillars :  it  is  270  feet  in  length,  and  74  broad.  The  hall  underwent  a 
general  repair  in  1802. 

WESTPHALIA.  This  duchy  belonged,  in  former  times,  to  the  duke  of  Sax- 
ony. On  the  secularization  of  1802,  it  was  made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt ; 
and  in  1814,  was  ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The  kingdom  of 
Westphalia,  one  of  the  temporary  kingdoms  of  Bonaparte,  composed  of 
conquests  from  Prussia.  Hesse-Cassel.  Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to 
the  west  of  the  Elbe,  created  December  1,  1807,  and  Jerome  appointed 
king.  Hanover  was  annexed  March  1, 1810.  This  kingdom  was  overturned 
in  1813. 

WESTPHALIA,  PEACE  OF.  signed  at  Munster  and  at  Osnaburgh,  between 
France,  the  emperor,  and  Sweden ;  Spain  continuing  the  war  against 
France.  By  this  peace  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was 
first  recognised:  Alsace  given  to  France,  and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some 
other  districts  to  Sweden;  the  Elector  Palatine  restored  to  the  Lower  Pala- 
tinate ;  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  the  German  States  established  ;  and 
the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  recognised  by  Germany,  Oc- 
tober 24,  1648. 

WHALE  FISHERY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In  1845  this  trade  employed 
650  vessels,  aggregate  tonnage  200  000  tons.— cost,  $20  000.000  ;  manned  by 
17 .500  officers  and  seamen.  ''Commercial  history  furnishes  no  parallel  to 
this  wlialing  fleet — it  is  larger  than  those  of  all  other  nations  combined.'  — 
Speech  of  Mr.  Grinnett. 

W  IIEAT  AND  FLOUR.  The  amount  exported  by  the  United  States,  from 
1790  to  1838,  was  10  283  471  bushels,— average,  209.666  bushels  per  annum. 
In  1845  the  amount  exported  was  valued  at  $5  735,372 ;  in  1846.  $13,350  644. 
This  was  exclusive  of  Corn,  Rye,  &c.  The  amount  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  scarcity  in  Europe,  especially  in  Ireland. 

WHITE  FRIARS.    These  were  an  order  of  Carmelite  mendicants,  who  took 


WIL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  651 

their  name  from  Mount  Carrael,  lying  southwest  of  Mount  Tabor,  in  tu« 
Holy  Land.  They  pretended  that  Elijah  and  Elisha  were  the  founders  of 
their  order,  and  that  Pythagoras  and  the  ancient  Druids  were  professors  of 
it.  At  first  they  were  very  rigid  in  their  discipline,  but  afterwards  it  was 
moderated,  and  about  the  year  1540  divided  into  two  sorts,  one  following 
and  restoring  the  ancient  severities,  and  the  other  the  milder  regimen 
They  had  numerous  monasteries  throughout  England :  and  a  precinct  in 
London  without  the  Temple  and  west  of  Blackfriars,  is  called  Whitefriars  to 
this  day,  after  a  community  of  their  order,  founded  there  in  1245. 

WHITEHALL,  LONDON.  Originally  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent, 
before  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  It  afterwards  devolved  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  York,  whence  it  received  the  name  of  York-place,  and  continued 
to  be  the  town  residence  of  the  archbishops  till  purchased  by  Henry  VIII.  of 
cardinal  Wolsey,  in  1530.  At  this  period  it  became  the  residence  of  the 
court.  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  died  at  Greenwich,  was  brought  from  thence 
to  Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a  grand  procession.  It  was  on  this  occasion, 
CAMDEN  informs  us,  that  the  following  quaint  panegyric  on  her  majesty  was 
written : — 

"  The  queen  was  brought  by  water  to  Whitehall, 

At  every  stroke  the  oars  did  tears  let  fall. 

More  clung  about  the  barge :  fish  under  water 

Wept  out  their  eyes  of  pearl,  and  swam  blind  after. 

I  think  the  bargemen  might,  with  easier  thighs, 

Have  rowed  her  thither  in  her  people's  eyes ; 

For  howsoe'er,  thus  much  my  thoughts  have  scann'd, 

She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  come  by  land." 

In  1697,  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  except  the  banquefr- 
ing-house,  which  had  been  added  to  the  palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I., 
according  to  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of  Whitehall 
Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649.  George  I.  converted  the  hall  into  a 
chapel,  1723-4.  The  exterior  of  this  edifice  underwent  repair  between  1829 
and  1833. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  The  festival  of  Whitsunday  is  appointed  by  the  church  to 
commemorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Gho»t  upon  the  apostles :  in  the  pri- 
mitive church,  the  newly-baptized  persons,  or  catechumens,  used  to  wear 
white  garments  on  Whi  Sunday.  This  feast  is  movable,  and  sometimes  falls 
in  May  and  sometimes  in  June ;  but  is  always  exactly  seven  weeks  after 
Easter.  Rogation  week  is  the  week  before  Whitsunday ;  it  is  said  to 
have  been  first  instituted  by  the  bishop  of  Vienne  in  France,  and  called 
Rogation  week  upon  account  of  the  many  extraordinary  prayers  and  pre- 
paratory petitions  made  for  the  devotion  of  Holy  Thursday  for  a  blessing 
on  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  for  averting  the  dismal  effects  of  war  and 
other  evils. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of  John  Wickliffe,  a  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  was  the  father  of  the  Reformation  of  the 
English  church  from  popery,  being  the  first  who  opposed  the  autho- 
rity of  the  pope,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  the  temporalities  of 
the  church,  in  1377.  Wickliffe  was  protected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Edward's 
son  and  Richard's  uncle,  yet  virulently  persecuted  by  the  church,  and  res- 
cued from  martyrdom  by  a  paralytic  attack,  which  caused  his  death.  Dec. 
31,  1384,  in  his  60th  year. — Mortimer. 

WILDFIRE.  An  artificial  fire,  which  burns  under  water.  The  French  call  it 
feu  Grecquois,  because  it  was  discovered  by  the  Greeks,  by  whom  it  was 
first  used,  about  A.  D.  660.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Callinicus  of  Helio- 
polis. — Nouv.  Diet.  See  article  Greek  Fire. 


652  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  wa 

WILKES'  NUMBER.  The  designation  given  to  the  45th  number  of  a  paper 
styled  the  North  Briton,  published  by  John  Wilkes.  an  alderman  of  London. 
Ho  commenced  a  paper  warfare  against  the  earl  of  Bute  and  his  adminis- 
tration, and  in  this  particular  copy,  printed  April  23,  1763.  made  so  free  a 
use  of  royalty  itself,  that  a  general  warrant  was  issued  against  him  by  the 
earl  of  Halifax,  then  secretary  of  state,  and  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower. 
His  warfare  not  only  deprived  him  of  liberty,  but  exposed  him  to  two  duels  ; 
but  he  obtained  .£1,000  damages  and  full  costs  of  suit  for  the  illegal  seizure; 
of  his  papers.  He  further  experienced  the  vengeance  of  the  court  of  King's 
Bench,  and  both  houses  of  parliament,  for  the  libel,  and  for  his  obscene 
poem  "An  Essay  on  Woman;"  and  was  expelled  the  commons  and  out- 
lawed ;  he  was.  however,  elected  a  fifth  time  for  Middlesex  in  October 
1774,  and  the  same  year  served  the  office  of  lord  mayor ;  but  was  over- 
looked in  a  subsequent  general  election,  and  died  in  1797. 

WILLS,  LAST,  AND  TESTAMENTS.  Wills  are  of  very  high  antiquity.  See 
Genesis,  c.  48.  Solon  introduced  them  at  Athens,  578  B.  c.  There  are 
many  regulations  respecting  wills  in  the  Koran.  The  Romans  had  this 
power,  and  so  had  the  native  Mexicans ;  so  that  it  prevailed  at  least  in 
three  parts  of  the  globe.  Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian,  was  the  first  person 
who  introduced  codicils  to  wills  at  Rome,  31  B.  c.  The  power  of  bequeath- 
ing lands  by  the  last  will  or  testament  of  the  owner,  was  confirmed  to  En- 
glish subjects.  1  Henry  I.,  1100 ;  but  with  great  restrictions  and  limitations 
respecting  the  feudal  system  ;  which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of  Henry 
VIII.,  1541. — Blackstone's  Commentaries.  The  first  will  of  a  sovereign  on 
record  is  stated  (but  in  error)  to  be  that  of  Richard  II.,  1399.  Edward  the 
Confessor  made  a  will,  1066. 

WIND-MILLS.  They  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  writers  state  them  to 
be  of  Roman  invention  ;  but  certainly  we  are  indebted  for  the  wind-mill  to 
the  Saracens.  They  are  said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe 
by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  took  the  hint  from  what  they  had  seen  in 
the  crusades. — Baker.  Wind-mills  were  first  known  in  Spain,  France,  and 
Germany,  in  1299. — Anderson.  Wind  saw-mills  were  invented  by  a  Dutch- 
man, in  1633.  when  one  was  erected  near  the  Strand,  in  London. 

WINDOWS.  See  Glass.  There  were  windows  in  Pompeii,  A.  D.  79.  as  is  evi- 
dent from  its  ruins.  It  is  certain  that  windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed 
so  early  as  the  third  century,  if  wit  before,  though  the  fashion  was  not  in- 
troduced until  it  was  done  by  Bennet,  A.  n.  633.  Windows  of  glass  were 
.used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  was  imported  1177. — Anderson.  In 
England  about  6000  houses  now  have  fifty  windows  and  upwards  in  each  ; 
about  275  000  have  ten  windows  arid  upwards  ;  and  725.000  have  seven  win- 
dows, or  less  than  seven.  The  window-tax  was  first  enacted  in  order  to 
defray  the  expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  of  gold,  7  William 
III.,  1695. 

WINDSOR  CASTLE.  A  royal  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  originally 
built  by  William  the  Conqueror,  but  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  The  monarchs 
who  succeeded  him  likewise  resided  in  it,  till  Edward  III.,  who  was  born 
here,  caused  the  old  building,  with  the  exception  of  three  towers  at  the 
west  end.  to  be  taken  down,  and  re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  di- 
rection of  William  of  Wykeham.  He  likewise  built  St.  George's  chapel 
Instead  of  alluring  workmen  by  contracts  and  wages,  Edward  assessed 
every  county  in  England  to  send  him  so  many  masons,  tilers,  and  carpen- 
ters, as  if  he  had  been  levying  an  army.  Several  additions  were  made  ta 
this  edifice  by  succeeding  sovereigns  ;  the  last  by  George  IV. 

WINES.    The  invention  of  wine  is  given  to  Noah. — Abbe  Lcnglet.    lh«i  art  of 


WTT  ]  DtCTlONARY    OF   DATES.  653 

making  wine  from  rice  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese  to  their  king,  Ching 
Noung,  about  1998  B.  c. — Univ.  Hist.  The  art  of  making  wine  was  brought 
from  India  by  Bacchus,  as  other  authorities  have  it.  Hosea  speaks  of  the 
wine  of  Lebanon  as  being  very  fragrant. — Hosea,  xiv.  7.  Our  Saviour 
changed  water  into  wine  at  the  marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee. — Juhn  ii.  3,  10. 

"  The  conscious  waters  saw  their  God.  and  blush'd." — Addison. 

No  wine  was  produced  in  France  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. — Bossuet. 
Spirits  of  wine  were  known  to  the  alchymists. — Idem.  Concerning  the  ac- 
quaintance which  our  progenitors  had  with  wine,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  Phoenicians  might  possibly  have  introduced  a  small  quantity  of  it ; 
but  this  liquor  was  very  little  knowa  in  our  island  before  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans.  Wine  was  sold  in  England  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial  in 
A.  D.  1300.  and  so  continued  for  some  time  after,  although  there  is  mention 
of  '  wine  for  the  king"  so  early  as  1249;  tuid  we  are  even  sent  to  a  much 
earlier  period  for  its  introduction  and  use  ic  Britain.  In  1400  the  price 
was  twelve  shillings  the  pipe  A  hundred  and  fifty  butts  and  pipes  con- 
demned for  being  adulterated,  were  staved  and  emptied  into  the  channels 
of  the  streets  by  Rainwell,  mayor  of  London,  in  the  8th  of  Henry  VI.,  1427. 
— Stoice's  Chron.  The  first  importation  of  claret  wine  into  Ireland  was  on 
June  17.  1490.  The  first  act  for  licensing  sellers  of  wine  hi  England  passe  ij 
April  25,  1661.  In  1800  England  imported  3,307,460  gallons  or  all  Wn-ie  c  / 
wine.  In  1815,  the  United  Kingdom  imported  4.306528  gallons.  ID  J^l 
were  imported  6.879  558  gallons  ;  and  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  7.840,  wt'< 
imported  9,909,056  gallons,  of  which  7.000,486  were  for  home  consumption. 
—Part.  Ret. 

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is  ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg, 
A.  D.  1410.  Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nuremberg  in  1563. 
The  first  wire-mill  in  England'  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663. — Mortimer. 
The  astonishing  ductilily  which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of 
gold,  is  no  way  more  conspicuous  than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  48  ounces 
of  silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold  weighing  only  one  ounce,  is  usually 
drawn  into  a  wire  two  yards  of  which  only  weigh  one  grain  ;  so  that  98 
yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than  49  grains,  and  one  single  grain  of 
gold  covers  the  whole  98  yards;  and  the  thousandth  part  of  a  grain  is  above 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.—  Hallcy.  Eight  grains  of  gold  covering  a  cy- 
linder of  silver  are  commonly  drawn  into  a  wire  13000  feet  long;  yet  so 
perfectly  does  it  cover  the  silver,  that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover 
any  appearance  of  the  silver  underneath. — Boyle. 

WIRTEMBERG.  One  of  the  most  ancient  states  of  Germany,  and  most  popu- 
lous for  its  extent.  The  dukes  were  Protestant  until  1772.  when  the  reign- 
ing prince  became  a  Catholic.  Wirtemberg  has  been  repeatedly  traversed 
by  hostile  armies,  particularly  since  the  revolution  of  France.  Moreau 
made  his  celebrated  retreat  Oct.  23,  1796.  The  prince  of  Wirtemberg  mar- 
ried the  princess  royal  of  England,  daughter  of  George  III..  May  17;  1797. 
This  state  obtained  new  acquisitions  in  territory  in  1802  and  1805.  The 
elector  assumed  the  title  of  king  Dec.  12.  1805.  and  was  proclaimed  Jan.  1, 
1806.  His  majesty,  as  an  ally  of  France,  lost  the  flower  of  his  army  in  Rus- 
sia, in  1812.  The  kingdom  obtained  a  free  constitution  in  1819.  The  king 
granted  liberty  of  the  press.  March  2,  1848. 

WISCONSIN.  One  of  the  western  United  States  was  organized  out  of  the 
North  West  Territory,  and  received  a  territorial  government  in  1836  ;  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state  Feb.  9,  1847.  Population  in  1830,  30,946: 
chiefly  emigrants  from  the  northeTi  and  middle  states. 

WITCHCRAFT.    The  punishment  of  witchcraft  was  first  countenanced  by  i\v 


654  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  WIT 

church  of  Rome ;  and  persons  suspected  of  the  crime  have  been  subjected 
to  the  most  cruel  and  unrelenting  punishments.  In  tens  of  thousands  of 
cases,  the  victims,  often  innocent,  were  burnt  alive,  while  others  were 
drowned  by  the  test  applied ;  for  if,  on  being  thrown  into  a  pond,  they  did 
not  sink,  they  were  presumed  witches,  and  either  killed  on  the  spot,  or  re 
served  for  burning  at  the  stake.  Five  hundred  witches  were  burnt  in  Gene- 
va, in  three  months,  in  1515.  One  thousand  were  burnt  in  the  diocese  of 
Como  in  a  year.  An  incredible  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when  one 
sorcerer  confessed  to  having  1200  associates.  Nine  hundred  were  burnt  in 
Lorraine,  between  1580  and  1595.  One  hundred  and  fifty-seven  were  burnt 
at  Wurtzburg,  between  1627  and  1629,  old  and  young,  clerical,  learned,  and 
ignorant.  At  Lindheim,  thirty  were  burnt  in  four  years,  out  of  a  popu.«ttion 
of  600;  and  more  than  100.000  perished,  mostly  by  the  flames,  in  Germany. 
Grandier,  the  parish  priest  of  Loudun,  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  having  be- 
witched a  whole  convent  of  nuns.  1634.  In  Bretagne,  twenty  poor  womeN 
were  put  to  death  as  witches,  1654.  Disturbances  commenced  on  charges 
of  witchcraft  in  Massachusetts,  1648-9 ;  and  persecutions  raged  dreadfully 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1683.  Maria  Renata  was  burnt  at  Wurtzburg  in  1749. 
At  Kalisk.  in  Poland,  nine  old  women  were  charged  with  having  bewitched, 
and  rendered  unfruitful,  the  lands  belonging  to  that  palatinate,  and  were 
burnt  Jan.  17,  1775. — Ann.  Reg.  Five  women  were  condemned  to  death  by 
the  Bramins,  at  Patna.  for  sorcery,  and  executed  Dec.  16,  1802. — Idem. 

WITCHCRAFT  AND  CONJURATION  IN  ENGLAND.  Absurd  and  wicked 
laws  were  in  force  against  them  in  Great  Britain  in  former  times,  by  which 
'  death  was  the  punishment,  and  thousands  of  persons  suffered  both  by  the 
I  i  public  executioners  and  the  hands  of  the  people.  A  statute  was  enacted 
^£C  v^VWdeclaring  all  witchcraft  and  sorcery  to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy, 
13  Henry  VIII.,  1541.  Again,  5  Elizabeth.  1562,  and  1  James.  1603.  Bar- 
rington  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for  witchcraft  in  England  in  200  years 

sajb  30JXK),    The  English  condemned  and  burnt  the  beautiful  and  heroic  Joan 

'01  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  as  a  sorceress,  A.  D.  1431.  See  Juan  of  Arc. 
Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft  in  1664.  Three  thousand 
were  executed  in  England  under  the  long  parliament.  Northamptonshire 
and  Huntingdon  preserved  the  supeAtition. about  witchcraft  later  than  any 
other  counties.  Two  pretended  witches  were  executed  at  Northampton  in 
1705,  while  *he  Spectator,  was  in  course  of  publication  in  London,  and  five 
others  sevei.  years  afterwards.  In  1716.  Mrs.  Hicks  and  her  daughter,  aged 
nine,  were  hanged  at  Huntingdon.  In  Scotland,  thousands  of  persons  were 
burnt  in  the  period  of  about  a  hundred  years.  Among  the  victims  were  per- 

isons  of  the  highest  rank,  while  all  orders  in  the  state  concurred.  James  I. 
even  caused  a  whole  assize  to  be  prosecuted  for  an  acquittal.  This  king  pub- 

.lished  his  Dialogues  nf  Dczmonologie  first  in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  in 
London.*  The  last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  in  1722,  at  Dornoch.  The  laws 


clcrt  y  of  all  denominations.     Witcli-nntlers  existed,  too,  as  public  officers:  and,  besides  the  publ) 
execu  ions,  which  disgraced  every  assizes,  multitudes  of  accused  were  destroyed  by  popular  n 


WOO  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  655 

against  witchcraft  had  lain  dormant  for  many  years,  when  an  ignorant  person,  j 
attempting  to  revive  them,  by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor  old  woman  in  Sur-."' 
rey  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft,  they  were  repealed,  10  George  II.,  17?>6.— •  ' 
Viner's  Abridgment. 

W1TENA-MOT,  OR  WITENA-GEMOT.  Among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  this  was 
the  term  which  was  applied  to  their  deliberations,  and  which  literally  sig- 
nified the  assembling  of  the  wise  men  in  the  great  coimcil  of  the  nation.  A 
\vitena-mot  was  called  in  London,  A.  D.  833.  to  consult  on  the  proper  means 
to  repel  the  Danes.  This  name  was  dropped  about  the  period  of  the  Norman 
conquest,  and  that  of  parliament  adopted.  See  Parliament. 

WOLVES.  These  animals  were  very  numerous  in  England.  Their  heads  were 
demanded  as  a  tribute,  particularly  300  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar, 
A.  D.  961,  by  which  step  they  were  totally  destroyed. — Carte.  Edward  I. 
issued  his  mandate  for  the  destruction  of  wolves  in  several  countios  of  Eng- 
land, A.  D.  1289.  Ireland  was  infested  by  wolves  for  maty  centuries  after 
their  extirpation  in  England ;  for  there  are  accounts  of  some  being  found 
there  so  late  as  1710,  when  the  last  presentment  for  killing  wolves  was 
made  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Wolves  still  infest  France,  in  which  kingdom 
834  wolves  and  cubs  were  killed  in  1828-9.  When  wolves  cross  a  river,  they 
follow  one  another  directly  in  a  line,  the  second  holding  the  tail  of  the  first 
in  its  mouth,  the  third  that  of  the  second,  and  so  of  the  rest.  This  figure 
was,  on  this  account,  chosen  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  year,  composed  of 
twelve  months  following  one  another,  which  they  denominated  L/ycabas,  that 
is.  the  march  of  the  wolves. — Abbe  Pluche. 

WOMAN.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  women  seem  to  have  been 
considered  merely  as  objects  of  sensuality  and  domestic  convenience,  and 
were  commonly  devoted  to  seclusion  and  obscurity ;  it  was  not  until  the 
northern  nations  had  settled  themselves  in  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire that  the  female  character  assumed  new  consequence.  They  brought 
with  them  the  respectful  gallantry  of  the  North,  and  a  complaisance  towards 
females  which  inspired  generous  sentiments  hitherto  little  known  to  the 
polished  nations  of  antiquity,  and  which  ultimately  led  to  the  institution  of 
chivalry.  England  is  called  the  paradise  of  women ;  Spain,  their  purgatory  ; 
and  Turkey,  their  hell.  The  following  lines  beautifully  describe  Adam's 
frst  sight  of  Eve : 

"  He  laid  him  down  and  slept — and  from  his  side 
A  woman  in  her  magic  beauty  rose ; 
Dazzled  a.id  charmed,  he  called  that  woman  'bride.' 
And  his  first  sleep  became  his  last  repose." — Besser,  Iran  I'.ated  by  Bowring. 

The  following  distinguished  men,  though  married,  were  unhappy  in  that 
state  :  Aristotle,  Socrates,  Pittacus.  Periander,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 
Among  the  moderns :  Boccaccio,  Dante.  Milton,  Steele.  Addison,  Dryden, 
Molifere,  Racine,  Sterne,  Garrick.  and  lord  Bacon. —  Woman ;  as  she  is,  ana 
as  she  should  be.  Among  the  most  beautiful  eulogies  on  woman  is  the  fol- 
lowing, addressed  to  a  lovely  Italian  nun  by  an  English  nobleman : 

li  Die  when  you  will,  you  need  not  wear, 
At  heaven's  court,  a  form  more  fair 

Than  beauty  at  your  birth  has  given  ; 
Keep  but  the  lips,  the  eyes  we  see, 
The  voice  we  hear,  and  you  will  be 

An  angel  ready-made  for  heaven  !" — Lord  Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS,  OR  WOOD-ENGRAVING.  See  article  Engraving  on  Wood. 
The  invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  a  gun-smith  of  Florence ;  by  others,  to 
Reuss,  a  German,  A.D.  1460;  but  it  has  an  earlier  origin,  as  shown  in  the 
article  referred  to.  Brought  to  perfection  by  Durer  and  Lucas.  Brought 


656  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [  wo» 

to  great  perfection  by  Bewick,  Nesbett,  Anderson,  &c.  in  1789-1799;  and 
more  recently  by  Cruikshank,  and  others. 

WOOL.  Dr.  Anderson,  in  a  memorial  subjoined  to  the  "Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Highland  Society."  proves,  from  indisputable  records,  that 
from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  the  wool  of 
Great  Britain  was  not  only  superior  to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted  the 
finest  in  the  universe ;  and  that  even  in  the  times  of  the  Romans,  a  manu- 
facture of  woollen  cloths  was  established  at  Winchester  for  the  use  of  the 
emperors.  In  later  times,  wool  was  manufactured  in  England,  and  is  men- 
tioned in  A.  D.  1185,  but  not  in  any  quantity  until  1331,  when  the  weaving  of 
it  was  introduced  by  John  Kempt1  and  other  artisans  from  Flanders.  Thi? 
was  the  real  origin  of  the  English  wool  manufactures.  Edward  III..  1331. — 
Rymer's  Fazdera.  The  exportation  prohibited,  1337.  The  exportation  of 
English  wool,  and  the  importation  of  Irish  wool  into  England,  prohibited, 
1696.  The  non-exportation  law  repealed,  1824. 

WOOLLEN  CLOTH.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  was  known,  it  is  supposed,  in 
all  civilized  countries,  and  in  very  remote  ages,  and  probably  of  linen  also. 
Woollen  cloths  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cae- 
sar, and  are  familiarly  alluded  to  by  him.  They  were  made  in  England  be- 
fore A.  D.  1200,  and  the  manufacture  became  extensive  in  the  reign  of  Edwan/ 
III.,  1331.  They  were  then  called  Kendal  cloth,  and  Halifax  cloth.  See 
preceding  article.  Blankets  were  first  made  in  England  about  A.  D.  1340. — 
Camden.  No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland  to  be  imported  into  England, 
1463.  The  art  of  dyeing  brought  into  England,  1608.  See  article  Dyeing. 
Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made,  1614.  Manufacture  of  fine  cloth 
begun  at  Sedan,  in  France,  under  the  patronage  of  cardinal  Mazarine,  1646. 
British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France,  1677.  All  persons  obliged 
to  be  buried  in  woollen,  or  the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to  for- 
feit 51.,  29  Charles  II.,  1678.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved 
in  England  by  Flemish  settlers,  1688.  Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland, 
11  William  III.,  1698.  The  exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited,  ex- 
cept to  certain  ports  of  England,  1701.  English  manufacture  encouraged 
by  10  Anne,  1712.  and  2  George  1.,  1715.  Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785, 
than  in  all  England  at  the  Revolution. — Chalmers. 

QUANTITY   AND    DECLARED   VALUE  OP  CLOTHS  EXPORTED  FROM  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  POL- 
LOWING   YEARS  : — 


Quantity. 
Pieces 
Yards          -    - 
Declared  value 

1800. 
1,022,838 
4,213.677 
£3,914,661 

1825. 
1,741,983 
7,798.610 
.£6,194,926 

1830. 
1,747,036 
5,561,877 
JE4,608.592 

1840. 
2,143.796 
8,170,642 
£5,921,116 

WORCESTER,  BATTLK  OF.  in  the  Civil  War,  fought  between  the  Royalist  army 
and  the  forces  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  commanded  by  Cromwell.  A 
large  body  of  Scots  had  marched  into  England  with  a  view  to  reinstate 
Charles  II.,  but  Cromwell  signally  defeated'them ;  the  streets  of  the  city 
were  strewed  with  the  dead,  the  whole  Scots  army  having  been  either  killed 
or  taken  prisoners.  This  famous  battle  afforded  Cromwell  what  he  called  his 
crowning  mercy.  Charles  with  difficulty  escaped  to  France.  Of  8000  pri- 
soners, most  were  sent  to  bond-service  in  the  American  colonies.  September 
3,  1651. 

WORLD.  According  to  Julius  Africanus,  as  quoted  by  Gibbon,  the  world  was 
created  September  1,  5508  B.  c.  Most  chronologers.  however,  mention  tho 
year  4004  B.  c.  as  the  period  of  its  first  existence.  The  Jews  celebrate  the 
19th  of  September  as  the  day  of  the  creation,  and  some  suppose  that  it  was 
created  in  spring.  Its  globular  form  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of  Mile- 
tun,  about  640  B.  c.  The  first  geographical  table  and  map  of  the  world  was 


WOR  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  657 

made  by  Anaximander,  about  560  B.  c. — Pliny.  Discoveries  of  Pythagoraa 
and  his  system,  about  539  B.  c. — Stanley.  The  magnitude  of  the  earth  cal- 
culated by  Eratosthenes,  240  B.  c.  The  system  of  Copernicus  promulgate^ 
A.  D.  1530.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  in  which  the  earth 
is  taken  as  a  plane,  1556.  The  notion  of  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  started 
by  Gilberd,  1583.  Magnitude  of  the  earth  determined  by  Picart,  1669. 

WORMS,  DIET  OP.  The  celebrated  imperial  diet  before  which  Martin  Luther 
was  summoned,  April  4,  1521,  and  by  which  he  was  proscribed.  Luther 
was  met  by  2000  persons  on  foot  and  on  horseback,  at  the  distance  of  a 
league  from  Worms.  Such  was  his  conviction  of  the  justice  of  his  cause, 
that  when  Spalatin  sent  a  messenger  to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he  answer- 
ed, "  If  there  were  as  many  devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs 
of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on."  Before  the  emperor,  the  archduke  Ferdinand, 
six  electors,  twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves,  thirty  bishops  and  pre- 
lates, and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambassadors,  Luther  appeared, 
April  17th.  in  the  imperial  diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings  and  opinions, 
and  left  Worms,  in  fact,  a  conqueror.  But  Frederick  the  Wise  advised  him 
to  seclude  himself  to  save  his  life,  which  he  did  for  about  ten  months,  and 
his  triumph  was  afterwards  complete. 

WORSHIP.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  king  of  Upper  Egypt,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  author  of  religious  worship:  he  is  supposed  to  be  the  Copt  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  Toth  or  Hermes  of  the  Greeks ;  the  Mercury  of  tho 
Latins,  and  the  Teutates  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls,  2112  B.  c. —  Usher.  Religious 
worship  had  an  origin  in  most  tribes  and  nations,  in  their  ignorance  of  the 
causes  of  natural  phenomena.  Benefits  were  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and 
evils  to  a  bad  one.  This  primary  idea  was  enlarged  and  diversified  by 
dreaming  during  imperfect  sleep,  or  thinking  while  the  volition  was  torpid, 
and  by  illusions  of  the  senses,  which  led  to  belief  in  ghosts,  signs,  and  omens, 
and  these  causes  were  augmented  by  enthusiasts. — Phillips.  In  all  nations, 
whether  civilized  or  barbarous,  worship  prevails,  but  is  purest  in  Protestant 
states. — Sherlock. 

IVORSHIP  IN  ENGLAND.  In  England  were  many  forms  of  worship  at  the 
period  of  the  Roman  invasion.  The  first  Saxons  were  idolaters,  and  de- 
dicated to  their  gods  groves  of  the  tallest  trees  and  thickest  forests,  and 
there  worshipped  them  without  building  any  temples  to  them,  or  represent- 
ing them  by  any  figures  or  images.  Our  days  of  the  week  are  named  after 
Saxon  divinities — the  Sun,  Moon,  Tuesco,  Woden.  Thor,  Friga,  and  Saturn. 
Easter  is  named  from  their  goddess  Eostre  ;  and  Christmas  was  from  their 
great  festival  Geoli.  Faul,  or  Fola,  was  their  dreaded  enemy ;  and  they  be- 
lieved in  elves  and  fairies,  sorcery  and  witchcraft.  The  Saxon  religion  was 
afterwards  mingled  with  the  Christian  ;  but  the  former  was  in  time  wholly 
superseded  by  the  latter,  and  in  the  end,  the  Reformation  introduced  our 
present  pure  and  simple  mode  of  worship.  In  Scotland,  the  benign  influence 
of  the  Reformation  soon  put  aside  all  other  forms.  The  following  is  a  re- 
markable document,  given  in  M'Crie's  Life  of  John  Knox,  (Blackwood. 
Edinburgh.  1831,)  relating  to  the  removal  of  images  from  Catholic  places 
of  worship  in  Scotland,  at  the  period  of  the  Reformation : — 


"  To  our  traisl  friendis,  the  Lairds  ofArn- 

:i!ly  and  Kinvaid. 

"  Traist  friends,  after  maist  harty  com- 
mendacion.  toe  pray  you  faill  not  to  pa'is 
incontinent  to  the  kyrk  of  Dunkeld,  and  tak 
doun  the  haill  images  thereof,  and  bring 
furth  to  the  kyrkzard,  and  burn  thaym  op- 
pinly.  And  siclyk  cast  down  the  altaris, 
and  purge  the  kyrk  of  all  kynd  of  monu- 
ments ofidoU'trye.  And  this  ye  faill  not  to 
do,  at  ze  teill  1o  us  singular  empleseur ; 

28* 


and  30  committis  yow  to  the  protection  of 
God.   From  Edinburgh,  the  tii  of  August 


1560. 
•'  Faill  not,  hot  ze  tak  guid  heyd  that  nei 

ther  the  dasks,  windocks,  nor  durris,  be  onr 

•ways  hurt  or  broken — •-  either  glassin  wtrk 

or  iron  wark. 

•'  AR.  EHOYLL, 
'•JAMES  STEWART 
"  RDTHVEN." 


G58 


THE    WOR.LD  S    PROGRESS. 


[ 


WORSTED.  A  species  of  woollen  fabric,  being  spun  wool,  which  obtained  ita 
name  from  having  been  first  spun  in  a  town  called  Worsted,  in  Norfolk,  ID 
which  the  inventor  lived,  and  where  manufactures  of  worsted  are  still  exten- 
sively carried  on,  14  Edward  III.,  1340. — Anderson.  Worsted-stocking 
knave  is  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt  used  by  Shakspeare. 

WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING.  The  wreckers  of  Cornwall  are  the  inhabitants  of  a 
few  parishes,  on  the  rocky  coast,  between  Mount's  Bay  and  the  Lizard. 
When  a  wreck  takes  place,  thousands  assemble  with  axes,  hatchets,  crow- 
bars, &c. ;  and  many  women  and  children  fight,  by  habit,  for  the  plunder, 
utterly  regardless  of  the  sufferers. — Phillips.  The  loss  of  merchant  and 
other  ships  by  wreck  upon  lee-shores,  coasts,  and  disasters  in  the  open  sea, 
was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,  to  be  about  an  average  of  365  ships  a 
year.  In  1830.  it  appeared  by  Lloyds  List,  that  677  British  vessels  were 
totally  lost,  under  various  circumstances,  in  that  year.  The  annual  loss 
varies ;  but  it  is  always  many  hundreds. 

SOME   OF   THE   MOST   REMARKABLE   SHIPWRECKS. 


Of  the  Thunderer,  74  guns;  Stirling 
Castle,  64 ;  Phoenix,  44 ;  La  Blanche, 
42 ;  Laurel,  28 ;  Andromeda,  28 ; 
Deal  Castle.,  24 ;  Scurliorough,  20 ; 
Barbadoes,  14  ;  Cameleon,  14 ;  En- 
deavour, 14;  and  Victor,  10  guns; 
British  vessels  of  war,  all  lost  in  the 
same  storm,  in  the  West  Indies,  in 

October,  1780 

Of  the  Royal  George,  capsized  in  Ports- 
mouth harbor,  England,  when  1,000 
persons  perished  -  June  28,  1782 

Of  the  steamer  Home,  from  New  York 
to  Charleston;  100  lives  lost,  Oct.  9,  1837 

Of  the  Forfarshire  steamer,  from  Hull 
to  Dundee;  38  persons  drowned. 
Owing  to  the  courage  of  Grace  Dar- 
ling and  her  father,  15  persons  were 
saved.  See  Forfarshire  -  Sept.  5,  1838 

Of  the  Pennsylvania,  Oxford,  and  St. 
Andrew,  packet  ships,  in  a  great  gale 
off  Liverpool  -  -  Jan.  6,  1839 

Of  the   Poland   from  New  York  to 

Havre,  struck  by  lightning,  May  16,  1840 
.Of  the  President  steamer,  from  New 
York   to   Liverpool,  with  fifty  pas- 
sengers on  board;  sailed  on  March 
11,  encountered  a  terrific  storm  two 


days  afterwards,  and  has  never  since 
been  heard  of          -  March  13, 1841 

Of  the  Peacock,  one  of  the  United  Slates 
exploring  expedition,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  river,  Oregon,  mid- 
day and  smooth  water  •  July  18,  1841 

Of  the  Missouri  United  Slates  steam- 
frigate,  by  fire,  at  Gibraltar,  Aug.  27,  1843 

Of  the  United  States  schooner  Sftark, 
wrecked  at  same  place  -  Sept.  10,  1846 

Of  the  Great  Britain  iron  steam-ship. 
This  stupendous  vessel  grounded  in 
Dundrum  bay,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Ireland  -  -  Sept.  22,  1846 

Of  the  United  States  sloop  of  war  Bos- 
ton, on  the  Bahamas  -  Nov.  16,  1846 

Of  the  United  States  brig  Somers,  cap- 
sized in  a  squall,  off  Vera  Cruz  ;  39 
drowned  -  -  Dec.  8, 1846 

Of  the  West  India  mail  packet  Tweed ; 
about  90  souls  perished  -  Feb.  19,  1847 

Of  the  ship  Ocean  Monarch,  of  Boston, 
burnt  near  Liverpool ;  170  lives  lost, 

Aug.  24,  1848 

Of  the  barque  Charles  Bartlett,  run 
down  at  sea  by  steamer  Europa ;  134 
lives  lost  -  -  June  27,  1840 

See  Fires,  and  Steam  Vessels. 


It  is  estimated  at  Lloyd's  that  about  170  British  registered  vessels  are  annu- 
ally lost;  360  are  annually  rendered  unfit  for  service ;  and  1100  experience 
serious  damage,  requiring  extensive  repairs,  exclusively  of  the  ordinary 
wear  and  tear. 

WRITING.  Pictures  were  undoubtedly  the  first  essay  towards  writing.  The 
most  ancient  remains  of  writing  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are  upon 
hard  substances,  such  as  stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts, 
and  matters  of  public  notoriety.  Athotes,  or  Hermes,  is  said  to  have  writ- 
ten a  history  of  the  Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  hierogly- 
phics, 2112  B.  c. —  Usher.  Writing  is  said  to  have  been  taught  to  the  Latiua 
by  Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phretiicia,  1494  B.C. —  Thucydides. 
Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmua,  1493  B.  c.,  brought  the  Phoenician  letters 
into  Greece. —  Vossius.  The  commandments  were  written  on  two  tabks  of 
stone,  1491  B.  c. —  Usher.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used  waxed  table-books, 
and  continued  the  use  of  them  long  after  papyrus  was  known.  See  Papy- 
rus, Parchment,  Paper.  "  I  would  check  the  petty  vanity  of  those  who 
•light  good  penmanship,  as  below  the  notice  of  a  scholar,  bj  reminding 


1ERJ  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  659 

them  that  Mr.  Fox  was  distinguished  by  the  clearness  and  firmness,  Mr 
professor  Person  by  the  correctness  and  elegance,  and  sir  William  Jones  by 
the  ease  and  beauty,  of  the  characters  they  respectively  employed." — DR. 
PARR. 

X. 

XANTHUS,  SIEGE  OF,  by  the  Romans  under  Brutus.  After  a  great  struggle, 
and  the  endurance  of  great  privations,  the  inhabitants,  being  no  longer  able 
to  sustain  themselves  against  the  enemy,  and  determined  not  to  survive  the 
loss  of  their  liberty,  set  tire  to  their  city,  destroyed  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren, and  then  themselves  perished  in  the  conflagration.  The  conqueror 
wished  to  spare  them,  but  though  he  offered  rewards  to  his  soldiers  if  they 
brought  any  of  the  Xanthians  alive  into  his  presence,  only  150  were  saved, 
much  against  their  will ;  42  B.  c. — Plutarr.h 

XENOPHON,  RETREAT  OF.  Xenophon  surnamed  the  Attic  Mufe,  led  in  the 
memorable  retreat  of  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  events  in 
ancient  history.  The  Greeks  were  mercenaries  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  after 
whose  defeat  and  fall  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  they  were  obliged  to  retreat; 
but  Xenophon  kept  them  in  a  compact  body,  and  retreated  through  Asia 
into  Thrace.  The  Greeks  proceeded  through  various  fierce  and  barbarous 
nations,  surmounted  all  the  obstacles  and  dangers  that  arose  at  every  step, 
and  accomplished  their  arduous  enterprise,  after  repeated  triumphs  over 
toils,  fraud,  and  force.  This  retreat  is  esteemed  the  boldest  and  best-con- 
ducted exploit  on  record;  401  B.  c. —  Vossius 

XERXES'  CAMPAIGN  IN  GREECE.  Xerxes  entered  Greece  in  the  spring 
of  480  B.  c.  with  an  army,  which,  together  with  the  numerous  retinue  01 
servants,  eunuchs,  and  women  that  attended  it,  amounted,  according  to  some 
historians,  to  5,283.220  souls.  But  Herodotus  states  the  armament  to  have 
consisted  of  3000  sail,  conveying  1.700,000  foot,  besides  cavalry,  and  the 
mariners,  and  attendants  of  the  camp.  This  multitude  was  stopped  at 
Thermopylae,  by  the  valor  of  300  Spartans  under  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  aston- 
ished that  such  a  handful  of  men  should  oppose  his  progress,  ordered  some 
of  his  soldiers  to  bring  them  alive  into  his  presence ;  but  for  three  succes- 
sive days  the  most  valiant  of  the  Persian  troops  were  defeated,  and  the 
courage  of  the  Spartans  might  perhaps  have  triumphed  longer  if  a  base 
Trachinian,  named  Ephialtes,  had  not  led  a  detachment  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  suddenly  fallen  upon  the  devoted  band.  The  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae (which  see)  was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace  of  Xerxes.  Aug.  7, 
480  B.  c.  The  more  he  advanced,  the  more  he  experienced  new  disasters. 
His  fleet  was  defeated  at  Artemisium  and  Salamis,  and  he  hastened  back  to 
Persia,  leaving  Mardonius,  the  best  of  his  generals,  behind,  with  an  army  of 
300  000  men.  The  rest  that  had  survived  the  ravages  of  war,  famine,  and 
pestilence,  followed  Xerxes  on  his  route  home. 

XERXES'  BRIDGE.  The  famous  bridge  of  Xerxes  across  the  Hellespont, 
the  strait  which  joins  the  Archipelago  and  the  sea  of  Marmora.  It  wu« 
formed  by  connecting  together  ships  of  different  kinds,  some  long  vessels  ot 
fifty  oars,  others  three-banked  galleys,  to  the  number  of  360  on  the  side 
towards  the  sea,  and  318  on  that  of  the  Archipelago ;  the  former  were 
placed  transversely,  but  the  latter,  to  diminish  the  strain  on  their  cables,  in 
the  direction  of  the  current,  all  secured  by  anchors  and  cables  of  great 
strength.  On  extended  cables  between  the  lines  of  shipping  were  kid  fast- 
bound  rafters,  over  these  a  layer  of  unwrought  wood,  and  over  the  latter 
was  thrown  earth :  on  each  side  was  a  fence,  to  prevent  the  horses  and 


660  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [YE* 

beasts  of  burthen  from  being  terrified  by  the  sea,  in  the  passage  from  shore 
to  shore.  This  wonderful  work  was  completed,  it  is  said,  in  one  week,  480 
B.  c. 

Y. 

FEAR.  The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the 
year.  The  Roman  year  was  introduced  by  Romulus  738  B.  c.;  and  it  was 
corrected  by  Numa  713  B.  c.,  and  again  by  Julius  Caesar,  45  B.  c.  See  Calen- 
dar. The  solar  or  astronomical  year  was  found  to  comprise  365  days,  5  hours; 
48  minutes,  51  seconds  and  6  decimals,  265  B.  c.  The  siderial  year,  or  return 
of  the  same  star,  is  365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  and  11  seconds.  A  consid- 
erable variation  prevailed  generally  among  the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  stiJl 
partially  prevails,  with  regard  to  the  commencement  of  the  year.  The  Je>vs 
dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in  the  month  of  March ;  the  Athe- 
nians in  the  month  of  June ;  the  Macedonians  on  the  24th  Sept. ;  the  Chris- 
tians of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  on  the  29th  or  30th  of  August ;  and  the  Persians 
and  Armenians  on  the  llth  of  that  month.  Nearly  all  the  nations  of  the 
Christian  world  now  commence  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January.  Charles  IX. 
of  France,  in  1654,  published  an  arret,  the  last  article  of  which  ordered  the 
year  for  the  time  to  come  to  be  constantly  and  universally  begun,  and  written 
on  and  from  January  1.  See  New  Style,  &c. 

YEAR,  LUNAR.  This  is  the  space  of  time  which  comprehends  twelve  lunar 
months,  or  454  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  and  was  in  use  among  the  Chal- 
deans, Persians,  and  ancient  Jews.  Once  in  every  three  years  was  added 
another  lunar  month,  so  as  to  make  the  solar  and  lunar  year  nearly  agree. 
But  though  the  months  were  lunar,  the  year  was  solar ;  that  is,  the  first 
month  was  of  thirty  days,  and  the  second  of  twenty-nine,  and  so  alternately ; 
and  the  month  added  triennially  was  called  the  second  Adar.  The  Jews 
afterwards  followed  the  Roman  manner  of  computation. 

YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD.  The  first  sovereign  who  adopted  this  distinction  was 
Charles  III.,  emperor  of  Germany:  he  added  "In  the  year  of  our  Lord  "  to 
his  reign,  A.  o.^879.  It  was  followed  by  the  French  kings,  and  afterwards  by 
the  English ;  ancTis  the  mode  of  designating  the  year  from  the  birth  of  the 
Redeemer  in  all  Christian  countries.  See  Eras. 

FEAR,  PLATONIC.  The  doctrine  of  the  Platonic  year  was  believed  among  the 
Chaldeans,  and  in  the  earliest  ages.  It  is  that  space  of  time  at  the  end 
whereof  all  the  planets  are  to  return  to  the  same  point  from  whence  they 
set  out,  and  have  the  same  aspects  and  configurations  one  upon  another. 
Some  affirm  this  return  to  be  in  15,000  common  years,  others  in  36.000.  The 
ancient  heathens  were  of  opinion,  that  when  this  period  was  completed,  the 
world  would  be  renewed  again,  and  the  departed  souls  re-enter  their  bodies 
and  go  through  a  second  course  of  being. 

FEAR,  SABBATICAL.  This  was  every  seventh  year,  among  the  Jews.  In  this 
ear  the  people  were  enjoined  by  the  law  to  let  the  ground  lie  fallow  and 
lave  rest.  Every  seventh  Sabbatical  year,  or  every  forty-iiinth  year  was 
called  the  JUBILEE  YEAR,  when  was  joy  and  rejoicing ;  all  debts  were  forgiven, 
and  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  it  was  usual  to  return  to  the  original  familiee 
nli  estates  and  property  that  had  been  sold  or  mortgaged.— Hist.  Jews. 

TEAR.  SIBERIAN,  AND  IN  LAPLAND.  The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia 
and  Lapland,  is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  as  given  by  a  recent 
traveller : —  , 

June  23,  Snow  melts.  |  July  25,  Plants  'n  flower. 

July    1,  Snow  gone.  i  Aug.    2,  Fruits  ripe. 

July    9,  Field  quite  green.  I  Aug.  10,  Plants  shed  their  wed. 

July  17   Plants  at  full  growth  j  Aug.  18,  Snow. 


FOR]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  661 

The  snow  the  i  continues  upon  the  ground  for  about  ten  months,  from  AIH 
gust  18th  of  one  year,  to  June  23d  of  the  year  following,  being  309  days  out 
of  365 ;  so  that  while  the  three  seasons  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  are 
,  together  only  fifty  six  days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty-four  weeks* 
duration  in  these  countries. 

5TEAR  AND  A  DAY.  A  space  of  time,  in  law,  that  in  many  cases  establishet 
anol  fixqs  a  right,  as  in  an  estray,  on  proclamation  being  made,  if  the  owner 
does  not  claim  it  within  the  time,  it  is  forfeited.  The  term  arose  in  the 
Norman  law,  which  enacted  that  a  beast  found  on  another's  land,  if  unclaim- 
ed for  a  year  and  a  day,  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the  soil.  It  is  otherwise  » 
legal  space  of  time. 

f  ELLOW  FEVER,  THE,  visited  the  city  of  New  York  in  the  years  1741,  1742, 
1791,  1795,  1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805,  1819,  and  1822.  The  deaths  by  that 
disease  were  as  follows :  732  in  1795 ;  2086  in  1798  (population,  55,000) ; 
670  in  1803 ;  280  in  1805  ;  23  in  1819 ;  366  in  1822.  In  1805,  37,000  of  the 
inhabitants  (out  of  76,000,  the  whole  population)  fletl  from  the  city.  In  1804, 
40  persons  died  with  it  at  Brooklyn,  but  New  York  escaped.  Philadelphia 
was  nearly  desolated  by  it  in  1793,  and  again  in  1798.  4041  persons  died  in 
1793,  and  17,000  fled  from  the  city  (population,  50,000).  In  1798,  the  morta- 
lity was  great,  and  50.000,  out  of  70,000  inhabitants,  fled.  Several  thousand 
died,  and  the  greatest  number  of  deaths  in  one  day  was  117.  Baltimore 
suffered  from  this  disease  in  1798,  1819,  and  1821.  New  Orleans  and  Ha- 
vana have  it  annually.  In  several  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  in  1732, 
1739,  and  1745.  It  broke  out  in  Spain  in  Sept.  1803.  The  yellow  fever  was 
very  violent  at  Gibraltar  in  1804  and  1814;  in  the  Mauritius,  July  1815  ;  at 
Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816 ;  and  it  raged  with  dreadful  consequences  at  Cadiz, 
and  the  Isle  of  St.  Leon,  in  Sept.  1819.  The  yellow  fever  rages  more  or  less 
every  year  or  two  at  Charleston,  New  Orleans,  and  other  southern  cities  of 
the  United  States.  It  first  appeared  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1849-50,  where  it 
proved  fatal  to  many  thousands. 

FOKE.  The  ceremony  of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it,  was  first  practised 
by  the  Samnites  towards  the  Romans,  321  B.  c.  This  disgrace  was  afterwards 
inflicted  by  the  Romans  upon  their  vanquished  enemies. — Abbe  Lenglet, 
Dufresnoy. 

IfORK.  The  Eboracum,  of  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
England.  Here  Severus  held  an  imperial  court,  A.  D.  207 ;  and  here  also 
Constantius  kept  a  court,  and  his  son  Constantine  the  Great  was  born,  in 
274.  York  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  and  all  the  Normans  slain,  1069.  York 
received  its  charter  from  Richard  II.,  and  the  city  is  the  only  one  in  the 
British  kingdoms,  besides  London  and  Dublin,  to  whose  mayors  the  prefix 
of  lord  has  been  granted. 

FORK,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  OP,  the  most  ancient  metropolitan  see  in  England,  being, 
it  is  said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius,  about  A.  D.  180,  when  Christianity 
was  first,  although  partially,  established  in  England.  But  this  establishment 
was  overturned  by  the  Saxons  driving  out  the  Britons.  When  the  former 
were  converted,  pope  Gregory  determined  that  the  same  dignity  should  !>• 
restored  to  York,  and  Paulinus  was  made  archbishop  of  this  see,  about  A.  D. 
622.  York  and  Durham  were  the  only  two  sees  in  the  north  of  England  for 
a  large  space  of  time,  until  Henry  I.  erected  a  bishopric  at  Carlisle,  and 
Henry  VIII.  another  at  Chester.  York  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the  Scot- 
tish bishops;  but  during  the  time  of  archbishop  Nevil,  1464,  they  withdrew 
their  obedience,  and  had  archbishops  of  their  own.  Much  dispute  arose 
between  the  two  English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as,  by  pope  Gre- 
gory's institutions,  it  was  thought  he  meant,  that  which  ever  of  them  wai 


662  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  ["  ZAM 

first  confirmed,  should  be  superior ;  appeal  was  made  to  the  court  of  Rome 
by  both  parties,  and  it  was  determined  in  favor  of  Canterbury ;  but  York 
was  allowed  to  style  himself  primate  of  England,  while  Canterbury  styles 
himself  primate  of  all  England.  York  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome 
eight  saints,  and  three  cardinals;  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England,  twelve 
lord  chancellors,  two  lord  treasurers,  and  two  lord  presidents  of  the  north. 
It  is  rated  in  the  king's  books,  39  Henry  VIII.,  1546,  at  1609Z.  19s.  2d.  per 
annum. — Beatson. 

YORK  CATHEDRAL,  ENGLAND.  This  majestic  fabric  was  erected  at  different 
periods,  and  on  the  site  of  former  buildings,  which  have  again  and  again 
been  destroyed  by  tire.  The  first  Christian  church  erected  here,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Roman  temple,  was  built  by  Edwin,  king 
of  Northumbria.  about  the  year  630.  It  was  burnt  for  the  third  time  in 
1137,  along  with  St.  Mary's  Abby,  and  39  parish  churches  in  York.  Arch- 
bishop Roger  began  to  build  the  choir  in  1171,  but  it  was  by  many  hands, 
and  with  the  contributions  of  many  families,  and  of  multitudes  who  were 
promised  indulgences  for  their  liberality,  that  this  magnificent  fabric  was 
completed,  about  1361.  It  was  set  on  fire  by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic, 
and  the  roof  of  the  choir  and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed,  Feb.  2,  1829; 
the  damage  estimated  at  60.000/.,  was  repaired  in  1832. 

YORK  AND  LANCASTER,  WARS  OP  THE  HOUSES  OP.  The  first  battle  be- 
tween these  houses  was  that  of  St.  Albans,  fought  May  22.  1455.  The  last 
was  that  of  Tewkesbury,  fought  May  4,  1471.  In  these  battles  the  Yorkists, 
or  While  Ruses,  were  victorious  against  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red 
Roses.  But  in  the  sixteen  years  between  these  two  dates,  more  than  thirty 
great  battles  were  fought  with  different  success,  and  half  the  country  was 
depopulated,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  nobility  exterminated.  See 
Roses. 

YORKTOWN.  A  village  in  Virginia,  memorable  for  the  surrender  of  the  Bri 
tish  army  under  lord  Cornwallis,  consisting  of  7000  men,  to  the  Americans 
and  their  allies  under  Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  Oct.  19,  1781. 
This  event  decided  the  contest  for  independence  in  favor  of  the  Americans. 

YUCATAN,  adopted  a  constitution  as  a  republic  (having  declared  its  indepen- 
dence of  Mexico),  May  16,  1841. 

Z. 

ZAMA,  BATTL«:  OP,  between  the  two  greatest  commanders  in  the  world  at  the 
time,  Hannibal  and  Scipio  Africanus.  It  was  won  by  Scipio,  and  was  deci- 
sive of  the  fate  of  Carthage;  it  led  to  an  ignominious  peace  which  was 
granted  the  year  after,  and  closed  the  second  Punic  war.  The  Romans  lost 
but  2000  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Carthaginians  lost,  in  killed 
and  prisoners,  more  than  40,000 ;  some  historians  make  the  loss  greater ; 
B.  c.  202. 

ZANTE.  This  island,  with  the  rest  of  the  islands  now  forming  the  Ionian  re- 
public, was  subject  to  Venice  prior  to  the  French  Revolution  ;  but  the  whole 
group  were  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (which,  see), 
October  17,  1797.  They  were  taken  by  a  Russian  and  Turkish  fleet,  and 
were  erected  into  an  independent  republic  by  the  name  of  the  Seven  Islands, 
in  1799.  They  fell  into  different  hands  in  the  course  of  the  succeeding 
year,  and  were  surrendered  to  the  French  by  the  Russians,  together  with 
Ragusa.  August  14,  1807.  They  submitted  to  the  British  army,  October  3, 
1809.  In  the  arrangements  at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  they  were 
put  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  The  treaty  was  ratified  at 


till  ]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  6G3 

Paris  for  that  purpose,  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  November  6, 
1816.  The  new  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent,  February 
22,  1817. 

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria,  under  Zanzalee,  A.  D.  535;  he  taught 
that  water  by  baptism  was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be 
baptized  with  fire,  by  the  application  of  a  red-hot  iron.  The  sect  was  at 
one  time  very  numerous. — Ashe. 

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIERES.  For  ye,  you,  and  yours.  The  letter  z  was  retained  in 
Scotland,  and  was  commonly  written,  for  the  letter  y,  so  late  as  the  reign  of 
queen  Mary,  up  to  which  period  many  books  in  the  Scottish  language  were 
printed  in  Edinburgh  with  these  words,  A.  D.  1543. 

ZEALAND,  NEW,  IN  THE  PACIFIC.  Discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  He  tra- 
versed the  eastern  coast,  and  entered  a  strait  where,  being  attacked  by  the 
natives  soon  after  he  came  to  anchor,  he  did  not  go  ashore.  From  the  time 
of  Tasman,  the  whole  country,  except  that  part  of  the  coast  which  was 
seen  by  him,  remained  altogether  unknown,  and  was  by  many  supposed  to 
make  part  of  a  southern  continent,  till  1770.  when  it  was  circumnavigated 
by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it  to  consist  of  two  large  islands,  separated  by 
the  strait.  The  introduction  of  potatoes  into  New  Zealand  has  saved  many 
lives,  for  the  natives  give  this  root  a  decided  preference  to  human  flesh, 
under  every  circumstance,  except  that  of  wreaking  vengeance  on  a  chief  of 
the  foe  whom  they  have  taken  in  battle.  Captain  Cook,  in  1773,  planted 
several  spots  of  ground  on  this  island  with  European  garden-seeds ;  and  in 
1777,  htt  found  a  few  fine  potatoes,  greatly  improved  by  change  of  soil. 

ZELA,  BATTLE  OP,  in  which  Julius  Cfesar  defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus, 
son  of  Mithridates.  Caesar,  in  announcing  this  victory,  sent  his  famous 
dispatch  to  the  senate  of  Rome,  in  three  words:  li  Veni,  vidi,  vici" — "I 
came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,"  so  rapidly  and  easily  was  his  triumph  obtained 
This  battle  concluded  the  war ;  Pharnaces  escaped  into  Bosphorus,  where 
he  was  slain  by  his  lieutenant,  Asander ;  and  Pontus  was  made  a  province 
of  Rome,  and  Bosphorus  given  to  Mithridates  of  Pergamus,  47  B.  c. — 
Sue.  C<zs. 

ZELICHOW,  BATTLE  OP,  between  the  Polish  and  Russian  armies,  one  of  the 
most  desperate  and  bloody  battles  lought  by  the  Poles  in  their  late  struggle 
for  the  freedom  of  their  country.  The  Russians,  who  were  commanded  by 
general  Diebitch,  were  defeated,  losing  12.000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners  ;  and  Diebitch  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  in  the  pursuit  of  hi» 
flying  army,  April  6,  1831. 

ZENO,  SECT  OF,  founded  by  Zeno.  This  sect  also  took  the  name  of  Stoic,  from 
a  public  portico,  so  called,  from  which  the  philosopher  delivered  his  ha- 
rangues. It  was  the  most  famous  portico  in  Athens,  and  was  called  by  way 
of  eminence,  Erou,  the  porch.  See  Stoics.  In  order  to  form  his  own  school 
of  philosophy,  and  to  collect  materials  for  a  new  system.  Zeno  had  attended 
the  schools  of  various  masters,  and  among  others  he  offered  himself  as  » 
disciple  of  Polemo.  This  philosopher,  aware  of  Zeno's  object,  said,  "  I  am 
no  stranger,  Zeno,  to  your  Phoenician  arts.  I  perceive  that  your  design  is 
to  creep  slily  into  my  garden,  and  steal  away  my  fruit."  He  taught  about 
312  B.  c. 

ZINC.  The  discovery  of  this  metal,  so  far  as  the  fact  is  known,  is  due  to  the 
moderns.  It  is  said  to  have  been  long  known  in  China,  however,  and  is  no- 
ticed by  European  writers  as  early  as  A.  u.  1231 ;  though  the  method  of 
extracting  it  from  the  ore  was  unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred  years 
after.  A  mine  of  zinc  was  discovered  on  lord  Ribbledale's  estate,  Craven, 
Yorkshire,  in  1809.  Zincography  was  introduced  in  London  shortly  aftei 


664  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  f  zoa 

the  invention  of  lithography  became  known  in  England,  in  1817.    See  Li- 
thography 

ZODIAC.  The  obliquity  of  the  zodiac  was  discovered,  its  twelve  signs  named, 
and  their  situations  assigned  them  in  the  heavens,  by  Anaximander,  about 
560  B.  c.  The  Greeks  and  Arabians  borrowed  the  zodiac  from  the  Hindoos 
to  whom  it  has  been  known  from  time  immemorial. — Sir  William  Jones. 
The  invention  of  geographical  maps,  and  of  sun-dials,  belongs  also  to  Anax- 
imander.— Pliny. 

ZOE,  REIGN  OF.  This  extraordinary  woman,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  IX.,  married  Romanus,  who,  in  consequence,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  the  Eastern  empire,  A.  D.  1028.  Zoe,  after  intriguing  with  a  Pa- 
phlagonian  money-lender,  caused  her  husband  Romanus  to  be  poisoned, 
and  afterwards  married  her  favorite,  who  ascended  the  throne  under  the 
name  of  Michael  IV.,  1034.  Zoe  adopted  for  her  son  Michael  the  Fifth, 
the  trade  of  whose  father  (careening  vessels)  had  procured  him  the  surname 
of  Calaphates,  1041.  Zoe  and  her  sister,  Theodora,  were  made  sole  em- 
presses by  the  populace  ;  but  after  two  months,  Zoe,  although  she  was  sixty 
years  of  age,  took  for  her  third  husband  Constantine  X.,  who  succeeded  to 
the  empire  in  1042.  See  Eastern  Empire. 

ZOOLOGY.  The  animal  kingdom  was  divided  by  Linnasus  into  six  classes, 
viz  : — Mammalia,  which  includes  all  animals  that  suckle  their  young ;  Aves, 
or  birds ;  Amphibia,  or  amphibious  animals ;  Pisces,  or  fishes ;  Insecta,  or 
insects;  Verities,  or  worms ;  A.  D.  1741.  From  this  period  the  science  of 
zoology  has  had  many  distinguished  professors,  the  most  illustrious  of  whom 
was  the  baron  Cuvier,  who  died  in  Paris.  May  13,  1832.  The  Zoological 
Gardens  of  London  were  opened  in  April  1827 ;  the  society  was  chartered 
March  27,  1829. 

ZUINGLIANS.  The  followers  of  Ulricus  Zuinglius.  This  zealous  reformer, 
while  he  officiated  at  Zurich,  declaimed  against  the  church  of  Rome  and 
its  indulgences,  and  effected  the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the 
papal  dominion,  which  Luther  had  for  Saxony.  He  procured  two  assem- 
blies to  be  called ;  by  the  first  he  was  authorized  to  proceed,  and  by  the 
second  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  were  abolished.  1519.  Zuin- 
glius, who  began  as  a  preacher,  died  in  arms  as  a  soldier :  he  was  slain  in  a 
skirmish  against  the  Popish  opponents  of  his  reformed  doctrines,  in  1531. 
The  reformers  who  adhered  entirely  to  Zuinglius  were  called  after  his  name 
and  also  Sacramentarians. 

ZURICH.  It  was  admitted  to  be  a  member  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  of  which 
this  canton  was  made  the  head,  A.  D.  1351.  Cession  of  Utznach,  1436.  This 
was  the  first  town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the  church  of  Rome, 
in  consequence  of  the  opposition  given  by  Zuinglius  to  a  Franciscan  monk 
sent  by  Leo  X.,  to  publish  indulgences  here,  1519,  et  seq.  A  grave-digger 
of  Zurich  poisoned  the  sacramental  wine,  by  which  eight  persons  lost  their 
lives,  and  many  others  were  grievously  injured.  Sept.  4,  1776.  The  French 
were  defeated  here,  losing  4'XK)  men,  June  4,  1799.  The  Imperialists  were 
defeated  by  Massena.  the  former  losing  20,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded 
Sept.  24,  1799.  See  Switzerland. 


LITERARY  CHRONOLOGY. 

[  Prom  the  Companion  to  the  British  Almanac,  icith  additions.] 

THE  following  Chronological  List  of  Authors  is  in  extension  of  the  Catalogue 
flirnished  in  the  Companion  of  1831,  differing  from  it  by  adding  to  the  name 
of  each  author  the  title  of  his  most  important  production,  or  some  word 
expressive  of  the  nature  of  his  works. 

In  order  to  show  the  various  literary  character  of  each  age  the  catalogue  is 
divided  into  three  columns:  the  first  containing  those  authors  who  have  drawn 
chiefly  from  their  own  sources,  as  poets  and  novelists ;  the  second  those  who 
treat  on  matters  of  fact,  as  history  and  geography ;  and  the  third,  the  philo- 
sophic and  scientific  writers.  Where  an  author  has  written  in  different  styles, 
his  name  will  be  found  in  the  column  to  which  his  most  distinguished  pro- 
ductions appertain.  The  Hebrews  having,  almost  without  exception,  treated 
on  speculative  subjects,  the  triple  division  does  not  extend  to  them. 

The  dates  of  birth  and  death  are  appended  to  each  name,  where  they  could 
be  ascertained.  In  other  cases,  the  situation  of  the  name  will  show  nearly  the 
time  when  each  author  has  flourished. 


HEBREW. 

[The  words  in  italics  oetween  parentheses  are  the  familiar  appellations  of  the  preceding  persons- 
they  are  formed  from  the  first  letters  of  each  word  composing  their  names.  For  example,  th« 
Jews  call  Maimonides  Rambam,  from  the  four  initial  letters  of  his  full  name,  Rabbi  Moses  ben 
Maimon.  J  'tn  Tof,  in  like  manner,  is  called  Ritba,  from  the  words  Rabbi  Yom  Tof  bar 
Abraham.] 


a.  c. 

1500  Moses,  1572—1452. 

Phinehas,  supposed  author  of  the  book  of 

Joshua. 

1100  David,  1085— 10815. 
1000  Solomon,  1033—975. 
POO  Jonah,  d.  761. 

Amos. 

Hosea, 

Joel. 

Obadiah. 

Micah. 

Isaiah,  d.  631. 

Nahum. 
700  Habakkuk. 

Zephaniah. 

Jeremiah. 
800  Baruch. 

Ezekiel. 

Daniel; 

Zechariah. 

Haggai. 
600  Ezra. 

Nehemiah,  d.  430 

Malachi. 
300  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach. 


100  Nechoniah  ben  Hakkanah,  'Sepher  hab- 
bahir,'  the  illustrious  book.  'The  most 
ancient  of  Rabbinical  books.  Cabbalistic. 

Jonathan, '  Targum,'  or  Chaldee  paraphrase 

of  the  Bible. 
A.  D. 

0  Onkelos,  'Targum.' 

Josephus,  6.  35. 

100  Akiba,  d.  120.  The  Mishna  has  oeen  in- 
correctly  attributed  to  him. 

Shimeon  benJochai(^?osA6e).  The  'Zohar,' 
a  celebrated  cabbalistic  Commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  is  usually  attributed 
to  him,  but  was  composed  by  his  dis- 
ciples. 

Jose  ben  Chilpheta,  'A  History  of  the 
World.' 

Nathan  of  Babylon, '  Pirke  aboth,'  the  say- 
ings of  the  lathers.  Ethics. 

Eliezcr,  'Pirke  Eliezer,'  the  savings  of 
Eliezer,  a  History  of  the  World. 

Judah  Hakkadosh,  'Mishna.'  the  oral  tradi- 
tions of  the  Jews,  which,  with  th« 
(iemara  or  Commentary,  constitutes  th« 
Babylonian  Talmud. 


666 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.. 


Raf,  supposed  author  of  the  'Siphra,'  a 
commentary  on  Leviticus,  and  of  the 
'Siphre,'  a  commentary  on  Numbers 
and  Deuteronomy. 

2LO  Ushaya, '  Bereshith  Rabba,'  a  Commentary 
on  the  Mishna. 

Author  of  the  'Mechilta,'  a  Commentary 
on  Exodus. 

Jochanan,  -Talmud  of  Jerusalem.' 
300  Rabba  bar  Nachmon,  'Rabboth,'  Commen- 
taries on  the  Bible. 

40C  Rabasha,  began  the  '  Gemara,'  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  Mishna. 

Martemar,  continued  the  'Gemara.' 
500  Abina,  completed  the  'Gemara,' 
800  Simeon  H;>;ara,  '  Great  decisions,'  jurid. 

Judah  bar  Nachman  ( Riban),  Compendium 

of  the  preceding. 

930  Saadii  Gaon,  '  Philosopher's  Stone,'  '  Book 
of  Faith,'  'Grammar,'  &c. 

Sherira,  'The  Book  of  Answers,'  history. 
1000  Samuel  Haccohen,  d.  1034. 

Joseph  Chin'g,  Grammarian. 

Judah  Barzelloni,  'Rights  of  Women,'  ju- 
ridic. 

Joseph  ben  Gorion  (Ribag), '  Compendium 
of  Hebrew  History.' 

Moses  Aben  Ezra,  d.  1080.    Grammarian. 

Isaac  of  Cordova,  d.  1094.  '  Chest  of  Spices.' 
1100  Alphes,    d.  1103.      'Compendium    of  the 
Talmud.' 

Nathan,  d.  1106.  'Talmudic  and  Chaldee 
Lexicon.' 

Solomon  Jarchi  (Rashi),  Grammarian,  d. 
1105.  '  Tongue  of  the  Learned.' 

Joseph  ben  Meir  (Ribam),  d.  1141.  '  Com- 
mentary on  Talmud.' 

Juda  the  Levite,  'Sepher  Cosri,'  philoso- 
phical. 

Abraham  Ahen  Ezra,  very  learned  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible. 

Tam.  d.  117.  'Sepher  Hajashar,'  the  Book 
of  Righteousness. 

Samuel  ben  Meir  (Rashbam),  d.  1171. 
'  Commentary  on  the  Talmud.' 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  d.  1173.    'Travels.' 

Samuel, '  Book  of  Piety,'  Ethics  and  Theo- 
logy. 

Isaac  bar  Abba,  Grammarian. 

Moses  K  i ruin.  Grammarian. 

David  Kimhi  (Radak),  Grammarian. 

Abraham  bar  Dior  (Rabad),  d.  ]  199.  Cab- 
balist. 

Abraham  ben  David  (Rahad),  Jurist. 

Moses  ben  Maimon  (Rambam),  1131-1205. 
Yad  Hazaka.'    (he   f'ong  hand,    a  very 
celebrated  Commentary  on  the  Talmud, 
&c.     (This  author  is  better  known  by 
his  Latinized  name,  Maimonides.) 
1310  Abraham  bar  Chasdai,  Ethics. 

Eliakim,  Ceremonies. 

Baruch  Miggarmisa,  Laws,  Ceremonies. 

Eliezer  Miggarmisa,  Eihics,  Commentaries. 

Asher,  Compendia  of  Talmud. 

Perez  Haccohen  (Haraph),  Cabbalist. 

Moses  ben  Nachman  (Ramban),  d.  1260. 
•  Law  of  Man,'  a  celebrated  book  on 
Ceremo  lies,  &c. 


Moses  Mikkotsi,  'Great  Book  of  Piucepi*, 
'  Compendium  of  Talmud.' 

Isaac  ben  Solomon,  d.  1268.  '  Proverbs  ant 
Fables.' 

Nissim,  d.  1268.    '  Book  of  Homilies.' 

Isaac  ben  Joseph,  d.  1270.  'Book  of  Precepts.- 

Moses  Aben  Tybon,  Translator  of  Mathe- 
matical and  Philosophical  works  fron 
the  Greek  and  Arabic. 

Solomon  ben  Adras  (Ras/iba).,  Theology. 

Meir,  Meditations,  on  '  Maimoiiides.' 

Meriachem  Rekanat,  d.  1290.  '  Reason  foi 
the  enactment  of  the  Laws  of  Moses.' 

Bechai, '  Commentary  on  Pentateuch.' 
1300  Shimson,  d.  1312.    '  Intro,  to  the  Talmud.' 

Isaac  Israeli,  '  Foundation  of  the  World,- 
History. 

Judah,  son  of  Benjamin,  Ruial. 

Mordechai,  '  Compendium  of  Talmud.' 

Isaac  Dura,  'On  Forbidden  and  Permitted 
Food.' 

Aaron  Haccohen, '  The  Way  of  Life.' 

Jerucham, '  Book  of  Rectitude.' 

Jacob  ben  Asher,  'The  Four  Orders,'  a 
Ritual  of  much  authority. 

David  Abudraham,  astronomy. 

Levi  ben  Gerson  (Ratbag),  d.  1370.  '  Com- 
mentary on  the  Law/ 

Menachen  Aben  Serach,  d.  1375.     Ritual. 

Isaac  ben  Sheshat  (Ribash),  'Questions 
and  Answers  on  Various  Subjects.' 

Moses  Haccohen,  '  Help  of  Faith.' 

Isaac  Sprot,  'Aben  Bpcnan,'  a  polemic  work 
against  Christianity. 

Jom  Tof  bar  Abraham  (Ritba),  Commen- 
tary on  Maimonides.' 

Chasdai,  d.  1396.  'Light  of  the  Lord.' 
Eihics  and  Theology. 

Simeon  bar  Zemach, '  Shield  of  the  Fathers.' 
1400  Jacob  Levi,  d.  1427.    A  Ritual. 

Joseph  Albo,  the  Divine  Philosopher, — 
'  Foundation  of  Faith.' 

Israel  Germanus,  '  Questions  and  Answer* 
on  the  Law.' 

Joshua  Levita,  'Introd.  to  the  Talmud.' 

David  Vital, '  Golden  Verses.' 

Samuel  Sirsa,  Grammar. 

Isaac  ben  Arama, '  Com.  on  the  Law.' 

Elias  Misrachi  (Ram),  Arithmetic. 

Abarbinel, '  Commentary  on  the  Bible.' 

Isaac  Abuhaf,  Ethics. 
1500  Abraham  Seba, '  Bundle  of  Myrrh,'  a  Com- 
mentary. 

Isaac  iTarro, '  Explanations  of  the  Bible.' 

Elias  Levi,  Grammar. 

Solomon  ben  Virga, '  History  of  the  Jews.' 

Benjamin  Zeef, '  Questions  and  Answers.' 

Abraham  Zaccoth,  '  Juchasin,'  Sacred  ccl 
Jewish  History. 

Moses  Iserle,  Astrology. 

Joseph  Karro, '  Com.  on  Maimonides.' 

Azarias  Edomaeus,  History  and  Philology. 

Gadaliah, '  Cabbalistic  Chain,'  History  and 
Chronology. 

Leo,  d.  1592.    '  Lion's  Whelp,'  Grammar. 

David  Cans,  History. 
1600  Moses  of  Trana, '  Book  of  God.' 
1700  Moses  Mendelssohn,  1729-1735,  Philosophy 


AUTHORS  OF  THE  NEW-TESTAMENT. 

,.  D. 

0  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  St.  John,  Evangelist*. 
St.  Paul,  St.  Peter,  St.  James,  St.  Jude,  Epistlere. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 


667 


GREEK. 


Ill  AGINATION 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC 


•  .C. 

900  Homer,  '  Iliad,'   '  Odyssey,' 

(Sec. 

Hesiod,  '  Works  and  Days,' 
&c. 


B.C. 

900 


B.  C. 

900 


700  TyrtKus,  Elegies  (fragm'ts.) 
Archilochus,    Satires,    Ele- 
gies (fragments). 


700 


'00 


Aicaeus,  Lyrics  (fragments). 

Sappho,  Lyrics  (fragments). 

Solon,  d.  55$. 

Epimenides. 

Stesiehorus,  033-553  Lyrics 
(fragments). 

Mimnermus,  Elegies  (frag- 
ments.) 

Anacreon,  Lyrics. 


GOO 


GOO 


Pythagoras,  Philosophy. 


500  Simonides,  556-467,  Lyrics. 
jEschylus,  525-456,  Trage- 
dies. 

Pindar,  518-439,  Odes. 
Bacchylides,  Lyrics. 


Sophocles,  495-405,  Trage- 
dies. 

Euripides,  480-486,  Trage- 
dies. 

Aristophanes,  d.  338,  Come- 
dies. 


500 


Gorgias,  Orations  (frgts.) 


Hecataeus,  Hist,  (fraemn'ts.) 
Herodotus,  d.  484,  History. 
Thucydides,  471-391,  Histo- 
ry of  Peloponnesian  War. 
Antiphon,  Orations. 
Andorides,  Orations. 
Lysias,  458-378,  Orations. 


500  Zeno  of  Elea,  Philosohy. 
Ocellus   Lucanus,  Philoso 
phy. 


Anaxagoras,  500-428,  Philo 
sophy. 


Socrates,  468-399,  Philoeo 
Phy. . 


400 


Diphilus,  Comedy  (frgts.) 
Menander,   212-291,  Come, 
dies  (fragments.) 


400  Ctesias.  History  (fraem'ts.) 
Xenophon,  444-359,  History, 

Philosophy,  &c. 
Isa?us,  Orations. 

Isocrates,  536-338,  Orations. 
Dinarchus,  Orations. 
Lycurgus,  Orations. 
Demosthenes,  382-322,  Ora- 
tions, 
^schines,  389-314,  Orations. 


400 


Hippocrates,  460-357,  Medi- 
cine. 

Democritus,  450-357,  Philo- 
sophy.. 

Plato,  429-347,  Philosophy. 

Aristotle,  384-322,  Philoso- 
phy, Criticism. 

Theophrastus,d.  288.  Ethics 

Epicurus,  341-270,  Philoso- 
phy. 


30C  Bion,  Idyls. 


Moschus,  Idyls. 

Lycophron, '  Cassandra.' 

Callimachus,  Hymns  and 
Epigrams. 

Theocritus,  Idyls. 

Aratus,  Poem  on  Astrono- 
my. 

Cleanthes,  Hymns. 


Apollonius  Rhodius,    Argo- 
naut ics.' 


300 


Manetho,  History  (fragm'ts.) 


300  Euclid,  Geometry. 

Zento  of  Citium,  d.  263,  Phi- 
losophy. 


Apollonius,  Conic  Section* 


Archimedes,  d.  212, '  Sphew 

and  Cylinder,'  &c. 
Eratosthenes,  Philosophy. 


668 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  gCIBNTirid 

200  Nicander,  Theriaca. 

200  Polybius,  206-124,  Universal 
History. 
Apollodorus,   '  Bibliotheca,' 
Mythology. 

200 

100  Meleager,  Epigrams. 

100  Conor.,  Mythology. 
Scymnus,  Poetical  Geogr. 
Dionysius      Halicarnassus, 
'Roman  Antiquities.' 
Dionysius    Periegetes,    Ge- 
ography 7 
Diodorus   Siculus,  General 
History. 

100 

0 

0  Strabo,  Geography. 

Pausanias,    Description    of 
Greece. 
Plutarch,  Biography,  Morals 
<fec. 
Dion  Chrysostom,  Orations. 

0 

Dioscorides,  Botany  and  Me- 
dicine. 

Epictetus,      «  Enchiridion,' 

Philosophy. 

A.  D. 

100 

lamblichus,  '  Rhodis  and  Si- 
nonides,  a  novel. 

Lacian,  Dialogues. 
Oppian,  Poems  on  Hunting 
and  Fishing. 
Athenceus,  d.  194,  '  Deipno- 
sophistae,  anecdotes. 

A.  D. 

100  .Elian,  d.  140.    Varieties. 
Appian,  History. 
Ptolemy,  Geog.,  Astron. 

Arrian,  '  Expedition  of  Alex- 
ander.' 

A.  D. 

100 
Justin  Martyr,  d.  163,  Theo- 
logy. 
Polycarp,  d.  167,  Theology. 
Galen,  103-193,  Medicine. 

Athenagoras,  d.  172,  '  On  th« 
Resurrection.' 
Phavorinus,  Lexicon. 
Uermogenes,  d.   161,    Rhe- 
toric. 
Polyaenus,  Strategy. 
M.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  Phi- 
losophy. 
Nephaestion,  '  On  Metres.' 
Max.  Tyrius,  Philosophy. 

Julius   Pollux,  'Onomaeti- 
con,'  Rhetoric. 

son 

200  Diogenes  Laeriius,  d.  222, 
'  Lives  of  Philosophers.' 
Philostratus,  d.  244,  Life  of 
Apollonius. 
Dion   Cassius,    History   of 
Rome. 
Herodian,  History  of  Rome. 

Porphyrius,  233-304,  Life  of 
Pythagoras,  Philosophy. 

200 

Ammonius,  Philosophy, 
Origen,  d.  254,  Theology 
Hesychius,  Lexicon. 
lamblichus,  Philoiophy. 
Longinus,  d.  273,  'On  tht 
Sublime.' 

100 

Achilles  Tatiug,  <  Clitophon 
and  Leucippe,'  novel. 
Xenophon,  'Anthea  and  Ab- 
rocome,'  novel. 

300  Eusebius,  d.  340,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Liabanius,     Orations     and 
Epistles. 

300 

Julian,  d.  363,  Philosophy. 
Athanasius,  298-371,  The* 
logy. 
Greg.  Nazianzen,   318-38% 
Theology. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 


G69 


IMAOINATIOH. 

PACT. 

8PBOUVATIVK   AND    SCIENTIFIC 

am 

300 

Eunapius,  'Lives  of  Philo- 
sophers.' 

Gregory  Nyssaeus,  d.   396 
Theology. 
Cyril,  315-386.  Theology. 
Diophantus,  Mathematics. 

3UC  Arist.-Eietus,  'Erotic    Let- 
ters.' 

Heliodorus,  '  Theagenes  & 
Chariclaea,'  novel,     s, 
Chariton,    '  Chasreus    and 
Calirrlioe,'  novel. 

300 

300 
Chrysostom  354-40fT,Th» 
ology. 

400  Longus,      'Daphnis      and 
Chloe,'  novel. 
Nonnus,  '  Conquest  of  India 
by  Bacchus.' 
Stobaeus,  '  Literary  Collec- 
tions.' 
Quintus  Smyrnaeus  (com- 
monly   called)    Calabar, 
'  Coniin.  of  Homer.' 
Musaeus,  Poem  of  Hero  and 
Leanderi 

Eumathius,  'Ismenaeus  & 
Ismenaea,'  novel. 

Coluthus,  Poem  on  '  Rape 
of  Helen.' 
Tryphindorus,    Poem     on 
'Destruction  of  Troy.' 

400  Synesius,  Orations  &  Epis- 
tles. 

Zosimus,  '  Hist,  of  Roman 
Emperors.' 
Socraies,  389-446,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 
Sozomen,  d.  450,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 
Theodoret,  d,  450,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

400  Nemesius,     '  Nature     of 
Man,'  Philosophy. 

Cyril,  d.  443,  Homilies. 
Proclua,  d.  445,  Theology. 

Proclua,  d.  500,  Platonist 

600 

50D  Stephanus,  Geography. 

Procopius,  '  Hist,  of  Reign 
of  Justinian.' 
Olympiodorus,    '  Hist,    of 
Honorius.' 
Cos.  Indicopleustes,  Topo- 
graphy. 
Evagrius,  Ecclesiast.  Hist 
Agathias,  Byzantine  Hist. 

500  Simplicius,  '  Comment!  o»i 
Aristotle.' 
Tribonianus,  Jurist. 

600 

600  Menan,  Protector,  Chron. 
Theophanes,  Byzant.Hist. 

Theophylactus  Simocatta, 
Byzantine  History. 

600 
Philoponus,  Grammarian. 

700 

700 

700  Damascenus,  d   750,  Th»> 
ology. 

600 

800  Nicephorus,  758-828,  Hist. 
Syncellus,  History. 

John  Malalas,  History. 

800  Theodorus    Studites,   75>- 
826,  Sermons. 
Photius,    d.    891,  'BtblJo- 
theca.' 

900 

900 

Leontlus,  History. 
Genesiits,  History. 

900  Leo  VI.,  d.  911,  '  OnChrU 
tian  Faith.' 

670 


I-HE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE    AND   SCIKNTIMft 

900 

900  Const.      Porphyrogenneta, 
905-959,  Hist.  Selections. 
Sim.  Metaphrastes,  Lives 
of  Saints. 

900 

1000 

1000  George  Ceclrenus,  History. 
John   Xiphilinus,  d.  1080, 
Ahridg.  of  Dion  Cassius. 

John  Scylitza,  History. 

1000 

Theophylactus,  Theology. 
Michael  Psellus,  Mathema- 
tics. 

1100 

C.  Theo.  Prodromus,  '  Rho- 
danthe    and     Dosicles,' 
novel. 

1100 
Nicephorus  Bryennius,  d. 
1137,  Byzant.  Affairs. 
Anna  Cotnnena,  Reign  of 
her  father  Alexius. 

Const.  Manasses,  History. 
Zonaras,    History    of   Ro- 
mans, History  of  Jews. 

Will,  of  Tyre,   1100-1184, 
History. 
John  Tzetzes,  History  in 
Verse. 
Cinnamus,  History. 

1100  Euthymius    Zygabenua, 
Theology. 

Suidas,  Lexicon. 
Eustathias,  Commentarie* 
on  Homer. 

Isaac  Tzetzes.Commentary 
on  Lycophron. 

1200 

1200  Joel,  History. 
Michael  Glycas,  History. 
Georee  Acropolita,  Hist. 
Nicetas  Acominatus,  Hist. 
George  Pachymer,  Hist. 

1200 
Nicephorus    Blemmidas, 
Theology. 

1300  Manuel  Philes,  1275-1340, 
Poems. 

Maiimus  Planurles,  Anth- 
ology. 
Leo  Pilatus,  Literature. 

1300  Theod.  Metochita,  d.  1312, 
History. 
Callistus  Xantopulus,  Ec- 
clesiastical History. 
Niceph.  Gregoras,  History. 

John  Cantacuzenus,  Hist. 
George  Codinus,  Hist. 
Michael  Ducas,  History. 

1300 

1400 

Detnet  Pamperes,  Tales. 
Marullus  Turchoniota   d. 
1500,  Poems. 

1400 

Theodore  Gaza,  d.  1478. 
Origin  of  Turks. 
Laonicus     Chalcondyles, 
History  of  Turks. 
George  Phranza,  History. 

1400  Eman.     Chrysolorus,    d. 
1415,  Grammar. 
Geo.  Gemistius,  or  Pletho, 
d.  1450,  Philosophy. 
Eman.  Moscopulus,  Notes 
on  Hesiod. 
Bessarion,  1395-1472,  The- 
ology. 
Geo.   of  Trebizond,  1396- 
1463,  Aristotelian. 

John  Argyrophilus,  An'sts* 
telian. 

mo 

1600 

1500  Demetrius   Chalcondyles, 
1453-1513,  Philology. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN   ARD    ITALIAN. 


671 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECOT.ATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

1COO 

1600 

1600  Panagioti,   d.    1763,    The 
ology. 

1700  Kallinikus,  Poems. 

Nicholas  Caradza,  Trans- 
lation of  Voltaire. 

1700 
Alexander   Maurocordato, 
History  of  the  Jews. 
Meletius,  Geography. 

1700  Dorotheus,  Aristotelian. 

Marcus    Tharboures,   Me- 
chanics. 

1700 
Riga,  d.  1796,  Lyrics.  Nat- 
ural Philosophy. 

1700 

Ducas,  Translation  of  Thu- 
cydides. 

1700  Bulgaris,  Mathematics. 

<800  N.  Piccolo,  Tragedy. 
Christopulus,    Anacreon- 
tics, Opera. 
Calvos,  Lyrics. 
Ilarion,  Translation  of  So- 
phocles. 

1800  D.    Philippides,    d.    1827, 
Hist,  of  Wallachia,  <kc. 
Paliuris,  Hist,  of  Greece. 
Perrevos,  History  of  Suli 
and  Parga. 
Gr.  Demetrius,  Geography. 

1800  Psalidas,  Metaphysics. 
Coray,  Commentaries,  Lex- 
icon. 
Cumas,  Dictionary. 
Neophitus,  Bamba,  Ethics. 

LATIN  AND  ITALIAN. 

[The  Latin  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language  about  the  sixth  century,  but  was  in  almost  universal 
use  throughout  Europe  as  the  language  of  composition  until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
modern  languages  began  to  appear. 

As  long  as  the  literature  of  the  West  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  Italy  we  have  arranged 
all  authors  who  wrote  in  Latin  under  the  same  head ;  but.  about  the  sixth  century  they  will  be 
found  under  those  countries  where  their  works  were  published,  whatever  the  language  in  which 
they  wrote.] 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIENTIFIC 


1.  C.  B.  C. 

200  M.  A.  Plautus,  Comedies.      200 
Q.  Ennius,  Epics  (Fragts). 
P.  Terentius,  Comedies. 


B.  c. 

200 


M.  P.  Cato,  De  Re  Rustica. 


100 


T.  Lucretius,  b.  95,  De  Re- 
rum  Natura. 
Catullus,  86-40,  Lyrics. 


P.  Virgilius,  70-19,  Er.eid. 

Q.  Horatius,65-8,  Odes,  Sat- 
ires. 

Propertius,  59-16,  Elegies. 

A.  Tibullus,  43  B.  c.— 17 
A.  D.,  Elegies. 

Ovid,  43  B.  c.— 17  A.  D.,  Me- 
tamorph.  Fasti.  &c. 

Hyginus,  Poeticon  Astro- 
nomicon. 


100  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  110- 
33,  Letters. 


M.  1  Cicero,  107^13,  Orator 

and  Philosopher. 
Julius  Caesar,  98-46,  Com- 

mentaries. 

Hirtius  Pansa,  Gallic  War. 
C.  Sallustius.  85-35,  Jugur- 

thine  War. 
Corn.  Nepos,  Biography. 


T.  Livius,  59  B.  c.—  19  A.  D. 
History  of  Rome. 


100  Varro,  115-28,  De  Re  Rusti- 

ca  Lingua  Latina. 
Vitruvius,  Architecture. 
Verrius  Flaccus,  d.  4,  Fa*U 
Capitolini. 


672 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  BOIENTWM 

A.  P. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

0 

0  Vel  Paterculus,  19  B.  c.—  30 

0 

A.  D.,  Hist,  of  Rome. 

Pomp.  Mela,  Geography. 

Valerius    Maximus,    Anec- 

dotes of  Great  Men. 

Phadrus,  Fables. 

Quintus  Curtius,  History  of 

C.  Celsus,  De  Medicina. 

Columella.  Agriculture. 

Alexander. 

Persius.  34-62,  Satirea. 

L.  A.  Seneca,  12-65,  Philot 

Lucan,  3S-65,  '  Pharsalia.' 
Petronius  Arbiter,  d.  67,  Sa- 

opher,  Tragic  Poet. 
Pliny  the  Elder,  23-79,  Nat 

tyricon. 

ral  History. 

Valerius  Flaccus,  Argonau- 

Quintilian  Criticism, 

tics. 

Silius      Italicus,      '  Punic 

War.' 

Sulpicia,  Satires,  <fec. 

Statius,   d.    99,    'Thebais,' 

'  Achilleis.' 

Martial,  29-104,  Epigrams. 

Juvenal,  48-128.  Satires. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  61-113, 

Epistles. 

100 

[00  Tacitus,  History. 

100  Valer,  Probus,  Grammar. 

Suetonius,  Biography. 
Florus,  History,  of  Rome. 

Frontmus,  Strategy. 

Terentianus  Maurus,  De  At- 

Aulus  Gellius,   Noctes  At- 

te  Metrica. 

L.  Apuleuis,  Golden  Ass. 

ticse. 
C.  Jul.  Solinus,  Polyhistor. 

Justin,  History. 

Pompei.  Festus,  Grammar. 

300 

200 

200  Ulpian,  d.  228,  Law. 

Tertullian.d.  220,  'Apolog» 

for  Christianity.' 

Minutius  Felix,  Dialogue  in 

favor  of  Christianity. 

Julius  Obsequens,  '  De  Pro- 

digiis.' 

Censorinus,   'De   Die   Na 

tali.' 

Nemnsianus,  Cynegetica. 

Cyprian,  d.  258,  Theology. 

Jul.  Calpumius,  Eclogues. 

300 

300  El  Spartianus,  History. 

300  Arnobius,    '  Adversus  gen- 

Jul.  Capitolinus,  History. 

tes.' 

JE[.  Larnpridus,  History. 

Lar.tantius,  d.  325,  Defenc* 

Vul.  Gallicanus,  History. 

of  Christianity.1 

Trcnellius,  Pollio,  History 

Aquilinus  Jurencus,  Gospel 
in  Verse. 

F.  Vopiscus,  History. 
Aurehus  Victor,  History. 

JE\.  Donatus,  Grammar. 
F.    Maternus,    Astronomy 

Theology. 

M.  Victorinus,  Hymns. 

Ambrosius,  Theology. 

Festus  Avienus,  Geographi- 

F.   Eutropius,   History   of 
Rome. 

cal  Poem. 
D.  M.  Ausonius,  Idyls. 

Aram.  Marcellinua,  History 
of  Rome. 

Jerom.  329—420.  Version  of 
Bible. 

Rufinus,  d.  410,  Ecclesiasti- 

cal History. 

T.  Vegetius  Renatus.  De  Ri 

Militari. 

A.    T.    Macrobius,    Satur- 

Augustin, 354—430,  Theol 

nalia. 

ogy. 

•ymmachus,  Epistles. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN    AND    ITALIAN. 


673 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SOIBMT1FIO 


800  C.  Claudianus,  Poems. 
A.     Prudemiug     Clemens, 
Christian  Poems. 


300 


300 


406 


Sedulius,  Poetical  Life  of 

Christ. 
Martianus  Capella,  De  Nup- 

tiua  Phil,  et  Merc. 
Bbulin.  Pretocorius,   Poem,  on 

Martin  of  Tours. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  d.  488, 
Poems. 

Ennodius,  d.  521,  Christian 
Poems. 


400  Vib.  Sequester,  Geography. 
Sulpitius,  Severus,  d.  420, 

Sacred  History. 
Orosius,  Hist,  of  World. 


Victorius,  History  of  Church 

in  Africa. 
Idacius,  Chronicles  to  468. 


400 


500  Boethius,  Poet  and  Philo- 
sopher. 


Arator,  490^556,   Acts    of 
Apostles  in  Verse. 


500  Cassiodorus,  481-662,  His- 
tory. 


Jornandes,  Hist,  of  Goths. 
Evagrius,  Eccl.  History. 


500  Priscianus,  Granrfnar, 
Fulgentius,  468-533,  The 

plogy. 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  d.  536, 

Christian  Era. 
Non.  Marcellus,  Grammar 


600 


600  Secundus,  d.  615,  History 
of  Lombards. 


COO 


700 


700 


Paul   Warnefrid.   History 
of  Lombards. 


700  Cresconius,      Collection 
Canons,  Verses. 


800 


800  Erchempert,   History    of 

Lombards. 
Anastasius,  Lives  of  Popes. 


800 


900 


900  Luitprand,  History  of  his 
Times. 


900 


1000 


1000 


1000  Papias,  Grammar. 

Lanfranc,  d.  1089,  i'heol. 


1100  Donizo,  Latin  Poc.rjr. 


Ciullod'  Alcamo,  Sicilian 
Poetry. 


1100 


Falcandus,  Hist,  of  Sicily 


1100 


Gratian,  Canonist. 
Campanus,  Mathematics. 


1200 


Guido  of  Colonna,  Poetry, 

History. 
Brunetto  Latina,  d.   1294, 

'II  Tesora.' 
Guirto  Cavalcanti,  d.  1300, 

Poemss. 
John  XXII.,  Poem  on  Me 

dicine. 


29 


1200  Pietro  dalle  Vigne,  d.  1249 
History. 


Marco  Polo,  Travels. 


G.   de  Voragine,  d.   1298 
Legends  of  Saints. 


1200  Accureius,  1182-1260,  Law 
Thomas    Aquinas,    1224- 

1274,  Theology. 
Bonaventura.  Scholastic. 


G.  Durand.  Law. 

Pietro  d'AIbano,  1250-15  » 

Astrology,  Physics. 
Torregiano     Rustechflll, 

Commentaries. 


674 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE    AND    SCIESTIFICk 

1800  Danto,    1265-1321,  La  Bi- 

1300  Dino  Compagni,  1265  -1323, 

1300  Mon.  de  Luzzi,  Anatomy. 

vina     Cominedia,    Yita 

Chronicles. 

Arn.  Villanovan,  d.  1318, 

Nova,  Convito,  &c. 

Giovanni  and  M.  Villani, 

Alchemy. 

F.    Burberino,    1264-1348, 

Chronicles. 

Cecco    d'Ascoli,  d.   1827, 

Poems. 

Astronomy. 

Petrarca,   1304-1374,   Son- 

G. Andreas,  d.  1343,  Ca- 

nets, Epic,  Literature. 

nons. 

Boccacio,    1313-1375,    '11- 

Bartolus,  Law. 

Decamerone,'  Poems  and 

Domenico  Cavalca,Ascetio 

various  works  in  Latin 

Ferreti,  1356-1429,  History 

and   Translat.  of  Lives 

and  Italian. 

of  his  Times. 

of  Saints. 

1400 

1400  Leonardo  Bruni,   History 

1400  Leonard  of  Pisa,  Algebra. 

of  Florence. 

Nicholas  Tedeschi,  Law. 

A.    Beccadelli,  1374-1471, 

'  Hennaphroditus.' 

Guarino,  1370-1460,  Trans- 

Poggio, 1380-1459,  Litera- 

lation of  Plutarch. 

ture. 

Mich.  Savonarola,  d.  1462, 

Lorenzo  Valla,  1407-1457, 

Medicine. 

Literature. 

B.  Accolti,  1415-1466,  His- 

Bar. Montagnana,  d.  1460. 

D.  Burchiello,  Sonnets. 

tory  of  Holy  War. 

Baraterius,  Law. 

Flav.  Blondus,  1388-1463, 

Gianozzo,  Manetti,  1396- 

History  of  Venice,  Ac. 

1479,  Orientalist. 

^En.    Sylvius,    1400-1464, 

Paul  Toscanello,  d.  1482, 

History,  Poetry,  Ac. 

Astronomy. 

Beccat,    Panormita,   1393- 

1471,  Biography. 

Pulci,     1432-U87,    '  Mor- 

Bart.   Platina,    1421-1481, 

gan  te  Maggiore.' 

Lives  of  Popes. 

Franc.    Pliilelphus,    1398- 

F.  Buonaccorsi,  1437-1496, 

1481,  Poetry  and  Ethics. 

Biography. 

Loren.  de  Medici,  d.  1492, 

Pomp.   Lsetus,    1425-1495, 

Poetry,  Literature. 

Lives  of  Csesars,  &c. 

Angelo     Poliziano,    1454- 

Franc.  Berlinghieri,  Geo- 

1494, Poetry,  Drama. 

graphy. 

Pico  de  Mirandola,  1463- 

Marsilius    Ficinus,    1483- 

G.     Pontano,     1426-1563, 

1494,  Metaphysics. 

14U9,  Translat.  Plato. 

Wars  of  Ferdinand  I. 

Luca  di  Burgo,  Mathem, 

Bonttnius,  d.  1502,  History 

of  Hungary. 

1600 

1500  E.  Accolti,  1455-1582,  His- 

1500 Ant.  della  Torre,  d.  1512, 

tory. 

Anatomy. 

L.    da  Vinci,    1452-1520, 

G.   Euccellai,    1475-1526, 

'Treatise  on  Painting,1 

'  Le  Apt.' 

Giambullari,    1495  -  1555, 

Ac. 

Alexander  ab   Alexandro, 
1461-1523,    Dies     Geui- 

History  of  Europe. 

G.  Abrosi,  Astronomy. 
A.   Acchillini,  1472-1512, 

tales. 

Medicine. 

M.  Boiardo,  'Orlando  In- 
namorato.1 

B.  Castiglione,  1478-1529, 
'The  Courtier.' 

Sanazaro,    1458-1580,    Ar- 

cadia. 

B?ni,    d.    1580,     Satires, 

Burlesque,  and  Orlando 

innamorato. 

Machiavelli,  14S2-1528,His- 

Ariosto,    1474-1588,     'Or- 

tory of  Florence,  &c. 

lando  Furioso,'  Satires, 

Comedies. 

F.  M.  Molza,  d.  1541,  Po- 

Guicciardini,   1482-1540, 

G.  Fracastoro,  1483-1533, 

ems. 

History  of  Italy. 

Medicine     and     Latin 

Bembo,  1470-1547,  History 

Poems. 

Trissino,  1478-1550,  '  Italy 

of  Venice. 

And.   Alciato,    1492-1550, 

Delivered    Epic,  Trage- 

L. Albert!,  d.  1562,  History 

Law. 

dy. 

of  Bologna. 

Nic.  Tarfaglia,  Mathem. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN    AND    ITAL1  M*. 


675 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE    AND    SCIENTIFIC). 

1500  Hier.  Vida,  d.  1566,  Latin 

1500 

1500  F.  Connnandido,1509-1576, 

Poetry. 

B.  Cellini,  1500-1570,  Auto- 

Mathematics. 

Mic.  Angolo  Buonaroti,  d. 

biography. 

Angelo  Caninio,   d.  1567 

1564,  I'oeins. 

B.  Varchi,  1503-1566,  His- 

Orientalist. 

Giovanni  delta  Casa,  1503- 

tory  of  his  Times. 

1556.  II  Galateo,  &c. 

Segue,  1499-1559,  History 

G.  Anguillara,  b.  1517,  Tra- 

of Homer. 

gedy. 
L.  Dolce.  1503-1568,  Trage- 

dy, Ep'c,  History. 

And.   Vesalio,   1514--15C.I, 

Bernardo  Tasso,  1493-1575, 

Anatomy. 

'Amadis,'  Sonnets,  and 

G.  Vasari,  1514-1578,  Lives 

Falopias,  1523-1563,  Medi- 

Letters. 

of  Painters,  Ac. 

cine. 

Greg.    Giraldi,   1504-1573, 

Sperone  Speroni,1500-1588, 

Eustachi,  d.  1576,  Do 

Tragedy. 

Orations. 

P.  Manut  Aldus,  1512-J574, 

S.    Armnirato,    1531-1600, 

Commentaries. 

History  of  Florence. 

Cardano,   1501-1576,   Ma- 

A.   F.    Grazzini,  d.   1583, 

G.  Adrian!.  1511-1579,  His- 

thematics. 

Comedies. 

tory  of  his  Times. 

P.  Lancelloti,    1511-1591, 

Torq.     Tasso,     1544-1595, 

B.    Davanzati,    1529-1606, 

Law. 

'  Gerusalemme  Liberata,' 

Hist.  Eng.  Reformation. 

Sonnets,  Drama,  &c. 

C.  Baronius,  1538-1607,  Ec- 

G. Bagnioli,  d.  1600,  Tra- 

clesiastical Annals. 

gedy. 

P.  Paruta,  1540-1593,  His- 

Guarini,   1538  -  1618,     '  11 

tory  of  Venice. 

Pastor  Fido.' 

Possevini,   1533-1611,  De- 

scription   of    Muscovy, 

Andrea  Csesalpino,  1519- 

&c. 

1603,  Botany. 

Ottavio  Einuccini,  Opera. 

P.  R.  Sarpi,  1552-1633,  His- 

U. Aldrovandi,  1522-1605, 

F.  Braccilolini,   1566-1605, 

tory  of  Coun.  of  Trent. 

Natural  History. 

'La  (Jroce  Kacquistata/ 

Orazio    Torsellino,    1545- 

Oraz  Vecehi,  Comic  Opera 

1609,  Grammar. 

G.    B.    Marini,   1569-1625, 

Poems. 

C.    Aehillini,    1577-1640, 

E.    C.    Davila,  1576-1631, 

Poems. 

Hist  Civil  Wars  France. 

A.      Tassoni,      1561-1635, 

'Sechchia  Rapita.' 

1600    G.    Chiabrera,  1552-1637, 

1600  G.  Bentivoelio,  1579-1644, 

1600  J.     Fabricius,     d.    1619, 

Poems,  Epic,  Lyric,  Ac. 

History   Civil   Wars    of 

Comparative  Anatomy. 

Flanders,  and  Letters. 

Bellarmino,  1542-1621,  Po- 

lemics. 

Galileo,1564-1612,  Astron. 

T.   A.  Campanella,   1568- 

1693,  Philosophy. 

Zappi,  1667-1719,  Poems. 

D.  Bartoll,  History  of  the 

L.  Vanini,  1585-16  19,  The- 

Jesuits in  the  East  In- 

ology. 

dies,  &c^  1603-1685. 

B.  CnstelH,   d.  1644,   Ma- 

thematics. 

B.  Cavalieri,  d.  1647.  Do. 

Fabio  Colonna,  1567-1647, 

Botany,  &.c. 

Laur.Lippi,  1606-1  664,  Co- 

mic Poems. 

Forricelli,  1608-1647. 

Salvator    Rosa,  1615-1673, 

P.  della  Valle,  1586-1652, 

Satires. 

Travels. 

C.   M.   Maggi,   1630-1699, 

F.  Stmda,  1571-1649,  Hist. 

Poems. 

of  Wars  of  Flanders. 

Francisco  de  Lemene,  1639 

G.B.  Nani,  1615-1671,  His- 

F. Eedi,  1626-1697,  Nat 

-1704,  Poems. 

tory  of  Venice. 

ural  Hist.  <fe  Literature. 

A.  Guidi,  1050-1712,  Lyric 

Oderic  Rainaldi,  Ecclesias- 

M.  Malpighi,     1623-1694 

Poems. 

tical  Annals. 

Anatomy. 

676 


THE    WORLD  8    PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE    AND    BCIENTIFIQ 


1600  Ben.  Menzinl,  1646-1704, 

Art  of  Poetry,  Satires. 
V.  Filicaja,  1642-170Z,  Po- 
ems. 


A.    Marchetti,    1633-1714, 
Poems,  Philosophy. 


1600  Sforza  Pallevicino,  1607- 
1667,  History  of  Coun- 
oil  of  Trent,  Ac. 


1600  V.  Viviani.1621-1703,  Ma- 
»      thcmatics. 
A.Magliabecchi,1633-1714, 

Literature. 

P.  Segner,  1624-1694,  As- 
cetic  and  Seruicn*. 


G.  D.  Cassini,  1625-1712, 
Mathematics,  Astron. 

D.  Guglielmini,  1655-1710, 
Mathematics. 


1700  N.  Forteguerra,  1674-1735, 
Bicciardetto. 

G.  M.  Crescembini,  1663- 
1728,  Poetry. 

Apostolo  Zcno,  1669-1750, 
Operas. 

8.  Maffei,  1675-1755,  Tra- 
gedy, Comedy,  and  An- 
tiquities. 


11  Metastasio,  1693-1732, 
Dramas,  Operas. 


6.  Baretti,  1716-1789,  Mis- 
cellaneous. 
G.  Gozzi,  Dramas,  Ac. 


&  Goldoni,  1707-1772,  Co- 
medies. 

C.  I.  Frugoni,  1692-1768, 
Poems. 

G.  Gozzi,  1713-1786,  Sa- 
tires, Odes,  but  chiefly 
prose  —  L'Osservatore, 
Venito,  Ac. 

V.  Alfleri,  1749-1803,  Tra- 
gedies, &C. 


1700 


L.  Mnratorl,  1672-1750 
Annals  of  Itality. 

B.  Giannone,  1680-1748 
History  of  Naples. 


F.  X.  Quadrto,  1695-1756 
History  of  the  Valteline, 


B.  Buonamici,  1710-1761, 
History. 


A.  Fabroni,  1732-1802,  Bio- 
graphy. 

G.  Tirabvjschl,  1731-1794, 
Hist,  of  Italian  Litera- 
ture. 


Denina,  History  of  Italian 
Be  volutions,  and  many 
other  works,  chiefly  his- 
oricaL 


1700  G.  Baglivi,  1668-1706,  Me- 
dicine. 

G.  V.  Gravina,  1664-1718, 
Law. 

G.  B.  Vico,  1670-1744, 
Philosophy  of  History. 

G.  Oassini,  1677-1756,  As- 
tronomy. 

G.  Morgagni,  1681-17T1, 
Anatomy. 


A.    Genovesi,    1712-1769, 

Metaphysics. 
F.    Algarottf,     1712-1764, 

'Newtonianism.' 
G.R.Boscowi«li,1711-1787, 

Mathematics,  Philology. 
F.  M.  Zanotti,  1692-1777, 

Philosophy. 
O.     Beccaria,     1720-1795, 

'Crimes  APunishments.' 


L.  Spallanzanl,  1729-1799, 
Natural  History. 


L.     Galvani,     1737-1798, 

Galvanism. 
Volta,  1745-1827,  Do. 
G.  Filangieri,    1751-1798, 

Legislation. 


1§OC  Pindemonte,  Poems. 
Monti.  Poems. 
Ugo  Foscolo,  Drama,  Po- 
ems. 


I.  da  Ponto,Poems,  Operas. 

Matizonl,  Tragedies,  Po- 
ems, and  one  novel— I 
Promissl  Sposi. 

Silvio  Pellico,  Tragedies, 
Ao- 

G.  B.  Niccolo,  Tragedies, 
Ac. 


1800 


1800 


Botta,  History  of  Italy.fce. 


Oolletta,  History  «f  Na- 

pies. 
Oonti,  Universal  History, 

Ac. 


Scarpa,  Anatomy. 


M.  Gloja,  1767-1889,  Poli- 
tical Economy. 

Bomagnosi,Polit.  Science- 

Galluppi,  Metaphysics. 

Bosmini,         Do. 

Costa,  Metaphysics,  hi» 
torical  and  critical. 

Cesari,  Philology. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 


677 


BRITISH,  &c. 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIWJTIFIOl 


4.  D 

too 


A.  D. 

500  Gildas,  Conquest  of  Britain 


A.  D. 

000 


tOO  Caedmon,  Saxon  Poems. 

Aldhelme,  d.  709,  Latin  Po- 
ems.  

700 


GOO  Nennius,  Origin  of  Britons 


600 


700  Bede,  673—735,  Eccl.  Histo 
ry  of  England. 


700 


Alcuin,   d.    804,  Theology, 
History,  Poetry. 


800  Alfred,  849—901,  Saxon  Po- 
ems, Translations,  &c. 


soo 


Asser,  d.  909,  Life  of  Alfred 
History  of  England. 


800  J.  Scot  Erigena.  d.  833,  'Oi 
the  Nature  ot  Tilings.' 


900 


900  Ethelwerd,  History  of  Great 
Britain. 


900 


1000 


1000  Ingulphus,  1030— 1109,  His- 
tory of  Croyland. 
Eadmer,  Chronicle. 


1000 


1100 


Layamon,  Saxon  Poetry. 
Nigellus,  Speculum  Stulto 

rum. 
Waller    Mapes,     Satires, 

Jos.  of  Exeter,  Troj.  War 
War  of  Antioi-.h,  Epics. 


1100  Order.  Vitalis,  1075-1132, 
History  of  England. 

Florence  of  Worcester,  d. 
1118,  Chron.  of  England. 

Geofl'ry  of  Monmouth,  His- 
tory of  Britain. 

William  of  Malmsbury,  d. 
1143,  Hist,  of  Britain. 

Henry    of  Huntingdon, 
Chronicles  of  England. 

Simeon  of  Durham,  Chron- 
icles of  England. 

John  of  Salisbury,  d.  1181, 
1  Life  of  Becket,'  &c. 


G.  Cambrensis,  Conq.  of 
Ireland,  Itin.  of  Wales. 

Wm.  of  Newbury,  b.  1136, 
Chron.  of  England. 


1100 


Robert  Pulleyn,   d 
Theology. 


Richard  of  St.  Victor,  d. 
1173,  Theology. 


Ralph  Glanville,  Collection 
of  Laws. 


1300  Roger  Hoveden,  Chron.  of 

England. 

Gervase    of  Canterbury, 
History  of  England. 

Roger  of  Wendover,  Hist. 
of  England. 


Matthew  Paris,   d.  1259, 
HJsuwf  at  England. 


1200 


Alex.    Neckram,  d.   1227, 
Theology. 


Robert  Grosteste,  Natural 

Philosophy. 
Alexander  Hales,  d.  124^ 

Aristotelian. 

John  Peckham,  Theology. 
John    Holiwood,   d.   1269 

A -i run..  Mathematics. 


678 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAOINATIOIf. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE    AMD  SOIENTIRC. 

Robert  of  Glocester,  Chron- 
icle in  verse. 
T.  Lermont,  the  Rhymer, 

William   Rishanger,   His- 
tory of  England. 

Roger  Bacon,   1214—1292 
Chemistry,  Optics,  <kc. 
Rich.  MidJleton,  Theology 

Sir  Tristem.  Romance. 

MO 

1309 

1300  Albricus.  Theology. 

Duns  Scotus,  d.  1308,  Phil- 

osophy. 

Walter  Burleigh,  Philoso- 

phy. 

Gilb.  Anglicus,  Medicine. 

Adam    Davie,   Metr.    Ro- 

Nicholas Triveth,  d.  1328, 

R.  Aungervile,  1281—1345, 

mance,  Life  of  Alex. 

Hist.  Physic,  Theology. 

Philobibiion. 

Richard  of  Chichester, 

Lawrence  Minot,  d.  1352, 

Chron.  of  England. 

J.  Wicliffe,  1324—1384, 

Historical  Poems. 

Ralph  Higden,  d.  1360, 

Theology,  Translation  of 

Chron.  of  England. 

Bible. 

Henry  Knighton,  d.  1370, 

Chron.  of  England. 

Matthew  of  Westminster, 

John   Barbour,    1326-1396, 

'  Flowers  of  History.' 

'  The  Bruce.' 

John  Maundeville,  d.  1372, 

H.  de  Bracton,  Law. 

R.    Langlande,    '  Pierce 

Travels. 

Plowman,'  a  Satire. 

John    Fordun,    Chron.    of 

Geof.  Chaucer,  1328-1400. 

Scotland. 

'  Canterbury  Tales,'  &c. 

John  Gower,  d.  1402,  Ele- 

gies, Romances,  &c. 

1400 

1400  Andrew  of  Wyntoun, 

1400 

Chron.  of  Scotland. 

John   Lydgate,    1380-1440, 

Poems. 

T.   Walsingham,  d.   1440, 

History  of  Normandy. 

James  I.  of  Scotland,  1395- 

John  Fortescue,  Laws  ot 

1437,    'King's    Quhair,' 

>     England. 

&c. 

Harry  the    Minstrel,    'Sir 

W.  Wallace.' 

John  Hardyng,  Chron.  of 

Thomas  Littleton,  d.  1487, 

England. 

Law. 

Lord   Berners,  Trans,  of 

Froissart. 

Stephen    Hawea,    '  Passe- 

W.  Caxton,  Translations. 

tyme  of  Pleasure." 

John  Skelton,  d.  1529, 
Satires,  Odes. 

Douglas  of  Glastonbury, 
Chron.  of  England. 

ISOO  Wm.   Dunbar,   1465-1530. 

1500  R.  Fabyan.  d.  1512.  Chron. 

1500  Thos.  Linacre,  1460-1524, 

'Thistle  and  Rose.' 

of  England  and  Ffance. 

Philology,  Medicine. 

Gawin  Douglas,  1475-1522, 

Trans.  Virgil. 

Thomas  More,    1480-1535, 

Anth.    Fitzherbert,   Hus- 

' Utopia.' 

bandry. 

Thomas    Wyatt,   d.   1541, 

Sonnets. 

T.  Halls,  d.  1547,  Hist,  of 

John    Ileywood,   d.   1565, 

Houses  of  York  and  Lan- 

Thomas Elyot.  Philology. 

Drama. 

caster. 

H.  Latimer,  1475—1555, 

Earl  of  Surrey,  d.  1546-7, 

John  Leland,  rf.  1552,  Eng- 

Sermons. 

Poems. 

lish  Antiquities. 

eo.   Gascoigne,   d.  1577, 

W.  Cavendish.  1505—1557, 

Orima. 

'Life  of  Wolsey.' 

J.  Ball,  1495—1563,  'Lives 

Roger  Af-cham,  1515—  15ft 

of  British  Writers.' 

'  The  Schoolmaster.' 

Ralph  Hollingshed,  d.  1581, 

Thomas  Wilson,  d.  1581 

Chronicles. 

Logic  and  Rhetoric. 

Geo.  Buchanan.  1506-1582, 

Thomas  Tusser,  d.  1580, 

History  of  Scotland. 

Husbandry 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 


679 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  aCIEVTIFIO 

Philip  Sidney,  1554—1586, 

J.   Fox,  1517—1587,   Bock 

'Arcadia.' 

of  Martyrs. 

Christ.   Marlowe,  d.  1593, 

Drama. 

Edm.  Spenser,  1553—1598, 

'Faery  Queen." 

J.  Jewel,  1522-1570,    Di- 

W.   Shakspeare,    1564— 

vinity. 

1616.  Drama. 

N.  Fitzherbert,  1550—1612, 

R.  Hooker,  1553--1600,  Ea- 

John  Lylie,  1550—1600, 
'  Euphues." 

Biosraphy. 
John  Stowe,  1527—1605, 

clesiastical  Polity. 
W.   Gilbert,   1540—1603, 

Chronicles,  Topography. 

'  On  the  Loadstone,' 

Sir  T.  North,  Translations 

L.  Andrews,  1565—1626, 

John  Fletcher,  1576—1625, 

of  Plutarch. 

Sermons. 

Drama. 

F.   Beaumont,   1586—1615, 

Drama. 

600  John  Owen,  d.  1612,  Latin 

1600  J.  Pitts,  1560—1616,  Biog. 

1600  Edward  Coke,  .550-1634, 

Epigrams. 

of  Kings,  Bishops,  &c. 

Law. 

Sir  H.  Wotton,  1568—1639. 

Richard  Knolles.  d.  1610, 

John    Napier,   1550—1617 

Poet. 

History  of  the  Turks. 

Logarithms. 

Wm.  Camden,  1551—1623, 

Antiquities. 

R.    Hackluyt,    1553—1616, 

Naval  Histories. 

W.    Raleigh,   1552—1617, 

Historv  of  the  World. 

Samuel  Daniel,  1567—1619, 

History  of  England. 

John  Hayward,  d.  1627, 

J.  Ford,  b.  1586,  Drama. 

English  History. 

Ben  Jonson,  1574—1637, 

J.  Speed,  1555—1629,  Hist. 

Drama. 

of  Great  Britain. 

Robert  Buncr,  1576—  i63i, 

P.  Massenger,  1585—1639. 

Henry  Spelman,  1562-1641, 

'  Anat.  of  Melancholy.' 

Drama. 

Antiquities. 

Francis  Bacon,  1560—1626, 

J.  Harrington,  1561—1612. 

R.  B.   Cotton,   1570—1631, 

Philosophy,  History. 

Trans.  Ariosto. 

Antiquities. 

Wm.  Harvey,  1578—1657, 

E.  Fairfax,  d.  1632,  Trans. 

S.  Purchas,  1577—1628, 

Circulation  of  Blood. 

Tasso. 

Collection  of  Voyages. 

M.  Drayton,  1563—1631, 

Poems. 

G.  Sandys,  1577—1643, 

Thomas  Roe,  1580—1641, 

John  Selden,   1584—1654, 

Translations,  Poems. 
J.  Daniel,  1562—1619, 

Travels  in  the  East. 
E.  (Lord)  Herbert,  1581— 

Antiquities,  Law,  Hist. 
J.  Harrington,  1611—1677, 

P&ems. 

1648,  History  of  Henry 

'  Oceana.' 

W.  Drummond,  1585-1649, 

VIII. 

James  Usher,   1580—1666 

Poems. 

R.  Baker,  d.  1645,  Chron. 

Divinity,  Sermons,  Hist 

John  Donne,  1573—1662, 

of  England. 

Thos.  Hobbes,   1588—1679 

Satires,  Essays. 

Metaphysics 

Geo.  Wither,  1588—1667, 

W.   Dugclale,   1605—1686, 

Satires. 
James  Shirley,  1594—1666, 

Thomas  Fuller,  1608—1661, 
History,  Biography. 

Antiquities,  History. 
W.   Chillingworth,   1602- 

Drama. 

Clarendon.  1608    1673,  His- 

1644, Theology. 

Sir  J.  Suckling,  1609—1641, 

tory  of  Rebellion. 

Isaac  Barrow,  1630—1677 

Poems. 

Thomas  May,  d.  1650,  His- 

Divinity, Mai  hematics. 

John  Denham,  1615—1668, 

tory  of  Parliament. 

J.  Pearson,  1612—1686, 

Tragedies,  Cooper's  Hill. 
Samuel  Butler,  1612—1688, 

Izaak  Walton,  1593—1683, 
Biography. 

Divinity. 
Brian  Walton,  1600—1661 

Hudibras. 

B.  Whitiocke,  1605—1676, 

Polyglot  Bible 

John  Milton,  1608—1674, 

History. 

Jeremy  Taylor,  d.  1667, 

'  Paradise  Lost.' 

Mrs.   Hutchinson,  Biogra- 

Divinity. 

Edm.  Waller,  1605—1687 
Poems. 

W.  Prynne,  1660—1667, 

Alger.  Sydney,  1617—1683 
•  Discourse    on    Govenv 

A.   Cowley,  1618—1667, 
Poems. 

History,  Politics. 

merit.' 
Thos.  Browne,  1605-1682 

A.  Maxwell  1620—1678. 

'  On  Vulgar  Errors.' 

Poems. 

Edmund  Castell,  d.   1685 

Lexicon  Heptag'otton. 

R.  Cudworth,  1617-168$ 

Metaph/sica.' 

680 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIBHTIFIC. 

1600 

1600 

1600  J.  Eve'yn,  1620—1706, 

'  Svlva.' 

H.  More,  1614—1687,  The- 

Rochester, 1648—1680, 

Win.  Temple,  1629—1710, 

ology. 
T.  Sydenham,  1624—1689, 

Satires. 

Memoirs,  &c. 

Medicine. 

Roscommon,  1633—1684, 

W.  Sherlock,  d   1689,  Di- 

Poems. 

vinity. 

N.  Lee,  1656—1691,  Drama. 

J.  Tillotson,  1630—1694, 

John  Bunyan,  1628—1688, 

Sermons. 

Pilgrim's  Progress.' 
John   Dryden,    1631—1701, 

Archbishop  Leight  m, 
1613—1684,  Divinity. 

Tragedy,  Satire,  '  Virgil.' 

R.  Baxter,  1615—1691, 

Thos.  Otway,  1651—  I68t>, 
Tragedy. 

R.  Brady,  d.  1700,  History 

'Saint's  Everlasting 
Rest.' 

of  England. 

R.  Boyle,  1627—  1691, 

Theology,  Chemistry. 

UTO  John  Pomfret,  1667—1703, 

1700  Thomas  Rymer,  d.  1713, 

1700 

'The  Choice.' 

Foedera. 

John  Ray,  165ftv-  1705,  Bofr 

any,  Natural  History. 

John  Locke,  1632—1704, 

Metaphysics. 

R.  South,  1633—1716,  Di- 

vinity. 

lohn  Philips,  1676-r08, 

'Splendid  Shilling.' 
Thos.  Parnell,  1679—1718, 

S.  Ockley,  1678—1720, 

'The  Hermit.' 

Oriental  History. 

Isaac  Newton.  1642—1719 

Geo.  Farquhar,  1678—1707, 

Thos.  Hearne,  1678—1735, 

'  Principia,' 

Comedies. 

History  and  Antiquities. 

J.  Flamsteed,  1642—1719, 

John  Strype,  1643—1737, 
Eccl.  History,  Biog. 

Astronomy. 
R.  Hooke,  1635—  1702,  Ph 

Gilbert  Burnet,  1643—  1715, 

osophy. 

'  History  of  his  Times.' 

B.  de   Mandeville,   1670— 

Matthew  Prior,  1664—1721, 

L.  Echard,  1671—1730, 

1733,  '  Fab.  of  the  Bees.1 

Poems. 

History  of  England. 

Edm.  Hal  ley,  1656—1742, 

R.  Steele,  d.  1729,  Drama, 

Thos.  Carte.  1686—1754, 

Astronomy. 

Essays.     Politics. 
Daniel   Defoe,   1660—1731, 

History  of  England. 
John  Potter,  1674—1747, 

Hans  feloane.  1660—1753, 
Natural  History. 

'  Robinson  Crusoe.'    be. 

Antiquities. 

Jcs.  Addison,  1672—1719, 

Sir  W.  Petty,  1623—1682, 

''Spectator,'  'Cato.'   Ac. 

Statistics. 

Nich.    Rowe,  1673-1718, 

Tragedy. 

J.  Vanbrugh,  d.  1726,  Corn- 

ed V. 

A.   Clark,  1696—1742,  Dl 

W.  Conzreve,  1672—1728, 

vinity.  Philosophy. 

Comedy. 

D.  Waterland,  1683—1740, 

lohn  Gay,  1688—1735, 

Divinity. 

•  Beggar's  Opera,'  Fab. 
M.   W.   Montague,  1690— 

Nathanael  Hooke,  d.  1763, 
History  of  Rome. 

R.  Bentley,  1661—1740, 
Divinity,  Philology. 

1762.  Letters. 

C.  Middleton,  1633—1750, 

A.  Baxter.  1687—1750,  Met 

Robert  Blair,  1699—1746, 

Life  of  Cicero,  &c. 

aphysics. 

1  The  Grave.' 

Lord  Bolingbroke,  1672— 

6.  Richardson,  1689—1761, 

1751,  Politics.  Literature 

1  U  arissa,'  '  Pamela,'  &c. 

G.  Berkeley,  1684—1753. 

Metaphysics,  Ethics. 

P.  Doddndge,  1701-1751 

Divinity. 

Jas.  Bradley,  1692-1762, 

Astronomy. 

F.  Hutcheson.  1694—1747, 

Moral  Phil  tsophy. 

D.  Garrick,  1716-1779, 

T.  Sherlock,  107&-1761, 

Drama. 

Diviniiy. 

I  Foote,  1720—1771, 

C.  Maclaurin,  1696—174*, 

Drama. 

Mathematics. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY BRITISH 


681 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

»7UO  R.  Rodsley,  1703—1764, 

1700  John  Swinton,   1703—1767, 

1700  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  1694— 

Drama. 

History,  Antiquity. 

1773,  Letters. 

Jona.  Swift,  1667—1745, 

Eph.  Chambers,  d.  1740, 

Satires,  Tales,  &c. 

Cyclopaedia. 

L  Watts,  1674—1748, 

B.  Hoadley,  1676—1761, 

Hymns. 

Polemics 

Edw.  Young,  1681—1765, 

Bishop  Butler,  1692—1758, 

'  Night  Thoughts.' 
Alex.  Pope,  1688—1744, 

Divinity. 

I'oetry. 

-,1    *  . 

W.  Somerville,  1692—1743, 

'  The  Chase.' 

. 

Allan  Ramsay,  1696  -1758, 

'  The  Ge-.tle  Shepherd.' 

Rich'd  Savage,  1698—1743, 

Poems. 

Jas.  Thomson,  1700—1748, 

J.  \V  esley,  i703—  1791,  Ti- 

'Seasons.' 

Lord  Lyttleton,  1709—1778, 

vinity. 

John  Dyer,  1700—1758, 

History,  Poems,  Divin- 

D. Hartley,  1704—1757, 

Poems. 

ity. 

'  Observations  on  Man  ' 

H.  Fielding,  1707—1754, 

James  Granger,  d.  1776, 

Soame  Jenyns,  1704—  1?37, 

'  Tom  Jones,'  <fcc. 

Biog.  Hist,  of  England. 

Theology. 

James  Hammond,  1710  — 

W.  Warburton,  1709—1779, 

1742,  Elegies. 

Theology,  Criticum. 

Lawr.  Sierne,  1713—1768, 

J.  Jortiri,   1698—17(0,   Di- 

' Tristram  Shandy.' 

vinity,  Criticism 

W.  Shenstone.  1714—1763, 

Sam.  Johnson,  1709—1784, 

Lord  Kaimw,  1696-1782, 

Pastorals,  &c. 

Lives  of  Poets,  Diet.,  <fcc. 

Elements  of  Criticism. 

W.  Collins,  1720—1756, 

Jonas  Hanway,  1712—1786, 

R.  Lowth.  1710—1787,  Di- 

Odes. 

Travels  in  the  East. 

vinity,  Philology. 

H.  Brooke,  1706-1783, 

John  Blair,  d   1782,  Chro- 

W. Blackstone.  17:i3—  1780, 

'  Fool  of  Quality.' 

nology. 

Laws  of  England. 

M.    Akenside,    1721—1770, 

David  Hume,   1711—1776, 

"  Junius." 

'Pleasures  of  Imagina- 

History     of     England, 

tion.1 

Essays,  &c. 

Thos.    Gray,    1716—1771, 

Odes,  Elegies. 

W.  Robertson,  1721—1793, 

Adam  Smith,    1723-1790, 

T.     Smollet,     1720—1771, 

Hist,  of  Charles  V.,  &c. 

'Wealth  of  Nations.' 

Novels. 

Thomas    Warton,    1728— 

J.  Harris,  1709—1780,  Phi- 

R. Glover,  1712—1789,  '  Le- 

1790,  History  of  England, 

lology. 

onidas.' 

Poetry,  Poems. 

John  Hunter,    1728—1793, 

O.  Goldsmith,  1731—1774, 

Medicine. 

'Traveller,'     'Vicar    of 

F.  Balguy,  1716—1795  Di- 

Wakefield.' 

vinity. 

W.  Mason,  1725-  -1797,  Po- 

ems. Biography. 

H.  Walpole,  d.  1797.  'His- 

T. Chatterton,  1752—1770, 

toric     Doubts,'     'Royal 

Poems. 

and  Noble  Authors.' 

Ar.    Murphy,    1727—1805, 

1.       Moore,       1730—1802, 

T.  Reid,  1710—1796,  Meta- 

Drama. 

'Views  of  Society    and 

physics. 

Wm.  Cowper,  1731-1800, 

Manners.' 

SirJ.  Reynolds,  1723—  1792, 

Poems. 

James  Bruce,  1730—1794, 

Art. 

R.Cumberland,  1732—1811, 

Travels. 

S.  Horsley,  d.  1806,  Theo- 

Drama. 

W.  Uilpin,  1724—1804,  Bio- 

logy. 

Eras.  Darwin,  1732—1802, 

graphy,  Divinity. 

Jos.   Priestley,  1733—1804. 

'  Botanic  Garden.' 

E.      Gibbon,      1737—1794, 

Metaphysics,  Chemistry 

James  Beattie,  1735—1803, 

Decline  and  Fall  of  Ro- 

Hugh   Blair,     1719-1300, 

Poems. 

man  Empire. 

Sermons. 

R     Ferguson,    1750-1774, 

J.    Whitaker,    1735—1808, 

J.Horne  Tooke,  1736—1812 

Poems. 

Hist,  of  Manchester,  &c. 

Philology. 

Geo.   Col  man,   1733—1794, 

Edmd.  Burke,  1730—1797, 

Wm.    Jones,     1747-1794, 

Comedies. 

Oratory. 

Orientalist. 

J.  Wolcot  (Peter  Pindar), 

J.  Boswell,  1740—1795,  Bio- 

R. Price,  1723—1791,  Mela- 

1738—1519,     Com.     Po- 

graphy. 

physics,  Divinity. 

ems. 

J.       Milner        1744—1797, 

Wm.     Paley,    1743—1805, 

Jas.    Macpherson,    1738  — 

Church  History. 

Theology. 

1796,  '  Ossian's  Poems,' 

Joseph  Strutt,  1748—1802, 

Ricd.   Porson,   1759—1808 

Robert  Burns,  1759—1796, 
Poems. 

Chronology,  Antiquities. 

Philology. 
Ths.  Beddoes,  1760—  18U& 

f.  Home,  d.  1808,  Drama 

Medicine 

29* 

682 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   -.NP    6I1KMTIF1O 

1700 

1700 

N.    Maskelyne    d.     IBU 

Ricd.  B.  Sheridan,  1751— 

Astronomy. 

ia*.G,  Drama. 

G.   L.  Staunton,   d.    1801 

Chinese  Code. 

Anr,  Radclifle,  1764—1823, 

Charles  Burney,    d.  1841, 

W.  Herschell,   1738—1822 

Novels. 

'  History  of  Music. 

Astronomy. 

IflOt    Rob.   Bloomfield,  d.  1823, 

1800  J.  Macdiarmid,  1779—1808, 

1800  Arthur  Young,  1741—1820. 

'  Farmer's  Boy.' 

Biography. 

Aericulture. 

Mrs.     Barbauld,     Poems, 

A.  Rees,  1743—  1825.  Cyclfr 

Tales. 

paedia. 

Joseph  Banks,  1743—1820 

Natural  Historv. 

E.    D.    Clarke,    d.    1822, 

Dr.    Parr,  d.   1825,  Philo- 

1 ravels. 

logy. 

C.  J.  Fox,  d.  1806,  History. 

D.  Ricardo,  d.  1823,  Politi- 

Lord   Byron,     1788—1824, 

cal  Economy. 

Poems. 

C.  Hution,  a.  1823,  Maine 

John  Keats,  Poems. 

matics. 

P.    B.    Shelley,    d.    1822, 

John  Playfeir,  d.  1819. 

Poems. 
R.    C.    Maiurin,    d.    1824, 

W.   Mitford,    History    of 
Greece. 

P.  Elmsley,  Philology. 
T.  Wollasion,  Chemistry. 

Drama. 

Thomas  Young,  Hierogl)- 

Miss  Austin,  Novels. 

phics,  &c. 

Wm.  Godwin,  1755—1836, 

T.  Scott,  d.  1821,  Divinity. 

Novels,  Metaphysics. 

D.  Stewart,  d.  1821,  Meta- 

Walter Scott,    1771—  1832, 

physics. 

Novels,  Poems. 

Vicessimus  Knox,    1752— 

R.  Heber,  Travels,  &c. 

1821,  Essays. 

Major  Rennel,  Geography. 
Wm.    Rosco,     1751—1831, 

Malthus,  Polit.  Economy. 
Win.    Hazlit,    Critic    and 

Life  of  Leo  X.,  &c. 

Essayist. 

Robt.    Pollok,    1798—1827, 

Walter  Scott,          —1832, 

Francis  Jeffrey,  1773—1849, 

'Course  of  Time.' 

History,  Biography. 

Essays,  Criticism. 

Geo.  Crabbe,  d.  1832,  'The 

Archbish.  Magee,  d.  1831, 

Borough,'  &c. 

Divinity. 

Fanny  Burney,        —1840, 

Sir  Humph.  Davy,  d.  1829, 

Novels. 

Chemistry. 

Wm.  Beckford,  1760—1844, 

Jer.     Bemliam,     d.     1832, 

Novels. 

'  Principles   of    Legisla- 

Thos. Haines  Baily,  1797— 

tion.' 

1839.  Lyrics. 

Sir  Jas.  Mackintosh,  1766  — 

Adam  Clarke,  1763—1832, 

Thos.     Hamilton,    1789— 

1832.  Hist,  of  England. 

Divinity.  Criticism. 

1842,  Novels.  Travels. 

Ceo.  Chalmers,  1742—1825, 

Arch.    Alison.    1757—1839, 

Felicia     Hemans,     1794— 

Political  Annals. 

Essays  on  Taste. 

1835,  Poems. 

Marsden,   1755—1836,  Ori- 

Francis Baiiy,  1774—1844. 

Barbara  Holland,  Novels. 

ental  Hist,  and  Travels. 

Astronomv,  &c. 

Jas.  Hogg,         —1835,  Po- 

Jas. Mill,         —  1S36,  Hist. 

Bp.    Burgess,    1756—1837, 

ems  and  Tales. 

British  India. 

Theolosy. 

Th-o.  E.  Hook,  1788—1841, 

Robt.  Morrison,        —1834, 

Herbert  Marsh,  1758—1839 

Novels. 
Thos.    Hood,  Poems,  No- 

Travels, Philology. 
Jas.  Grahame,  History  of 

Theology. 
Thos.  Mitchell.  1783—1845, 

vels,  &c. 

United  States. 

Classic.  Critic. 

Hannah  More,  1744—1833, 

John    Gillies,    1747—1836, 

Robert  Mu.lie.  1777—1842,- 

Poems,  Tales. 

History  of  Greece. 

Scient.  Miscellanies. 

Jane    Porter,          —1849, 
Novels. 

Basil     Hall,      1788—1844, 
Travels  and  Voyages. 

Sir  E.  Brydges,  1762—1837, 
Miscellanies. 

S.  T.  Coleridge,        —1834, 

Win.  Cobbett,         —1835, 

Poems. 

Politics,  &c. 

Wm.  Wordsworth,          — 

J.  Dalton,         -  1844,  Che- 

1850,  Poems. 

Wm.    Hone.           —1842, 

mist. 

Robt.  Southey,         —1843, 

Every  Day  Book. 

J.  F.  Daniell,         —1845, 

Poems. 

Chemist. 

Mart;.   Blessington,          — 

Sydney  Smith,         —  184& 

1849,  Novels. 

Theology,  Essays. 

Chas.    Lamb,    1775—1834, 

Chas.  Bonny  castle,          — 

Poems,  Essays. 

R.    &    J.    Lander,    1834, 

1840.  Mathematics. 

Thos.  H.  Lister,  1801—1842, 
NoieU. 

Travels  in  Africa, 

T,*ios.  Chalmers,  Theology 
wad  P  j  itical  Economy 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 


683 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1800  S.  T.  Coleridge,  1773-1834, 

1800 

1800  John    Leslie,           —  1834 

Ethics. 

Mathematician. 

L.     E.    Landon    Maclean. 

Southey,  1774—1843,  Bio- 

J. C.  Loudon,  1783—  1S43, 

1804-1838,    Novels  and 

graphy. 

Botany,  Agricul.,  Archit! 

Poems. 

Wm.  Beckford,  1769—1844, 

John      Bell,      1763—1825, 

Wm.   Maginn,  1793—1842, 
Poems, 

Travels. 
Arch.    Alison,    History  of 

Anatomy  &  Physiology. 
Oiimhus  Gregory,    1774— 

Marryatt,         —1847,  Nov- 

Europe. 

1841,    Mathematics    and 

els. 

Thos.  Arnold,   1795—1842, 

Religion. 

John     Gait,      1779—1839. 

History  of  Rome. 

Robert    Hull,     1764—1831, 

Novels. 

Thos.  D.  Fosbrooke,  1770— 

Sermons. 

Wm.   H.    Ireland,    Shaks. 
Forgeries. 

1842,  Archaeology. 
Thos.  McCrie,  1772—1835, 

Sir  Chas.  Bell.  1781—1824, 
Anatomy    ;ind     Physio- 

Lady  Morgan,          —  184-, 

Life  of  Knox. 

1  gy. 

Novels. 

Sir  John  Malcolm,  History 

Jas.     Morier,     1780—        , 

Persia  and  India. 

Novels. 

I.  D'Israeli,  1766—1848,  Cu- 

Thos.    Campbell,     1777— 

riosities  of  Literature. 

1844,  Poems. 

Basil  Hall,  1788—  1844,  Voy- 

Thos.  Banim,   1800—1842, 

ages  and  Travels. 

Novels. 

Henry  F.  Gary,  1772—1844, 

Trans.  Dante.  &c. 

GERMAN. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

800 

Walafrid   Strabo,    d.   840, 
Poems,  Theology. 

Otfried,  Harmony  of  Gos- 
pels in  rhyme. 

800  Eginhard,  d.  839,  Life  of 
Charlemagne,  Annals. 

Nithard,  d  853,  History  o! 
Wars  of  France. 

800 

Rabanus  Maurus,  776—856, 
Theology. 

Gottschalk,    d.    869,     'Or. 
Predestination.' 

91X) 

Hroswitha,  Let.  Comedies. 
Notger,  Trans,  of  Psalms. 

900  Regino,  d.  915,  Chronicles. 
Witikind,  Hist,  of  Saxons. 

900 
Batherius,  d.  974,  Theolo 
gy,  Grammar. 

1000 
Witpo,   'Praise  of  Hen:v 
III.,'  Biography. 

VI  illeram,  Francic  Poems. 

1000  Dithmar,  d.  1018,  Chron. 
of  Saxon  Emperors. 

Hermannus      Contractus, 
Universal  History. 
Mar.    Scotus,    1028—1086, 
Chronicles. 
Adam  of  Bremen,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 
Lambert,  General  History. 
Sigebert,  d.  1113,  Chron. 
Kosmas,  1045—1126,  Histo- 
ry of  Bohemia. 

1000 

uoo 

Hem  7  of  Veldeck,  Minne- 
singer. 

1100  Berthold      Cnnstantiensis, 
Universal  History. 
Otio,  d.  1158,  Chronicle. 
Helmold,  d.  1170,  Chron. 
of  Slavi. 

1100  Mangold,  Th«o!of  y. 

684 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   SI'.IEHTIFM 

1200  Giinther,  Poems. 

1200 

1200 

Arnold  of  Lubeck,  Chro- 

nicle of  Slavi. 

Frederic    H.,     1196—1254, 

Epko  of  Repgow,  '  Saxot 

'  De  Arte  Venandi.' 

Mirror,'  (Law;. 

John  Semeca,  Law. 

Alb    Magnus,    1193—1280. 

Natural  Philosophy. 

Freydank,  Poems. 

1900  Riidger  of  Manesse,  Collec- 

1300 

1300 

tion  of  Ballads. 

Henry  Frauenlob,  Songs. 

Boner,  Fables. 

John  Tauler,  Sermons. 

Henrich      von      Rebdorf, 

Chronicle. 

Heinrich    von   Hervorden, 

Chronicle. 

Jacob     von     Konigshofen, 

Chronicle. 

John  Schildberger,  History 

Jour,     [fuse,     138b—  141& 

of  Timour. 

Theology. 

MOO 

1400  Gobelin   Persona,  General 

1400 

Felix  Hiimmerlein,  Satires. 

History. 

Windeck,    Life    of    Sigis- 

John  von  Gmiinden,  Astro- 

mund. 

nomy. 

John  Stadweg,  Chronicle. 

Hans     von     Rosenplut, 

Peter   von  Andlo,  de  1m- 

Geo.  von.  Peurbach,  1423- 

Poems. 

perio  Romano. 

1461,  Theory  of  Planet*. 
Regiomomanus,  1436  —  1471 

Astron.,  Mathemat. 

Nic.  von  Cuss,  MathemaU 

Thomas  &   Kempis,  1380— 

Heinrich    von   Alkmaar. 

1471.  Theology. 

1  Reinke  de  Voss.' 

Mar.Behhaim.  Geography. 

Gabriel  Brie,  d.  1495  The- 

Breydenbach, Topogy. 

ology. 

Conrad  Celtes,  1459—1508. 

Conrad  Botho,  Chronicle. 

John"  Geyler,   1445—1510, 
Theology. 

Latin  Poems,  History  of 

John    Trithemius,    1462— 

Nuremburg. 
Thos.  Murner,  1475—1536, 

1516.  Nat.  Philosophy. 
Reuchlin,  1454—1522,  Phil- 

'  Rogues'  Guild.1 

ology. 

1500 

1500  Maximilian,  d.  1508,  Auto- 

1500 J.    Wimpfelingen,    1452— 

biography. 

1528,  Theol.,  Poems. 

Griinbeck,  Lives   of  Em- 

perors. 

Melc.  Pfinzing,  1481—1535, 

Albert  Kranz,  d.  1517,  His- 

Holoander, d.  1531,  Law. 

•  Theuerdank.1 

tory  of  Saxons,  &c. 

Corn.  Agrippa,  1486--1535 

B.  Pirkheimer,  1480—1530, 
History.  Poetry. 

Physics,  Theology. 
M.     Luther,    1483-1546, 

John   Aveniin,  1466  —  1534, 
Anals  of  Bavaria. 

Theology. 
Zwingle,   1484—1531,  The 

ology. 

Glareanus  (H.  L.)  1488— 
1563,  Classics. 

Con.  Peutinger,  1465—1547, 
History  arid  Geography. 
John    Carinn,    1499—1538, 

Melancthon,    1497—1560, 
Theology. 
Paracelsus,     1493—1541, 

Comp.  of  History. 

Chemistry. 

Joac.   Camerarius,    1500— 

John   Sleidan,  1506—1556, 

1574,  Philology. 
Conrad  Gesner,  1516—1565 

Universal  History. 

Natural  History. 

Haw  Sachs,    1494—1574, 
Poems. 

G.  Tschudi,  d.  15/2,  Hel- 
vetic Chronicle. 

Basil    Faber.    1520—1576, 
Thes.  Erud.  Schol. 

John  Fischart,  1511—1581, 
Satires. 

Gerard     Mercator,  1512— 
1594,  Geography. 

Mar.  Chemnitz,  1522-1586 
Theology. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 


685 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  ANB   SCIENTIFIC. 

1600  G.  FabriciuB,    1516—1571, 
Lat  Pms.  Topography. 

500  Simon  Schard,  1535—1573, 
Collec.  German  Hist. 

15(0  Wm.Xylander,  1532—1574, 
Philology. 

Wesenbeck,     1531—1586, 

Law. 

Fred.  Sylterg,  1531—1596 

Philology. 

Theod.   Beza,    1519—1608, 

Rollenhaeen,    1542—1609, 

John  Pistorius,  1544—1607, 

Theology,  Philology. 

a 

Froschmiiusler. 

Collec.  German  Hist. 

6 

Fr.  Taubman,    1565—1613, 

Marq.   Freher,  1565—1614, 

C.  Rittcrhuis,  1560—  1613, 

Latin  Poems. 

Hist.  Germy.  &  France. 

Law. 

1600 

600 

1600  C.  Schwenkfcld,  d.    1616, 

P.    Cluvier,    1580—1623, 

Natural  Hisuiry. 
J.      Buxtorf,      1566—  1621, 

Geography. 

Philology. 

M.    Goldast,    1576—1635, 

John    Kepler,    157i—  lo31, 

History. 

Astronomy. 

B.    von    Helmont,    1577— 

1644,  Chemistry. 

C,   Scioppius,    1576—1649, 

Ars  Criiica 

Martin  Opitz,  1597-1639, 

John  Baver,  Uranometria. 

Poems. 

G.   Barth,  1R87-1658,  Phil- 

James   Balde,  1603—1668, 

G.     Calixtus,    1586—1656, 

ology. 

Poems. 

Ecclesiastical  History. 

Sol.     Glass,    1593—1656, 

A.    Gryphius,  1616—1664, 

Olearius,      1604—1685, 

Philol.  Sacra. 

Tragedies. 

Travels. 

Otio  Guerike,   1602—1686, 

Air-Pump,  &c. 

Paul  Fleming,  1609—1640, 

Her.   Connng,   1606—1681, 

Poems. 

Antiquities. 

S.  von  Puffendorf,   1631— 

Ez.  Spanheim,  1629—1702, 

Lohenstein,    1638—1683, 

1694.  History,  Law. 
D.  G.  MorhofT  1639—1691, 

Numismatology. 
John  Schilter,  d.  1705,  An- 

Poems. 

Biography.  History.                      tiquities. 

I'OO  C.  Gryphius,     1649-1706, 

1700  H.  Meibomius,  1638—  1700,'  1700  Ludolph,  1649—  1711,  Phil- 

Poems,  Hist.,  Philology. 

History. 

ology. 

C.    Cellarius,    163S—  1707, 

Leibnitz,   1646—1716,    Ma- 

Geography, Antiq. 

thematics,  Metaphysics. 

Von   Canitz.   1654—1699, 

C.    Frankenstein,      1661— 

C.  Thomasius,  1655—1728, 

Poems. 

1717,  History,  Biog. 

Law. 

J.  Arnold,   1665—1714,  Ec- 

F.   Budzeus,    1667—1729, 

clesiastical  History. 

Divinity. 

J.   G.   von  Ecrard,  1670— 

G.  E.  Stahl,   1660—1734, 

1730,  General  History. 
J.  A.  Fabricius,  1668—1736, 

Chemistry. 
F.    Hoffman,    1660—1742, 

Bibliography. 

Medicine. 

J.  Bernouilli,  1667—1747, 

Mathematics. 

Ounther,  1695-1734,  Poems 

H.  Freyer,  Gen.  History. 
B.  G.   Struve,   1671—1738 

B.  Hederick,  1675—1748, 
Philology. 

History  of  Germany. 

J.  L.  Mosheim,  I69!S—  1755 

Liscov,  Satires. 

Ecclesiastical  History. 

J.  M.  Gessner,  1691—1761 

Philology 

J.  C.  Gottsched,  1700-1766 

A.  G.  Baunie;arien,  1714— 

Poems,  Tragr.,  Criticism 
Hagedorn,      1708—1754, 

1751,  Ethics,  Metarh. 
J.  J.  Gessru-r,  1707—1767, 

Fables. 
Haller,    1708—1777,  '  Th 

Numismatology. 
G.   F.   Meyer,   1711-1777, 

Alps.' 

Philosophy. 

J.  E.  Schlegel,  d.    1759, 

F.  W.  von  Gleicken,  1714- 

Drama. 

1783,  Nat.  History. 

E.   C.    Kleist,    1715—1759 

J.  Winkelmarn,  1718—1768 

Idylls. 

Antiquity. 

Gellert,  1715—1769.  Fables 
Rabener,  1714—1770,  Satir 

A.F.  BBschi..g,  1724  -1793          Leon.    Euler,     1707—1783, 
Geography.                                Mathematics 

686 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE   AHD    KCIBNTiriC 


1700  Gleim,  d.  1803,  Songs. 


Klopstock,      1724—180^ 

'The  Messiah.' 
Zachari*,      1727—1777, 

Comic  Poems. 
C.  F.  Weisse,  Drama. 
1.  G.   Zimmerman.  1728— 

1795, '  On  Solitude.' 
Giiiz,  1721-1781,  Pastorals. 
Ramler,  1725-1798.  Odes. 
Uusch,  1727—1788,  Poems. 
G.  E.  Lessing,   1729—1781, 

Drama,  Fables. 
S.   Gessner,    1730—1788, 

'Death  of  Abel.' 
Wieland,   1733-1813,  Ro- 
mances, Poems. 
Pfeffel,  1736—1809,  Fables. 
G.  A.   Biirger,  1748—1794, 

Poems. 
I.   H.   Voss,   1751—1826, 

Novels. 
F.  Schiller,  1750—1805, 

Drama. 
Kousebue,      1761—1819, 

Drama. 
Goethe,  1749-1832,  Drama, 

Tales,  Poems. 


1700  Frank,  d.  1784,  Chronol 
Walch,  d.  1784,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 


1700  G.    J.    Zollikofer,    1730- 

1780,  Sermons. 
J.  A.  E.  Gotze,  1731—1786 

Entomology. 
Im.   Kant,  1724—1804. 

Metaphysics. 


C.  Gatterer,  d.  1799,  Hist. 


J.  W.  von   Archenholz, 
1745-1812, '  Seven  Years 
War.' 


Scurokh,  d.  1808,  Eccle- 
siastical History. 

Forster,  d.  1798,  Geogra- 
phy. 

A.  L.  von  SchSlzer,  d.  1809. 
History. 


1900  F.     Schlegel,     1773—1829, 

Novels,  Poetry,  Hist..&c. 
Ernst  Schultze,  1787—1817, 

Elegies. 
E.  T.  VV.  Hoffman,  d.  1822, 

Tales. 
A.  G.  H.  Lafontaine,  1760— 

1831,  Tales. 
Komer,  Poems. 


L.  von  Amim,         —1831, 
Poems,  Novels 


fchooenhauer,         —1838, 


1800  J.  von  Muller,  d.  1809,  Uni- 
versal History. 
J.  G.  Eichhorn.   d.   1827, 
History. 

Heeren,  History. 


Von  Hammer,  Orien.  Hist 
B.  G.  Niebuhr,  History. 


Scholl,        —1833,  History, 

C.  O.  Muller,          —1840. 

History,  Archaeology. 


F.Rotteck,  —1849,  His- 
tory. 

H.  Hase,  —1812,  His- 
tory, Antiquities. 


Semler,  d.  1791,  Tttolcgy 
Putter,  Law  of  Nations. 


Adelung,  d.  1807,    Phil- 
ology. 

Lavater  1741—1801,    Phy 
siognomy. 

Werner,  Geology. 


1800  Herder,  1741—1803,  Philo- 
sophy of  History. 
Fichte,  d.  1819,  Metaphy- 

F.  H  'jacobi,  d.  1819,  Me- 

taphysics. 

Blumenbach,  Physiology. 
Schelling,  Metaphysics. 

Thaer,  —1828,  Agri- 
culture. 

Rosenmuller,  — 1855, 

Theology,  Criticism. 

Gail,        —1829,  Philology 

Griesbach,  —1811,  Phi 
lology. 

Grotelend,  —1836,  Phi 
lology. 

H.  J.  Klaproth,  1784—1835, 
Philology. 

F.  Passow,  —1833,  Phi- 
lology. 

Hegel,  —1831,  Meta- 
physics. 

F.  Accum,        —1838,  Che- 
mistry. 

Mohs,  —1839,  Minera- 
logy- 

G.  A.  Fart,        —1841,  Phi- 

lology 

E.  Bekker,  Philology. 
Buttmann,        —1841,  Ph> 

lology. 
C.  T.   Pollen,         -  I84« 

Theology,  Essays. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY FRENJH. 


687 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC 

1800 

Tieck,  Poems,  Novels. 

1800  Augt.   Neander,           1850, 
Ecclesiastical  History. 
3.  L.  C.Heeren.        —1842, 
History. 
H.  Berghaus,  Geography. 
A.  von  Humboldt,  Travels, 
History. 

1800  Olbers,         —1840,  Astro- 
nomy. 

Hahnemann,            —  1843, 
Homoeopathy. 
A.  W.  Schlegel,        —1846, 
Criticism,  Essays. 

Humboldt,  Scicnc*. 
Liebig,  Chemistry. 

FRENCH. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

500  Venan.  Portunatus,   Latin 
Poetry. 

500 

Gregory  of  Tours,  554—695, 
History. 

500 

600 

600  Marculfe,     '  Chartm     Re- 
gales,' &c. 

600 

700 

700  Fredegaire,  Chronicle. 

700 

800  Theodulph,  d.  82],  Hymns, 
Theology. 

Servatus   Lupus,    d.   862, 
Epistles. 

Hincmar,  d.  882,  Epistles. 
Abbon,  '  Siege  of  Paris.' 

800 
Ado,  d.  875,  Chronicle. 

800 
Agobard,  d.  840,  Theology 

Paschasius  Radbert,  'Trail- 
substantiation.1 

900 
Adalberon,  d.  L030,  Psetry. 

900  Flodoafd,  896—966,  Chron. 
Dudon,  History  of  Norman 
Conquest  in  France. 

900 

1000 

Fulbert,  d.  1029,  Epistles. 

1000  Aimoin,  d.  1008,  History  of 
France. 

1000  Gerbert,  d.  1003,  Geometry, 
Mathematics,  &c. 
Abon,  d.  1004,  Arithmetic, 
and  Astronomy. 

Berengarius,  d.  1088,  Theo- 
logy. 

IBM 

Wm.  of  Poictiers,  1071— 
1126,  First  Troubadour. 
HJldebert,  1067—1133,  Po- 
etry. 
Bechada,  Norman  Poetry, 
'  Gestes  de  Godefroi.' 

1100  Guibert.  1058—1124,  Histo- 
ry of  First  Crusade. 
Pierre  Theutbode,  History 
of  Crusades. 
Marbodaeus,  d.  1123,  Bio- 
graphy. 

Suger,  1082—1152,  Life  of 
Louis  le  Gros. 

1000  Anselm,  1033—1109,  Scho- 
lastic. 

Pierre  Abelard,  1079—1142, 
Theology. 

Bernard      of     Claimux, 
1091—  1155,  Mystic. 

688 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   S01EWIIP1* 

1100 

Geoffroi    Galmar,    Anglo- 
Norm.  Chron.  in  verse. 
Rob.  Wace,    'Roman   de 
Rou.' 

Fouque,  a  Troubadour. 
Alexander  of  Bernai,  Poet- 
ry, Fables. 

1100  Hugh  de  St.  Victoire,  1097— 
1140,  Geography,  Histo- 
ry, and  Theology. 

1100 

Peter  Lombardus,  d.  1164, 
Theology. 

Alain    de    1'Isle,    d.    1208 
Theology,  E'-hica. 

1200 

John  JEgidius,   Poem   on 
Medicine. 
William  le  Breton,  'Deeds 
of  Philip,'  in  verse. 
P.  Gautier,  'Alexandrieda.' 

William  de  Lorris,  'Roman 
de  la  Rose.' 
Jean  de  Meun,  Contin.  of 
'  Roman  de  la  Rose.' 
Esi;v«    de    Bezier,    Last 
Troubadour. 

[200  Pierre  de  Poictiera,  Sacred 
History. 
Geoffrey  de  Villehardouin, 
Conq.  of  Constantinople. 

Phil.  Mouskes,  d.  1283,  His- 
tory of  France  in  verse. 
W.  Rubruquis,  Traveller. 

Jean  de  Joinville,    1260— 
1318,  Hist,  of  Louis  IX. 

1200 

Vincentius    of    Bt-*UYaU, 
Encyclopaedia. 
Rob.  of  Sorbonne,  d.  1271, 
Theology. 

1300  Peter  Langtoft,  Anglo-Nor- 
man Chronicles. 

Philippe  of  Vitri,  Transla- 
tion of  Ovid. 

1300 

John  Froissart,  1337—1402, 
Chronicles. 

1300  Bernard  Gordon,  Medicine. 
John  of  Paris,  d.  1306,  Th.e- 
oloey. 
W.  Durand,  d.  1333,  Law. 
W.  Occam,  d.  1347,  Law. 

1400 

Alain   Chartier,    d.    1458, 
Poetry. 
Corbeil.  Satire. 
D'Auvergne,  d.  1458,  Po- 
ems. 

Clement  Marot,  1463—1525, 
Poems. 

1400 

Philip  de  Comines,  1445  — 
1509,  Hist,  of  his  Times. 

1400  Peter  d'Ailly,  1350—1425, 
Astronomy. 
John   Gerson,    1363—1429, 
Scholastic. 
Raymund  de  Sebunda,  d. 
1432,  Theology. 
Henry  of  Balma,  d   1439, 
Mystic. 

James  Lefevie,  1436—  i537, 
Theology. 
Wm.  HuSaeus,  1467—1540, 
Jurist. 

1600 

F.    Rabelais,    1483-1553 
Satires. 
J.  du   Bellay,    1492—  1560, 
Poems. 

Bteph.  Jod-Ks,  1532—  15T3 
Odes.  1  rage  ies,  <fec. 

1500 

Guilt,  du  Bellay,  d.  1543 
History  of  his  Times. 

Jaques  Am  yot,  151  1  —  1593 
Translation*. 

150f  J.  C.  Scalieer,  1484—1559, 
Philology. 
Du  Bois,  1478—1555,  AiaL 

Rob.  Stephens,  1503—1559, 
Philoloey. 
P.Ramus.1515—  1572,  Logic 
Seb.  Castellio,  1515-  1563, 
Philoloey. 
Jas.  Cujacius,  1520—1590 
Law. 
Lainbinus,         1516—157% 
I             Commentaries. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY — FRENCH. 


689 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


1500  M.   A.   Muret,   1526—1585, 

Poems.  Criticisms. 
Mich,  ie  Montaigne,  1533 — 
1592,  Essays. 


Fran.  Malherbe,1556— 1628, 
Odes. 


1500 


J.  J.  Scaliger,  1540—1609, 
History,  Criticism,  &c. 


J.  A.  de  Thou,  155J— 1617, 
History  of  France. 


1500  Hen.  Stephens,  1528—1590, 
Philology. 

F.  Vieta,  1540—1603,  Al- 
gebra. 

Pierre  Charon,  1543—1603, 
Theology. 

Isaac  Casaubon,  1559 — 
1604,  Philology. 


16«0  M.    Reignier,    1573—1613, 
Satires. 


J.   Chapelain,    1595—1674, 
La  Pucelle.' 


P.    Corneille,    1606—1684, 
Drama. 


St.  Evremond,  1613—1703, 
Literature. 


Rochefoucault,  1603—1680, 

Reflections.     Memoirs. 
Moli.'i-e,  1620-1673.  Drama. 
La    Fontaine,    1621—1695, 

Fables,  Tales. 
Segrais,  1624— 1701,  Idyls. 
T.    Corneille,    1625—1709, 

Drama. 
M.  de  Sevigne,  1626—1694, 

Letters. 
J.    Racine,  1639—1699, 

Drama. 


Boileau,  1636-1711.  Satires. 


1600  P.    Matthieu,    1544—1621, 

History  of  France. 
An.  Du.  Chesne.  1584-1640, 
Collections  of  Histories. 


Bochart,  1599—1667, '  Geo- 

graphia  Sacra.' 
Henry  Spondanus,  1568 — 

1613,  History. 
S.   Guicheron.  1607—1664, 

Hist,  of  House  of  Savoy. 
Henri  Valesius,  1603—1696, 

Ecclesiastical  History. 


Adr.  Valesius,  1607— '•P'.Q, 
'  Deeds  of  the  Franks.' 


L.  Moreri,  1643—1680, 
Historical  Dictionary. 

Tili^mont,  1637—1098,  Ec- 
clesiastical History. 


1600 


1710  Rftgnard,     1W7— 1709, 

Comedies. 

Galland,  1646—1715,  Tran. 
of  Arabian  Nights. 


Fenelon,  1651— 1715,  'Tele- 

machus,'  &c. 
Deshoulicres,     1638—1694, 

Elegi  ;s. 


1700 


J.  Marsollier,  1647—1724. 
History,  various. 

Fleury,  1653-1723,  Eccle- 
siastical History. 

G.  Daniel.  1649—1723,  His-  ( 
tory  of  France. 

Vatincourt,  1653—1730,  | 
Biography. 


C.  Salmasius,  1596—1652, 

History  and  Criticism. 
Dennis  Petau,  1583-1652, 

Ch.  nology. 
P.  Gassendi,  1592—1655, 

Philosophy. 
Des  Cartes,  1596    1650, 

Metaphysics.  Madiem. 


B.  Pascal,  1623—1662, 

Miscellaneous. 
D'Herbelot,  1626—1695, 

Orientalist. 
Cassini,  1625-1712,  Astroa 


Huet,  1630-1721,  Philos'nhj 
Bourdaloue,    1632-1704, 

Sermons. 
La   Bruy«re,   1636-1696, 

'  Characters.' 
Malbranche,    1633-1715, 

'  Search  after  Truth.' 

1700  P.    Bayle,    1647-1706, 

Dictionary. 
Hardouin,    1646-1729, 

Criticism. 
And.  Dacier,  1651-1722. 

Philology. 
Anne  Dacier,  J651-1720, 

Philology. 


Tournefort,  1656-1708, 

Botany. 
Fontendle,  1657-1756, 

•  Plurality    of   World*. 

Ac. 
Montfancon  1655-1743, 

Antiquities. 
Massillon,  1663-1742, 

Sermons. 


<i90 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   iCIENTIPU 

7700 

1700  Vertot,  1655—1735.  History. 

1700 

Paul   Rapin,   1661—1725, 

History  of  England. 
Bossuet,    1662—1704,    His- 

J. B.  Rousseau,  1671—1741, 

tory,  Sermons. 

Odes 

C.  Rollin,   1661—1741, 

Crebillon,     1674—1762, 

Ancient  History,  Educa- 

Folard,  1669-1752,  Stra 

Tragedies. 

tion. 

tegy. 

Ren.  Le  Sage,  1677—1747, 

Saurin,    1677-1730,    Ser- 

' Gil  Bias.' 

mons. 

P.   N.  Destouches,  1680— 

1754,  Comedies. 

J.  B.  Grecourt,  1683—1743, 

Odes,  Tales.  <fec. 

Marivaux,    1638—1763, 
Novels. 
Voltaire,   1695—1778,  Tra- 
gedy, Poetry,  Hist.,  &c. 

C.  I.  F.H6nault,  1685-1770, 
History. 

Montesquieu,     1698—1755, 
'  Esprit  des  Loix.' 
Reaumur,   1633—1757 
Natural  History. 
Houbigant,   1686—1783, 

Criticism,  Philology. 

C.  Villaret,   1715—1766, 

Girard,  d.   1748,  'Synony- 

History  of  France. 

mes.' 

L.  P.  Anquetil,  1723—1808, 

i.  J.  Rousseau,  1712—1778, 

History. 
Mart.    Bouquet,  d.  1754, 

Buffbn,  1707-1788,  Natural 

1  Emile,'  '  Heloise,'  &c. 

Recueil  d'Historiens. 

History. 

Diderot,    1713-1784,  'En- 
cyclopedic,' Novels. 
Bernis,  1715  —  1794,  Poems. 

A.  Goguet  d.  1758,  '  Origin 
of  Laws,  Arts,  &c.' 
Larcher.  1726-1812.  Trans. 

De  Brosses,  1709—1777, 
Philology,  History. 

Favart,  d.   1762,  Comic 

of  Herodotus. 

Operas. 
Louis   Racine,  d.   1763, 
Poems. 
}.  J.  Barthelemy,  1716-1795, 
'  Anacharsis.' 

Crevier,  d.   1765,  Ancient 
History. 
Guyot,  d.  1771,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Helvetius,    1715—1771, 
•De  PEsprit.1 
D'Aubenton,  1716—1799, 

Marmontel,    1719—1799, 

Natural  History. 

Tales. 

N.    Vaitel,  d.   1770,  'Law 

CSresset,  d.  1777,  Elegies. 

of  Nations.' 

Dorat,  d.  1780,  Novels. 

J.  De  Guignes,  1721—1800, 
Hbtory  of  the  Huns. 
D  Anville,  1702—1782, 

D'Alembert,  d.  1783,  'En- 
cyclopedic.' 
La  Grange,  Mathematics. 

Geography. 
G.Raynal,  1711-17%,  Hist, 
of  East  and  West  Indies. 

Bailly,    1736—1793,   Hist 

C.  F.  X.  Millot,  1726—1785, 
History. 

Astronomy. 
Lavoisier,    1743—1794, 
Chemistry. 

Montucla,    1725—1799, 

Mathematics. 

Turgot,  Polit.  Economy. 

F'orian,  1755  -1794,  Tales. 

Mirabeau,  Politics. 

Beaumarchais1,  d.   1799, 

Fourcrol,  d.  1809,  Chem. 

Comedies. 

J.  Lalande,  d.  1807,  Astjoo. 

180)  B.  St.   Pierre,  'Paul   and 

1800  Sismondl,    History     and 

1800  Volney,  1755-1820,  Travels, 

Virginia.' 

Political  Science. 

Philology,  &c. 

Madme.  de  Genlis,  Novels. 

Barante,  History. 

Haiiy,  d.   1822,  Cr^stallo 

Mdme.   Cottin,    1772-1807, 

Ausustin  Thierry,  History 
Amedei  Thierry,  History. 

graphy. 
La  Place,  d.  1827,  Maf  he- 

Tales. 

Gtiizot,  History. 

matics 

Delille,  d.  1813.  'L'Homme 

Thiers,  History. 

Guyion  Morveau,  Chem. 

des  Champs.'     Ac. 

Cuvier,  d.  1832,  Nat.  Unit 

Madame  de  Stael,    1768— 

Denon,  d.  1825,  Travels  in 

Dumont,  Legislation. 

1817,  '  Corinne,'  &c. 

Eeypt. 

P.  L.  Courier,  Politics. 

H.  de   Balzac,  1799-1S50, 

J.    P.   F.  Ancillon,  1767— 

J.   F.   Audoin,  1797—1841, 

Novels. 

1837,  History. 

Zoology. 

J  J.  Boisaiid,  1743-183!, 

Louis  E.  Bignon,      —  1841, 

J.  E.  D.  Esquirol,  1772— 

Fables. 

History. 
J.   J.    Jacotot,    1770-1840, 

1840,  on  Insanity. 
Chas.  Fourier,  1772—1837 

Education. 

Socialism. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY SPANISH    AND    PORTUGUESE. 


691 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

1800  0.  Delavigna,   Tragedies, 
and  I'oems. 

1800  Mad.    Junot,    1784-1839, 
Biography. 

1800  T.  S.  Jouffroy,  1796—  184!^ 
Metaphysics 

Victor    Hugo,   Tragedies, 

A.  L.  G.  Laborde,      —1842, 

A.  L.  de  Jussiou,  1748-1836^ 

Poems,  Jind  Romances. 

Travels. 

Botany. 

A.  de  Lainartine,  Poems, 

Las  Cases,      —1842,  3iog- 

S.  F.   Lacroix,  1765—1843, 

History,  and  Travels. 

raphy. 

Mathematics. 

Mad.    Dudevant    (George 

J.  Michaud,       —1839,  His- 

Lamarck,   —  1829,  Natural 

Sand),  Novels. 
A.  Dumas,  Poems,  Plays, 

tory. 
Bourrienne,     —  1834  '  Life 

History. 
Legendre,  1753—1833,  M'a 

and  Romances, 

of  Napoleon.' 
A.  Coille,    —1838,  Voyage 

thematics. 
Louis,    —  1837,  Surgery. 

a  Tembuctou,  &c. 

Broussais,       —  1838,  Medv 

Champollion  le  Jeune, 

cine,  Physiol. 

1832,  Antiq.  Egypt. 

Cliaptal,       —1832,  Chem- 

J. P.  A.  Remusat,    —1832, 

istry. 

Philology,  Antiquities. 

Say,  Polit.  Economy. 

SPANISH   AND    PORTUGUESE. 
P.  is  prefixed  for  Portuguese. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

500 

500 

500  Anian,  Law. 
Fulgentius    Ferrandus, 
Canon  Law. 
Martin,  d.  580,  Ethics. 

600 

600  John  of  Biclair,  d.  620 
Chronicle. 
Isidore,  d.  636,  Chron.  de 
Goth. 

600 
Ildefonso,  d.  667,  Polemic* 

800 

800  Eulogius,  d.  859,  Martyr- 
ology. 
Alvarez,  Biog.  of  Eulogius. 

800 

P.    noO  Egaz  Monez,  Songs. 
P.             Gonzalo  Hermiguez, 
Songs. 

1100 

1100 

1200 
Gonzalo  Berceo,  Rhymes. 

1200  Rodrigo  Ximenez,  d.  1245, 
History  of  Spain. 

1200 
R.  de  Penafort,  1175—1278, 

Decretals. 
Alphonso  X.,  d.  1284, 
Astronomy,  Alchemy, 
Raimund  Lullo,  1236— 
1315,   Theology,   Chen*. 
istry,  <fcc. 

1300  Juan  Manuel,  d.  1362,  Ro- 
mances. 

1300 

1300 

14011  Villena,  d.  1434,  Trans. 
Virgil  and  Dante. 
E.  de  Villena,  1434,  Moral 
Drama. 
Juan  de  Mena,  1412—1456 
Poems. 
L.  de  Mendoza,  1393—1458 
Poems. 

1400  Diez  de  Games,  Biography. 

1400 

J.  de  Torquemada,  d.  146^ 
Sei  mons,  Criticism. 

692 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT.                                  SPECULATIVE   AND  SOIBNTrKO 

1400  Perez  de  Guzman,  Lyrics. 

1400  R.  de  Zamora.  1407—1470, 

1400 

History  of  Spain. 

Fern,  del  Pulgas,  Bioe.  of 

Juan  de  la  Enzina,  Pastoral 

Ferdinand  and  Isabeiia. 

Fras.  Ximenez,  1437—1517, 

Drama. 

Polyglot  Bible. 

1500  Lope  de  Uueda,  Comedies. 

1500 

1500  Perez  de  Oliva,  d.  1533, 

Torres  Naharro,  Comedy. 

Ethics. 

Juan  Boscan,  d.  1544,  Son- 

J. Luis  Vives,  1492—1540, 

nets. 

Philosophy,  Theology. 

P.     Ber.  Ribeyro,  Eclogues. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega, 

1503—1536,  Poems. 

P.     San  de  Miranda,  1495—1558, 

P.     Damian  Goez,  History, 

Ant.  de  Guevara,  d.  1544, 

Lyrics. 

Travels. 

Ethics,  Epistles. 

Juan  de  la  Cueva,  Art  of 

P.     A.  Govea,  1505—1565,  Law. 

Poetry. 

P.      Gil  Vicente,  d.  1557, 

Comedy. 

Ant  Agostino,  1516—1586, 

J.  de  Montemayor,  1520— 

P.     Joao  de  Barros,  d.  1570, 

Theology,  Law. 

1561,  Romance. 

'  Hist.  Portugu.  in  India.' 

Ant.  Ferreira,  1528—1569, 

A.    Zarate,    'Discov.    of 

S.  des  Brosses,  1523—1600 

Elegies. 

Peru.' 

Grammar. 

A.  de  Morales,  1513—1590, 

P.      D.  de  Anclrada,  1528—1536 

History  of  Spain. 

Theolosy. 

Luis  Molina.  1535—1600, 

Metaphysics. 

Diego  de  Mendoza,  d.  1575. 
Poems,  History. 

J.  Acosta,  1547—1600,  Hist, 
of  the  West  Indies. 

P.     Camoens,  1524—  1579,  'The 

Gonsalvo  Illescas,  d.  1580, 

Lusiad.' 

Lives  of  the  Popes. 

Luis  de  Leon,  1527—1591, 

Luis  Marmol,  Description 

Lyric  Poems. 

of  Afi-ica 

Fern,  de  Herrera,  d.  1578, 

Jeron.  Zurita,  1513—1580, 

Classical  Poems. 

History  of  Arragon. 

P.      Rodriguez    Lobo,   Ro- 

Estevan  Garibay,  History 

mances.  Pastorals,  &c. 

of  Spain.' 

P.     P.  de  A.  Caminha,  d.  1595, 

Epizrams,  Pastorals. 

C.  de  Castillejo,  d.  1596, 

Romantic  Poems. 

A.  de  Ercilla,  1533—1600, 

Juan  Mariana,  1537—1624, 

'  Araucana.' 

Hisl.,  Chronology,  <fec. 

Geron.  Bermudez,  d.  1589, 

Blanca,  History  of  Spain. 

J.  Guevara,  1541-1622, 

Tragedy. 

Publicist. 

L.  de  Argensola,  1565— 

1613,  Tragedy,  History. 

P.     Jeron.  Cortereal,  Poems. 

J.  G.  de  Mendoza,  Hist,  of 

J.  Va  verda,  Anatomy, 

Cervantes,  1549  —  1616, 

China. 

'Don  Quixote.' 

1600 

1600  Her.  y  Tordesillas,  1565— 

1625,  History  of  Spain. 
P.     A.  de  Meneses,  d.  1617. 

History  of  Augusiines. 

Bart,  de  Argensola,  1566— 
1631.  Tragedy,  History. 

P.     F.   Anclrada,  Chronicle  of 
John  III. 

F.  Quevedo,  1570—1645, 

P.      B.  de  Brito,  1570—1617, 

Tales,  Satires. 

History  of  Portugal. 

L.  Congnra,  1585—1638, 

Poems. 

Lope  de  Vega.  1562—1635, 

Drama. 
J.  P.  de  Montalvan.  d.  16J9, 

P.     A.  de  Andrada,  d.  1633, 
Travels   in    Thibet    and 

Tragedy. 

Cathay. 

M.  de  Madrigal,  Romances. 
P.      Man.  de  Faria  e  Sousa,  d. 

Pru.  de  Sandoval,  History 
Jayme  Bleda,  History  of 

1649,  Pastoral  Poems. 

Moors  in  Spain.               i 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY SPANISH    AND    PORTUGUESE. 


693 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  SOIUITWM. 

•600  L.  V.  de  Guevara,  d.  1646, 

1600 

1600 

'El  Diablo  Coxuelo.' 

Vic.  Espinel,  1545—1634, 

Elegies. 

C.  Acuna,  1597—1641,  <  De- 

scrip,  of  River  Amazon. 

P.     E.  de  Almeyda,  d.  1646, 

History  of  Ethiopia. 

Calderon,  i601—  1667, 

P.     J.  F.   de  Andrada,   1597— 

Drama. 

1657,    Life    of  John    de 

L.  Ulloa,  d.  1660,  Poems. 

Castro,  Comic  Poetry. 

P      A.  B.  Bacellar,  d.  1663, 

Sonnets. 

P.     Matheo  Ribeiro,  Romance. 

NIC.  Antonio.  1617—1672, 

Biblictheca  Hispanica. 

P.     Alb.  Coelho,  '/.  1658, 

M.  de  Villegas,  1595—1669, 

'  Wars  of  Brazil.' 

Anacreontics. 

P.     F.  de  Vasconcellos,  Poems. 

P.     R.  de  Macedo,  d.  1682, 

Poems. 

P.     Viol,  do  Ceo,  1601—1693, 

Ant.  deSolis,  1611—  1686, 

Poems. 

Hist,  of  Conq.  Mexico. 

P.     F.  da  Castanheira.  Novel. 

P.     A.  Nunhes  da  Sylva,  Son- 

nets. 

1700  Fran.  Candarno,  d.  1709, 

1700  J.  F^rreras,  1652—1735, 

1700 

Drama. 

llisiory  of  Spain. 

Ant.  de  Zamora.  Comedy. 

P.     Xav.  de  Meneses,  1673  — 

1743,  '  Henriqueide,' 

Feyjoo,  1765,  Ethics,  Criti- 

Epic Poem. 

cism. 

Ignacio  de  Luzan,  d.  1754, 
Art  of  Poetry. 

P.     Barbosa  Maehado,  Diction- 

A. Ulloa,  1716—1795,  Math- 
ematician. 

ary  of  Learned  Men. 

Velasquez,  d.   1772,    Hist 

of  (jastilian  Poetry. 

Tomas  de  Yriarte,  d.  1771, 

P.     Figoeireda,  Eccl.  History. 

Fables,  &c. 

P.     A.  de  Barros  Pereira, 

Poems. 

P      Manoel  da  Coste.  Poems. 

Munoz,  Hist,  of  America. 

V.  Garcia  de  la  Huerta, 

Tragedy. 

P.     P.  Correo  Garcao   Lyric 

Ruiz,  Botany. 

Poeras. 

Pavon,  Flora  Peruvians. 

L«on  de  Arroyal,  Odes. 

Cavanilles,  Annals. 

P.     J.  H.  Magalhaens,  d.  1790, 

f.     Paulino  de  Vascon^ellos, 

Natural  Philosophy. 

Sonnets. 
Mel.  Valdez.  Odes,  Lyrics. 

Felix  de  Azara,  Zoology. 
J.  N.  de  Azara,  1731—  laO» 

f.      Cathar.  de  Sousa,  Tragedy. 

Antiquity. 

1800  G.  Jovellanos,  1744—1811, 

1800  J.  A.  Llorente,  History  of 

1800 

'  Agrarian  Law.' 
f.     Tol.  da  Almeida,  Satires. 

Inquisition. 

Fern,  de  Moratin,  d.  1828, 

Jose  Antonio  Conde,  His- 

Comedies. 

tory  of  Moors  in  Spain. 

M.  Garcia  de  Villanueva, 

'  On  the  Theatre.' 

J.  H.  Davila,  General  Li'- 

•ratme. 

694 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


DUTCH. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   8C1KHTIH8 

1200  J.  Van  Maerlaat,  1235— 

1200 

1200 

1300,  Poems,  '  Rymby- 

bel.' 

Melis  Stoke,  Poetic  Chron. 

1300  Jan  van  Helen,  Poems, 

1300                                              1300 

Chronicles. 

Heij.  van  Holland,  Poems. 

Claea  Willems,  Poems. 

Gerard  Groot,  Theology. 

1400  J.  Wat,  Trans.  Boethius. 

1400  Edmund  Dinter,  d.  1448, 
Chronicles  of  Brabant. 

1400 

P.  vander  Heyden,  1393— 

1473,  Chronicles. 

J.  W.  Gransfoet,  Theo. 

Dirk  van  Munster,  '  Chris- 

tian Mirror.' 

„ 

Lambert,  Goetman,  '  Mir- 
ror of  Youth.' 

Rud.  Agricola,  1442—1485, 
Philosophy,  Hist.,  &c. 

1600 

1500 

1500  Erasmus,  1467—1536,  The- 

ology, Literature,  &c 

A.  Byns,  Religious  Poems. 

Jan.  Fruitiers,  Poems  and 

Prose. 

J.  Secundus,  1511—1536, 

Amatory  Poems. 
Dirk  Koornhert,  1522— 

S.  Pighius,  1520—1604, 

1590,  Transl.  Homer. 

'Roman  Annals.' 

P.  van  Marnix,  Odes, 
Songs. 
R.  Visscher,  Epigrams. 
Hendrick  Spieghel,  Didac- 
tic Poems. 

J.  Heurnius,  1543—1601, 
Medicine. 
C.  Kiliaan,  d.  1607,  Dic- 
tionary. 
Justus  Lipsius,  1547—1608, 

Philology. 

Sim.  »tevinus,  d.  1633, 

Hydrostatics,  Mathem. 

A.  Schott,  1552—1629,  His- 

H. Erpenius,  1584—1624, 

tory  of  Spain. 

Orientalist. 

COO  O.   Brederode,  1585—1637, 

1600 

1600 

Comedies,  &c. 

D.  R.  Kamphuizen,  1586  — 
1626,  Religious  Poems. 

Daniel  Heins,  1580—1655, 

Poems,  Philology. 

J.  Cats,  1577—1660,  Drama. 

P.   C.  Hooft,   15S7—  1647, 

H.  de  Groot  (Grotius), 

Tragedy,  Odes,  Hist,  of 

1583—1645,  Hist,  Theol- 

the Netherlands. 

ogy,  Poetry,  &c. 

G.  van  Baerle  (Barlaeus), 

1584—1648,  Latin  Poems. 

J.  Golius,  1596-1667,  On 

Just  van  Vondel,  1587  — 

entalist. 

1679,  Tragedies. 

Voetius,  1589—1676. 

M.  Visscher,  Trans.  Tasso. 

Polemics. 

Jan  van  Heem^erk,  'Ar- 

Beverwyk, 1594—1647, 

cadia.' 

Medicine. 

J.  Wesierbaen,  1599—1669, 

Diemerbroek,  1609—1674, 

Epigrams. 

Anatomy. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 


69fi 


IK  AGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


Cons.  Huygens,  1596—1687, 
Episrams. 

Jer.  Decker,  1610—1666, 
Elegies. 

D.  Joncklijs,  d.  1654,  Ama- 
tory Poems. 

Nicholas  Heins,  1620—1681, 
Poems,  Philology. 

Jan  de  Brune,  '  Whetstone 
of  Wit.' 

Jan   Vos,  Drama,  Epi- 
grams. 

Reinier  Anslo.  1622—1669, 
'  Plague  of  Naples.' 


Ger.  Brandt,  1626—1685, 

Hist,  of  Reformation. 
Cau,  Collect,  of  Baiavian 

History. 
J.  G.  Grasvius,  1632—1703, 

Roman  Antiquities. 
J.  Perizonius,  1631—1715, 

History. 


J.   F.   Gronovius,   1611— 

1671,  Philology. 
J.  Leusden,  1614—1699, 

Philology. 


F.  Burman,  1628—1679, 

Theology. 
Chr.  Huygens,  1629-1696, 

Mathem.,  Mechanics. 
B.  Spinoza,  1632—1677, 

Theology. 


Swammerdam,  1637—1680, 

Natural  History. 
A.  Leuwenhoek,  1632 — 

1723,  Natural  History. 


700  P.  Francius,  1645—1704, 

Latin  Poetry. 

J.  A.  Vander  Goes,  1647— 
1648,  Drama. 


1760 


J.  Gronovius,  1645 — 1716, 
Greek  Antiquities. 

P.   Bondam,  Collection  of 
Batavian  History. 

Simon  Styl,  History  of 
Netherlands. 


Eliz.  Wolff,  Novels. 
Loosjes,  Novels. 

Bellamy,  1757— 1786,  Odes. 
Klein,  Lyrics. 
Van  Alphen,  Odes. 


1700  F.  Ruysch,  1639—1731, 
Anat. 


G.  Bidloo,  1649—1713, 
Anat. 

C.  Vitringa,  1659—1722, 
Theology. 

Binkerschoek,  1663—1743, 

Law. 
H.  Boerhaave,  1668—1738, 

Medicine. 
Hemsterhuis,  1685—1766, 

Philology. 

A.  Schultens,  1686—1750, 
Philology. 

Gravesande,  1683—1742, 

Mathematics. 
Chr.  Hecht,  1696—1748, 

Philology. 

B.  S.  Albinus,  1683—1771, 
Anatomy. 

Ourtendorp,  1696—1761, 

Philology. 
W.  Otto  Reiz,  1702—1768, 

Law. 

D.  Gaubius,  1705—1780. 
Medicine. 

Hoogeveen,  1712—1794, 

Philology. 
G.  van  Swieten,  1700 — 

1772,  Medicine. 
P.  Camper,  1722—1789, 

Anatomy. 
D.  Ruhnkec,  1723—1798, 

Philology. 
Valckenaer,  Philology. 


1800 


Hincopen,  Odes. 
Helmers,  d.  1831,  Poems 
Nieuwland.  Poems. 
Borger,  Odes. 

Bilderdyk,  Dramas,  Odes, 


1800 


Te  Water,  History. 
Engelberts,  Ancient  Hist, 
of  Netherlands. 


1800  D.  Wyttenbach,  d.  1808, 
Philology. 


Van  Kami  en,  Statistic* 


696 


THE   WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC 

Tollens,  Poems. 
Da  Costa,  Sacred  Poems. 
Wilderbosch,  Odea. 

Kluits,  Hist,  of  Holland. 
Wesiendorp,  History. 
Ypey,  Ecclesiastical  Hist. 

De  Jonge,  Antiquities. 
Hainaker,  Orientalist. 
Vaiider  Palm,  Literature. 

SWEDEN,  DENMARK  AND  ICELAND. 
S.,  Sweden;  D.,  Denmark ;  Ic.,  Iceland. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

Ic.    900  Hjalti,  Poems. 

900 

900 

Ic.  1100  Thorwald,  Ballads. 

Ic.           Saemund.  b.  1156,  The 
Elder  Edda. 

1100 
Ic.     Aro.  d.  1148,  Annals  of  Ice- 
land. 
D.     Saxo.  Grammaticus,  d. 
1204,   Hist,   of  Northern 
Nations. 
D.     Sueno,  Hist,  of  Denmark. 

11(10 

D.     Sunesen.  Jurist. 
D.     Ajcel,  Theology. 

le.  1200  Snor.  Sturleson,  d.  1241, 
Younger  Edda,  Hist, 
of  Norway. 
Ic.           Suerron,  Tales. 

1200 

D.     Sturla  Thoridsen,  History 
of  Norway. 

1200 

1400 

1400 

5.      Eric  Olai,  History  of  Goths 
and  Swedes. 

1400 

S.      Bryn.  Karlsson,  rf.  1430, 
Instruction  to  Kings  and 
Princes. 

tin 

1500 

S.      John  Magnus,  d.  1544, 
Hist,  of  Sweden. 
S.      Olaus  Masnus,  Customs  of 
Northern  Nations. 
S.      P.  Lasrerloof,  1538—1599, 
History  Norlh  of  Europe. 
Ic.     Arn.  Jonas,  1545—1640, 
Hist,  of  Iceland,  &c. 

1500 

D.     Tycho  Brahe,  1546—  1601,  ; 
Astronomy. 
D.     Ursus,  a.  1600,  Astronomy. 

MOQ 

ft.     Anders  Arrebo,  b,  1587, 
Religious  Poetry. 

D.     Anders  Hording,  b.  1619, 
Poems. 
8.      Stiernhjclm,    Epic  Poem, 
'  Hercules.' 

1600 

D.     J.  J  Pontanus,  1591—1640, 
Danish  Hist. 

1600 
S.      P.  Kirsten,  1577—1640, 
Orientalist. 
D.     G.  Bartholine,  1585—1629 
1            Anatomy,  Theoloey. 
D.     Oie  Worm,  1588—  1654,  Ac, 
tiquitius,  Philo. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN,  DENMARK,  AND   ICELAND.       697 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC 

c.     Torfeus,  1639—1720,  Hist. 

S.      Ol.  Rudbeck,  1630—1702, 

of  Norway. 

Botany,  Anat.,  Ac. 

D.  1700  Thos.  Kingo,  6.  1631. 

700 

Hymns. 

1700 

S.      John  Penngskiold,  1654  — 

D.     J.  C.  Sturmius,  1635-170$ 

1720,  History. 

Phys.,  Mathem.  • 

X     Arne  Magnussen,  b.  1663, 

Collec.  Hist. 

D.     Albert  Thura,  Hist. 

D             L.  Holberg.  1684—1754, 

D.     Hans  Gram,  d.  1748,  His- 

Drama, Satire,  Hist. 

tory. 

D             Ch.  Falster,  1690— 

1752,  Satirist. 

D.     Langebek,  d.  1775,  Collec. 

S.      Lirmaus,  1707—1778, 

Danish  History. 

Botany. 

S.             OlofDalin,  1708—  1763, 

D.     Pontoppidan.  d.  1764,  Ori- 

Poetry,  History. 

gines  Havnienses. 
S.      Lagerbring,  d.   1781,   His- 

tory. 

D.            Sneedorf,  1734—1764, 
Poems. 

S.      Wallerius,  d.  1785, 

Mineralogy. 

D.     P.  T.  Suhm,  1720—1798, 

).      Oeder,  Flora  Danica. 

D.            Tullin,  Lyrics. 

Hist,  oi'  Denmark. 

S.      Ihre,  Dictionary. 

D.            John  Ewald,  1743— 

1781,  Tragedy.  Lyrics. 

D.            J.  H.  Wessel,  Humor- 

ous Poems. 

S.             Bellerman,  1741—1796, 

Lvrics. 

D.            H.  Tocle,  1736—1806, 

Dramas,  Fables. 

D.            Samsoe,  1759—1796, 

Tragedies. 

D.            P.  A.  Heiberg,  6.  1758 

Drama. 

S.             S.   Etetrom.  d.   1810 

Poems. 

Ic    1800  Thorlacksen,  d.  1819, 

1800 

1800 

Transl.  Milton 

D.     Malte  Brun,  d.  1826,  Geog- 

D.           C.  L.  Sander,  Dramas 

raphy,  in  French. 

D.            Jens.  Bazgesen,  d. 

1826,  Lyrics. 

S.      Thorild  Travels. 

D.            Oehlenschlager, 

S.      Berzelius,  Chemistry. 

Poems. 

I).     Rask,  Orientalist. 

D.            B.  S.  Ingermann, 

S.      Wodderstadt,  '  On  Yellow 

Lyrics. 

S.      Afzelius,  Iceland  Records. 

Fever.' 

S              Atterbone.  Poems. 

S.      H-illenberg,  History. 

S.      Liliegren.  Northern  An- 

S             Teener,  Romances,  &c 

S.      Granberg,  Statistics. 

tiquities. 

ft              f.  Bremer  Novels. 

S.      Blexell,  Topography. 

S.      Norberg,  Orientalist. 

30 

J.  F.  Blumenbach, 

*J\J 

1840,  Naturalist 

698 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


POLISH. 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE  AND    •CIEKTIV1O 


1200 


1200  Vine.  Kadlubek,  d.  1226, 

History  of  Poland. 
Bo»uphalus,  d.  1253, 

Chronicle  of  Poland. 
Martin  Polonus,  d.  1278, 

Chronicle  of  Popes  and 

Emperors. 


1200 


Vitellio,  Optica. 


1400 


1400  Dluglossus,  1415—1480, 
History  of  Poland. 


1400 


1500 


1500 


1500 


Kochanowski,  1530—1584, 


Cawalezewski,  Chronicles. 
Bielski,  Chronicles. 


Stryjkowski.  Chron.  of  Po- 
land and  Russia. 


N.  Copernicus,  1472—1543, 

Astronomy. 

Lucas  Gornicki,  Ethics. 
Rey  of  Na<d»wic,  1515— 

1568,  Ei  hies. 


1600 


Sarbiewski,        1595—1640, 
Latin  Poetry. 


1COO  Ab.    Bzovius,    1567—1637, 
Ecclesiastical  Annals. 


Lubienetski.       1623—1675, 
History  of  Reformation. 


1600 


John  Maccov,  d.  1644,  The- 
ology. 

Przipcov,  1590—1670,  The- 
ology. 


1700 


Naruszewicz,  d.  1796,  Po- 
etry and  History. 


1700  Dogiel,  Coll.  Hist.  Poland. 
Mizler,  Do. 


1700 


1800  Krasicki,  Poems,  Roman- 
ces. 

Boguslawski,  Drama. 
Bronikowski,  Novels. 
Bernatowio.z,  Novels. 
Bulgarin,  Novels. 
Mickiewicz,  Poems. 
Odyniec,  Drama, 


1800 


1800 


Lach  Szmyrna,  Travels. 
Potocki,  Travels. 


Linde,  Lexicon. 


RUSSIAN. 

[The  Russian  has  been  in  use  as  the  language  of  literature  scarcely  more  than  a  century.  Almow 
rll  books  used  in  Russia  were  written  in~the  ancient  Sclavonic  tongue,  which  does  not  sreatly 
differ  from  Russian,  but  more  closely  resembles  the  lanzuages  spoken  in  Servia,  andln  the 
other  provinces  near  the  Save  and  Danube.  The  first  printing-office  in  Russia  was  established 
In  1553.] 


IMAGINATION. 


1000 


1000 


Nestorof  Kiew,  10!">G— 1115, 
C  ronicles  of  Russia. 


SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC 


1000  Yaroslaf,  Code  :f  Laws. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY — RUSSIAN. 


•699 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  8C1EN  11710. 

1100 

1100  Theodosius,d.ll20,  Annals. 
Sylvester,  d.   1123,    Chro- 
nicles of  Russia. 

1100 

The  Expedition  of  Ighor,  a 
celebrated  Poem,  author 
Unknown. 

Simeon  of  Susdal,  d.  1206, 
Chronicles  of  Russia. 

12(10 

1200  Job/1  of  Novgorod,  History 
Si  Russia. 

1200 

[The  blank  of  nearly  four  centuries  arises  from  the  oppression  of  the  Mongols,  who  held  Russia 
from  1223  to  1477.  They  destroyed  almost  all  ancient  books,  and  repressed  the  rising  spirit  ol 
knowledge  which  a  close  connection  with  the  Greeks  was  then  introducing  into  Russia.] 


1500 


1500 


1500  Sudebuek,  Code  Jf  Laws. 


1600 


1600 


Simeon  of  Polotsk,  Poems, 
Spiritual  Dramas. 


1600  Demetrius  of  Rostoff,  The^ 
ology,  Spiritual  Dramas. 


1700 


Cantemir,  1708-1744,  Sati- 
rical Poems. 
Lomouosoff,       1711—1765, 

Poetry,  History,  Science. 
Trediarioflski,  Poems. 
Popofski.  Trans!.  Pope. 
Sumarokoff,       1718—1777, 

Drama. 
Kheraskoff,        1733—1807, 

'The  Russiad.' 
Kostroff,  d.   1796,  Transl. 

the  Iliad. 
Petroflf,  1736— 1799,  Transl. 

the  Eneid. 
Kniajnin,    1742—1794, 

Drama. 
J.  Khemnitzer,  1744—1784, 

Fables. 

Klushin,  Comedies. 
EphimiefT,  Comedies. 
AblesimofT,  Operas. 
G.  R.  Derjavin,  1743—1810, 

Lyric  Poetry. 
H.    Bogdanovttch,    1743— 

1803,'  Dushenka,'  Poems 
Vizin,   1745—1792,    Come 

dies,  Tales. 
Nicoleff,  Tragedies. 


1700  KhilkofT,  History  of  Russia. 
V.     Tatischeff,     d.     1750, 
Chronicles  of  Russia. 


Cherbatoff,  History. 
Golikoif,  History. 


1700  Theophanes,  Se:mons, 


Plato,  1737—1812,  Sermon* 

P.  S.    Pallas,    1741—1811, 
Natural  History. 


MuravieflT,  1757—1816,  His 

lory,  Didactics. 
Euge'nius,  History. 


1800  MaikofT,  Comic  Poems. 
Dmitrieff.  Lyrics.  Fables. 
OzerofT.  d.  1816.  Tragedies. 
P.     Sumarokoff,     Poems, 

Tales. 
V.   A.  Jukofski,    b.    1783, 

Poems. 

Milonoff.  d.  1821,  Satires. 
Batiushkoff,  Transl.  Tibul 

lus. 
Gneditch,     Transl.     Iliad, 

Odes. 
KrylofT,  Fables. 


1800  Karamsin,  b.  1765,  History 

of  Russia.   ' 
Kachenofski,  History. 
G.  Glinka,  History. 


Kotzebue,  Voyage  of  Dis 

covery. 
Gretch,  History  of  Russian 

Literature. 
Timkowski,    Journey    to 

China. 


1800  Shishkoff,  CriticMm. 


Augustin.  Sermoo*. 


700 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


ARABIAN,  PERSIAN,  AND  TURKISH. 
P.  Persian.      T.  Turkish.      Those  unmarked  are  Arabian. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

PEGU  L  ATI  VB    AND   8C.BKT7I   8 

BOC  Mahomet,  Koran. 

NO 

XX) 

Lehid,  &&—  757,  Poems. 

Zohair,  Poems. 

Aharun,  Medicine. 

Kais  E.  Ameri,  or  Amrul- 

kais,  Poems. 

700 

700 

00  Jafar.  Chemistry. 

Abu  Hanifah,  699—767,  Thft- 

ology. 

Abun  Massab,  Poems. 
Abunowas.702  —  810,  Poems. 

Kehashi.  Poems. 

A>.u  Obeid,  d.  838,  Fables. 

Muham.  ben  Omar,  History. 

800 

800 

SOO  Asmai,  740—530,  Theology. 

Kendi,  Philosophy. 

J.  ben  Serapion,  Medicine. 

Almamon,       Astronomical 

Tables. 

Bahali,  d.  835,  Etymology. 

Alfragan,  Astronomy. 

A.Temain,804—  845,  Poems. 

Nasir  Khosru.  Metaphys. 
Albumazar,   805—835,    Ma- 

thematics, Astronomy. 

Wahab,  Travels. 

Bochari,     810—870,     '  Tlw 

Abuzeid,  Travels. 

Sahih,'  Traditions. 

I.  Kotaibah,  d.  889.  History. 

Abu  Jafar,  838—922,  Hist. 

Bochteri,  821—882,  Anthol. 

Honain  ben  Isaac,    d.  874, 
Translations  from  Greek. 

Geber,  Chemistry. 

Abu  Mohammed  Abdallah, 

Literature. 

900  Ibn  Doraid,  d.  931,  Poems. 

900 

900  Albategni,  Astronomy. 

Rases,  d.  922,  Medicine. 

Ben  Musa,  Mathematics. 

Almotanabbi,  d.  %5, 

Azophi,  Astronomy. 

Poems 

Said  ben  Batrik,  876—937, 

General  History. 

Eutychius,  History. 

Massudi,  d.  957,  History 

and  Geography. 

Alfarabi,  d.  954,  Aristo- 

telian Philosophy. 
Geuhari,  d.  998,  Aristo- 

Ibn Haukal.  Geography. 

telian  Philosophy. 

T.  1000  Ferdusi,  932—1020, 
'Shah  Nameh,'  Epk 

1000  Almuyadad,  History  of 
Saracens  in  Sicily. 

1000  Achmet,  Treatise  on 
Dreams. 

Poem. 

Ibn  Mesua,  Medicine. 

Avicenna,  960-  1038, 

Philosophy,  Medicine 

Abu!  Ola,  973—1057, 

Poems. 

Abulcasis,  Medicine. 

Jelaleddin,  Correction  of 

Calendar. 

Arzachel,  Astronomy. 

LITEEAET  CHRONOLOGY— ARABIAN,  PERSIAN,  AND  TURKISH.        701 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

PECtTLATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1100  Tograi,  d.  1119,  Poems. 

100 

100  Gazali,1058—  1112,  Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Alhazin,  Optics. 

Hairi,  1054—1121,  Moral 

Tabrizi,  d.  1136,  Commen- 
taries. 

Poems. 

P.      Peleki,  d.  1181,  Poems. 
P.      Khakani,  d.  1186.  Poems. 

Algazet,  Antiquities,  &c. 
Ben  Idris,  6,  1099,  Geog. 

Alchabit,  Optics.  Astron. 
A  Zohar,  d.  1168,  Medic. 

P.       Anwari,  d.  1200,  Poems. 

Averroes,  d.  1206,  Aristo- 

Jaafai ebn  Tofail,  ,1.  1198, 

telian  Philosophy. 

'Hal  ben  Yokdan,'  a 

Novel. 

I.  Elfaredh,d.l234,  Poems. 

1200 

1200  Bohadin,  Life  of  Saladin. 

1200  A.  Baca,  d.  1219,  Arithm. 

Abdollatif  ,  Topography  of 

Eg.vpt. 

Abuldem,  d.1244,  History. 

P.      SaadL  1193—1291,  '  Gulis- 

El  Haravvi,  Travels. 

Caswin  d.  1274,  Natural 

tan,1  'Bostan.' 

History. 

Beithar,  d.  1246,  Botany, 

Medicine. 

Elfaragi,  Poems. 

Abulfarage,  1226—1286, 

Universal  History. 

Elmacin,  d.  1302,  History 

of  Saracens. 

P.      Nasireddin,  1201—1273, 

Astronomy. 

P.      Fadlallah,  History  of  Mo- 

guls. 

1300 

1300  Abulfeda,  1273—1333, 

1300  E.  Hajan,  d.  1344,  Gran. 

Geography.  History. 

Novairi,  ({.1331,  Universa' 

History. 

Mohammed  Ibn  Batuta, 

Travels. 

Ibn  al  Wardi,  d.  1358, 

Geography. 

Abu  Shameh,6.1299.  Hist 

P.      Turan  Shah,  rf.1377.  Hist 

P.      Hafix,  d.  1395,  Odea. 

Jafei,  d.  1868,  Biography 

Firuzabadi,     1329—1414, 

'  The  Camoos.' 

1401 

P.  1400  Ali  Yezdi  Sherifeddin 

1400  Zeineddin    Abulhassan, 

Life  of  Tamerlane. 

Dictionary. 

Makrizi,  1367—1438,  Hist. 

THug  Beg.  1303—1444, 

Arabohah,  d.  1460,  Life  o 

Astronomy,  Chronology. 

Timur. 

Baccai,d.l480,  Biography 

Babacushi,  d.  1481, 
Politics. 

P.      Khondemir,  or  Mirkhond 
Gen.  Hist,  to  A.  D.  1474 

V.      Jand,  d,  1486,  Poems. 

T.      Baber.  d.  1530,  Autobio- 
graphy. 

1500  Alhassan,  Description  o 

15^ 

Africa. 

Jabacushi,  d.  1  566.  Morali. 

Al  Jannabi,  d.  1590,  Uni 

versa!  History. 

702 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


1HAO1NAT.  !)JJ. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC, 

1800 

1600  Ferishta,  Hist,  of  India. 
Abulgazi,  1600—1663,  Hist, 
of  Tartars. 
T.      Haji   Khalifeh,  d.   1675, 
History. 

P.  1600  Nured.  Shirazi,  Metaph. 
Moham.  Hossain,  >  Borhani 
Kata,'  Dictionary. 

iroo 

P.  1700  Gholam    Hussein,   An- 
nals of  Hindostan. 

1700  Gholam  Ali,  Grammar. 

UNITED   STATES   OF   NORTH  AMERICA. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIEXTIFIO. 

1600 

1600 

1600  Thomas  Hooker,  d.  1627, 

Sermons,  <fec. 

Wm.  Hubbard,  1704,  Hist. 

John  Cotton,  d.  1652,  Theol. 

of  Massachusetts. 

Cotton   Mather,   1662-1728, 

Sermons,  '  Magnalia,'&c. 

'  00  John   Adams,    1705—1740, 

1700  Inc.  Mather,  1723.  'History 

1700  Benj.   Colman,  d.   1747, 

Poems. 

of  War  with  Indians.' 

Theology. 

Benj.  Church,  1739—1776, 

Thos.  Prince,  d.  1757,  Hist. 

Jona.  Edwards,  d.  1757, 

Poems. 

of  New  England. 

Theolosy. 

Wm.    Livingston,    1723— 

Samuel  Danes,  d.  1761, 

1790,  Poems. 

Sermons. 

John  Trumbull,  1750-1831, 

John    Clayton,  d.    1773, 

'  McFingal,'  &c. 

Botany. 

Joel     BarTow,    1755—1812, 

Cadwallader  Colden,  1688- 

'  The  Columbiad.' 

1776,  History  of  the  Five 

Nations  of  Indians. 

John  Blair  Linn,  1777  — 

John   Bariram,  d.  1777, 

1804,  Poems. 

Botany,  Travels. 

Thos.  Hutchinson,  d.  1780, 

Jos.    Bellamy,   d.  1790, 

Hist,  of  Massachusetts. 

Theology. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  1706  — 

T.  Dwight,  Conquest  of  Ca- 

1790,Natural Philosophj, 

naan,  &c. 

Politics.  &c. 

Jas.  Oiis.  d.  1783,  PoHtica. 

John    Hancock,    1793, 

Politics. 

John  Witherspoon,d.  1794, 

Theolosv,  Politics. 

Patrick   Henry,  d.  1796, 

David  Rittenhouse,  d.  1796, 

Politics. 

Astronomy. 

Samuel   Adams,   1803, 

Jeremy  Belknap,  1798,  His- 

Politics. 

tory  of   N.   Hampshire. 

Samuel   Hopkins,   1721— 

Amer.  Biog.  &c. 

1803,  Theology. 

Geo.  R.  Minot,  1802,  '  Hist. 

Fisher  Ames,  d.  1808, 

of  Massachusetts  Bay.' 

Politics. 

Isaac  Backus,  1806,  Church 

History  of  N.  England. 

1900  Clias.   B.  Brown,  d.  1810, 

1800  Jas.  Sullivan,  d.  1809,  Hist. 

1800  Thos.    Paine,    1737—  18091 

Novels. 

of  Maine.    . 

Politics,  'Age  of  Reason,' 

Robt.  Treat  Paine,  1773— 

'Rights  of  Man,'  &c. 

1811,  'Invention  of  Let- 
ters,' 'The   Ruling  Pas- 

David    Ramsay,    d.   1812, 
'Life    of    Washington,' 

Jos.    S.    Buckmtnster,   d 
1812,  Theology. 

«on,  and  other  Poenu.   I             'American    Revolution,' 

Alex.    Hamilton,  1757  — 

'Universal  History.' 

1804,  Politics. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY V.   S.   OF    NORTH    AMERICA. 


703 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE    AND    SCIENTIFIC. 

1800  Paul    Allen,      1775—1826, 

1800  Alexander  Wilson,  d.  1813. 

800 

'  Noah,'  (a  poem,)  [Hist. 

'American  Ornithology.1 

of  Am.  Re  vol.] 

Hugh  Williamson,  d.  1818, 

Hist,  of  N.  Carolina. 

Benj.  S.    Barton,  d.   1815, 

Botany. 

j 

Gouverneur  Morris,  17KZ- 

1816,  Politics. 

Timothy    Dwight,    17C&-- 

1817,  '  Theology  Explain- 

ed and  Defended.' 

Levi    Frisbie,    1784—1822, 

Moral  Philosophy. 

Wm.  Pinckney,  1764-1822, 

Wm.  Bartram,  d.  1823, 

Law,  Politics. 

Botany,  Travels. 

Jno.  Marshall,  1755—1835, 

Jedediah  Morse,  d.  1826, 

Law 

Gcog.,  Statistics,  &c. 

W.  E.    Channing,    1780— 

J.  G.  C.  m-atnsrd.  d.  1826, 

1842,  Sermons,  Criticism. 

Nathl.  H.   Carter,    1788— 

Thomas   Jefferson,  1743— 

1830,  '  Letters  from  Eu- 

1826, Politics,  Philos. 

rope.' 

John    Adams.    1735—  182f>, 

Wm.   Wirt,   1772—  1834, 

Edmund  D.  Griffin,  1804— 

Politics. 

'British  Spy.' 

1830,  Travels  in  Europe, 

John    M.     Mason,     D.  D. 

Lectures   on  Literature. 

1770—1829,     Divinity, 

&c. 

Sermons,  &c. 

John  D.   Godman,  d.  1830, 

John  II.   Hobart,  D.  D., 

Anatomy,  Natural  Hist., 

1776-1830,  Sermons,  <tc. 

&c. 

Jos.    Story,   1779—1845, 

Robt.   C.  Sands,    d.   1832, 

John  Marshall,  1755—1835. 

Law. 

Poeiiis. 

Life  of  Washington,  &c. 

Henry  Wheaton,  1782- 

J.  Q.   Adams,   1767—1847, 
Poems. 

Jno.  Armstrong,  1758-1843, 
'War  of  1812.' 

1848,  Law.      History. 
Edw.     Livingston,    1764— 

Washington  Allston,  1779- 

Abiel   Holmes,  1763—1837, 

1836,  Criminal  Code,  <fcc. 

1843,  Painter,  Poet,  and 

Annals  of  America. 

David  Hosack,  1769—1835, 

Novelist. 

Timothy  Flint,  1780—1340, 

Medicine. 

Timothy  Flint,  1780—1840 

Hist,  of  Mississ.  Valley. 

Jas.   Madison,    1751—1836, 

Novels. 

A.  S.  Mackenzie,       —.349, 

Politics. 

Jas.   A.   Hillhouse,  1789— 

Travels  in  Spain,  &:. 

1841,  Poems. 

Wm.  Legsett,   1802—1840, 

Alex.  H.    Everett,  1790— 

Poems,  Miscellan.,  Polit. 

1847,  Essays. 

R.  II.  Wilde,  1789—1847, 

R.    HVirlan,    .796—1843, 

Poems,   Researches    on 
Tasr>,  &c. 

Natural  History. 
James    Kent,    1763—1847. 

Comment,  on  Am.  Law. 

Hugh    S.    Legare,    1797- 

1843,  Miscellanies. 

Jas.  Marsh,  1794-1842,  Me- 

taphysics. 

E.  A.  Poe,  1811-1849,Poerrs 
Tales. 
J.  F.  Cooper.  17S9—  1851 
Novels,  &c. 

Albert  Gallatin,  1761-184& 
Ethnology,  Philology. 
J.  C.  Calhoun,  178&-l8n 
Politics,  Speeches. 

HEATHEN  DEITIES,  AND  OTHER  FABULOUS  PERSONS, 


WITH   THE 


HEROES  AND  HEROINES  OF  ANTIQUITY. 


Atari's,  a  Scythian,  priest  of  Apollo. 
Abeo'na,  a  goddess  of  voyages,  &c. 
Abreta'nus,  a  surname  of  Jupiter. 
A'firon,  a  very  voluptuous  Grecian. 
Aby'la,  a  famous  mountain  in  Africa. 
Acan'lha,  a  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo. 
Acas'tus,  the  name  of  a  famous  hunter. 
Ace'/us.  one  of  the  priests  of  Bacchus. 
Achtv'm'mes,  the  first  king  of  Persia. 
Acha'tes,  a  trusty  friend  of  ^Eneas. 
Ach'eron,  a  son  otvritan  and  Terra,  changed  into 


jEo'us,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  ths  tun. 
jEscula'nus,  a  Roman  god  of  rir,h»«. 
j£$cula'pius,  the  god  of  phy.t/^ 
jEthat'idcs,  a  son  of  mercury. 
jE'thon,  one  of  the  lour  horses  of  the  sun. 
sEt'naMs,  a  title  of  Vulcan. 
jEto'los,  a  son  of  Endymion  aud  Diana. 
Agamem'non,  a  brother  of  MenelauSj 

captain-general  of  the  Greeks  .«,  t_»A  .^ege 

of  Troy. 
Aganip'pe,  daughter  of  the   river  Permessus, 

which  flows  from  mount  Helicon. 
Age'nor,  the  first  king  of  Argos. 


a  river  of  hell  lor  assisting  the  Titans  in  their.  Ageno'ria,  the  goddess  of  industry, 
war  against  Jupiter.  j  A^clas'tun  and  Agesi'laus,  names  of  Pluto. 

Achil'les,  son  of  Peleus,  king  of  Thrace,  and,  Agla'ia,  one  of  the  three  Graces. 

Thetis,  a  goddess  of  the  sea.  who,  being  dip-j  A'jaz,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  princes  and 
ped  by  his  mother  in  the  river  Styx,  was  in  heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 

vulnerable   in  every  part  except  his  right]  Alku'nea,  a  famous  sybil  of  Tripoli, 
heel,  by  which  she  held  him ;  alter  signafiz-  A/ci'des,  a  title  of  Hercules, 
ing  himself  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  for  his  valor,  Alci'nous,  a  kiiig  of  Corcyra. 


as  well  as  cruelty,  he  was  at  length  killed  by 

Pans  with  an  arrow. 
Acid'alia  and  Armafla,  names  of  Venus. 
Acida'lits,  a  famous  lonniain  of  Bosotia. 
A'cis,  a  Sicilian  shepherd,  killed  by  Polyphemus, 

because  he  rivalled  him  in  the  affections  of 

Galetea. 

Ac'mon,  a  famous  king  of  the  Titans. 
Ac'ra/us,  the  genius  of  drunkards  at  Athens. 
A  ''tabon,  a  celebrated  hunter,  who,  accidentally 

discovering  Diana  bathing,  was  by  her  turned 

into  a  stag,  and  devoured  by  his  own  hounds. 
Adme'tus  a  king  of  Thessaly. 
Adu'nis,  the  incestuous  offspring  of  Cinyras  and 

Myrrha,  remarkably   beautiful,  beloved  by 

Venus  and  Proserpine. 
Adras>tea,  the  goddess  Nemesis. 
JE'rtcws,  one  of  the  infernal  judges. 
JE'ga,  Jupiter's  nurse,  daughter  of  Olenus. 
jEge'iis,  a  king  of  Attica,  giving  name  to  the 

JEsenn  sea  by  drowning  himself  in  it. 
JSei'na,  a  particular  favorite  of  Jupiter. 
jE'gis.  a  Gorgon,  whom  Pallas  slew. 
jE'gle.  one  of  the  three  Hesperides. 
jflffon,  &  wrestler  famous  for  strength. 
Aleyp'tus,  son  of  Neptune  and  Lybia. 
jEVlo,  one  of  the  three  Harpies. 
jEne'as,  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus. 
jEo'lus,  the  god  of  the  winds 


Alct'oneus,  a  giant  slain  by  Hercules. 
Alci'ope,  a  favorite  misiress  of  Npptune. 
Alcme'na,  the  wife  of  Amphiiryon. 
Alec'tn,  one  of  the  three  Furies. 
Alec'tryorii  or  Gal'tus,  a  favorite  of  Mara 
Al'mus,  and  Alum'nus,  titles  of  Jupiter. 
Alo'a,  a  festival  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 
Alat'us,  a  giant  who  warred  with  Jupiter. 
Amalttue'ti,  the  goat  that  suckled  Jupiter. 
Amliarcafle,  a  spring  sacrifice  to  Ceres. 
Ambro'sia,  the  food  of  the  gods. 
Amtmon.  a  tille  of  Jupiter. 
Ampltiarafuf,  son  of  Apollo  and  Hypermnestrai 

a  very  famous  augur. 

Amphime'don,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penel  »f  ». 
Amp/ii'un,  a  famous  musician. 
Amphitrine,  the  wile  of  Neptune. 
Amyntor,  a  king  ol  Epirus. 


ing 

odd 


Ana'tis,  the  goddess  ol  prostitution. 

Anccz'us,  a  king  of  Arcadia. 

Andro'gnus,  the  son  of  Minos. 

Androm'ache,  the  wife  of  Hector. 

Androm'eda.  the  daughter  of  C'epheus  and  Ca»- 
Biope,who,  contending  for  the  prize  of  beauty 
with  the  Nereides,  was  by  them  oound  to  a 
rock  and  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  a  sea 
monster  ;  but  Perseus  slew  the  monster,  anrf 
married  her. 

Ange'rona,  the  goddess  of  silence. 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    E*iO. 


705 


An'na,  the  sister  of  Pygmalion  and  Dido. 
Aiitte'as.  a  giant  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra ;  he 

was  squeezed  to  death  by  Hercules. 
An'teros.  one  01  ihe  names  of  Cupid. 
Anteverfta,  a  goddess  of  women  in  labor. 
An't/tia.  and  Argi'ya,  titles  of  Juno. 
An'ubis,  an  Egyptian  god  with  a  dog's  head. 
Aon'ide.!,  a  name  of  th«  Muses. 
Apatu'ria,  and  Aphrodi'tis,  lilies  of  Venus. 
A'pis,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe,  called  also, 

Serapis,  and  Osiris :    he    first    taught    the 

Egyptians  to    sow  corn   and    plant  vines ; 

alter  his  death  they  worshipped  him  in  the 


form  of  an  ox,  a  symbol  of  husbandry. 

Anch'ne,  a  Lydian  princess,  turned  by  Minerva 
into  a  spider,  lor  presuming  to  vie  with  her 
at  spinning. 

Arethu'sa,  the  daughter  of  Nereus. 

Argenti'nus,  and  JEscula'nus,  gods  of  wealth. 

Ar<go,  the  ship  that  conveyed  Jason  and  his  com- 
panions lo  Colchis,  and  reported  to  have  been 
the  first  man-of-war. 

Argonauts,  the  companions  of  Jason. 

Ar'gus,  son  of  Aristor,  said  to  have  had  a  hun- 
dred eyes ;  also  an  architect,  who  built  the 
ship  Argo. 

Ariad'ne,  daughter  of  Minos,  who,  from  love, 
gave  Theseus  a  clue  of  thread  to  guide  him 
out  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth :  being  after- 
wards deserted  by  him,  she  was  married  to 
Bacchus,  and  made  his  piies'«ss. 

Arimas'p'  a  warlike  people  of  Scythia. 

Ari'on,  a  .yric  poet  of  Methymna. 

Aristcefus,  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene. 

Aristome'nes,  a  cruel  Titan. 

Anstoph'anes,  a  comic  poet,  born  at  Lindus,  a 
town  of  Rhodes.  * 

Arte'mis.  '.he  Delphic  sybil ;  also  Diana. 

Ascle-pia  festivals  of  ./Esculapius. 

Asco'lia,  feasts  of  Bacchus,  celebrated  in  Attica. 

Aste'ria,  daughter  of  Ceus. 

Astrap&'us,  and  Ataby'rua,  Jupiter. 

AsircK'a,  the  goddess  of  justice. 

Astrol'offits,  a  title  of  Hercules. 

Asty'anax,  the  only  son  of  Hector. 

Aslypalcb'a.  daughter  of  Phoenix. 

A'te,  the  goddess  of  revenge. 

AtUtn'tes,  a  savage  people  of  Ethiopia. 

At'las,  a  king  ol  Mauritania. 

At'ropos,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 

Aver'nus,  a  lake  on  the  borders  of  heu 

Averrunc'us.  a  god  of  the  Romans. 

Auge'as,  a  king  of  Elis,  whose  stable  01  3000 
oxen  was  not  cleansed  for  30  years,  yet  Her- 
cules cleansed  it  in  one  day. 

A'nistuper,  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Au'rea,  a  name  of  Fortuna. 

Auro'ra,  the  goddess  of  morning. 

Auto'lean,  a  general  of  the  Crotonians. 

Autum'nus,  the  god  of  fruits. 


Bac'chus,  the  god  of  wine. 

Bap'ta,  the  goddess  of  shame 

Barbafta,  a  title  of  Venus  and  Fortuna. 

Bas'sareus.  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Bat'tus,  a  herdsman,  turned  by  Mercury  into  a 
loadstone. 

Bau'cis,  an  old  woman,  who.  with  her  husband 
Phi'emon,  entertained  Jupiier  and  Mercury, 
travelling  over  Phrygja,  when  all  others  re- 


i  Bettero'phan,  son  of  Glaucus,  klig  »f  Ephyra, 
who  underwent  numberless  h.  rdshlps  frt 
refusing  an  intimacy  with  Stnenoboea,  th« 
wife  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos. 

Bello'na,  the  goddess  of  war. 

Berecyn'thia  'Ma'ler,  a  title  of  Cybele. 

Bereni'ce,  a  Grecian  lady,  who  was  ths  only 
person  of  her  sex  permitted  to  see  the  Olym- 
pic games. 

Ber'gion,  a  giant,  slain  by  Jupiter. 

Bib'lia,  the  wife  of  Duillius,  who  first  instituted 
a  triumph  for  naval  victory. 

Bi'ceps,  and  Bi'frons,  names  of  Janus. 

Bisul'tor,  a  name  of  Mars. 

Bi'thon,  a  remarkably  strong  Grecian. 

Boli'na,  a  nymph  rendered  imirortal  for  hot 
modesty  and  resistance  of  Apoilo. 

Bo'na  De'a.  a  title  of  Cybele,  and  Fortuna. 

Bo'nus  Dai'mon,  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Bo'reas,  son  of  ^Estra?us  and  Heribeia,  generally 
put  for  the  north  wind. 

Bre'vis,  a  title  of  Fortuna. 

Bri'areus,  a  monstrous  giant,  son  of  Titan  and 
Terra :  the  poets  feign  him  to  have  had  a 
hundred  arms  and  fifty  heads. 

Bri'mo,  and  Bu'bastis,  names  of  Hecate. 

Brisefis,  daughter  of  Brises,  priest  of  Jupiter, 
given  to  Achilles  upon  the  taking  of  Lyr- 
nessus,  a  city  of  Troas,  by  the  Greeks. 

Bron'les,  a  maker  of  Jupiter's  thunder. 

Bro'theus,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  who  threw  himself 
into  mount  JEtna.  on  account  of  his  de- 
formity. 

Bruma'lia,  feasts  of  Bacchus. 

Bubo'na,  the  goddess  of  oxen. 

Bust'ris,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  a  most  cmel 
tyrant ;  he  was  slain  by  Hercules. 

Byb'lis,  the  daughter  of  Miletus. 


Cabar>ni,  priests  of  Ceres. 

Cabi'ri,  priests  of  Cybele. 

Ca'brus,  a  god  of  the  Phaselitae. 

Ca'cus,  a  son  of  Vulcan. 

Cad'mus,  son  of  Agenor  and  Telephessa,  who, 
searching  in  vain  for  his  sister,  built  the  city 
of  Thebes,  and  invented  16  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet. 

Cadu'ceus,  Mercury's  golden  rod  or  wand. 

Co/ca,  and  Conserva'trix,  titles  of  Fortuna. 

C&c'ulus,  a  robber,  son  of  Vulcan. 

Cai'neas,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

Cal'chas,  a  famous  Greek  soothsayer. 

Caiis'to.  the  daughter  of  Lycaon. 

Cclli'ope,  the  muse  of  heroic  poetry, 

Calyp'so,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Thetis,  wfcn 
reigned  in  the  island  of  Ogygia.  where  sa« 
entertained  and  became  enamored  of  Ulys- 
ses, on  his  return  from  Troy. 

Cam'bies,  a  gluttonous  king  of  Lydia. 

Camby'ses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  and  king  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians. 

Camtz'na,  and  Carna,  goddess  of  infanta. 

Ca'nes,  a  title  of  the  Furies. 

Cano'pus,  an  Egyptian  god. 

Cor'aua,  a  household  goddess. 

Carmen'ta,  a  name  of  Themis. 

Car'na,  a  Roman  goddess. 

Carya'tis,  a  title  of  Diana. 


fused 


30* 


Cas'pii,  a  people  of  Hyrcania,  who  were  s/iid  « 
starve  their  parents  to  death  when  70  yean 
|        old.  and  to  train  up  dogs  for  war. 


706 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Cfusan'dra.  a  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba, 

endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  by  Apollo. 
Castai'iUts,  the  Muses,  from  the  fountain  Cas- 

talius,  at  the  loot  of  Parnassus. 
Casftor, son  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  between  whom 

and  his  brother  Pollux  immortality  was  al- 
ternately shared. 

Ca'tius,  a  tutelar  god  to  grown  persons. 
Ce'crups,  i he  first  king  of  Athens. 
Ceiit'no,  one  of  the  three  Harpies. 
Cen'laurs,  children  of  Ixion,  half  men,  half 

horses,  inhabiting  Thessaly. 
Cepha'lus,  the  son  ol  Mercury  and  Hersa. 
Cvpheus,  a  prince  of  Arcadia  and  Ethiopia. 
ijerau'nius,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 
Get 'berths,  a  dog  with  three  heads  and  necks, 

who  guarded  the  gilss  of  hell. 
Utrca>lia,  festivals  in  honor  of  Ceres. 
Ce'res,  the  goddess  of  agriculture. 
(Je'rus,  or  Xe'rua,  the  god  of  opportunity. 
Chol'cea,  festivals  in  honor  of  Vulcan. 
Char'ites,  a  name  of  the  Graces. 
Cha'ron,  the  ferryman  of  hell. 
CM'mera,  a  strange   monster  of  Lycia,  which 

was  killed  by  Bellerophon. 
Chi'ron,  the  preceptor  of  Achilles. 
Chro'mis,  a  cruel  son  of  Hercules 
Chrysao'rius,  a  surname  of  Jupiter. 
Chry'sis,  a  priestess  of  Juno  and  Argos. 
Ci'r'ce,  a  famous  enchantress. 
Ci~'rtia,  a  cavern  of  Phocis,  near  Delphi,  mhenre 

the  winds  issued  which  caused  a  divine  rage, 

and  produced  oracular  responses. 
Cithcb'rides,  a  title  of  the  Muses. 
Clau'sina,  a  name  of  Venus. 
ClauJsius,  or  Clu'sius,  a  name  of  Janus. 
Cleo'medes,  a  famous  wrestler. 
Cli'o,  the  Muse  presiding  over  history,  and  pa- 

tro/iess  ol  heroic  poets. 
Clo'tho,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 
Clytemnes'lra,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Leda, 

killed  by  her  son,  Orestes,  on  account  of  her 

adultery  with  Jigislhus. 
Cocy'tus,  a  tiverof  hell,  flowing  from  Styx. 
Culli'na,  the  goddess  of  hills. 
Compita'lia,  games  of  the  household  gods. 
Co'mus,  the  god  of  festivals  and  merriment. 
Concor'dia,  the  goddess  of  peace. 
Conserta'tor,  and  Cus'tos,  titles  of  Jupiter. 
Con'sus,  a  title  of  Neptune. 
Corti'na,  the  covering  of  Apollo's  tripos. 
Coryban'les,  and  Cuff'tis,  Tiests  o'  f'ybele. 
Cre'on,  a  king  of  Thebes. 
Cn'n/s,  a  priest  of  Apollo. 
Crinis'sus,  a  Trojan  prince,  who  could  change 

himself  into  any  shape. 
Orae'sMs,  a  rich  king  of  Lydia. 
Cro'nia,  festivals  in  honor  of  Saturn. 
Ctea'ibus.  a  famous  Alheriian  parasite. 
Ou'niu,  the  goddess  of  new-born  infants. 
Cu'piil.  son  of  Mars  and  Venus,  the  god  of  love, 

eniiles.  &c. 
Q^clops,  Vulcan's  workmen,  with  only  one  eye 

in  (he  middle  of  their  forehead. 
Cyb'ele,  the  wife  of  Saturn. 
Vyc'iius.  a  king  of  Liguria;  also  a  son  of  Nep- 
tune, who  was  invulnerable. 
f}yUe'nius,  and  C'amil'lus,  names  of  Mercury. 
Cynoceph'ah,  a  people  of  India,  said  to  have 

heads  resembling  those  jf  dogs. 
Uyn'iliiii.  and  Cyn'ttiius,  Diana,  and  Apollo. 

oarjtsa'a,  a  title  of  Minerva. 

y'rio,  Cythere  «,  lilies  of  Venus. 


D&danion,  the  son  ol    ,ucifer. 

Dad'alus,  an  artificer  of  Athens  w  ho  formed  th< 
Cretan  labyrinth,  and  invented  the  auger, 
axe,  glue,  plumb-line,  saw,  and  masts  and 
sails  lor  ships. 

Da'mon,  the  sincere  friend  of  Pythias. 

Dcb'mon,  Bo'nus.  Dithyram'bus,  anc  Dionyaf- 
iun.  titles  ol  Bacchus. 

Da'nae,  the  daughter  ol  Acrisius,  king  of  ArgO8 
seduced  by  Jupiter  in  the  form  of  a  golden 
shower. 

Duna'ides,  or  Be'lides,  the  fifty  daughters  'if. 
Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  all  ol  whom.  excerK 
Hypermnestra,  killed  their  husbands,  i  he  so.is 
ol  their  uncle  ^gyptus,  on  the  marrnge 
night :  they  were  therefore  condemned  tt 
draw  water  out  of  a  deep  well  witli  sieves, 
so  that  their  labor  was  without  end  or  suc- 
cess. 

Daph'ne,  a  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo. 

Darda'nus,  the  lounder  of  Troy. 

Da'res,  a  very  ancient  historian  who  wrote  an 
account  of  the  Trojan  war. 

De'a  Syr'ia,  a  title  of  Venus. 

Dec'ima,  a  title  of  Lachesis. 

Deian'ira,  the  wife  of  Hercules. 

Deida'mia,  a  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  king  of 
.  Scyros,  by  whom  Achilles  had  Pyrrhus. 
while  he  lay  concealed  in  woman's  apparel 
in  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  to  avoid  going  to 
the  Trojan  war. 

Deiape'a,  a  beautiful  attendant  on  Juno. 

Deiph'obe,  the  Cumean  sybil. 

Deiph'obus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

De'lia,  Del'ius,  Diana  and  Apollo. 

De'las,  the  island  where  Apollo  was  born. 

Del'phi,  a  city  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a  temple 
and  an  oracle  of  Apollo. 

Del'phicus,  DidymaSus,  titles  of  Apollo. 

Dem'ades,  an  Athenian  orator. 

Der'bices,  a  people  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  who 
punished  all  crimes  with  death. 

Deuca'tion.  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king  of  Thes 
saly,  who,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  was  pre 
served  from  the  general  deluge,  and  re-peo 
pled  the  world. 

Dever'ra,  the  goddess  of  breeding  women. 

Diag'oras,  a  Rhodian,  who  died  lor  joy,  because 
his  three  sons  had  on  the  same  day  gained 
prizes  at  the  Olympic  games. 

Dia'na,  the  goddess  of  hunting.  &c. 

JJi'dn.  daughter  of  Belus,  the  lounder  and  queen 
of  Canhage,  whom  Virgil  fables  to  hav« 
burnt  herself  through  despair,  because  ^Ene- 
as left  her. 

Di'es.  and  Dies'piter,  titles  of  Jupiter. 

Din'dyme,  Dindyme'ne,  titles  ol  Cybele. 

Diom'edea,  a  king  of  ,/Etolia,  who  gained  grew 
reputation  at  Troy,  and,  accompanied  by 
Ulysses,  carried  off  the  Palladium;  »ln  t 
tyrant  of  Thrace. 

Di'one,  one  of  Jupiter's  mistresses. 

Dionys'ia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 

Dioscu'ri,  a  title  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Di'rcb,  a  title  ol  the  Furies. 

Dis,  a  title  of  Pluto. 

Discor'dia,  the  goddess  of  contention. 

Itniiiiilu'i'ii.  a  title  of  J iii'n 

JJomidu'cus,  and  Domi'tius,  nuptial  god*. 

Dom'ina,  a  title  of  Proserpine. 

JJry'adt*.  nymphs  of  the  woods  and  fin 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


707 


K 

EcM'on,  a  companion  of  Cadmus. 

Et'lio,  daughter  of  Aer  and  Tellus,  who  pined 

away  for  love  of  Narcissus. 
Edon'id*s,  priestesses  of  Bacchus. 
Etlii'ca,  a  gcddess  of  new  born  infants. 
Egr:'ria,  a  title  sf Juno;  also  a  goddess. 

E/ec'tra,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly 
temnestra.  who  instigated  Orestes  to  reveage 
their  father's  death  on  their  mother  and  her 
adulte.or  ^Egisthus. 

£Vfu.9,  and  Eleuthe'rfse,  titles  of  Bacchus. 

Klsusin'ia,  leasts  in  honor  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
pine. 

Elo'ides,  nymphs  of  Bacchus. 

Empu'stK,  a  name  of  the  Gorgons. 

Endym'ion,  a  shepherd  of  Caria,  who,  for  inso- 
lently soliciting  Juno,  was  condemned  to  a 
sleep  of  30  years ;  Luna  visited  him  by  night 
in  a  cave  of  mount  Latmus. 

Enia'lius,  a  title  of  Mars. 

En'yo,  the  same  as  Bellona. 

Epeus,  the  artist  of  the  Trojan  horse. 

Epig'ones,  the  sons  of  the  seven  worthies  who 
besieged  Thebes,  a  second  time. 

Epi/ai'nea,  sacrifices  to  Bacchus. 

Ejiistro'phia,  and  Ery'cina,  titles  of  Venus. 

Ejiizepk'rii,  a  people  of  Locris,  who  punished 
those  with  death  that  drank  more  wine  than 
physicians  prescribed. 

Era'/u,  the  muse  of  love-poetry. 

Er'ebus,Ai\  infernal  deity,  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox; 
a  river  of  hell. 

Er'eane,  a  river  whose  waters  inebriated 

Eriotfio'nius,  a  king  of  Athens,  who,  being  lame 
and  very  deformed  in  his  feet,  invented 
coaches  to  conceal  his  lameness. 

Erin'nys,  a  common  name  of  the  furies. 

E'ros,  one  of  the  names  of  Cupid. 

Kros'tratus,  the  person  who,  to  perpetuate  his 
name,  set  fire  to  the  celebrated  temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Ete'ocles,  and  Poly'nices,  sons  of  CEdipus,  who 
violently  hated,  and  at  last  killed  each  other. 

Evad'ne,  daughter  of  Mars  and  Thebe,  who 
threw  herself  on  the  funeral  pile  of  her  hus- 
band Cataneus,  from  affection. 

Bitc'rates,  a  person  remarkable  fa  shuffling,  du- 
plicity, and  dissimulation. 

h  umin'ides,  a  nan.i  <» ' '.he  Furies. 

fi-tn/iror'yni;,  one  of  the  three  Graces. 

ctM-u'pa,  the  daughter  of  Agenor,  who,  it  is  said, 
was  carried  by  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  white 
Dull,  into  Crete. 

Eui-y'dJe,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

JJuryd';  ce,  the  wife  of  Orpheus. 

Eurym^.-i."..  an  infernal  deity. 

Euler'pe,  t..?  muse  presiding  over  music. 

Euthy'mus,  a  very  famous  wrestler. 


Feb'rua,  Flor'ida,  Fluo'nic,  titles  of  Juno, 

Fe/i'rua,  a  goddess  of  purification. 

Feb'ruus,  a  title  of  Pluto. 

Feli'cilus,  the  goddess  of  happiness. 

Fer'culus,  a  household  god. 

Fere'trius,  and  Fulmina'lor,  titles  of  Jupiter. 

Fero'nia,  a  goddess  of  woods. 

Fesso'nio,  a  goddess  of  wearied  persons. 

Fid'ius,  the  god  of  treaties. 

Flam'ines,  priests  of  Jupiter,  Mars,  <tc. 

F/o'rn.  I  he  goddess  of  flowers. 

Fiuvia'tes,  or  Potamides,  nymphs  of  rivers. 

For'nax,  the  goddess  of  corn  and  bakers. 

Fortu'na,  or  For'lune,  the  goddess  of  happineaa^ 
&c..  said  to  be  blind. 

Fu'ries,  or  Eumen'ides,  the  three  dai .*  hters  ol 
Nox  and  Acheron,  named  Alecto,  Meg.-era, 
andTisiphone,  with  hair  composed  of  snakes, 
and  armed  with  whips,  chains,  <fcc. 


F 

Fab>ula,  the  goddess  of  lies. 

Fahtili'nns,  a  rod  of  infants. 

Fa'ma,  the  goddess  of  report,  &c. 

Fas'cinum.  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Fates,  the  three  daughters  of  Nox  and  Erebus. 

Cloihos.   I.achesis,    and    Atropos,  intrusted 

with  the  lives  of  mortals,  <fcc. 
Fau'na.  and  Fat'ua,  names  of  Cybele. 
Fau'iius,  the  son  of  Mercury  and  Nox,  and  la- 

tht.T  of  the  Fauns,  rural  gods. 


O 

Galate'a,  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  passion- 
ately beloved  by  Polyphemus. 

Gal'ii,  castrated  priests  of  Cybele. 

Gal'lus.  or  Alec'trion,  a  favorite  of  Mars,  and 
changed  by  him  into  a  cock. 

Game'lia,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Gan'ges,  a  famous  river  of  India. 

Qany'mede,  the  cup-bearer  of  Jupiter. 

Geltisi'nus,  the  goif  of  mirth  and  smiles. 

Geto'ni,  a  people  of  Scyihia,  who  used  to  pain! 
themselves  in  order  to  appear  more  terrible 
to  their  enemies. 

Ge'nii.  guardian  angels. 

Ge'nius,  a  name  of  Priapus. 

Ger'yan,  a  king  of  Spain,  who  fed  his  oxen  with 
human  flesh,  and  was  therefore  killed  by 
Hercules. 

Glaiico'pis,  a  name  of  Minerva. 

Glau'cus.  a  fisherman  made  a  sea  god  by  eating 
a  certain  herb  :  also  the  son  of  Hippolochus, 
who  exchansed  his  arms  of  gold  for  the  bra- 
zen ones  of  Diomede 

Gnos'sis,  a  name  of  Ariadne. 

Gor'dius,  a  husbandman,  but  afterwards  king  ol 
Phryeia,  remarkable  for  tyingaknotofcordS 
on  which  the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so 
very  intricate  a  manner,  that  Alexander  the 
Great,  unable  to  unravel  it,  cut  it  to  pieces. 

Gordons,  the  three  daughters  of  Phorcys  and 
Ceia.  Medusa,  Euryale,  and  Stheno,  who 
could  change  into  stone  those  whom  they 
looked  on ;  Perseus  slew  Medusa,  the  prin- 
cipal of  them. 

'orgoph'orus,  a  title  of  Pallas. 
'ra'ces,  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne,  tho 
daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Eurynomb;  atten- 
dants on  Venus  and  the  Muses. 

Gradi'nis,  a  title  of  Mars. 
'•y'ees.  a  Lydian,  to  whom  Candaules,  king  of 
Lydia.  wowed  his  queen  naked,  which  so 
incensed  her  that  she  slew  Candaules,  and 
married  Gyges;  also  a  shepherd,  who  by 
means  of  a  ring  could  render  himself  invi- 
sible. 

H 

ffa'des,  a  title  of  Pluto. 

Hamaxo'bii,  a  people  of  Scythia,  who  lived  in 

carts,  and  removed  from  place  to  place  u 

nee  «ssity  required. 


708 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Harmi'nis,  a  famous  artist  of  Troy. 

ffarpal'yca,  a  very  beautiful  maid  of  Argos. 

Haiyies,  three  monsters,  Aello,  Celceno,  and 
Ocypete,  with  the  faces  of  virgins,  bodies  of 
vultures,  and  hands  armed  with  monstrous 
claws. 

Harpoc1 'rates,  the  Egyptian  god  of  silence. 

He'oe,  the  goddess  of  youth.     . 

He'brus.  a  river  in  Thrace. 

he'calius,  a  title  given  to  Jupiter  by  Theseus. 

ffec'ate,  Diana's  name  in  hell. 

Hec'tor,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  the 
most  valiant  of  all  the  Trojans. 

ffec'uba,  the  wii'e  of  Priam. 

Ifege'sius,  a  philosopher  of  Gyrene,  who  de 
scribed  the  miseries  of  life  with  such  £ 
gloomy  eloquence,  that  many  of  his  auditors 
killed  themselves  through  despair. 

Ffel'ena,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  the  most  beauti- 
ful woma;  in  the  world  who,  running  away 
with  Paris,  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Hel'enus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

Hel'icon,  a  famous  mountain  of  Bceotia,  dedi- 
cated to  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

ffera'ia,  sacrifices  to  Juno. 

Hei-'cules,  the  son  of  Jupiler  and  Alcmena,  re- 
markable for  his  numerous  exploits  and 
dangerous  enterprises. 

fferibe'ia,  the  wile  of  Astreus. 

Her'mcK,  statutes  of  Mercury. 

Her'mes,  a  name  of  Mercury. 

Hermt'one,  a  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  mar- 
ried to  Cadmus;  also  a  daughter  of  Mene- 
laus and  Helena,  married  to  Pyrrhus. 

tfe'ro.  a  beautiful  woman  of  Sestos,  in  Thrace, 
priestess  of  Venus;  Leander,  of  Abydos, 
loved  her  so  tenderly  that  he  swam  over  the 
Hellespont  every  night  to  see  her;  but  being 
at  length  unfortunately  drowned,  she  threw 
herself  into  the  sea,  through  despair. 

Iferod'otus,  a  very  famous  historian  of  Halicar- 
nassus. 

Heroph'i/a,  the  Erythraean  sybil. 

Hersili'a,  the  wife  of  Romulus. 

Hea'perus,  or  Vesper,  the  evening  star. 

Hesfperides,  the  daughters  of  Hesperus ;  JEg\e, 
Areihusa,  and  Hesperethusa,  who  had  a  gar- 
den bearing  golden  apples,  watched  by  a 
dragon,  which  Hercules  slew,  and  bore  away 
the  fruit. 

He'sus,  a  name  of  Mars  among  the  Gauls. 

IfifSpias,  a  philosopher  of  Elis. 

ffijntoc-im'pi,  Neptune's  horses. 

Ilifi'/iucTene^  a  fountain  at  the  botton"  >f  mount 
Helicon,  dedicated  to  Apollo. 

Ilippol'ytus,  the  son  of  Theseus  and  Antiope  or 
Hyppolite,  who  refused  intimacies  with  his 
stepmother  Phsedro.  At  the  request  of 
Diana,  jEsculapius  restored  him  to  life, 
after  he  had  been  thrown  from  his  chariot, 
and  dragged  through  the  woods  till  he  was 
torn  in  pieces. 

Hinpi'na.  the  goddess  of  horses  and  stables. 

Hi  ttc'riaj  the  goddess  of  history. 

tJvrtm'sis,  a  name  of  Venus. 

tiii'r-ts,  a  title  of  the  sun. 

Hos/ili'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Uy'ades,  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
jEthra;  Ambrosia,  Eudora,  Coronis,  Pasi- 
thee,  Plexaris,  Pytho,  and  Tyche.  They 
were  chanzed  by  .Tupiter  into  seven  stars. 

tfy'Wo,a  mountain  in  Sicily,  universally  famous 
Tor  its  thyme  an 


ffy'dra,  a  serpent,  which  had  seven  heads,  or  a* 
some  say  nine,  others  fifty,  killed  by  Iiercu 
les  in  the  lake  Lerna. 

Hyge'ia,  the  goddess  of  health. 

IJyl'lus,  the  son  of  Hercules  and  Dejnnire. 

Hy'men,  the  god  of  marriage. 

llype'rion,  a  sun  of  Coelus  and  Terra. 

uyptiptyle,  a  queen  of  Lemnos,  who  was  ban- 
ished for  preserving  her  father  when  all  :hi 
other  men  of  the  island  were  murdered  t>r 
their  kindred. 


lac'chus,  a  name  of  Bacchus. 

lan'the,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Iphis. 

laps' tus,  a  son  of  Ccelem  and  Terra. 

lar'bas,  a  cruel  king  of  Mauritania. 

Ica'rius,  the  son  of  Oebalus,  who,  Vaving  re- 
ceived from  Bacchus  a  bottle  of  wine,  went 
into  Attica,  to  show  men  the  use  of  it:  but, 
making  some  shepherds  drunk,  they  thought 
he  had  given  them  poison,  and  therefore 
threw  him  into  a  well. 

Ica'rus,  the  son  of  Daedalus,  who,  flying  with  hia 
father  out  of  Crete  into  Sicily,  and  soaring 
too  high,  melted  the  wax  of  his  wings,  and 
fell  into  the  sea,  thence  called  the  Icarian 
sea. 

Fda,  a  mountain  near  Troy. 

Idcb'a  Mater,  a  name  of  Cybele. 

Id(b'i  Dact'yli,  a  priest  of  Cybele. 

Ida'lia.  a  name  of  Venus. 

Id' man,  a  famous  soothsayer. 

Idu'thea,  Jupiter's  nurse. 

lli'one,  i  he  eldest  daughter  of  Priam. 

ttis'sus,  a  river  in  Attica. 

1'lus,  the  son  of  Tros  and  Callirrhoe,  from  whom 
Troy  was  called  Ilium. 

Impera'tor,  a  name  of  Jupiter. 

In'achis  and  1'ses,  names  of  lo. 

I'no,  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Hermiones,  and 
wife  of  Aihamas. 

Intercido'na,  a  goddess  of  breeding  women. 

Interdu'ca,  and  Ju'ga,  names  of  Juno. 

In'uus,  and  Inc'ubus,  names  of  Pan. 

J'o,  daughter  of  Inachus,  transformed  by  Jupi- 
ter into  a  while  heifer;  but  afterwards  re- 
suming her  former  shape,  was  worshipped 
as  a  goddess  by  the  Egyptians,  under  the 
name  of  Isis. 

Inh'idus,  the  twin  brother  of  Hercules. 

Iphige'nia,  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra,  who,  standing  as  a  vicMm  ready 
to  be  sacrificed  to  appease  the  rage  of  Diana, 
was,  by  that  goddess,  transformed  into  a 
white  ban,  carried  to  Tauris,  and  made  bar 
priestess. 

Fphis,  a  prince  of  Cyprus,  who  hanged  himself 
for  love ;  also  a  daughter  of  Lygdas. 

Iph'itus,  son  of  Praxoniites,  wiio  instituted 
Olympic  games  to  Hercules. 

Pris,  the  daughter  of  Thaumas ;  she  was  Juno'i 
favorite  companion,  and  her  messenger  on 
affairs  of  discord,  &c. 

Ptya,  the  son  of  Tereus  and  Progne,  murdered 
and  served  up  by  his  mother  at  a  banquet 
before  Tereus.  in  revenge  for  hi'j  having  vio- 
lated her  sister  Philomela. 

Ixi'on,  the  son  of  Phlegyas,  who  was  fastened  ii 
hell  to  a  wheel  perpetually  turning  round, 
for  boasting  thai  he  had  lain  with  Juno. 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


709 


Janfitor,  and  Juno'nius,  titles  of  Janus. 

ja'nus,  the  first  king  of  Italy,  son  of  Apollo  and 
Creusa. 

Ja'son,  a  Thcssalian  prince,  son  of  jEson,  who 
by  Medea's  help  brought  away  the  golden 
fleece  from  Colchis. 

Jo'casta,  the  daughter  of  Creon,  who  unwittingly 
married  her  own  son,  CEdipus. 

Ju'iw,  the  sister  and  wife  of  Jupiter. 
'u'no,  Infer'na,  a  name  of  Proserpine. 

Juno'nezs,  guardian  angels  of  women. 

J'Jpiter,  a  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops — the  supreme 
deity  of  the  heathen. 

Ju'piter  Secun'dus,  a  name  of  Neptune. 

Ju'piler  Ter'lius,  Infer'nus,  or  Sty'gius,  seve- 
ral appellations  given  to  Pluto. 

Juven'ta,  a  goddess  of  youth. 


La'chfsis,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 
Lacin'ia,  and  Lucil'ia,  titles  of  Juno. 
Lactu<ra,  or  Lactuci'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 
L&strig'oms,  cannibals  of  Italy,  who  roasted 

and  ate  the  companions  of  Ulysses. 
La'ius,  a  king  of  Thebes,  killed  unwittingly  by 

his  own  son,  Oedipus. 
Lafmicb,  a  name  of  the  Gorgons. 
Laoc'oon,  a  son  of  Priam   and  high-priest  of 

Apollo :  he  and  his  two  sons  were  killed  by 

serpems  for  opposing  the  reception  of  the 

wooden  horse  into  Troy. 
La'pis,  or  Lapid'eus,  titles  of  Jupiter. 
La!res,  sons  of  Mercury  and  Lara,  worshipped 

as  household  gods. 
Latera'nus,  a  household  god. 
Laver'na,  a  goddess  of  thieves. 
Lean'der,  see  Hero. 
Le'da,  daughter  of  Thestias,  and  wife  of  Tyn- 

darus,  seduced  by  Jupiter  in  the  shape  of  a 

swan. 

Lemoni'ades,  nymphs  of  meadows,  &e. 
Le'na,,  priestesses  of  Bacchus. 
Ltrftut,  a  marsh  of  Argos,  famous  for  a  Hydra, 

killed  there  by  Hercules. 
Lc'thc,  a  river  of  hell,  whose  waters  caused  a 

total  forgetfulness  of  tilings  past. 
Lsva'niL,  a  goddess  of  new  boni  infants. 
Libiti'na,  the  goddess  of  funerals. 
Li'nus,  son  of  Apollo  and  Terpsichore. 
Lubf.n'tia,  the  goddess  of  pleasure. 
Jsii'cifer,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Aurora,  made  the 

morning  star. 

L^'na,  Diana's  name  in  heaven. 
Luper'calia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Pan. 
Lyper'ci,  priests  of  Pan. 
Lyca'on,  a  king  of  Arcadia,  turned  by  Jupiter 

into  a  wolf. 


M 

Mafia,  loved  by  Jupiter,  and  by  him  turned  into 

a  star  to  avoid  Juno's  rage. 
teanazene'la,  a  goddess  of  women  in  labor. 
Mantwra,  a  goddess  of  com. 
Mantur>na,  and  Me'na,  nuptial  goddesses. 
Man'na,  Mel'anis,  Mer'etrix,  Migoni'tis,  am 

Mur'cia,  titles  of  Venus. 
Mars,  the  god  of  war. 


Waitso'lus,  a  king  of  Caria,  who  had  a  most 
magnificent  tomb  erected  to  him  by  his  wife 
Artemisia. 

Hfede'a,  daughter  of  jEtes,  king  of  Colchis,  a 
famous  sorceress,  who  assisted  Jason  to  ob 
tain  the  golden  fleece. 

MeditrVna,  a  goddess  of  grown  peaeons. 

Medu'sa,  the  chief  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

Mtgcb'ra,  one  of  the  three  Furies. 

Megalen'sia,  festivals  in  honor  cf  Cybele. 

Mega'ra,  the  wife  of  Hercules. 

Melani'ra,  a  name  of  Venus. 

Me'licb,  nymphs  of  the  fields. 

Mc'lius,  a  name  of  Hercules. 

Welo'na,  the  goddess  of  honey. 

Melpom<ene,  the  muse  of  tragedy. 

Mem'non.  a  king  of  Abydos. 

Mena/a'us,  a  famous  Centaur. 

Menela'us,  the  husband  of  Helena. 

Men'tha,  a  mistress  of  Pluto. 

Men'tor.  the  governor  of  Telemachus. 

Mer'cury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  inventor  ol 
letters,  and  god  of  eloquence,  merchandise, 
and  robbers. 
o^e,  one  of  the  seven  Pleiades. 

Mi'das,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who  entertained  Bac- 
chus, or,  as  some  say,  Silenus,  had  the  power 
given  him  of  turning  whatever  he  touched 
into  gold. 

Mi'lo,  a  wrestler  of  remarkable  strength. 

Mimai'lones,  attendants  on  Bacchus. 

Miner'to.,  the  goddess  of  wisdom. 

Mi'nos,  a  king  of  Crete,  made,  for  his  extraordi- 
nary justice,  a  judge  of  hell. 

Min'otaur,  a  monster,  half  man,  half  beast. 

Min'ya,  a  name  of  the  Argonauts. 

Mnemos'yne,  the  goddess  of  memory. 

Mo'mus,  the  god  of  raillery,  wit,  &c. 

Mone'la,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Mor'pheus,  the  god  of  sleep,  dreams,  &C. 

Mors,  the  goddess  of  death. 

Mul'ciber~a.  title  of  Vulcan. 

Mu'ses,  nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemo- 
syne, born  on"  mount  Pierius,  mistresses  of 
all  the  sciences,  presidents  of  musicians  and 
poets,  and  governesses  of  the  feasts  of  the 
gods;  Calliope,  Clio,  Erato,  Euterpe,  Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  Thalia, 
and  Urania. 

Mu'ta,  the  goddess  of  silence. 


N 

Nania,  the  goddess  of  funeral  songs. 
Na'iades,  nymphs  of  the  rivers,  &c. 
Narcis'sus.  a  very  beautiful  youth,  who,  falling 

in  love  with  his  own  shadow  in  the  water, 

pined  away  into  a  daffodil. 
Na'tio,  and  Nundi'na,  goddess  of  infants. 
Namata,  a  country  of  Elis,  famed  for  a  terribi* 

lion  killed  there  by  Hercules. 
Nem'esis,  the  goddess  of  revenge. 
Nep'tune,  the  god  of  the  sea. 
Nereides,  sea  nymphs. 
Ne'rio,  the  wife  of  Mars. 
Ntceph'orus,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 
Ni'nus,  the  first  king  of  trie  Assyrians. 
Ni'obe,  daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  wife  of  An* 

Ehion,  who,  preferring  herself  to  Laion* 
ad  her  14  children  killed  by  Diana  an* 
Apollo,  and  wept  herself  into  a  statue. 
No'mius,  a  name  of  Apollo. 


710 


THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


VOJT,  the  most  ancient  ot  the  deities ;  she  was 
even  reckoned  older  than  Chaos. 


OWsequens,  a  title  of  Fortuna. 

Occtt-Vor,  the  god  of  harrowing. 

Oce'anua,  an  ancient  sea  god. 

Ocyp'ete,  ere  of  the  three  Harpies. 

(Ed'ipus,  son  of  Laius  and  Jocasta,  and  king  of 
Thebes,  who  solved  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx, 
unwittingly  killed  his  falher,  married  his 
mother,  and  at  last  ran  mad,  and  tore  out 
his  eyes. 

Om'phaLe,  a  queen  of  Lydia,  with  whom  Her- 
cules was  so  enamored,  that  she  made  him 
submit  to  spinning  and  other  unbecoming 
offices. 

Of  tr'tus,  a  name  of  Pluto. 

Ojn'gena,  a  name  of  Juno. 

Ops,  a  name  of  Cybele. 

Orbo'na,  a  goddess  of  grown  persona. 

OrKs'tes,  the  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Ori'on,  a  great  and  mighty  hunter. 

Or'p/ieus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope,  who  had 
great  skill  in  music,  and  was  torn  in  pieces 
by  the  Msnades,  for  disliking  the  company 
of  women  after  the  death  of  his  wife  Eury- 
tlice. 

Orythi'a,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons. 

Osi'ris,  see  Apis. 


Pac'lolus,  a  river  of  Lydia,  with  golden  sands 
and  medical  waters. 

P&'an,  and  Phee'bus,  names  of  Apollo. 

Pa'les,  the  goddess  of  shepherds. 

Palil'ia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Pales. 

Pallu'dium,  a  statue  of  Minerva,  which  the 
Trojans  imagined  fell  from  heaven,  and  that 
their  city  could  not  be  taken  whilst  that  re- 
mained in  it. 

Pal'ltis,  and  Py'lotis,  names  of  Minerva. 

Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds. 

Pando'ra,  the  first  woman  made  by  Vulcan,  am! 
endowed  with  gifts  by  all  the  deities  ;  Jupi- 
ter gave  her  a  box  containing  all  manner  of 
evils,  war,  famine,  &c.,  with  hope  at  the 
bottom. 

Pan'ope,  one  of  the  Nereids. 

Pa'phia,  a  title  of  Venus. 

Par'ctK,  a  name  of  the  Fates. 

Par'is,  or  Alexander,  son  of  Priam  and  He- 
cuba, a  most  beautiful  youth,  who  ran  away 
with  Helena,  and  occasioned  the  Trojan 
war. 

ftrnas'sus,  a  mountain  of  Phpcis,  famous  for 
»  temple  of  Apollo,  and  being  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Muses. 

Par'tunda,  a  nuptial  goddess. 

Pastop/t'ori,  priests  ol  Isis. 

Pat'areus,  a  title  of  Apollo. 

Pateti'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

patula'citis,  a  name  of  Janus. 

Patule'ius,  a  name  of  Jupiter. 

Pacen'tia,  and  Poli'na,  goddesses  of  infants. 

Peg'asus,  a  winged  horse  belonging  to  Apollo 
and  this  Muses. 

Pello'nia,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 

fenu'tet  imall  statues  or  household  gods. 


PeneVope,  daughter  of  Icarus,  celebrated  for  hn 
chastity  and  fidelity  during  the  long  absenci 
of  Ulysses. 

Per'seus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  who  per- 
formed many  extraordinary  exploits  by 
means  of  Meilusa's  head. 

Phftcasia'ni.  ancient  gods  of  Greene. 

P/ta'eton,  son  of  Sol  (Apollo)  and  Climene,  who 
asked  the  guidance  of  his  father's  chariot 
.  for  one  day,  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent; 
but  unable  to  manage  the  horses,  set  the 
world  on  fire,  and  was  theiefore  struck  by 
Jupiter  with  a  thunderbolt  into  the  river  Po. 

Phal'tica,  feasts  of  Bacchus. 

Philam'mon,  a  skilful  musician. 

Pailom&'la,  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of  Athens, 
who  was  ravished  by  her  brother-in-law, 
Tereus,  and  was  changed  into  a  nightfti- 
gale. 

Phin'eas,  son  of  Agenor,  and  king  of  Paphla- 
gonia,  who  had  his  eyes  torn  out  by  Boreas, 
but  was  recompensed  with  the  knowledge 
of  futurity ;  also  a  king  of  Thrace,  turned 
into  a  stone  by  Perseus,  by  the  help  of  Me- 
dusa's head. 

Phleg'ethun,  a  boiling  river  of  hell. 

Phle'gon,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  Sol. 

legiya,  a  people  of  Boeotia,  destroyed  by 
Neptune,  on  account  of  their  piracies  and 
other  crimes. 

Phce,'bas,  the  priestess  of  Apollo. 

Ph&'bus.  a  title  of  Apollo. 

PAee'nix,  son  of  Amyntor,  who  being  falsely  ac- 
cused of  having  attempted  the  honor  of  on« 
of  his  father's  concubines,  was  condemned 
to  have  his  eyes  torn  out ;  but  was  cured  by 
Chiron,  and  went  with  Achilles  to  the  siege 
of  Troy. 

Picum'nus,  a  rural  god. 

Pilum'nus,  a  god  of  breeding  womeu. 

Pin'dus,  a  mountain  in  Thessaly. 

Pi't/to,  a  goddess  of  eloquence. 

Ple'iades,  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione;  Mala,  Electra,  Taygete,  Asterope, 
Merope,  Halcyone,  and  Celoeno ;  they  wera 
changed  into  stars. 

Plu'to,  the  god  of  hell. 

Plu'tus,  the  god  of  riches. 

Pol'lux.    See  Castor. 

Pofyd'amas,  a  famous  wrestler. 

Polyd>ius,  a  famous  prophet  and  physician. 

Polyhym'nia,  the  muse  of  rhetoric. 

Polyphe'rmts,  a  monstrous  giant,  son  of  Nep- 
tune, with  but  one  eye  in  the  middle  of  hli 
forehead. 

Pomo')M,  the  goddess  of  fruits  and  autumn, 

Pose'idon,  a  name  of  Neptune. 

Prainesti'na,  a  name  of  Fortuna. 

Pr&s'tes,  a  title  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva, 

Praxit'eles,  a  famous  statuary. 

Pri'am,  son  of  Laomedon,  and  father  of  Paris. 
Hector,  &c  ;  he  was  the  las:  king  of  Troy. 

Prog'ne,  wife  of  Tereus,  king  of  Thrace,  and 
sister  of  Philomela ;  she  was  turned  into  * 
swallow. 

Prome'theus,  son  of  lapetus,  who  animated  a 
man  that  he  had  formed  of  clay,  with  fire, 
which,  by  the  assistance  of  Minerva,  he  stole 
from  heaven,  and  was  therefore  chained  by 
Jupiter  to  mount  Caucasus,  with  a  vulture 
continually  preying  upon  his  livet. 

Propy'ltba,  a  name  of  Hecate. 

Prvs'erpine,  the  wif«  of  Pluto 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


711 


Pro»»et»,  asea god,  who  could  transform  himself 
into  any  shape. 

Psy'che,  a  goddess  of  pleasure. 

Pyl'advs,  the  constant  friend  of  Orestes. 

Pyr'amus,  and  This'be,  two  lovers  of  Babylon, 
who  killed  themselves  with  the  same  sword, 
and  occasioned  the  turning  the  berries  of  the 
mulberry-tree,  under  which  they  died,  from 
while  to  red. 

Pryai'tis,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

Pyr'r/MS,  son  of  Achilles,  remarkable  for  his 
cruelty  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Py't/ion,  a  huge  serpent,  produced  from  the  mud 
of  the  deluge,  which  Apollo  killed,  and  in 
memory  thereof,  instituted  the  Pythian  games. 

Pythonis'sd,  the  priestess  of  Apollo. 


Quad'rifrons,  a  title  of  Janus. 
Qui'ej,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 
Quieta'lis.  and  Quietus,  names  of  Pluto. 
Quinyua'tria,  feasts  of  Pallas. 


Rect'us,  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Re'dux,  and  Re'gia,  titles  of  Fortune. 

Regi'na,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Rkadaman'thus,    one    of    the    three    infernal 

judges. 

Rfie'a,  a  title  of  Cybele. 
Rhe'a-syl'via.  the  mother  of  Romulus. 
Robi'gus,  a  god  of  corn. 
Rom'ulus,  the  first  king  of  Rome. 
Rumi'na,  a  goddess  of  new-born  infants. 
Runci'na,  the  goddess  of  weeding. 
Rusi'na,  a  rural  deity. 


S 

Sabafzia,  feasts  of  Proserpine. 

Sa'lii,  the  12  frantic  priests  of  Mars. 

Salmone'us,  a  king  of  Eiis,  struck  by  a  thunder- 
bolt to  hell  for  imitating  Jupiter's  thunder. 

Sa'lus,  the  goddess  of  health 

Sanc'us,  a  god  of  the  Sabines 

Sator,  and  Sorri'tor,  rural  gods. 

Saturna'lia,  feasts  of  Saturn. 

Satur'nus,  or  Sat'urn,  the  son  of  Cffilus  and 
Terra. 

Sat'yrs.  the  attendants  of  Bacchus,  horned  mon- 
sters, half  men,  half  goats. 

Scy'ron,  a  famous  robber  of  Attica. 

Se'ia,  and  Sege'tia,  goddesses  of  corn. 

Sel'li,  priests  of  Jupiter. 

Sen'ta,  a  goddess  of  married  women. 

Sera'pis.    See  Apis. 

SXt'nus,  the  foster-father  and  companion  of  Bac- 
chus, who  lived  in  Arcadia,  rode  on  an  ass, 
and  was  drunk  every  day. 

Si'mis,  a  famous  robber,  killed  by  Hercules. 

Sis'ypkus,  the  son  of  ./Eolus,  killed  by  Theseus, 
and  doomed  incessantly  to  roll  a  huge  stone 
up  a  mountain  in  hell  for  his  perfidy  and 
numerous  robberies. 

Sol,  a  name  of  Apollo. 

Som'nus,  the  god  of  sleep. 

Sphinx,  a  monster,  born  of  Syphon,  and  Echidna, 
who  destroyed  herajlf  because  CEdipus 
solved  the  enigma  she  proposed. 


Sta'ttt,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 

Sten'tor,  a  Grecian,  whose  voice  is  reported  to 

have  been  as  strong  and  as  loud  as  the  voice* 

of  50  men  together. 
Sthe'no,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons. 
Styx,  a  river  of  hell. 
Sua'da,  a  nuptial  goddess. 
Summa'nus,  a  name  of  Pluto. 
Sylva'nus,  a  god  of  woods  and  fore&ts. 
Syrens,  sea  monsters 


T 

Ta'cita,  a  goddess  of  silence. 

Tanta'lus,  a  king  of  Paphlagonia,  who,  self- 
ing  up  to  table  the  limbs  of  his  son,  Polop*. 
to  try  the  divinity  of  the  gods  was  pluneea 
to  the  chin  in  a  lake  of  hell,  and  doomed  to 
everlasting  thirst  and  hunger,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  barbarity  and  impiety. 

Tarta'rus,  the  place  of  the  wicked  in  hell. 

Tau'rus,  the  bull,  under  whose  form  Jupiter 
carried  away  Europa. 

Telchi'nes,  priests  of  Cybele. 

Telema'chus,  the  only  son  of  Ulysses. 

Tem'pe,  a  most  beautiful  valley  in  Thessaly,  the 
resort  of  the  gods. 

Ter'minus,  the  god  of  boundaries. 

Terpsicho're,  the  muse  of  music,  &c. 

Ter'ror,  the  god  of  dread  and  fear. 

Tha'lia,  the  muse  of  comedy. 

The'mis,  the  daughter  of  Coelum  and  Terra,  the 
goddess  of  laws,  oracles,  &c. 

Thes'pis,  the  first  tragic  poet. 

The'tis,  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  and  god- 
dess of  the  sea. 


Ti'tan,  son  of  Coelum  and  Terra,  and  the  elder 
brother  of  Saturnus.  or  Saturn. 

Tma'rius,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

Tri'ton,  Neptune's  trumpeter. 

TrVtonia,  a  name  of  Minerva. 

Tro'ilus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

Troy,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  famous  for  holding  OM 
a  siege  of  ten  years  against  the  Greeks,  but 
they  at  last  captured  and  destroyed  it. 

Tuteli'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Ty'ro,  one  of  the  Nereids. 


U 

Ulys'ses,  son  of  Laertes  and  Anticlea,  and  king 
of  Ithaca,  who,  by  his  subtlety  and  eloquence 
was  eminently  serviceable  to  the  Greeks  ti 
the  Trojan  war. 

Unx'ia.  a  title  of  Juno. 

Ura'nia,  the  muse  of  astronomy. 


Vacu'na,  the  goddess  of  idle  persons. 
Vagita'nus,  a  god  of  little  infants. 
Valloma,  a  goddess  of  valleys. 
Veni'lia,  a  wife  of  Neptune. 
Ve'nus,  the  goddess  of  love,  and  txauty. 
Vergilf!te,  a  name  of  the  Pleiades. 
Verticor'dia,  a  name  of  Venus. 
Vertum'nus,  the  god  of  ipring. 


712 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


Vea'ta,  Che  goddess  of  fire. 

Viafles,  deities  of  the  highways. 

VtbilHa,  tlie  gotldess  of  wanderers. 

Virgmen'sis,  a  nuptial  goddess. 

Virago,  a  name  of  Astrea  and  Fonune. 

Virj/is,  and  Visca'ta,  titles  of  Fortune. 

Viri'placa,  an  inferior  nuptial  goddess,  who  re- 
conciled husbands  to  their  wives;  a  temple, 
at  liqme,  was  dedicated  to  her,  whither  the 
married  couple  repaired  after  a  quarrel,  and 
returned  together  friendly. 

Vitu'la,  the  goddess  of  mirth. 

Volu'sia,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Puff  can,  the  god  of  subterraneous  fire. 


,  one  of  the  horses  of  Achilles,  born  of 


the  harpy  Celoeno,  a  river  ne&r  Troy.  call** 
also  Scamander. 


Z 

Za'greus,  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Zep/i'yrus,  son  of  ./Eolus  and  Aurora  wuo  pas 

sionately  loved  the  goddess  Flora,  and  is  put 

for  the  west  wind. 
Ze'tes,  and  Ca'lais,  sons  of  Boreas  and  Orythia, 

who  accompanied  the  Argonauta,  ami  UroT« 

the  Harpies  from  Thrace. 
Ze'tus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope,  very  tiptrt 

in  music. 
Ze'us,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PABT  I. 
TABULAR  VIEWS  OF  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 

I.  ANCIENT  CHRONOLOGY — from  the  Creation  to  the  Birth  of  Christ — 4004  years. 
II.  MODERN  CHRONOLOGY — from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  present  time — 1850  years 


I.     ANCIENT    CHRONOLOGY. 
DIVIDED  INTO  EIGHT  PERIODS. 


I.  From  the  Creation, 
to  the  Deluge, 

2-  From  the  Deluge, 

to  the  Call  of  Abraham, 

3  From  the  Call  of  Abraham, 

to  the  Exode  from  Egypt, 

4  From  the  Exode, 

to  the  Kingdom  of  Saul, 

6   From  Saul, 

to  the  Captivity  of  Israel, 

6   From  the  Captivity, 

to  Alexander  the  Great, 

7.  From  Alexander, 


4004 


2348 1656  years The  Antediluvian  Period, 


2348 

1921 427  years. The  Dispersion  Period. 

1921 

1491 430  years The  Patriarchal  Period. 

1491 

1095 396yearo The  Theocratic  Period. 


1095 
588 507  years The  Monarchical  Period, 


330 258  yearn The  Persian  Period. 


330 


to  the  Subjugation  of  Greece,      146 184  years. The  Grecian  Period. 

6   From  the  Subjugation  of  Greece,    146 

to  the  Birth  of  Christ,  0 146  years The  Roman  Period. 


'  From   the  Creation  to  the  Christian   era,  the  dates  are   reckoned   •  o.— 
BEFORE  CHRIST.     They  are  then  changed  to  A.  o.—the  Year  of  our  Lord. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES. 


FIRST  PEKIOD— (the  Antediluvian)— 1656  years. 

B.C. 

1004  THE  CREATION  OP  THE  WOELD— (Hebrew  Pentateuch.}* 

The  fall  of  man  and  the  promise  of  a  Saviour. 

The  birth  of  Cain,  the  first-born  of  woman — a  husbandman. 
rcS75JThe  death  of  Abel,  the  first  subject  of  death.     He  was  a  shepherd. 


8^74 

^eth  born,  the  third  son  of  Adam. 

Enoch  born,  the  first  son  of  Cain.t 

3769 

Enos  born. 

Cain  builds  a  city,  which  he  calls  Enoch.     He  In- 

troduces the  use  of  weights  and  measures.  —  Jo- 

sephus.     Tytler. 

3'!79 

<  'ainan  born. 

Irad. 

36ii9 

Mahalaleel  born. 

Mehujael. 

3544 

Jared               " 

Methusael. 

3382 

Enoch              " 

Lamech  —  polygamy  introduced. 

331  7  (Methuselah     "    (lived  969  years.) 

Jabsl, 

Jubal, 

Tubal-cain, 

Naainah. 

8180 

Lamech           " 

The  first  to 

He  invent- 

He discover. 

She    intio- 

30T4 

Death  of  Adam,  aged  930  years. 

build  a  Tent 

ed  the  Harp 

ed  the  mode 

duced      the 

3017 

Knoch  translated. 

for    habita- 

and the  Or- 

of preparing 

artsof/S[pi7»- 

294S 

Xoah  born. 

tion,  and  to 

gan,  or  wind 

and      using 

ri'ing       and 

24CS 

The  building  of  the  Ark  commenced. 

use  cattle  for 

and  stringed 

iron,    brass) 

Weaving. 

2348 

THE  DELUGE.  [Hales  places  it  315i 

purposes    of 

instruments 

and      other 

B.  C.] 

husbandry. 

of  music. 

Metals. 

*  See  alphabetical  portion  of  this  volume  for  the  various  dates  of  the  chronologists.  The  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch  places  the  Creation  B.  c.  4700;  the  Septuagint,  5872;  Joaephns,  4658; 
the  Talmudists,  5344;  Sculiger,  3950 ;  Petuvius,  39S4;  and  Dr.  Hales,  5411.  The  last  named 
enumerates  above  120  various  opinions  on  this  subject,  the  difference  between  the  latest  and  re" 
inotest  date  of  which  is  no  less  than  3268.  The  Hebrew  account  is  followed  by  Usher,  and  is 
here  adopted  as  the  most  generally  received  standard. 

t  No  dat>>s  are  assigned  in  Scripture  to  the  names  here  placed  in  the  right-hand  column.  They 
»-e,  however,  contemporary  with  those  in  the  other  column. 


THE  TABULAR  VIEWS  ARE  OONTINITKD  ACROSS  TWO  PAGES  AT  THE  SAME  TIME;    BO  TUA» 
CONTEMPORARY  EVENTS  IN  DIFFERENT  NATIONS  MAT  BE  SEEN  AT  A  GLANCE 


716 


THE     V.'OIILDS    PROGRESS. 


SECOND  PERIOD— (Dispersion  of  Mankind )- 


PROSRESS  OF  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


2317 


2247 


Wine  made  by  Noah  from  the  grape. 


Bricks  made,  and  cement  used  to  unite  them. 
Confusion  of  languages  at  Babel. 


stronomical  observations  begun  at  Babylon. 


2347.  The  descendants  oi  Noah  dispersed 
through  the  earth :  those  of  Shem  probably 
in  .Via.  of  J  lain  in  Africa,  and  of  Ja[  her  » 
Europe. 

2347.  The  curse  pronounced  upon  the  descend 
ants  of  Ham. 

2247.  The  building  of  Babel.* 

2245.  BABYLON  founded  by  Nimrod,  son  o( 
Gush,  uml  Grandson  of  Ham. 

NINEVEH   founded  by  Ashur,  son  oi 
Shem. 


2122  Athotes  (son  of  Menes)  invents  hieroglyphics. 


2100  Sculpture  and  Painting  employed  to  com- 
memorate the  exploits  of  Osymamlyas. 

2095  Pyramids  and  Canals  in  Egypt.    The  science 
of  Geometry  begin  to  be  cultivated. 


1>W  Ohing  Hon?  teaches  (he  Chinese  the  art  of 
Husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making 
Bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice. 


1996.  Abraham  bom. 


1921.  The  call  of  Abraruun. 


+  The  cnronology  here  adopted  is  that  of  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch.  The  Samaritan  |n»coi 
*abel  531  years  after  the  deluge.  Our  knowledge  of  Grecian  chronology  begins  in  776  B.  o. 
—the  first  recorded  Olympiad.  Till  then  wo  give  the  most  approved  mythological  dates. 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 

427  years. — The  Deluge  to  Abraham. 


PROFANE  HISTORY.—  (/n  this  period  traditional  and  uncertain.) 

ASIA. 

AFRICA. 

EunoFB. 

2207  CHINA.  The  first  imperial 
dynasty  of  Hia  begins.  Fphi 
(who  is  perhaps  Nnah  him- 
self) is  mentioned  as  the  first 
Chinese  monarch. 


2124  Belus  reigns  in  BABYLON.— 
[Some  suppose  Belus  10  be 
the  Nimrod  of  Scripture.  If 
BO,  there  is  a  discrepancy  of 
121  years  be'ween  the  sacred 
and  profane  chronologies.] 
The  orisin  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  and 
of  the  Assyrian  empire,  is 
variouslystaied  by  the  chron- 
ologists.  See  Sacred  Hist.] 


2069  Ninus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in 

Nineveh. 
2059  He  establishes  the  ASSYRIAN 

EMPIRE. 


2017  Serniramis  enlarges  and  embel- 
lishes Bahylon^  and  makes  it 
tfie  seat  of  empire.  [By  others 
placed  2107  u.  c.] 


WE  Semiramis  invades  Lybia,Ethi' 
opi-s,  and  India. 


M37  The  Arabs  seize  Nineveh.  (7) 


2188.  Misraim  (Mcnes),  the  son 
of  Ham,  builds  Memphis,  in 
EGYPT,  and  begins  the  E- 
gyptian  monarchy. 


2111.  THEBES  founded  by 
Btisiris. 

.2100.  psymandyas,  the  first 
warlike  kins,  passes  into 
Asia,  and  conquers  Bactria. 


2085.  Egypt  conquered  by  the 
shepherd  kings  of  Phenicia, 
who  hold  it  260  years. 


2089.  SICYON.  the  first  kir-f- 
dom  of  GREECE,  founded 
by  Egialus,  or  Inachus. 


21M8.  A  colony  of  Pheniclam 

land  in  Ireland.  (?) 
2042.  Uranus  arrives  in  Greeco 


193S   Lake  Moeris  constructed.) 


Revolt  of  the  Tttaiw 
War  of  the  Giant* 


718 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 

THIRD  PERIOD— (The  Abrahamic  or  PatriarM.}- 


PKOORESS  OF  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


i920  Gold  and  silver  first  mentioned  as  money. 


589) 


1822 


1582 
1580 


1534 


lsX)6 
l»97 


119) 


Letters  first  used  in  Egypt  by  Syphoas. 


Mention  invents  the  Egyptian  alphabet. 


Atlas,  the  astronomer. 

The  chronology  of  the  Amndelian  marbles 

begins. 
The  cymbal  used  at  the  feasts  of  Cybele. 


Dancing  to  music  introduced  by  Curetes. 
Book  of  Job  written  about  this  time.  (?) 


Tbejlute  invented  by  Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian. 
Amphictyon   eives  interpretation   to  dreams 

and  draws  prognostics  from  omens. 
Ericthoneus  teaches  the  Athenians  husbandry. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


THE  JEWS. 


1921.  Abraham  called. 

1920.  — goes  into  Egypt. 

1912.  —delivers  Lot  from  captivity,  a:id  r« 

ceivesthe  blessing  of  Melchizedec. 
1909.  Ishmael  born. 
1897.  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  destroyed. 

God  renews  his  covenant  with  Abraham. 
1890.  Isaac  bom. 

1871.  Abraham  commanded  to  offer  Isaac  in 

sacrifice. 
1856.  Isaac  married. 

1836.  Jacob  and  Esau  born. 
1824.  Abraham  dies,  aged  172. 

1759.  Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel. 
1739.  His  name  changed  to  Israel. 

1729.  Joseph  sold  into  Egypt. 

1715.  Is  made  governor  under  Pharaoh. 

1706.  Jacob  arid  his  family  settle  in  Egypt. 

1702.  End  of  the  seven  years'  famine. 

1699.  Death  of  Jacob. 

1635.  Death  of  Joseph. 


1577.  Israelites  persecuted  in  Egypt. 
1574.  Aaron  born. 
1571.  Moses  born. 


1531.  Moses  flees  into  Midian. 
1513.  The  supposed  era  of  Job. 


1491.  God  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  butt 
at  Horeb,  and  sends  him  to  Egypt  to  uelivei 
the  Israelites. 

The  Ten  Plagues  in  Egypt. 
Institution  or  the  Passover. 
The  EXODUS  of  the  Israelites   from 
Egypt. 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


719 


Abraham  to  Moses. — (430  years.) 


PROFANE  HISTORY.—  (Still  fabulous  or  uncertain.) 

EUROPK. 


I7C6 


China.    The  2d  Imperial  dy- 
nasty begins. 


AFRICA. 


1618.  Sesostris  reigns  in  Egypt. 

1556.  Uameses-Miamum  reigns 
in  Egypt. 


1856.  Inachin,  the  Pheniciar> 
plants  a  colony  in  ARGOS. 


1807.  Phoronona  reigns  ii 
Argos. 

1764.  Ogyges  reigns  in  Boeotia. 

1707.  Apis,  king  ol  Argos. 

1732.  The  Ogygean  Deluge  in 
Attica. 

1711.  The  city  of  Argos  built 
by  Argus,  the  son  of  Niobe. 

1710.  A  colony  of  Arcndians 
emigrate  into  Italy  umlei 
CEnotrus. — CEnotria  after- 
wards called  Magna  Grecia. 

1641.  Criasus  succeeds  h-* 
father,  Argus. 


1556.  ATHENS    founded   \\ 
Cecrops. 


1552.  Triopas.  king  of  Argo* 
The  kingdom  divided,  Poly 
caon  reisning  in  Messenia. 

1546.  TROY  (bunded  by  SCA 
mander. 

1529.    Deluge  of  Deucalion  ii\ 

Th'essaly. 

1520.  Corinth  founded. 
1516.  Sparta  founded,  and  th« 

kingdom  of  Lacunia,  or  La 

cedemon. 
1507.  The  Areopagus  establish 

ed  in  Athens. 
1506.  Crotopas  succeeds  to  thi1 

throne  of  Argos. 
1504.  Deucalion  arrives  in  At 

tica. 

The  kingdom  of  Mess* 

nia  commenced  by  Polyraon 
1493.    THEBES    in     Uoeotia 

founded  by  Cadmus,  a  Phe 

nician,  who  introduce  thf 

alphabet  inu  Greece. 


720 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


FOURTH  PERIOD.— (The  Mosaic  or  Theocratic)— 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


1430 
i486 


Crockery  made  by  the  Egyptians  and  Greek; 
Ericthonius  introduces  the  first  chariot. 

The  fabulous  or  traditionary   Hermes-Trit 
megistus  placed  about  this  period. 


1453 


1370 
1356 


Bacchus,  god  of  wine. 


Olympic  Games  first  celebrated  m  Greece. 
Apollo,  god  of  music  and  poetry. 


Bucklers  used  in  single  combat  invented  by 

Proetus  and  Acrisius  of  Argos. 
Eleusinian  mysteries  instituted  by  Eumol- 

pus. 


1284 
1263 
1263 


1240 


1824 


Orpheus  and  Linus,  sons  of  Apollo,  skilled 

in  music. 
The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  built  by  the 

council  of  Anij)hictyons. 
Jason  leads  the   Argonautic  expedition;  the 

first  naval  expedition  on  record. 


Musctus,  a  poet. 


The  axe  wedge,  wimble  and  lever,  also  masts 
and  sails  for  sivips  invented  by  Daedalus  of 
Athens. 


The  game  of  Backgammon  invented  by  Pa  la- 
in ides  of  Greece 


1491.  Departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypl 
The  law  given  at  Mount  Sinai. 


1471.  Rebellion  of  Koran,  Dathan,  and  Abtraos 

1453.  Aaron  dies. 

1451.  Moses  writes  the  Pentateuch,  and  dies 

1451.  Israelites  enter  Canaan  under  Joshua. 


1443.  Joshua  dies. 

1405.  Oihniel  judges  Israel. 

1390.  The  tribe  of  Benjamin  *Imoit  ext  net. 


1343.  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  enslaves  Israel. 
1325.  Ehud  kills~Eglon,  and  delivers  Israel. 
1317.  Shamgar  kills  600  Philistines  with  ai 

ox  goad. 

1305.  Israel  subdued  by  Jabin,  king  of  Canswn. 
1285.  D'-jorah  and  Barak  defeat  the  Canaan- 

ites — Sisera  killed  by  Jael. 


1252.  I«rael  enslaved  by  the  Midiantes 
1249.  Gideon,  with  3011  men,  defeats  t'.ie  Mi 
dianitea. 


1209.  Ahimelrch  judses  Israel 
1206.  Tola  judges  Israel. 


1103  Jair,  judge  of  liraeL 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
396  years. — Moses  to  Saul. 


721 


PROFANE  HISTORY.— {Still  uncertain.^ 


Uardanus,  kng  of  Troy,  builds 
Dardania. 


Ericthonius  reigns  in  Troy. 


Cuehanrishathaim,  king  of 
Mesopotamia.  (See  Scrip- 
tu-'t.) 

Teucer,  king  of  Troy. 


Troas,  king  of  Troy. 
Ilus,  son  of  Troas,  founder  of 
Ilium. 


Laomedon,  king  of  Troy. 
Phenicia:  TYRE  founded. 

Second     Assyrian     Dynasty : 

Mithreaus  or  Ninus  II. 
Troy  taken  by  the  Argonauts. 


Hercules  arrives  in  Phrygia. 
Argon,  a  descendant  of  Hercu- 
les, first  king  of  LYUIA. 
Priam,  king  of  Troy. 
Tautanas.  king  of  Assyria. 


The  TROJAN  WAR  begins. 
Troy  taken,  408  years  before 

the  1st  Olympiad. 
Teutaeus,  king  ot  Assyria. 
Trojans  migrate  into  Italy. 


31 


AFRICA. 


1491.  Pharaoh  and  his  army 
drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 

1485.  Egyptus  reigns,  and 
gives  name  to  the  country. 


1376.  Sethos  reigns  in  Egypt 


iS3.  Carl 
Tyrians 


H?e  foundel  by  the 


Sthenelus  reigns  in  Argoa. 


1474.  Danaus  usurps  the  king- 
dom of  Argos. 

1463.  Danmonii  invade  Ira- 
land. 

1457.  The  kingdom  of  Mycene 
begins  under  Perseus,  late 
king  of  Argos. 

1453.  Olympic  games  first  ce- 
lebrated at  Ells. 

1438.  Pandion  begins  to  reign 
at  Athens. 

1400.  Minos  reigns  in  Crete. 

1397.  CORINTH  becomes  a 
kingdom  under  Sisyphus. 

1383.  Ceres  arrives  in  Attica. 

1376.  The  Isthmian  games  in- 
stituted. 

1356.  Eleusinian  mysteries  in- 
troduced. 


1283.  jEgeus  reigns  in  Attica. 

1266.  Oedipus,  king  of  Thebes. 

1263.  The  Argoriautic  Expe- 
dition. 

1257.  Theseus  unites  the  cities 
of  Attica  under  one  govern- 
ment. 

1243.  The  Arcadians  conducted, 
by  Evanderinto  Italy. — Mu 
saeus,  a  poet. 

1239.  Latinus  reigns  in  Italy 


1225.  First  Theban  War- 
Euristhenes  and  f'roclts 
kings  of  l.acedemon. 

1222.  Hercules  celeb.aies  the 
Olympic  Raines. 

1216.  War  of  ihe  Epi^omi  or 
2d  Theban  War. 

1213.  Helen  carried  off"  by 
Theseus,  is  recovereJ  by 
Castor  anil  Pollux, and  mar- 
ries Menelaus. 

1204.  Helen  elopes  with  Paris. 
1 1S2.  .iEneas  lands  in  Italy. 
1176.     Salamis     founJeil     by 

Teucer. 
1170.  Epirus:  Pyrrhus  Neon- 

to'«"nus. 


722 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Fourth  Period. — ( The  Mosaic  or  T/teocratic.}— 


PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


THE  JEWS. 


I  la 

1  (X 


Mariner's  compass  said  to  be  known  in 
China.  (1) 

A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  contain- 
ing 40,000  characters,  completed  by  Pa-out- 
she,  (?) 


1161.  Israel  enslaved  by  the  Philistines  ant 
Ammonites. — Samson  born. — Eli  judges  a 
portion  of  Israel. 

1143.  Jepluha  defeats  the  Ammonites,  and 
becomes  judge  of  a  part  of  Israel. 


1136.  Samson  slays  1000  Philistines  with  the 
jawbone  of  an  ass. 


1117.  Death  of  Samson  and  Eli. 
1116.  Samuel,  the  last  judge  of  Israel. 


1096.  The  Philistines  defeated  at  Ebenezer. 
1095.  Establishment  of  the  HEBREW   MO 
NARCHY.— Saul  anointed  king  of  Israel 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


396  years. — (Continued.) — Moses  to  Saul. 


PROFANE  HISTORY.—  (Still  fabulous  or  uncertain.) 


AFRICA. 


EUROPE. 


1152.     Alba-Longa    built    bj 
Ascanius. 


1141 
1139 


1122 


1109 


Temple  of  Ephesus  burnt  by 

the  Amazons. 
Thinaeus,  king  of  Assyria. 


China : — 3d  dynasty; — Tchcoo. 


Dercylus,  king  of  Assyria. 


1124.  JSoliari  migration. 

THEBES,  the  Capital  of 
Bceotia,  founded. 


1104.  Return  of  the  Heraclulse. 
— End  of  the  kingdom  of 
Mycene. 


724 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


FIFTH  PERIOD.— (The  Monarchical.}-- 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


THE  JEWS. 


1015 


Minos  give*  his  tow*  to  Crete. 


1095.  Saul,  King  of  Israel. 


1085.  David  born. 


1062.  David  kills  Goliath. 

1055.  Death  of  Saul.  Dajpd  reigns  in  Hebron 
over  Judah ;  Ishboshfl'th  .retailing  in  Maha- 
naiin.  over  eleven  tribes. 

1048.  Ishbosheth  slam.  David  made  king 
over  all  Israel. 


1043.  David  subdues  the  Philistines,  Moab- 
ites,  Syrians,  and  extends  his  dominions  to 
the  Euphrates,  on  the  East,  the  Reel  Sea,  on 
the  South,  and  Lebanon,  on  the  North. 


1036.  Solomon  born. 

1023  Revolt  and  death  of  Absalom. 

1014.  Conspiracy  of  Adonijah. 

1015.  Solomon  crowned  in  the  presence   of 
David. 

1016.  David  dies. 

1012.  Solomon  lays  the  foundation  of  the 
temple. 

1004.  DEDICATION  OF  SOLOMON'S 
TEMPLE. 

1000.  Solomon  extends  his  commerce,  in  con- 
nection with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  to  India, 
via  Red  Sea,  and  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlan- 
tic,  via  Straits  qt  Gibraltar  :  builds  Tad- 
mor  (Palmyra)  in  the  desert,  Baalbec.  and 
other  cities. 


985.  He  is  seduced  into  idolatry  by  his  wivei 
975.  — dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Rehoboam. 


JUDAH. 

975.  Rehoboam,  king. 
971.  Shishak  plunders 

the  temple. 
958.  Abijah,  king. 
955.  Asa,  king. 
954. 
963 


ISRAEL. 
Jeroboam,  king. 


Nadab,  king. 
Baasha,  king. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
507  years. — Said  to  Cyrus. 


725 


I  Oil 


9SC 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


ASIA. 


The  Ionian   emigrants   settle 
in  Asia  Minor. 


Alliance  between  Solomon  and 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre. 


Samoa  built. 


SUskak  plunders  Jerusalem. 


EUROPE. 


1088.  End  of  the  kingdom  oi 

Sicyon. 
1070.  Heremon,  from  Gallicia, 

conquers  Ireland. 
1069.  Codrus  devotes  himseli 

for  Athens. 
1060.     Athens    governed    by 

Archons. 


Alliance  between  Solomon  and 
Pharaoh. 


986.  Utica  built. 


978.  Sesac,  (Shishak  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  supposed  Sesos- 
tris,)  king  of  Egypt. 


976.   Capyr     reigns  in     k  h« 
Longa. 


726 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


Fifth  Period.— (The  Monarchical.}— 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY  AND  TUB  ARTS. 


THE  JEWS. 


Breastplates  invented  by  Jason. 


Homer's  poems  brought  into  Greece. 
Lycurgus  reforms  the  constitution  of  Sparta. 
Gold  and  silver  coined  by  Phidon,  tyrant  of 
Argos. 


Prophecies  of  Jonah. 


Carpets  in  use  for  tents. 

The  Corinthians  employ  triremes  or  vessels 

with  three  banks  ot  oars. 
First  recorded  Olympiad  and  beginning  of 

authentic  chronology  in  Greece. 
Sculpture  first  mentioned  in  profane  history— 

an  Egyptian  an. 


I!  ic  first  eclipse  of  the  moon  observed  by  the 
Chaldeans  at  Babylon. 

The  Buddha  religion  introduced  by  Gautama 
into  India. 


Roman  Calendar  reformed.  The  year  divided, 
12  months  insteadof  10  as  before. 

Augurs  instituted  bv  Numa. 

Iambic  verse  introduced  by  Archilocus,  Tyr- 
t<eus}  and  Evander,  poets. 

Chess  invented 


JUDAH. 

942.  Asa  defeats  Ze- 
rah,  king  of  Ethio- 
pia, wiih  a  million 
of  men. 

941.  — makes  a  league 
with  Benhadad,  king 
of  Syria. 


ISRAEL. 


930.  Elah,  king. 
929.  Zimri,  king. 
Omri,  king. 
918.  A -tab,  king. 


914.         Jehoshaphat, 
king. 

907.  Benhadad,  king  ol 
Syria,  besieges  Sa- 

18.    Jehoshaphat    as-    maria,  but     is    re- 
sists Ahab.  pulsed. 
894.  War  with  Moab. 
'.  Jehoram,  king. 

897.  Ahaziah,  king. 
896.  Jehoram,  king. 
895.  Elijah  translated. 

884.  Ahaziah,  king.      884.  Jehu,  king. 

Athaliah,  queen ; 

usurps  the  throne.     856.  Jehoahaz,  king. 
878.  Jehoash,  king. 


The  Prophet  Jo-  841-  Jehoash,  king. 
nah  825.  Jeroboam,  king. 

839.  Amaziah,  king.     784.  Interregnum. 
810.  Azariah,  king.       7?3.  Zachanah,  king. 

Shalium,  king. 
772.  Menahem,  king. 
770.    Pul  invades    Is 
rael,  and  is  bribed 
to  depart  with  1000 
talents. 

762.  Pekahiah,  king. 
759.  Pekah,  king. 

758.  Jotham,  king.  Interregnum. 

740    AU-.,  !,;.,„.  "  Hoshea,  king. 

/«<:.  Anaz,King.  721.  CAPTIVITY  Of 

ISRAEL. 

717.  Hezekiah,  king. 

712.  Sennacherib  in- 
vades Judah. 

711.  His  army  (185,- 
000)  destroyed  by  a 
pestilence. 

696.  Manasseh,  king. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


727 


507  yew  t>.  -Saul  to  Cyrus. — (Continued.) 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


Homer  born.  (?) 


Jonah  preaches  to  the  Nine- 
vitea. 


Arbaces,  king    of  Assyria. — 

Media  revolts. 
Ardyssus,  1st  king  of  LYDIA. 


Pul,  kiug  of  Nineveh. 


Sardanapalus,  king  of  Nine- 
veh. 

Media  subjected  to  Assyria. 

Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia. 

ERA  OF  NABONAZZAR.— 
Assyrian  empire  destroyed. 
— Meles,  king  of  Lydia. 

Pharnaces,  king  of  Cappado- 
cia. 

Tiglath-Pileser  conquers  Sy- 
ria and  part  of  Israel. 

Candaules,  king  of  Lydia. 

Shalmanezer  king  of  Nine- 
veh, takes  Samaria,  and  car- 
ries the  Ten  Tribes  into 
captivity. 

Gyges  usurps  the  throne  of 
Lydia. 

Sennacherib,  king  of  Nineveh. 

MEDIA  becomes  a  kingdom 
under  Dejoces. 

Ecbatana  founded  by  Dejoces. 


Babylon  and  Nineveh  under 
Eaarhaddon. 


AFRICA. 


869.  Dido  arrives  in  Africa, 
and  builds  Byrsa. 

825.  The  dynasty  of  the  Ta- 
nites  in  Egypt ;  begins  with 
Peterbastes. 


781.  The  dynasty  of  the  Saites 
in  Egypt. 


737.  Sebacon  invades  Egypt. 


EUROPE. 


935.  Bacchus,  king  of  CoriDlh. 

916.  Calpetus,  king  of  Alba. 

903.  Tiberinus,  king  of  Alba. 

895.  Tiberinus  drowned  in  tlu 
river  Albula,  which  is  thence 
called  the  Tiber. 


64.   Romulus,  King  of  Alba 
Longa. 


845.  Aventinus,  king  of  Alba. 


814.  The  kingdom  of  MACE 
DON  founded  by  Caranus. 
808.  Procas,  king  of  Alba. 
794.  Numitor,  "  " 

794.  Amulius,  "  " 


Olam  Fodla,  king  in  Ire- 

and.  (1) 
769.    Syracuse     founded     by 

Archias  of  Corinth. 
753.  BUILDING   OF  ROME 

Catania  founded  by  a  co- 
lony from  Chalcis. 

747.  Union  of  Romans  and 
Sabines. 

743.  1st  Messinian  War. 


716.  Romulus  murdered  by  th« 

senators. 

715.  Numa  Pompilius. 
713.  Gela  in  Sicily  foundeti 

703.  Corcyra  built  by  the  Co 
rinthiare. 

685.  2d  Messinian  Wwr 


728 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

Fifth  Period. — (Tlie  Monarchical.)- 


PiioGHESs  OF  SOCIETY  AND  THE  ARTS. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


THE  JEWS. 


677.  Mm.asseh  carried  to  Balyloa,  :•   &fUl> 
wards  restored. 


Attempt  to  discover  the  primitive  language  of 
mankind;  Interpreters  instituted  by  Psam- 
melicus;  children  educated  in  the  language 
and  manners  of  Greece. 

Se-Matsien's  history  of  China  begins. 


The  Spnerical  form  of  the  earth  and  the  true 
cause  of  lunar  eclipses  taught  by  Tholes, 
who  discovers  the  electricity  of  amber. 

Periander  encourages  learning  at  Corinth. 


Draco  frames  his  bloody   code  of  laws  at 
Athens. 


Pharaoh- Necho  oegins  a  canal  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea.  The  lives  of 
1:20,000  men  lost  in  the  attempt.  He  sends 
out  a  Phoenician  fleet  which,  sailing  through 
the  Straits  of  Babelrnandel,  returned  the 
third  year  by  the  Straits  of  Gibrultar,  thus 
circumnavigating  Africa. 


640.  Ammon,  king  of  Ju  ah. 

641.  Josiah.  king  of  Judah. 


Josiah  killed  at  Megiddo,  by  Pharaoh-No- 
cho. 


609.  Jehoahaz,  king,  deposed  and  carried  to 
Egypt. 

Jehoiakim,  king. 


606.     CONQUEST    OF    JERUSALEM    bj 

Nebuchadnezzar. 


60J  Thales'  prediction  of  a  »ilar  eclipse  accom- 
plished.— (See  Asia.) 


Solon's  legislation  in  Athens,  supersedes  that 

of  Draco. 
The  Pyt/tian  dames  at  Delphi. 


598.  Jehoiachin,   king,  reigns  three  Month* 
and  is  carried  captive  to  Bahylon. 

Zedekiah,  king. 
591.  Ezekiel  begins  to  prophesy  in  Chaklea. 


588.  CAPTIVITY  OF  JUDAH  completed. 

JERUSALEM  DESTROYED— the  teu 
pie  burnt. 
ObudiaJt  prophesies. 


riE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 

507  years. — Saul  to  Cyrus. — (Continued.) 


729 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


ASIA. 


AFRICA. 


EUROPE. 


67(5 


047 


031 
626 


619 


Ardysus  n.,  king  of  Lydia. 
Holofernes,  Assyrian  general. 

Phraortes,  king  of  Media. 

Saracus,  king  of  Babylon  and 

Nineveh. 
Phraortes    conquers     Persia, 

Armenia,  &c. 


Cyaxares,  king  of  Media. 
Sadyaites,  king  of  Lydia. 

Nabopolassar  revolts  from  Sa- 
racus. 

The  Scythians  invade  Lydia 
and  Media. 

Alyattes  II.,  kin»  of  Lydia. 

Nineveh  a  second  time  destroy- 
ed. 

Nabopolassar,  king  of  Baby- 
lon. 


Pharaoh-Necho  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  Circe- 
sium,  on  the  Euphrates. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Ba- 


601 


690 


Daniel   interprets    the    king's 

dream. 
\  solar  eclipse  predicted  by 

Thales  —  separates  the  Medes 

and  Lydians  in  battle.  (New- 

ton's C/trora.,585.) 

B  irth  of  Cyrus. 

Astyages  of  Media  drives  out 
the  Scythians. 


•31* 


660.     Psammeticus,    king 
Egypt. — Memphis  becomes 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 


678.  Argaeus,  1st  king  of  Ma- 

cedon. 
672.  Tullus  Hostilius,  king  ol 

Rome. 

668.  Messina  in  Sicily  founded 
666.  Alba  destroyed. 
664.    Sea    fight    between    the 

Corinthians  and  Corcyreana. 

658.  BYZANTIUM  founded. 


640.  Ancus  Martius  —The  port 
of  Ostia  built. — The  Latins 
conquered  by  the  Romans. — 

Philip,  1st  king  of  Mace- 
don. 

629.  Periander  rules  at  Co- 
rinth. 


616.  Tarquinius  Pnscus,  king 
of  Rome. 


610.  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of 
Egypt. 


600.  Psammis,  king  of  Egypt. 


602.  .Slropus,  king  of   dare- 
don,  conquers  Illy  rib. 


594.  Pharaoh-Hophra,  king  of  594.  Solon,  Archor  »f  A'Jts 
Egypt. 


730 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

SIXTH  PERIOD.— (The  Persian.)- 


»c         PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY. 


585 


E78 


Money  coined  at  Rome  by  Ser- 
vius  Tulliua. 


540 


535 


o-C 


BiiJ 


Deposnus  and  Scyllis  open  a 
school  of  statuary  a.1  Athens. 

Ncuicrates  given  to  the  Greeks 
by  Egypt  as  a  factory. 

Egypt  possesses  20,000  inha- 
bited cities. 

First  comedy  acted  at  Athens 
on  a  cart,  by  Susarion  and 
Dolon. 

Dials  invented  by  Anaximan- 
der  of  Mile'.us. 

Anaximenes,  Cleobulus. 


559.  Handwriting  on  the  wal 
at  Belshazzar's  feast. 


The  Corinthian  order  of  ar- 
chitecture invented  by  Cali- 
machua. 

Zoroaster,  the  Persian  Philo- 
sopher. 

Simonides,  Anacreon,  poets. 


hesfiis    performs    the    first 
In  gedy  al  Athens. 


Learning  encouraged  at  Ath 
ens. — First  pulilic  Horary 
founded 

Confucius  the  Chinese  philo- 
sopher. 
The  Doric  issued  by  Darius. 


536.  Edict  of  Cyrus  for  the  RE- 
TURN of  the  JEWS. 
Joshua,  Zerubbabel. 

535.    Rebuilding  of  the  tem- 
ple begins 

Zechariah,  Ilaggai. 


516.  Dedication  of  the  seconj 


582.  Nebuchadnezzar  mra 
Elam — takes  Susa. 


572.  Tyre  taken  by  Nebuc  ,-tati 
nezzar 

569.     Nebuchadnezzar   loei&f 
his  reason  is  deposed. 
New  Tyre  founded. 


562.    Croesus,  king  ol    LytUa. 

Solon  and  jE*opat  his  court. 
561.    Evil-Merodach,    king    ol 

Babylon. 
559.  Neriglissar  or  Belshazzai 

killed  in  the  night. 

Cyaxares     II.     (Darius) 

king  of  Media. 

Cyrus  the  Persian  assist* 

him. 
Asia  Minor  subjected  to  Croe 

BUS. 


546.  Sardis  taken  oy  Cyrus.— 
Crtrsus  made  prisoner.— 
TH  E  LYDIAN  KINGDOM  END- 
ED. 

538.  BABYLON  TAKEN  by 
Cyrus. 

536.  PERSIAN  EMPIRE 
founded  by  CYRUS,  com- 
posed of  Assyria,  Media  and 
Persia. 


529.    Cambyses,  king  of  Per- 
sia. 


52£.    Darius  HystupM,  cio( 
of  Persia. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander  tJie  Great. 


731 


581 


571 


Egypt  invaded  by  Nebuchad- 
Bzzar, 

Apries  taken  prisoner,  and 
strangled  m  his  palace. 

Amasis,  king — connection  be- 
tween Greece  and  Egypt. 


Pythagoras  visits  Egypt 


Psammenitus,  last  king  of 
Egypt. — Invasion  of  Cam- 
byses,  who  defeats  the 
Egyptians  at  Pelusium,  and 
takes  Memphis. 

EGYPT  BECOMES  A  PERSIAN 
PROVINCE. 


GREECE. 


585.  Death  of  Periander,  tyrant 
of  Corinth. 

582.  Corinth  becomes  a  repub- 
lic. 


560.  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Ath- 
ens. 


549.  Temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi  burnt  by  the  Pisis- 
tratida?. 

547.  Amyntas,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 


539.  The  Phocians  emigrate  to 
Gaul  and  build  Massilia 
(now  Marseilles). 


527.  Pisistratus  dies. 


522.  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Sa- 
ntos. 
514.  Hipparchus  killed. 


510.  The  Pisistratidae  expelled. 
— Democracy  established  at 
Athens  — Statues  erected  to 
Harmodius  and  Arisiogiton, 
leaders  in  the  revolution. 


ROME,  ETC. 


578.  Servius  Tullius,  king  of 
Rome. 


567.  Conquest  of  the  Etruriau 

by  Rome. 
565.    First  census  of  Rome : 

84,700  citizens. 


534.  Tarquimus  Superbus, 
king  of  Rome. 

530.  CADIZ  built  by  the  Car- 
thaginians (near  the  ancient 
Tarshish). 


732 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


Sixth  Period. — (TJie  Persian. 


PHJORESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


THE  JEWS. 


ASIA. 


Abolition  of  the  Regal  Govern- 
ment, and  establishment  of 
Republic  at  Rome. 


Heraclitus,  Theano,  Prota- 
goras, Anaxagoras,  philoso- 
phers.—  Corinna,  poetess. 


The  Phoenician  letters  carried 
to  Ireland  from  Spain. 

Pythagoras  teaches  the  doc- 
trine of  celestial  motions. 

The  temple  of  Minerva  built. 


The  Etrurians  excel  in  music, 
the  drama  and  architecture. 


j£sc/iylus,  Pindar,  poets. 


Simonides,  of  Cos,  obtains  the 
prize  at  Olympia.  for  teach- 
ins  a  system  of  Mnemonics, 
which  he  had  invented. 

Empirics  instituted  by  Acron, 
of  Agrigenlum. 

Thucydldes  born. 

Sophocles,  the  tragic,  and 
Plato,  the  comic  poet. 


Voyage  of  the  Carthaginian* 
to  Britain  for  tin 


483.  Joachim,  High  Priest 


458.  Esther. 

457.  Ezra  goes  to  Jerusalem, 
collects  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures :  and 

463.  —writes  the  Chronicle*. 


508.  Darius  conquers  India 


500.  The  lonians  revolt  from 
Persia  and  bum  Sardis. 


490.  Darius  sends  an  army  ol 
500,000  men  into  Greece. 


487.  Artabazes,  king  of  Pon- 

tus. 
486.  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia. 

481    The  expedition  of  Xerxes 

into  Greece. 
480.  The  family  of  Archean- 

actes,  from  Mytilene,  settle 

in  Bosphorus  (now  Circas- 

sia.) 


478.  Death  of  Confucius.— 
China  distracted  by  internal 
wars. 


166.  Persians  defeated  by  »e« 

and  land. 

(65.  Xerxes  assassinated. 
464.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Longiraa 

mis,)  king  of  Persia. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


733 


258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


487 


48<1 


<GO 


i5o 


Egypt  revolts— is  subdued  by 
Xerxes. 


Hamilcar  killed  in  battle. 


Egypt,  under   Inarus,  revolts 
from  Persia. 

All  Egypt  reduced  by  Megaby- 


GREECE. 


505.  Lacedemonian  War. 
504.    Lemnos   taken  by  Milti 
ades. 


497.  Alexander  1st,  king  of 
Macedon. 

Hippocrates,    tyrant 
Gela. 

490.  Invasion  of  the  Persians 
under  Daiis  and  Anapher- 
nes. 

Battle  of  MARATHON. 


489.  Miltiades  imprisoned. 
484.  Herodotus  born. 
483.  Aristides  banished. 


480.  Battle  of  Thermopylae. 
Athens  burnt  by  Xerxes. 
Battle  of  Salamis. 
479.  Mardonius  a  second  time 
takes  Athens. 

Defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
Platea  and  Mycale  on  the 
same  day. 


476.  Themistocles  rebuilds 
Athens.—  The  Piraeus  built. 

470.  Cimon  son  of  Miltiades.  — 
Themistocles  banished.  — 
The  kingdom  of  the  Oilrysae 
extends  over  the  most  of 
Thrace. 

466.  The  Persians  twice  de- 
feated at  the  Eurymedon  by 
Cimon. 

465.  3d  Messinian  War. 

461.  Ostracism  of  Cimon.  — 
PERICLES  rises  to  great 
power. 

459.  Athens  assumes  to  be  the 
head  of  Greece. 

456.  Cimon  recalled. 


498.  Titus  Lartiv  first  Dicta 
tor 

Tribunes  of  the  people, 
f  496.  Posthumius>,  Dictator. 


ROM?:  AND  ITALY. 


509.    Tlie   Tarqums  eipelled 

lioin  Rome. 
BRUTUS     AND    COLLATINGS 

first  CONSULS  01  Rome. 

507.  Second  census  of  Rome, 

130,909  citizens. 
The    Capitol    finished. -War 

against   the    Tarquins   and 

their  ally  Porsonna. 


491.  Coriolanus  ianished. 


8.  At  the  request  of  Ma 
mother,  Coriolanus  wiih- 
drawsthe  Volsci  from  Rome. 

485.  Gelon.  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 

483.  Quaestors  appointed. 


30.    The    Carthaginians    de- 
feated by  Gelon. 

479.    Syracuse    governed    »iy 
Hiero. 


477.  The  300  Fabii  slain. 


467.  Thrasybulus  succeed? 
Hiero,  and  is  expelled  foi 
his  cruelty. 

Democracy  in  Syracuse. 


461.  Earthquake  at  R<"ne. 


456.  Cincinnatus  Dio'»t  * 


734 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 


TJte  Sixth  Period. —(The  Persian.)— 


B.O    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  BTC. 


THE  JEWS. 


ASIA. 


The  Britons  inflict  punish- 
ment of  death  by  drowning 
in  a  quagmire. 


mpfAnclfH,  Parmenides, 
Arixtippus,  and  Antis- 
theneM,  philosophers. — 
Phidias  the  finest  sculp- 
tor of  antiquity. — Euri- 
pides, gains  the  first  prize 
in  tragedy. 

The  Battering  Ram  invented 
hy  Anemones. 


Aristophanes,  prince  of   an- 
cient comedy. 


Melon  begins  his  lunar  cycle. 

Socrates,  the  greatest  of  hea- 
then moralists. 

Hippocrates,  of  Cos,  the  father 
of  medicine. 

Thucydides,  Ctcsias,  histo- 
rians. 

Democritus,  the  laughing  phi- 
losopher. 


445.  Walls  of  Jerusalem  built 
by  Nehemiah. 

Sect  of  Samaritans, 


An  eclipse  of  the  sun  causes 
the  defeat  of  the  Athenians 
at  Syracuse 


Thucydides1  history  ends,  and 
Xenophon's  begins. 


449.  Persians  defeated  at  9ft- 
lamis  in  Cyprus. 
Peace  with  Greece. 


438.    Spartacus  takes  pom* 
sion  of  the  Bofphonw. 


425.    Xerxes  IL  k.  of  Persia 
424.    Darius  II.  k.  of  Persia. 


404.  Artaxerzean. 
king  of  Persia. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


735 


258  years. —  Cyrut  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


GREECE. 


ROME,  ETC. 


Amyrtaeus,  king  of  Egypt, 
shakes  off  the  yoke  of  Per- 
sia. 


407 


The  Carthaginians  send  300,' 
0"0  men  into  Sicily. 


454.  Perdiccas,  II.,  king  of  Ma- 
cedoii. 

449.  Cimon  dies. 

448.  First  Sacred  War. 
447.  Athenians  defeated  at  Che- 
roncea. 


440.  Pericles  takes  Samoa. 


437.    Amphjpolis  planted    by 

Athenians. 
436.  Corinth  at  war  with  Cor- 

cyra. 


432.  Revolt  of  Potidaea  from 
the  Athenian  confederacy. 

431.  The  Peloponnesian  War. 
Invasion  of  Attica. 

430.  The  Plague  at  Athens. 

429.  Pericles  dies,  having  gov- 
erned Athens  40  years. 

425.  An  earthquake  separates 

the    peninsula    of    Eubcea 

from  the  main  land. 
424.  Exile  of  Thucydides. 

Campaign  of  Brasidas  in 

Thrace. 
420.  The  90th  Olympiad. 

Alcibiades  effects  a  treaty 

between  the  Athenians  and 

Argives. 
416.    Nicias,  general    of  the 

Athenians. 

War  in  Sicily . 
413.  The  Athenians  alarmed  by 

an  eclipse. — Their  army  in 

Sicily  destroyed. 
413.  Archelaus,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 
411.  Athens  governed  by  the 

400. — Alliance     of     Sparta 

with  Persia. 
411.  Alcibiades  at  the  court  of 

Tissaphernes. 
410.    Alcibiades    defeats     the 

Spartans. 


408.  Capture  of  Byzantium. 

405.  Lysander  defeats  the 
Athenians,  404. takes  Athens, 
and  establishes  the  30  ty- 
rants 

End  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War. 

Death  of  Alcibiade*. 


451.   Decemviri — the  laws  •* 
the  12  tables. 

Virginia    killed    by    hei 
father. 


446.    Syracuse  reduces  Agrl- 

jentum. 
445.  Military  Tribunes. 
444.   Office  of   Censor    in.sti- 

tuted. 
440.  Famine  in  Rome. 


437.  The  Veii  defeated. 


434.  War  with  the  Tuscan*. 

433.  The  temple  of  Apollo  d» 

dicated. 
431.  The  Erjui  and  Vo.eci  d» 

feated. 


736 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


Tfo  Sixth  Period. — (The  Persian.}— 


u.c,  PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


Gitapidtee.  invented  by  Diony- 
sius. 


Cynics,  sect  of  philosophers 
Ibunded  by  Antittthenes. 


388  Plato,  the  philosopher. 
Philoxenes,  the  poet. 


Treatise  on  conic  sections  by 
Aristaus. 


Diogenes,  the  cynic ;  Isocrates 
and  ISCKUS,  orators. 


THE  JEWS. 


A  celestial  globe  brought  into 
Greece  from  Egypt." 


Philippics  of  Demosthenes. 


Commerce   of  Rhodes    with 
Africa  at  d  Byzantium 


366.  Jeshua  slain  by  Johan- 
nan  in  the  inner  court  ot  the 
temple,  for  which  a  heavy 
fine  is  laid  on  the  daily  sacri- 
fices. 


401.  Cyrus  the  younger  de- 
feated.—Retreat  o/  the  10,000 
under  Xenophon. 

400.  The  city  of  Deihi  found 
ed. 


387.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
tributary  to  Persia. 

383    BITHYNIA  becomes  • 
kinadom. 

Mithrirlates    1st,  king    al 
PONTUS. 


362.  AriobarzaneskingofPon- 
tus. — Revolt  of  the  Persian 
governor  in  Asia  Minor. 

361.  Darius  Ochus.  or  Artax- 
erxes  III.  king  of  Persia. 

360.  CAPPADOCIA  become* 
a  kingdom  under  Ariaratliw  L 


TME  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


737 


258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


AFRICA. 


GREECE. 


ROUE  AND  ITALY. 


373 


362 


360 


The    Carthaginians    land    in 
Italy. 


Tachos,  king  of  Egypt. 

Agesilaus,  the    Spartan, 
aids  The  Egyptians. 


Voyages  of  the  Carthaginians 
under  Hanno. 


401.   Thrasybulus  expels  the 
30  tyrants. 

Death  of  Socrates. 


399.  Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Ma- 
cedon. 


396.  Agesilaus  goes  into  Asia. 

395.  Corinthian  War  begun. — 

Battle  of  Coronea. 


382.  Thebes  taken  by  Phcebi 
das. 

380.  Thebes  delivered  by  Pelo 
pides  and  EPAMINONDAS. 
100th  Olympiad. 

377.  Spartan  fleet  defeated  at 
Naxos. 

372.  Ellice  and  Bula  in  the  Pe- 
loponnesus, swallowed  up 
by  an  earthquake. 

371.  Battle  of  Leuctra. 

Alexander  II.,  king  of  Ma- 
cedon. 

Predominance  of  Thebes. 

370.  Perdiccas  III.,  king  of 
Macedon. 

364.  Pelopidas  killed  in-battle. 

362.  Battle  of  Mantinea,  death 
of  Epaminondas. 

DECLINE    OP    GRECIAN 
REPUBLICS. 

360.  Philip  II.,  king  uf  Mace- 
don. defeats  the  Athenians 
at  Methone. 

The  Macedonian  phalanx. 
War  of  the  tllies  against 
Athens. 


358.  Philip  takes  Amphipolis 

and  loses  his  right  eye  by  an 

arrow  from  Astor. 
357.  The  2d  Sacred  War. 
356.    Philip  conquers  Thrace 

and  Illyria. 

The  Temple  of  Diana  at 

Ephesus  burnt. 

A  L  E  X  A  N  D  E  R  "  the 

Great"  born. 


400.  Siege  of  Veii  begun. 
397.  Lake  Alba  drained 


391.  CAMILLUS,  Dictator,  take* 
Veii,  after  a  siege  of  len 
years. 

390.  Rome  taken  and  burnt  by 
the  Gauls,  under  Brennui 
— The  Capitol  besieged. — 
Camillus  delivers  his  coun- 
try. 

386.  Damon  and  Pythias. 

384.  M.  Manlius  (Japitolinua 
thrown  from  the  Tarpeian 
rock. 


379.    The    Voted    defeat    0)4 
Romans. 


376.  Lucius  Sextus,  first  ple- 
beian consul. 

Camiltus,  the  fifth  time 
Dictator. 

371.    The  curule  magistrate* 
appointed. 


362.  Curtius  leaps  into  a  guli 
in  the  Forum. 


357.  Dionvsius,  the  jrounfa* 
expelled  from  SyracuM. 


738 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
SEVENTH  PERIOD.— (The  Grecian.)— 


.o    PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC- 


Aristotle,  the  logician  and  phi- 
losopher, founder  of  the  Pe- 
ripatetics; ^Etc/tines,  ora- 
tor. 

Demosthenet ;  Icetaa,  of  Syra- 
cuse. 

The  Lyceum  built  in  Attica. 


3*1 


Alexander  spares  the  house  of 

Pindar. 
The  revolution  of  eclipses  first 

calculated  by  Calippus,  the 

Athenian. 

Caustic  painting  or  the  art 
of  burning  colors  into  wood 
or  ivory,  invented  by  Gau- 
sias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon. 


The  voyage  of  Nearchus  from 

the  Indus  10  the  Euphrates. 
Apeiles,  the  painter ;     Calis- 

thenes,  philosopher. 
Menander,  tlie  inventor  of  the 

new  comedy. 
Lysistratus    invents     moulds 

from    which   to    cast    wax 

figures. 


First  work  on  mechanics,  writ' 
ten  by  Aristotle.  —  Diving 
Bttl  first  mentioned. 


THE  JEWS. 


Alexander  enters  Jerusa- 
lem.— On  seeing  Jaddus,  the 
High  Priest,  clad  in  his 
robes,  he  declares  he  hail 
seen  him  in  a  vision,  invit- 
ing him  to  Asia,  and  pro- 
mtsing  him  the  Persian  em- 
pire. He  goes  to  the  Tem- 
ple, offers  sacrifices  to  Jeho- 
vuh,  and  departs. 


320.   Ptolemy  carries  100,000 
Jews  into  Eypt. 
Onias  I. 


336.    Milhridates  II.,  kirg 
Pontus. 


334.  Battle  of  the  Granicvs. 

333.  Battle  of  Issus.— Parthia, 
Baciria;  Hyrcania.Sogiliana. 
and  Asia  Minor,  conquered 
by  Alexander. 

2.  Tyre  subdued  after  seven 
months'  sieg». 

Damascus  taken.  — Gaza 
surrenders. 

331.  Battle  of  Arbela.— The 
Persian  army  totally  defeat- 
ed. 

330.  CONQUEST  of  the  PER 
SIAN  EMPIRE. 

329.  Thalestris.  queen  of  the 
Amazons,  visits  Alexander, 
with  a  train  of  300  women. 

328.  Alexander  extends  hii 
conquest  to  ihe  Ganges. 

323.  Alexander  dies  at  Baby- 
ton. 

322.  Perdiccas  takes  Car  fa- 
docia. 


320.  Eumenee  Jefealed  by  A* 
UgonuB. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


739 


184  years. — Alexander  to  tJie  Fall  of  Greece. 


GREECE— MACEDON. 


HOME,  ETC. 


34J 


Darius  Ochus  conquers  Egypt, 
and  pillages  its  temples. 


540 


The  Carthaginians  defeated  by 
Timoleon. 


332 


Egypt  conquered  by  Alexan- 
der. 

Alexandria  built. 


83  Ptolemy  I    (Soter,  son  of  La- 


353.  The  Phocians  defeated  by 
Philip. 

348.  End  of  the  Sacred  War. 
Philip  takes  Olynlhus. 

346.    Philip   admired   to   the 
Amphictyonic  Council. 

345.  Duras  buried  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

343.  Thrace  tributary  to  Mace- 
don. 

Aristotle  appointed  tutor 
•to  Alexander. 


341.  Philip  makes  war  upon 
Athens. 

340.  — lays  siege  to  Byzantium. 
Timoleon  recovers  Syra- 
cuse, expels  Dionysius,  the 
tyrant,  and  defeats  the  Car- 
thaginians at  Agrigentum. 
38.  Philip  defe 
at  Cheronea. 

336.  Philip  is  murdered  by 
Pausanias. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  sur- 
named  the  Great. — He  rava- 
ges Greece,  destroys  Thebes, 
sparing  the  house  of  Pindar. 

335.  — h  chosen  generalissimo 
of  Greece  against  Persia. 

334.  — invades  Persia,  and  after 
several  great  battles  (see 
"  Asia  ")  subdues  the  Per- 
sian empire  and  Egypt,  and 
inarches  into  India. 


thaginians  at  Agrigentum. 
338.  Philip  defeats  the  Greeks 


330.     jEschines,    the    orator, 
banished. 


325.  Demosthenes  banished. 

323.  Death  of  Alexander.— 
The  Grecian  citii-s  revolt 
from  Macedon. — Demosthe- 
nes recalled. 

322.  The  Greeks  defeated  by 
sea  and  land  near  Cranon. 
Death  of  Demosthenes. 

321.  Antipater,  regent. 

319.  Polysperchon  succeeds 
Amipaier,  and  proclaims 
liberty  to  the  Grecian  cities- 


.Til.  Dion  put  to  death,  an« 
Syracuse  usurped  by  ty- 
rants. 


345.  Twelve  cities  ir  Cainr*- 
nia  buried  by  an  earth  [iiake. 

343.  Samnian  War,  whi  ;h  con- 
tinues 53  years. 


340.  P.  Decius  oevote*  hm> 
self  for  his  country. 

All  Campania  is  subdued. 


332.  The  Caledonian  mo- 
narchy (Scotland)  founded 
by  Fergus  I. 


325.  Papirius  Cursor,  Dictate*. 


321.  The  Samnites  make  thi 
Romans  pass  under  the  yokt. 

320.  The  Samnites  defeated  al 
Luceria. 


740 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


The  Seventh  Period. — (The  Grecian.)- 


i.e.  PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  ETC.  THE  JEWS. 


Commerce  of  Macedon  with 
India,  through  Egypt. 


The  Appian  Way  constructed. 
—The  Gnomon  invented  to 
measure  altitudes. 


Aqueducts  and  baths  in  Rome. 


311.  Judea  subject  to  Ar.tigo- 
nus. 


301.   Judea  under  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Ptolemies. 


Euclid,  of  Alexandria,  the 
celebrated  mathematician. — 
Zeno,  founder  of  the  S/oics; 
— Pyrrho,  of  the  Skeptics  ; 
Epicurus,  of  the  Epicu- 
reans.— Bion,  of  Borysthe- 
nes,  philosopher. 

The  great  Chinese  Wall  built. 


The  first  sun-dial  erected  at 
Rome  by  Papirius  Cursor, 
and  the  time  first  divided 
into  hours. 


Fabius  introduces  painting  at 
Rome. 

The  Colossus  of  Rhodes 
built  by  Chares,  of  Lindus. 


Theocrites,  the  father  of  pas- 

loral    poetry. 
Dionysius,  the  astronomer  at 

Alexandria,  begins  his  era. 

He  found  the  solar  year  to 

consist  of  3t'io  days,  5  hours, 

and  I '.'  minutes. 
The  Septuagint  translation  of  284.  The  sect  of  the  Sadduceet. 

the  Old  Testament,  begun  at 

Alexandria,  by  order  of  Pto- 
lemy Phil  iclel phus. 


312.  SYRIA.  Seleucus,  Nicator 


311.  Seleucus  Nicator  retakes 

Babylon. 

Era  of  the  Seleucidte. 
310.      Eumeles     usurps    the 

throne  of  Bosphorus,  putting 

to  death    all    his    brothers. 

After  a  reign  of  six  years,  is 

murdered. 


305.    War   in   India,   against 
Sandrocottus. 


301.  Battle  of  Tpms.— Antigo- 
nus  killed. 

ALEXANDER'S      EM 
PIRE    DIVIDED    in     foui 

parts.  —  Ptolemy,  Seleucus, 
Cassander.  Lysimachus. 

Milhridates  111.,   king  ol 
Pontus. 


291.  Seleucus  founds  Antioch 
Edessa,  and  Laodicea. 


285.    The   Scythians    invade 
Bi>spnorua. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


741 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


307 

306 


Agathocles  is  defeated  by  the 
Carthaginians. 

Peace  between  Sicily  and  Car- 
thage. 


GREECE. 


318.  Phocion  put  to  death  by 
the  Athenians. 

317.  Cassander  assumes 
the  government  of  Macedon. 
Demetrius  Phaleri us  gov- 
erns Athens. 

315.  Cassander  rebuilds  Thebes^ 
and  founds  Cassandria. 


312.  Epirus:  P  y  r  r  h  u  s  II., 

the  greatest  hero  of  his  lime. 


306.  Democracy  established  at 
Athens  by  Demetrius. 

304.  Athenians  repulsed  from 
Rhodes. 

303.  Demetrius  Poliorcetes, 
general  of  the  Grecian  States. 


300.  Rest -ration  of  Democracy 
at  Athens. 


291.  Death  of  Cassander.— 
Alexander  and  Antipater 
succeed. 

296.  Siese  of  Athens,  by  De- 
metrius. 

294.  Demetrius  murders  Alex- 
ander, and  seizes  the  throne 
of  Macedon. 


287.  Athens  revolts  from  De- 
metrius. 

286.  Pyrrhus  expelled  from 
Macedon. 


2M.  The  Achaean  Republic. 


ROME,  ETC. 


317.  Syracuse  and  Sicily  ustup 
ed  by  Agathocles. 


312.  War  with  the  Etruscan*. 


310.  The  Carthaginians  defeat 
Agathocles,  and  besiege  Sy- 
racuse. 

18.  Fabius  Maxima* 
defeats  the  Samnites. 


303.     Establishment    of 
Tribus  Urbana. 


300.  First  Plebeian  High  Priest 


290.  End  of  the  Samnit*  WM. 


286.  Law  of  Hortensius,  fc| 
which  the  decrees  of  tn» 
people  had  the  force  of  thoM 
of  the  senate. 


742 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


The  Seventh  Period. — (The  Grecian.) — 


•.o.  PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


THE  JEWS. 


ASIA. 


983 


The  Pharos  built  at  Alexan- 
dria, the  first  light-house  on 
record. 

Philetaerus,  of  Pergamus,  pa- 
tron of  the  arts,  especially 
Architecture. 

Alexandria,  the  resort  of  the 
learned,  and  centre  of  trade. 

Chariots  armed  with  scythes, 
aid  fortified  camps,  in  use. 


276 


First  society  of  critics  formed. 


867 

866 

264 


866 


Ptolemy  makes  a  :anal  from 

the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Silver  money  first  coined. 


The  Parian  Chronicle  com- 
posed. 

Gladiators  first  exhibited  at 
Rome. 


Berosus,  the  historian  of  Ba- 
hylon. 

The  armillary  sphere  invented 
by  Erastosthenes.  who  made 
the  first  attempt  to  determine 
the  length  of  a  degree. 


Greece  instructs  the  Romans 
in  the  arts  and  sciences. 


248.  Onias  II.  high  priest 


282.  The  kingdom  of  PER- 
GAMUS (bunded  by  Phile- 
wtrus. 

281.  Lysimachus  defeated  and 
killed  by  Seleucus. — Anlio- 
chus  Soter  succeeds  Seleu- 
out 


266.  Ariobarzar.es  III.,  king  ill 
Pontus. 


262.  Antiochus  Soter  def;at«J 
at  Sardis. 


256.    Kingdom  of  PAR  I  HI  A 

founded  by  Arsaces. 
255.  The  fourth  imperm.  dy 

nasty  of  China  begins 


252.  Mithridates  IV.,  be.  *g«4 
in  his  -apit;il  by  the  Gnaw. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


743 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


GREECE. 


ROME,  ETO. 


Ptolemy  Philadelphia  king  of 
Egypt. 


2<J9 


Egypt  first  sends  ambassadors 
to  Rome. 


as; 


Regulus  invades  Africa,  and  is 
defeated  by  Xantippus,  a 
Spartan  general. 


Mr-'-sllus  rfeleats  Asdrubal. 


283.  Lysimachia  destroyed  by  283.    The   Gauls  and    Etr* 
an  earthquake. 


rians  subdued. 


281.  Lysimachus  defeated  and 
slain  by  Seleucus. 

The  Achfean  League  of 
12  states,  under  Aratus,  of 
Sicyon. 


279.    Irrruption  of  the   Gauls 

under  Brenmis. 
278.  — they  are  defeated  near 

Delphi. 
277.  Antigonus  Gonatus,  king 

of  Macedon. 


274.  Pyrrhus  invades  Mace 
don,  defeats  Antigonus,  and 
is  proclaimed  king. 


272.  Pyrrhus  besieges  Sparta 
and  Argos — is  slain,  and  An- 
tigonus is  restored. 


268.    Athens  taken  by  Antigo- 
nus Gonatus. 

Second    incursion  of  the 
Gauls  into  Macedon. 


255.  Antigonus  liberates 
Athens. 

Athens  joins  the  Achaean 
league. 


251.  Sicyon  joins  the  Achaean 
league. 

250.  The  Romans  begin  to  re- 
sort to  Greece  for  improve- 
ment in  knowledge.  —  Par- 
thia  revolts  from  Macedon. 


281.  The  Tarentine  War. 


280.  The  Taremines  seek  the 
alliance  of  Pyrrhus,  who 
conquers  the  Romans  at 
Pandosia,  and  at 

279  — Asculum. 

278.  Sicily  conquered  by  Pyrr- 
hus. 


275.  Curius  defeats  Pyrrhus, 
and  compels  him  to  leare 
Italy. 


Fall  of  Tarentum. 


266.  Rome  mistress  of  all  Italy : 

census  of  the  city  292  224. 

264.  The  first  PUNIC  WAR. 
— Appius  Claudius  drives 
Hiero  from  Syracuse. 

260.  D  u  i  1 1  u  s  gains  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Carthaginian 
fleet. 

256.  Regulus  gains  ano 
ther  victory. 

255.  The  Lacedemonians  as- 
sisting Carthage.  —  Xantip- 
pus defeats  Regulus,  and 
takes  him  prisoner. 

254.  Palermo  besieged  by  the 
Romans.  —  Abnui  this  tim« 
the  Huns  are  first  heard  oC 
governed  by  Teuman. 

249.  Naval  fight  at  Diapanuox 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


The  Seventh  Period. — (The  Grecian.} — . 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


THE  JEWS. 


Agiarianism    attempted     in 
Sparta,  but  is  put  down. 


Comedies  first  acted  at  Rome, 
those  ofLivius  Andronicus. 


The  orisinal  MSS.  of  jEschy- 
tus,  Euripides  and  Sopho- 
cles, lent  by  the  Athenians 
to  Ptolemy,  on  a  pledge  of  15 
talents. 


Fabius  Pictor,  the  first  Roman 
historian. 

Appollonius  Rhodius,  poet. — 
Chrysippus,  Stoic  philoso- 
pher. 

Archimedes,  the  mathemati- 
cian, demonstrates  the  pro- 
perties of  the  lever,  and 
other  mechanical  powers, 
also  the  art  cf  measuring 
solids  and  surfaces, and  conic 
sections — constructs  a.plane- 
tarrum. 


The  art  of  Surgery  introduced. 
An  eclipse  of  the  moon  ob- 
served in  AsU  Minor. 


246.  Antiochus  II.  poisoned  b} 
his  wife. 


241.  Attalus  I.,  king  of 
mus. 


237.  Simon  II.,  High  Priest. 


\ 


226.  Seleucus  III,  k.  of  Syria 


224.  The  Colossus  of  Rhsde* 
thrown  down. 


213.  Chi  Horg  Ti  destroys  t*M 
records  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire. 

211.  Antiochus  t  h  • 
Great,  king  of  Syria. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS 


745 


!S4  years. — (Continued.) 


ROME,  ETC. 


24? 


Ifamilcar  Barcas,  general  of 

the  Carthaginians. 
Ptolemy  Eurgetes  subdues Sy 

ria. 


End  of  the  Libyan  War. 
Hamilcar  with  Hannibal, pass- 
es into  Spain. 


Carthagena  in  Spain,  built  by 

Asdrubal. 


219 


Ptolemy  Philopater,  king  of 
Egypt. 


Conquests  of  Hannibal 
the  Carthaginian,  i  i  Spain ; 
He  crosses  the  Alpa 


243.  Corinth  taken  by  Aratus. 

242.  Demetrius  II.,  of  Mace- 
don. 

241.  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  put 
to  death  for  attempting  to  es- 
tablish an  Agrarian  law. 

240.  Cleanihus,  the  Stoic, 
starves  himself. 


232.  Philip  III.,  of  Macedon. 


228.  Roman  ambassadors  first 
appear  at  Athens  and  Co- 
rinth. 

The  fortress  of  the  Athe- 
naeum built. 


226.  Cleomenes,  king  of  Spar- 
ta, defeats  the  Achaeaus. — 
Lyscades  killed. — The  Agra- 
rian law  restored. 

225.  The  Romans  send  another 
embassy  to  Greece.  They 
are  admitted  to  a  share  in 
the  Isthmian  games,  and 
granted  the  freedom  of  Ath- 
ens. 

223.  Cleomenes  takes  Megalo- 
polis. 
222.  Battle  of  Sellasia. 


220.  The  Social  Wai 
— Philip,  of  Macedon,  as- 
sists the  Achseans. — Cleome- 
nes dies  in  Eyypt. — Agesi- 
pplis  and  Lycurgus  elected 
kings  of  Sparta. 

218.  Acanania  ceded  to  Philip. 


215.      Aratus     poisoned     at 

.iEgium. 
214.  First  Macedonian  War 


211.    Alliance  of  Philip  with 
Hannibal. 


247.  Hamilcar  defeats  the  Ho 
mans  at  Lilibceum. 


241.    End  of  the  first  PaJ 
War. 


231 .  Sardinia  and  Corsica  coo 
quered  by  Rome. 


225.    The  Gauls  repulsed  in 
Italy. 


224.    The  Romans  first  crost 

the  Po. 
223.  Colonies  of   P  1  a  c  e  n  • 

t  i  a    and    Cremona. 
222.  Insubria  (Milan)  and  Ligu- 

ria  (Genoa)   conquered   by 

Rome. 


219.    Hannibal   takes    Sagun- 
tum,  and  crosses  the  Alpa. 


218.  The  Second  P  p  N  i  0 
WAR  .—The  Romans  de- 
feated by  Hannibal  at  T  i  • 
c  i  n  i  s  and  T  r  e  b  i  a  . 

217.  F  1  a  m  i  n  i  u  s  defeated 
at  Thrasymene. 

216.  Varro  at  C  a  n  n  ae  to- 
totally  defeated  by  Hannibal. 
Fabius  Maxim  UP 
Dictator. 

212.  Syracuse  and  Sicily  con- 
quered by  MarceHue. 
— Archimedes  killed. 

211.  The  Carthaginians  dnvel 
from  Capua. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


TJie  Seventh  Period. — (The  Grecian.) — 


•.  o.  I  PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


THE  JEWS. 


ASIA. 


Ennius,  of  Calabria,  poet; 
Sution,  of  Alexandria;  a 
grammarian. 

1'lautus.  of  Umbria.  the  co- 
mic poet;  Ajipotlonius,  ol 
Perga,  mathematician ;  Ze- 
no,  ol"  Tarsus,  the  philoso 
pher. 

Gold  coined  at  Rome. 


The  art  of  printing  in  China. 


Aristonymus  4th,  librarian  of 

Alexandria. 
Caius    Lelius,    the    Roman 

orator. 


Books,  with  leaves  of  vellum 
introduced  by  Atialus,  king 
of  Pergamus,  in  lieu  of  rolls, 


A  total  eclip»:  of  the  sun  at 

Rome. 
Asiatic   luxuries    brought    to 

Rome. 


A  comet  visible  80  days 
Bion    and    Mosc/ius,    comic 
poets. 

Statins  Cacitiut,  comic  poet. 


203.  JUDEA  CONQUERED    * 
ANTIOCHUS  THE  GREAT. 


2Q1.  Onias  III.,  High  Priest, 


200   Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach, 
writes  Ecclesiastics. 


198.  The  Jews  assist  Antio- 
chus  in  expelling  Scopas  and 
the  Egyptian  troops  from 
Jerusalem. 

First  mention  of  a  Senate  or 
Sanhedrim. 


206   The  dynasty  of  H  a  ft  U 
China. 


197.  Eumeoes,  king  of  Perga- 
mus. 

196.  Hannibal  joins  Antiochus, 
who  seizes  the  Thracian 
Chersonese. 


192.  Syria  at  war  with  Rome. 
190.  Scipio  Asiaticus   defeate 
Aniiochus  at  Magnesia. 


187.  Antiochus  killed  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Bclua.— 
Syria  becomes  «, 
Roman  province. 

186.  The  city  of  Artaxala  (in 
Armenia)  built. 

185.  Seleucus  IV..  king  of  Sy- 
ria. 

133.  Pharnaces  I.,  king  of  Poi 
tus,  cmquers  S  i  n  o  p  •  . 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


GREECE. 


ROME,  ETC. 


4)5 

204 


199 

196 


193 


Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  king  of 
Egypt. 

The  Roman  general  Scipio  be- 
sieges Utica,  and  lakes  in 
one  day  the  camps  of  Asdru- 
bal  and  Syphax. 

Hannibal  recalled.— Sophonis- 
ba  poisoned  by  Masinissa. 

Hannibal  defeated  at  Zama. 
—End  of  the  2d  Punic  War. 


208.  Battle  of  Lamia,  near  Elis. 
—Philip,  of  Macedon,  de 
feats  the  /Etolians. 


206.  BATTLE   of  MANTINEA 
Philopoemen,  the   Prse- 
<or  of  Achaia,  defeats    thi 
Spartans. 


Treaty  of  Carthage  with  Ma- 
sinissa, kin"  of  Numidia. 

Egypt  loses  her  Syrian  posses- 
sions. 


Masinissa  harasses  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  injures  their 
commerce. 


180 


Ptolemy  Ptilometer,  king  of 

Egypt 


200.  The  Rhodians  defeat  tl  e 
Macedonian  fleet  near  Chios. 
— Siege  of  Abydos. — Second 
Macedonian  War  begins. 


193.  The  Achaeans  and  Spar- 
tans join  the  Romans  against 
Macedon. 

197.  Pliilip  III.  defeated  at  Cy- 
nocephalae  by  the  Romans, 
under  Flaminius. 

195.  Flaminius,  the  Roman, 
quarrels  with  Nabis,  king  of 
Sparta. 


189.   Epirus  declared  free  by 
the  Romans. 

18.  Philopoemen  abrogates 
ihe  laws  of  Lycurgus  in 
Sparta. 


183.  Philoposmen  defeated  and 
killed  by  Dinocrates,  king  of 
Messinla. 


210.  Scipio  takes  New 
Carthage,  and  conquers  As- 
drubal. 

207.  Nero  and  Livy  defeat  A3. 

drubal  at  Metaurus — Asdru 

bal  killed. 
206.  The  Carthaginians  driveo 

out  of  Spain. 


204.    Scipio    carries  tho   wai 
into  Airica. 


201.  Scipio  carries  Syphax  i* 
triumph  to  Rome. 


197.    Flaminius  victorious  in 
Macedon. 

195.    G  a  t  o   in  Spain. 


9f.  War  with  Antiochus,  of 
Syria,  who  is  totally  (ie/eat- 
ed  by.L.  C.  Scipio,  and 

88.  Syria  is  made  a  Roman 

province. 
187.  Scipio  Africanus  banish- 

ed  from  Rome. 


183.  Cato,  the  elder,  cenwt 
181.  Plague  at  Rome. 

180.  Death  of  Scipio  Afrie* 

nus. 
179.  Numa's  "woks  founl  in  • 

stone  ccffin  at  Rome. 


748 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

The  Seventh  Period. — (The  Grecian. )- 


».o.  PHOORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


THE  JEWS. 


168 
167 


161 


lo'J 


icr  invented  in  China. 

Polyhius,  historian  of  Greece 
and  Home. 

The  comedies  of  Terence  per- 
formed. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which 
was  predicted  by  Q.  S  Gal- 
!us. 

The  first  library  opened  at 
Rome,  consisting  of  books 
brought  from  Macedon. 

The  Roman  treasury  is  so  rich 
that  the  citizens  pay  no 
taxes. 

Hipjtarchus  of  Nice  fixes  the 
first  degree  of  longitude  and 
latitude  at  Ferro,  whose 
most  western  point  was 
made  the  first  general  meri- 
dian— lays  the  foundation  of 
Trigonometry. 

Philosophers  and  rhetoricians 
banished  from  Rome. 


The  clepsydra  or  water  clock 
invented  by  Scipio  Nascia. 


Hijrparchus.  of  Rhodes,  astro- 
nomer. —  Arislarchus,  of 
Alexandria,  grammarian. 


176.  Heliodorus  in  Jerusalem. 

175.    Jaaon  obtains  the    high 

priesthood  by  corruption. 

172.  Jason  defeated  by  Mene- 
laus. 


170.  Jerusalem  and  the  temple 
plundered  by  Amiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  attempts  u> 
abolish  the  Jewish  religion, 
and  commits  great  cruelties. 


167.  Matthias,  High  Priest. 


165.  JUDAS  MACCABEUS  ex- 
pels the  Syrians,  and  puri- 
fies the  temple. 


161.    Judas  kills  Nicanor— is 
succeeded  by  Jonathan. 

First  treaty  with  the  Ro- 
mans. 


158.  Jonathan  compels  the  Bac- 
chides  to  withdraw — is  mur- 
dered by  Tryphon. 


150.  Jews  take  Jopra. 


172.   Antiochus  IV.  (Epipha 

nes)  king  of  Syria. 
171  — declares  war  against  Puv 

lemy  Philomater." 
170.  An  irruption  of  Tartan 

into  China. 


166.  Prusias,  khgof  lithyma. 


164.      Antiochus     Epiphanes 

died. 
16-.J.  Demetrius  Soter,  king  of 

Syria. 

Miihridates     Philopater, 

king  of  Cappadocia. 


157.    Mithndatea  V.,  king  o- 
Pontus. 


153.    Ariara'hes  VII.,  king  o 
Cappadocia. 


150.  Alexander  Bala  kills  Da 
metri  us,and  takes  the  throne 


149.  Prusias,  of  Bithynia.  til. 
ed  by  his  son  Nicometio* 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


749 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


GREECE. 


ROM'S,  ETC. 


174 


Ca'.O  e  embassy  to  Carthage. 


178.    Perseus,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 


171.  Third  Macedonian  War. 


168.  Perseus  defeated  at  Pyd- 
na,  by  Patilus  Emilius — 
MACEDON  BECOMES  A  RO- 
MAN PROVINCE. 


165.  Romans  enter  Achaia. 


170.  Ti  be  rius  and  Cumt 
Gracchus. 


167.  Census  327,038. 


155  Embassy  of  Diogenes, 
Carniades,  and  Critolaus  to 
Rome. 


152  jM  issinissa  defeats  the  Cartha-  15'2.   Andriscus  usurping  the 
ginians.  government  of  Mnccdon,  is 


15) 


UO 


Joint  reign  of  Philomater  and 
Pliyscon  in  Egypt. 


CARTHAGE    TAKEN 

destroyed. 


and 


conquered  by  Meteilus. 


147.  Metellus  defeats  the  Acli- 
sans  in  Greece. 

146.  Corinth  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  Mnmmiu*.  — 
GREECE  becomes  a  RO- 
MAN PROVINCE  under 
the  name  of  Achaia. 


155.  Romans  unsuccessful 
Spain. 


151.  Defeat  of  Ga'.ba. 


49.  THIRD  PUNIC  WAR. 


Conquest  of  Carthagr  an  j 
of  Corinth. 

Greece  annexed  to  the 
Roman  empire. 


750 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


EIGHTH  PERIOD.— (The  Raman.}— 


i.e. 
116 


H3 


133 


130 


120 


116 


UO 


PIIOORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


Alexandria,  the  centre  of  com- 
mfrce. 


ffipparchus  begins  his   new 
cycle  of  the  moon. 


Toothed  tchcels  applied  to  the 
clepsydra  by  Cte.sibius. 

Learning  and  learned  men 
liberally  patronized  by  Ptol- 
omy  Physcon. 

Dioaonu  and  Satyrus,  peri- 
paieiics  ;  Nicander.  physi- 
cian arid  poet ;  Lucius  Ac- 
cius,  tragic  poet ;  Arislobu- 
lus,  the  Jewish  peripatetic. 

Equestrian  order,  a  distinct 
class. 


Revival  of  learning  in  China. 


The  theory  of  eclipses  known 
to  the  Chinese. 


L.  Cmlius  Antipater,  histo- 
rian ;  LucilHus,  the  first 
Roman  satirist;  Apollodo- 
rus,  of  Athens,  chronologic ; 
Castor,  of  Rhodes,  chrbno- 
k'sist;  Anthenton,  philoso- 
pher. 

Fira  sumptuary  late  at  Rome. 


THE  JEWS. 


142.  Simon,  High  Priest 


135.  End  of  the  Apocrypha.— 
Jerusalem  besieged  by  An- 
tiochus  IV. 


130.  John  Hyrcanus  delivers 
Judea  from  the  Syrian  yoke  : 
— reduces  Samaria  and  Idu- 
mea. 


108.  Hyrcanus  destroys  Sama- 
ria. 

107.  — succeeded  by  his  son 
Aristobulus,  who  first  as- 
sumes the  title  of  king. 

105.  Alexander  Janneus  at 
war  with  Esrypt — takes  Ga- 
za.—  Rebellion  excited  by 
the  Pharisees. 


137.    Antiochus  IV.,  (Sidtte*,) 
king  of  Sy  ria. 


134.  Antiochus  invades  Judea. 


130.    Antiochus  IV.   defeated 

and  killed  in  a  war  with  Par- 

thia. 
129.    Demetrius  II.   (Nicator) 

regains  Syria. 
123.    Milhndates    the    Great, 

kir.g  of  Pontus. 


III.  Jfithridates conquer*  Bcr- 
thiit,  Bo.-phorus,  Col  Jli* 
&c. 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


751 


1 46  years. — Fall  of  Greece  to  l/te  Christian  Era. 


UG 
140 


Commerce  of  the  world  cen- 
tres at  Alexandria. 

Piol'.iniy  Pnyscon  becomes 
soie  king  ol  Egypt  by  the 
death  ol"  Fru.omaier. 


i20  Ptolemy  Physcon  driven  from 
his  throne  I'or  his  cruelly. 

128  Pesiilence  in  Esypt. 

123  Caraiase  rebuilt. 

118  i)eain  of  Micipsa,  king  of 
Numidia,  anil  the  assassina- 
ti»n  of  lliempsal  byJugur- 
tlm. 

U6  Ptolemy    Lathyrus,    king 
Eeypt. 

1121  Jugurthiue  War. 


Alexander  1 .  king  of  Egypt. 


Jugurtha  is  defeated  and  stir- 
rentiers  Nuuutlia  to  the  Ro- 

Hiililf.. 


ROMAN    EMVIRB. 


In  the  East. 


133.  PERGAMUS,  a  Roman 
Province. 


118.  DALMATIA,  a   Roman 
Province. 


In  Europe. 


141.  Numantian  War. 

140.  The  Picts  from  the  norta 

of  England  settle  in  th<  south 

of  Scotland. 


135.  Servile  var  in  Su-Jf. 


i3d.  lSi!!iisTiii:i  des'.voyed  by 
Scipm:  SPAIN  BECOMBS  A 
ROMAN  I'UOVINCB. 

Death  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
clius. 


123.    Tribunate   of     0  a  i  u  i 
Gracchus. 


113.  First  great  migration  of 
the  German  naliuns. 


100.  War  of  the  Teutoni  anl 
Cnnbii. 


105.  Numidia.  becvmcs  a  Ro- 
wan province  by  /he  duftat 
of  .luyiirihc.. 

101  'I'lit:'  Teninni  ilefoat  80.000 
Rnmiins  on  'he  banks  of  t!ia 
Rhone. 

102.  M  a  r  i  u  s  vi<;tnriou§ 
over  the  Teuioni  and  Ambro 
nes  at  AqiicE  Sexue. 

101.  M.irius  anil  Catullus  de- 
feat the  Cimbri. 

100.  Marius  buys  his  sixth  co& 
sulate. 

Banishment  of  Metellua 


752 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


TJie  Eighth  Period. — (The  Roman.)-' 


1.0    PROGRESS  OF  gonurr,  ETC. 


THE  JEWS. 


Libraries  of  Atttnt  sent  to 
Rome  by  syi  ia. 


Decline  of  Agriculture  in 
Italy ;  corn  supplied  from 
the  provinces. 

Posidonius  calculates  the 
heisht  of  the  atmosphere  to 
be  about  800  stadia. 

Zeno,  of  Si  Jon,  the  Epicurean ; 
AjitUimn  of  Alhtsns;  Alex- 
ander Pulijphistur.{\ie  srram- 
mariun ;  Phutiug  Gnllus, 
rhetorician ;  Q.  Valerius 
Antias,  Roman  historian  ; 
Q.  Hortensiuji,  orator. 

The  cherry  tree  brought  to 
Europe  from  Asia  by  Lu- 
cullus.  —  'J'Krmlius  Vurro 
writes  three  books  on  agri- 
culture. 

The  Romans  possess  gold 
miner)  in  Asia  Minor,  Mace- 
donia, Sardinia  anil  Haul ; 
and  productive  silver  mines 
in  Spain. 

The  first  water  mitt  described 
near  a  dwelling  of  Mithri- 
dates. 

Eliony  introduced  at  Rome  by 
Pompey. 

Vikratuiiilitya  kins  of  Ozene, 
in  Iii'lia.  patron  of  literature 
— ;it  his  court  flourish  Ame- 
ra  Sin/en,  lex-fcosranher: 
Vararucht,  grammarian ; 
Kalidasa,  poet. 


79.  Alexandra,  widow  of  Jan- 
neus,  governs  Judea. 


70.  Hyrcanus  II.,  High  Priest, 
deposed  by  his  brother  Aris- 
tobulus. 

67.  Aristobulus  and  Hyrc.-miis 
appeal  to  Pompey,  wlio  en- 
ters Juilea  and  takes  Jerusa- 
lem, and  restores  Hyrcanus 
to  the  priesthood. 


63.  JUDEA  A  ROMAN  FftO 
V1NCB. 


93.  China  sti'    submits  to  th« 
Han  dyna-My ;    S  e  in  a  t  - 
z  i  n  ,    Emperor. 

97.  Mil  hridates  conquers  Cap- 

padoeia. 
95.  Cappadocia  declaied  free 

by    Rome.  —  Ariobarzunea 

elected  king. 

94.  Antioohus,  king  of  Syria, 
defeated  .  y  Seleucus. 

93.  Tigranes,  king  of  Arme- 
nia. 


9.  Pontus  at  war  with  Rome. 


86.  Mithridates  takes  Bythi- 
nia  and  several  Roman'pro- 
vinces. 

83.  Tigranes  made  king  o( 
Syria. 


75.  By  the  death  of  Nicome- 
des  Uythinia  becomes  it 
orovince. 


70.    Damascus   possessed  t»y 

the  Romans. 
!).  Mitliridiiies  and  Tigranes 

ileleiiiol  by  Luiuilliw. 
J6.    Mnhridates    defeated   by 

Pompey. 

05.  Antiochus  XII.  defeated 
by  Pompey.— The  race  of 
the  Seleucidw  becomes  ex- 
tinct. —  Ariobarzanes  II., 
kin»  of  Cappadocia.  — An 
earthquake  in  Bo«phoriu 
lays  in  ruins  several  towns. 

1-1.  Dejotarus,  kin?  of  Gal.itw, 
seizes  Armenia  Minor. 

>3.  Pharraaces,  kiugofPontu* 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


753 


146  years. — (Continued.) 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


97 


By  the  death  of  Ptolemy 
Apion,  CYRBNE  becomes  a 
Roman  province. 


In  Asia  and  Africa. 


97.  Annexation  of  Gyrene. 


82 


Revolt   in    Upper    Egypt.— 

Thebss  destroyed. 
Alexander  II.,  king  of  Egypt. 


89.  Mithridatic  War;  Sylla 
commands  the  Roman  army. 
!.  The  Athenians  seek  as- 
sistance from  Mithridates 
against  Rome. 
.  Athens,  reduced  by  famine, 
is  taken  by  Sylla. 

83.  Second  Mithridatic  War. 
82.  Sylla  plunders  the  temple 
of  Delphi. 


In  Europe. 

99.  L  u  s  i  t  a  n  i  a  conquered 
by  Dolabella,  and  becomes 
a  Roman  province. — Birth 
of  Julius  Csesar. 


91.  Social  War  in  Italy. 

P  Sylla  defeating  th«i 
Marsi  and  Peligni,  puts  aa 
end  if  ihe  Social  War. 

Civil   War  between  Ma- 
rius  and  Sylla. 


82.  Sylla  defeats  Marius,  and 
is  created  perpetual  dictator. 


SO.  TULIUS  CAESAR'S  FIRST 
79.    Pompey   defeats    Dc-1     CAMPAIGN. 
mitius  in  Africa. 


75.    Bythinia   a   Roman 
Province. 


74.    Third    Mithridatic   War 
under  Lucullus. 


Ptolemy     Auletes,    king     of 


66.  Metellns  subdues  Crete. 
P  o  n  t  u  s     becomes     a 

Roman    Province. 
65.    Syria,    a     Roman 

Province. 


77.  Sertorius  revolts  in  Spam 
and  defeats  Metellus  and 
Pompey. 


73.  War  of  Spartacus,  the  gla 
diator. 

71.  Spartacus  defeated  by  Cras 
sus. 


70.    Pompey    and    Cras 

sus    Consuls. 
69.  Census  450,090. 


65.  M.  T.  CICERO,  Consul. 


63.  C  a  ta  line's  Conspl- 
,  racy  detected  and  sup 
I  pressed  by  Cicero. 


32* 


754 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

The  Eighth  Period.— (The  Roman.)— 


.a.   PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


Magnificent  houses  of  tilt 
nobles;  marble  theatre  of 
Scaurus,  to  hold  30,000  spec- 
tators. 

Cicero,  statesman  and  orator ; 
So/lust,  historian;  Lucre- 
tius and  Catullus,  poets; 
Appl/oiiius,  of  Rhodes,  rhe- 
torician ;  Aristomedes,  of 
Crete,  grammarian ;  Andro- 
nicus,  of  Rhodes,  peripate- 
tic philosopher. 


Iron  chain  cables  used  by  the 
Veneti. 


A  water  mill  on  the  Tiber  at 
Rome. 


The  Alexandrian  library  (400,- 
000  vols.)  burnt. 

The  year  of  confusion  —  so 
called  because  the  calendar 
was  altered  by  Sosigenes. 


Catsar  reforms  the  Calendar, 
by  introducing  the  solar  in- 
stead of  the  lunar  year.  — 
First  Julian  year.  —  Vitru- 
vius.  l  he  greatest  Roman  ar- 
chitect. 

dtrnehuA  Nepos,    historian  ; 


rian 


Sicttlus,    histo- 


THE JEWS. 


.ASIA. 


53.  Crassus  plunders  the  tem- 
ple of  10,000  talents. 


48.  Antipater,  the  Idumean,  is 
made  lieutenant  in  Judea  by 
Cffisar. 


43  Judea  oppressed  by  Cras- 
sus. 

Malichus   poisons    Arrti- 
pater. 

40.  Herod  the  Great,  son  of 
Antipater,  defeats  his  rival, 
Antigonus,  and  Parcorus. 
the  Parthian — takes  Jerusa- 
lem— marries  Mariamne — i." 
made  king  by  the  Romans. 


53.  Parthian  War.— Tho  To- 
mans defeated.  —  Craw- J 
slain. 


49.  The  era  of  Antioek. 


47.  Battle  of  Zela.— PhaiBT 
conquered  by  Caesar. 


44.  A  comet  s*en  in  dim* 


39.  The  Parthians,  under  Pai 
corns,  defeated  by  Venn 
dius. 

Darius,  king  of  Pontus. 
33.  Ariobarzanes  dethroned  bj 
Marc  Antony. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 

J4G  years. — (Continued.) 


755 


68 


43 


loiemy  goes  to  Rome,  Bere- 
lice  reigns  in  his  absence. 


Tl.e  African  War.  —  Scipio 
a  v'Juba  defeated  at  Thap- 
si:s  — Caio  wills  himself  at 
l-iica. — Ptolemy  Dionysius 
Crowned  in  the  Nile. 

Caesar  rebuilds  Carthage. 


Cleapatra  jwisons  her  brother 
ai  J  reigns  alone 


ROMAN   EMPIRE. 


East. 


53.  Crassus  defeated  and  killed 
in  Parthia. 


48.  Thessaly  becomes  the  seat 
of  war. — The  Athenians  de- 
clare for  Caesar  against  Pom- 
pey. 

Battle  of  Pharsalia: — Pom- 
pey,  defeated  by  Caesar,  flees 
into  Egypt,  and  is  slain  there. 

47.  Caesar  lakes  Alexandria, 
and  conquers  Egypt. — Cae- 
sar victorious  at  Zela,  in 
Asia. 

45.  Corinth  rebuilt  by  Caesar. 


Wen. 


60.  First  Triumvirate:— 
Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Juliui 
Caesar. 

Sciold,  first  king  of  Den- 
mark. —  Boh  a  fierce  son 
of  Odin. 

58.  Clodius  procures  the  ban 
ishment  of  Cicero.  —  The 
Helvetii  defeated  by  Julius 
Caesar. 

57.  Cicero  recallea.  —  S  a  1  • 
lust  expelled  from  th« 
senate. — Gylf,  king  of  Swe- 
den. 

55.  Caesar  passes  the 
Rhine,  defeats  the  Gei- 
mans  and  Gauls,  and  IN 
VADES  BRITAIN. 

54.  Caesar's  second  invasion 
of  Britain. 


52.  Pompey,  sole  consul. 

51.  Caesar  completes  the  con- 
quest of  Gaul,  which  be- 
comes a  Roman  province. 

49.  Caesar  passes  the 
Rubicon,  and  in  sixty 
days  makes  himself  master 
of  Italy— marches  into  Spain 
and  forces  Pompey's  troops 
to  surrender. 
I.  Battle  of  Dyrrhachium. 


45.  Caesar  perpetual 
dictator  —  he  subdues 
the  two  sons  of  Pompey,  and 
acquires  the  sole  power. 

44.  Casar  assassinated  in  the 
Senate  House. 

43.  Second  Triumvirate  :— 
Octavius  Caesar,  Marc  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus.— Cicero 
proscribed  and  murdered. 

42.  The  Battle  of  Philijrpi  :~ 
Antony  and  Octavius  defeal 
Brutus  and  Cassiua. 


756 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

The  Eighth  Period.— (The  Raman.)— 


•.c.  PROORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


Golden  age  of  Roman  litera- 
ture. 

The  revenue  of  the  empire 
amounts  to  about  40  millions 
sterling. — Fi  rat  standing  ar- 
my in  Rome. — Direct  trade 
ol  Rome  with  India. — Silk 
and  linen  manufactories 
in  the  empire. 

Temple  of  Janus  at  Rome 
closed — there  being  now  a 
general  peace. 


Treasures  of  Egyptian  art 
brought  to  Rome.— The  Pan- 
theon built. 

HORACE,  VIROIL,  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  poets;  Varrus 
and  Tucca,  critics;  Livy, 
historian ;  Macenas,  minis- 
ter of  Augustus,  patron  of 
literature;  Strabo,  geogra 
pher;  jEmilius  Macer,  of 
Verona,  poet ;  Agrippa,  war- 
rior, ajiJ  patron  of  the  arts. 

Worship  of  Isis  at  Rome. 

Pantomimic  dances  intro- 
duced on  the  Roman  stage. 


constructed     by 


Aqueducts 
Agrippa. 


Dedications  of  bf>ks  first  in- 
troduced. 


The  legions  distributed  over 
the  provinces  in  fixed  camps, 
which  soon  erew  into  cities 
— among  them  were  Bonn 
and  Mayence. 

The    ca!en<la~   corrected    by 

Augustus. 
Dionysius,  of  FTalicarnassut, 

historian  ;    and  Dionysius. 
pher. 


THE  JEWS. 


30.  Herod  kill*  Mariamne. 


19.  The  Temple  rebuilt  by 
Herod — he  also  builds  Cy- 
pron,  Antipatris,  Pharsaelis, 
and  the  tower  of  Phasael  in 
Jerusalem. 


5.  Cyrenius  taxes  Judea. 


geosrapner. 

BIRTH  OF  OUR  SAVIOUR,  JESUS  CHRIST,  4  years  be- 
fore the  Vulgar  Era. 
3.  Archelaus  succeeds  Herod 
with  the  title  of  Ethnarch. 


34.  Antony  fakes  possession 
of  Armenia,  which  become* 
a  Roman  province  —  leadi 
an  inglorious  expedition 
against  Parthia. 


29.  Ephesus,  next  to 
Alexandria,  the  chief  place 
of  trade  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire. 


20.  Porus,  king  of  India,  soft. 
cits  an  alliance  with  Rorne. 
Parthiana  defeated  by  Ti 
berius. 


14.    Polemon  conquers    Bo* 
porus. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


757 


146  years. — (Continued.) 


30 


Cleo|  itra  obtains  from  An 
tony  a  grant  of  Phoen.cia, 
Cyrene  and  Cyprus. 

— receives  all  Asia  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Indus. 

deopatra  and  Marc  Antony 
defeated  by  Octavius,  at 
Actium. 


Alexandria  taken  by  Octaviua. 
— Antony  and  Cleopatra  de- 
stroy themselves. 

Egypt  be  co  in  fag  t  Bo- 
man  province. 


ROMAN   EMPIRE. 


East. 


21 .  Athens  finally  subjected  'o 

Rome. 
20.  CXCth  Olympiad. 


s.  Tiberius  at  Rhodes. 

5.  Q.  Varrus  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Syria,  and  Cyre- 
niua  governor  of  Judea. 


Wett. 


36.   Sextus  Pompey  defeated 
in  Sicily. 


32.  Antony  quarrels  wilh  ()o 

'.avius. 
31.  By  the  BATTLE  OF  AC- 

TIUM     Octavius    acquire* 

the  empire. 


30.    THE     REPUBLIC    BE 
COMES  A  MONARCHY. 


29.  Octavius's  3  days  triumph 
at  Rome. 

Temple  of  Janus  shut 
Rome  contains  4,101,017 
citizens. 

27.  The  titles  of  Augustus  and 
Emperor  conferred  on  Octa- 
vlits  for  10  years. 


23.  Agrippa  in  Spain. 


22.  Conspiracy  of  Muraena. 

21.  Augustus  visits  Greece 
and  Asia. 

16.  Lollius  defeated  by  the 
Germans. 

15.  Caniabria,  Austria,  Rhae- 
bia,  Vindelencia  and  Moesia 
become  Roman  provinces — 
being  conquered  by  Dru- 
sus. 

13.  Augustus  assumes  the 
title  of  Pomifex  Maximus. 

12.  Pannonia,  conquered  by 
Tiberius,  becomes  a  Ro- 
man province. 

11.  Germany  subdued  r>*  Ger 
manicus. 


4.  Cymbeline,  king  of  Brita'n 


PA11T  II. 

MODERN    CHRONOLOGY, 

THE    CHRISTIAN    ERA   TO    THE    PRESENT   TIME. 


Epochas  or  Periods. 

(.  From  the  Christian  Era  )  Period  of  the    Ten   Persecution    » 
to  the  Reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  A.  D.  306  j                Christians. 

°        «       Extinction  of  the  Western  Empire,   «  476  (  "     Northern  Invasions. 

«       Flight  of  Mahomet,                            «  622  J  "     J^'Man  and  Belisariu,. 

<*       Crowning  of  Charlemagne  at  Rome,  «  800  \  "     Saracen  Empire. 

V  «       Battle  of  Hasting^                              «  1066  (  "     New  Western  Empire. 

VI  ) 

«       Founding  of  the  Turkish  Empire,      «  1299  { 

VII  J 

«       Taking  of  Constantinople,                  «  1453  (             Tamerlane,  WiMiffe,  and  ff*~ 

*IH  )  "      TVie  Reformation;  Discoveriet 

"        Edict  of  Nantes,                                   "  1598  ]                and  Inventions. 

IX  *  "      The     English     C'ommontrenltk 
«       Death  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,      "  1718 1                and  Wars  of  Louis  XIV. 

X  )  "     American  and  French  Rivn.v 
"        Cattle  of  Waterloo,                              "  1815  \                lions. 

il  i  "     European  Revolutions,    l.itti* 

"       present  time  c.1865.)  \                lure  and  the  Arts. 


760  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

MODERN  CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD  1st.— (The  Ten  Persecutions.)— 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


SACRED. 


The  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST -.—{see  p.  44.) 
Herod  Antipas  being  at  this  time  letrarcn 
of  Galilee. 


8.  Christ  reasons  with  the  doctors. 


Celsua 


Uua    the  physician;   Phizdrua,  the  fabu- 
ist ;     Veliius    Paterculua,    Roman    hislo- 


The  Druids  in  Germany. 


Philo,  Alexandrian  Jew,  disciple  of  Plato. 
Seneca,  moral  philosopher. 


Valerius  Maximus,  historian. 

Appion,  of  Alexandria,  erammarian,  called 
the  "Trumpet  of  the  World." 


48 


60 


A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the  em- 
peror and  censor,  the  inhabitants  of  Rome 
are  found  to  amount  to  6,900,000. — (Univ. 
//«/.)— I  More  than  three  times  the  number 
AT  London  at  present.} 

Cotumella,  born  in  Spam;  left  twelve  books 
on  husbandry. 


25.  Pontius  Pi/ate,  governor  01  Judea. 

26.  John  the  Baptist  begins  his  ministry. 

27.  Christ  baptized  by  John 

28.  — at  the  marriage  in   Cana.  —  Matthew 
called. 

29  Twelve  disciples  sent  abroad,  "  two  and 
two." 

30.  CRUCIFIXION  of  our  SAVIOUR,  Fri- 
day, April  3.  at  3  P.  M.  ;  Resurrection, 
Sunday,  April  5;  Ascension.  Thursday. 
May  4. 

.  St.  Peter  baptizes  Cornelius. 
34.  St.  Paul  converted  to  Christianity. 

39.  St.  Matthew  writes  his  gospel. 

40.  The  disciples  first  called  Christiana  at 
Antioch. 

41.  Herod's  persecution ;  St.  Peter  imprisoned 


44.  St.  Mark  writes  his  gospel.  —  Death  of 
St.  James. 

45.  Barnabas  and  Paul  preach  in  Cyprus. 


50  Paul  preaches  in  the  Areopagus,  at  A  then 


52.  Council  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem. 


55.  Paul  preaches  at  Ephesus,  and  at  Csesa 
rea. 

57.  —pleads  belore  Felix. 
69.  —pleads  before  Festus,  and  appeal*  M 
OMc. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


761 


306  years. — Prom  the  Christian  Era  to  the  reign  of  Constantino. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


East. 
Caiiu  Cesar  makes  peace  with  the  Parthians. 


12<5 


Germanicus  conquers  Cappadccia. 
Germanicus  poisoned  at  Antioch. 


Thrace  becomes  a  Roman  province. 


West. 
Tiberius  returns  to  Rome. 

3.  Cinna's  conspiracy  detected. 

— Caius  Csesar  dies. 

6.  Q.  Varrus  encamped  on  the  Weser,  got 
erns  Lower  Germany  like  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. 

9.  The  Germans,  under  Arminiuii,  defeat  an  3 
kill  Varrus. 

Ovid  is  banished  to  Tomos. 
14    Augustus  dies  at  Nola,  aged  76,  and  n 
succeeded  bv 


•Tiberius. 


19.  The   Jews  banished   from    Rome. — Th« 

M'ircomanni  conquered  by  Drusus. 
21.  The  theatre  of  Pompey  destroyed  by  3r«. 


26.  Tiberius  retires  to  Caprsea. 


31.  Sejanus  disgraced  and  put  to  death, 

33.  Conquest  of  Mauritania. 
S7.  Tiberius  dies,  aged  78. 


-Caligula. 


(noted  for  his  profligacy  and  folly.) 
41.  Caligula  assassinated  by  Chereaa. 


Claudius' 


succeeds  to  the  tnrone. 
43.  —invades  Britain  with  his  general,  Pla 
tius. 

45   Vespasian,  general  in  Britain. 
48.  Census  of  the  city,  6,900,000. 


•1.  Caractacus,  the  chief  of  the  Britons,  eo»- 
quered  and  brought  to  Rome. 


N  e  r  o  ,^ 


a  profligate  and  bloody  tyrant 
55.  — poisons  Britanicus. 
56   Rotterdam  built. 


69.  Nero's  mother,  Agrippinm,  put  to  <**•&  by 
his  order. 


T82 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  I. — 306  vian 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


SACRED  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL. 


67 


60 


Nsrc's  golden  palace  built  ;  of  great  extent, 
inclosing  fields,  <fcc.  The  buildings  in 
Rome  more  regular  after  the  fire. 


Pliny,  the  elder,  author  of  the  first  natural 
history ;  Quintius  Curtius,  historian ;  Per- 
sius.  satirist. 

Tustphus,  the  Jewish  historian. 


rhe  Coliseum  of  Vespasian. 


The   Capitol    rebuilt. 
Circumnavigation  of  Scotland. 
Destruction  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 


Very  beautiful  paintings  in  the  Baths  of 
Titus ;  the  group  of  the  Laocoon. 

Quintillian,  orator ;  Valerius  Flaccus,  poet ; 
Martial,  Epigrammatist;  Apollonius,  Py- 
thago-.ean  philosopher;  Epictetus,  stoic; 
Dio  Chrysostom,  Greek  rhetorician  and  phi- 
losopher ;  Philo  By'iius  ;  Ignatius  and  Pa- 
pias,  two  of  the  fathers  of  the  church. 


Tacitus,  historian ;  Juvenal,  satirist ;  Wit 
tius,  poet;  Anl.  Gellius,  Latin  gramma- 
rian ;  Plutarch,  moralist  and  biographer ; 
',he  younger  Pliny. 


The  Ulpian  library;  Public  schools  in  all 
the  provinces;  Jurisprudence  flourishes; 
the  city  adorned  wilh  the  Forum;  Pillar 
of  Trajan,  and  baths;  bridge  built  over 
the  Danube. 


69.  Paui  is    shipwrecked  on  the   laiaM  •' 

Melita  (Malta). 
60.  Paul  imprisoned  at  Rome 

63.  Paul  set  at  liberty. 

64.  The  first  persecution  of  Christian*  6j 

Nero. 

63  to  66.  Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  ana  trav«l« 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  known 
world. 

66.  Pope  Linus.* 

The  Jews  at  war  with  the  Romans,  and 
Paul  beheaded. 
St.  Peter  crucified. 

67.  The  Jews  massacred  by  Florus. — Juscphus, 
governor  of  Galilee. 

Pope  St.  Clement, — Gamaliel 

68.  Vespasian  invades  Judea. 


70.   The  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  by  T  tut 


77.  Pope  St.  Cletua 


83   Pope  Anacletus. 


95.  Second  persecution  of  the  Christian*  by 
Uomitian. 

St.  John  writes  his  Gospel  and  Apoca- 
lypse, and  is  banished  to  the  isle  of  Fa1  mor 

96.  Pope  Evanstus. 


97.  Timothy  stoned. 

St.  John  returns  from  exile. 

98.  Christian  assemblies  prohibited  by  Fiaju 

*  The  word  Pope  is  used  in  accordance 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  usage,  though  tin 
name  was  not  adopted  by  their  Pontiffii  UK 
several  centuries  alter. 


— Christian,  Era  to  Constantine.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


763 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


65 


East. 


Corbul)  subdues  Armenia. 


Tiridates  placed  on  the  throne  of  Armenia  by 


77 


Judea  subdued  and  Jerusalem  destroyed  by 

Titus. 
Vespasian  conquers  Lycia,  Rhodes,  Thrace, 

Cilicia.  Byzantium  and  Samoa. 
Revolt  of  the  Parthians. 


77.  A  great  plague  at  Rome,  10,000  dying  in 
one  day. 


West. 


61.  Revolt  of  the  Briton*  under  queen  Boa, 
dicea ;  they  burn  London.  The  queen,  de- 
feated by  Suetonius,  poisons  herself. 

64.  Nero  sets  Rome  on  fire,  and  accuses  th« 
Christians  of  the  crime. 

—persecutes  the  Christians— Seneca,  IM- 
dan,  and  others  put  to  death. 


08.- 


•  6  al ba , 


reigns  9  months,  and  is  put  to  death  by 


69.- 


•  Otho,' 


(2  months)  defeated  and  killed  by 

V  i  t  e  1 1  i  u  s ,  jig 

who  is  defeated  by  the  army  of 


70.- 


•Vespasian. 


79.- 


T  i  t  u  s  ,  fgf . 

(beneficent.) 
Herculaneum    and    Pompeii   destroyed 
by  an  irruption  of  Vesuvius. 
80.  Julius  Agricola,  conqueror  and  governor 
of  Britain,  reduces  Wales,  enters  Caledonia. 


81.- 


•  Domitian,  wj 
(  a  cruel  tyrant.) 


86.  Dercebal,  leader  of  the  German  hordes, 
defeats  Domitian,  and  compels  him  to  pay  t 
yearly  tribute. 

88'.  Capitoline  and  secular  games. 
War  with  Dacia  15  years. 


96.  Domitian  put  to  death  by  Stephanus. 


N  e  r va , 


(well  intentioned  but  enfeebled  by  age.) 


98.- 


•  Traj  an  ,' 


(a  ereat  sovereign  anda  warrior.) 
The  Roman  Empire  at  its  greater  extent 
J.  Severus,  general  in  Britain 


764 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Modern:  Period  /. — 306  yeart. 


PKOOKESS  OF  SOCIETY.  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


107 


te    flist    credible    historian    among    the 
Chinese. 


132 


The  great  buildings  of  Palmyra.— Temple  of 

the  Sun  at  Baalbec. 
The  Roman  mosaics. 


Jurisprudence  improved  by  the  publishment 
of  Adrian's  perpetual  code. 

Ptolemy,  ihe  celebrated  Egyptian  astronomer 
and  geographer  — Arrian,  Appian,  Maxi- 
mus,  Lysius  and  Pausanius,  Greek  histo 
rians ;  Lueian,  a  satirical  writer ;  Hermo- 
genes,  rhetorician  of  Tarsus. 


169 


Tschang  Heng,  the  Chinese  astronomer. 

Oaten,  Greek  physician;  Athreneus,  a  gram- 
marian ;  Diogenes  Laertius,  Greek  Histo- 
rian. 


The  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 


100.  St.  John  dies  at  Ephesus,  set.  91 

107.  Third  persecution  of  the  Christian*  k) 

Trajan. 

MM.  St.  Ignatius  devouied  by  wild  beasts. 
Pope  Alexander  I. 


118.  Fourth  persecution  of  the  Christians  by 
Adrian. 

119.  Pope  Sixtus  1. 


126.  Quadratus,  bishop  of  Athens. 

127.  Pope  Telesphorus. 

130.  Heresy  of  Prodicus,  chief  of  the  Ada- 


134.  Heresy  of  Marcion,  who  acknowledges 
three  Gods. 

135.  PolycarpaxA  Ar  is  tides,  Christian  fathers 

139.  Pope  Hygenuo. 


142.  Pope  Pius  I. 

Heresy  of  Valentine. 


150.  Pope  Anicetus. 

Canon  of  Scripture  fixed  about  this  time 

154.  Justin  Martyr  publishes  his  apology  fo 
the  Christians. 


162.  PopeSoter. 


167.  Polycarp  and  Pionices  martyred  in  Alia 


171.  Pope  Eleulherus. 
177.  The  Christians  persecuted  At  Lye  I 
Theophilus,  Tatian,  and  Muntanut. 


185.  Pope  Victor  L 
St.  Iren&tu. 


—C/irist'an  Era  to  Constantiue.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


765 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


102 


111 


11(5 


I'JG 
13(1 


13-J 


ICO 


168 


East 


•liny,  proconsul  in  Bithynia,  sends  Trajan  his 
account  of  the  Christians. — Great  victories 
of  Trajan. 


Trajan's  expedition  against  the  Parthians. 


Seizure  of  Ctesiphon. 

niH-iiia  Major  again  governed  by  its  own 
kings  dependent  upon  Rome. 

Nicomedia  and  other  cities  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake. 


Adrian  in  Asia  Minor  for  seven  years. 

Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  under  the  name  of 

jElia  Capitolina,  and  erects  there  a  temple 

to  Jupiter. 
The  rebellion  of  the  Jews  crushed  after  a  war 

of  five  years. — The  Jews  banished  from 

Judea. 


Embassy  sent  by  Antoninus  to  China. 


War  will:  the  Parthians,  lasts  3  years. 


Wf.*t. 

100.  The  Huns  emigrate  westwar  L 

101.  Trajan  reduces  Dacia. 


115.  Massacre  of  the  Greeks  and  Rone  ant 
the  Jews  of  Cyrene. 


117.- 


Adrian. 


120.  —makes    t    progress   through    all    th« 

121.  provinces—visits  Britain,  builds  there 
a  wall  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Frith.— A 
wall  built  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube. 


133. —  Antoninus    Pius,  ffg 

(eminent  for  his  virtues  and  love  ol  peace.) 
140.  Lpllius  Urbicus  extends  the  Roman  do- 
minion in  Briiain,  and  erects  a  second  ram- 
part, called  the  Wall  of  Antoninus. 

145.  Antoninus  defeats  the  Moors,  Germans, 
and  Dacians. 

146.  —introduces  the  worship  of  Serapis  into 
Rome. 

152.  — stops  the  persecution  of  the  Christiana 


161.—  Marcus   Aurelius,  |@f  (An»  < 

ninus,) 

(the  stoic  philosopher.) 
Escape  of  the  thundering  legion. 
158.  Plague  over  the  whole  known  world. 


169.  The  Marcomanni  at  war  with  Roma. 


180.  The  emperor   dies   at   Sinnium: 
cee("ed  by 


Commodus,1 


(profligate  and  cruel;)  makes  peace 

with  the  Germans. 
GOTHS  in  Dacia. 


766 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  /.— 306  year* 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


v!15 


235 


M'J 
860 


Pajnnian,  the  greatest  civil  lawyer  of  an.i 
quity — Julius  Africanus,  chrouologer. 


Caraealla  grants  the  right  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship to  all  the  provinces,  that  they  may  be- 
come liable  to  the  taxes,  inheritances,  <kc. 


Ammonias,  founder  of  a  new  school  of  Pla- 
tonic philosophy  at  Alexandria. 
Dio  Cassias,  Greek  historian. 


Ceraorius,  a  critic  and  grammarian. 


fferodian,  Greek  historian. 
Longinut,  philosopher  and  :ritK 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


197.  Pope  Zephyrmua. 


202.  Fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians  undet 
Severus. — Tertullian,  an  able  defender  ol 
Christianity. — Clemens,  of  Alexandria,  and 
Minutius  Felix,  C.  P.* 


217.  Pope  Calixtus  I. 

The  Septuagint  found  in  a  cart. 


228.  Pope  Urban  .. 
34.  Pope  Pontianus. 

5.  Anterus. 

Orieen,  C.  F. 

Sixin  persecution  of  the  Christians,  under 
Maximinus,  in  which  Leonidaa,  Irenttut, 
Victor,  Perpetua,  and  'Felicitaa  are  mar- 
tyred. 


244.  Gregory  Thaumoturgug,  and  Ditmyunt 
of  Alexandria,  C.  F. 


250.  Pope  St.  Cornelhra. 

Seventh  persecution  of  the  Chliftiaua. 

*  Christian  Father. 


— Christian  Era  la  Const  mil  inc.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


ROMAN  EMPIIB. 


isa 


Rast. 
The  SARACENS  defeat  the  Romans. 


PERSIA  ;  the  new  kingdom  begun  by  Artax- 
erxes ;  (the  dynasty  of  the  Sassasidse). 

Parihia  tributary  to  Persia. 


Mi1 


Giordiar.  defeat  the  Persians  under  Sapor 


West. 

189.  The  Capitol  of  Rome  destroyed  by  light 
ning. 

191.  Rome  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

192.  Commodus  assassinated  by  Mania  ant 
Laetus. 

ft 
193. P  e  r  t  i  n  a  x  , 


proclaimed    by   the  Praetorian  guards — 
murdered  after  a  reign  of  3  mouths. — Th« 
empire  bought  by  Didius  Julianus,  who 
is  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  senate. 


Septimus   Severus ,^gf 

(governs  with  vigor.) 
—defeats  his  competitors,  Niger  and  Albi- 
nus. 

194.  — besieges  Byzantium. 
202.  — persecutes  the  Christians. 
203   —  his  sons  Caracalla  iind  Ge  a  go  to  Bri- 
tain, where  50,000  Roman  truops  died  ol 
plasue. 

The  wall  of  Severus  between  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde  built. 

211.  Severus  dies  at  York,  in  Britain. 

-Caracalla    and    Geta.  HS— — 
Caracalla  murders  Geta. 

212.  — visits  the  provinces  along  the  Danube 
— Wars  with  the  Catti  and  Alemanni. 

217.  Caracalla  is  assassinated. 


M  a  c  r  i  n  u  a  , 


put  to  death  by  the  soldiers. 


213- 


—  Heliogahalus,  ___ 
(a  monster  of  vice  and  cruelty.) 


222.-  Alexander  Severus  ,\ 

(a  beneficent  and  enlightened  prince.) 
The  Romans  agree  to  pay  an  annual  tri- 
bute to  the  Goths,  to  prevent  them  from 
molestinz  the  empire. 

226.  The  victory  ol  Severus  over  the  Persian* 
at  Tadmor. 

235.  Severus  murdered  in  a  mutiny  of  the 
army ;  succeeded  by 
M  a  x  i  m  i  n  u  s  ,  .A. 


who  defeats  the  Dacians  and  Sarmatians. 

230.   Maximinus  assassinated  by  his  troop* 
near  Aquilea. 

—  Balbinus   and    Gordtan,  f§g  — 
241.  The    FRANKS   first  mentioned  in  hi* 

lory ;  they  invade  Gaul. 
244.  — are  repulsed  at  Moguntiacum. 
Gordian  put  to  death  by 

1"  h  i  1  i  p  .^g(the  Arabian,'    •        -» 

who  makes  makes  peace  with  Sapor. 
247.  The  secular  sames  restored. 


919. 


D  e  c  i  u  •• 


persecutes  the  Christians. 
250.  —slain  by   the  Goths,   who  ir.T«d«  thl 
empire  by  crossing  the  Danub«. 


768 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Modern :  Period  /.— 306  yean 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY.  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


Plotintu. 

Odin  in  Scandinavia. 


Paulus.  a  Roman  poet 


Longinus  at  the  court  of  Zenobia. 


Rome  surrounded  with  a  wall. 
Longinus  dies. 


Porphyry,  the  Greek  philosopher  and  opposer 

of  Christianity. 
Extraordinary  naval  expedition  of  the  Thra- 

cian   Franks    in    t>?  Mediterranean    and 

Northern  Seas. 


Diocletian's  Oriental  form  of  government— 
the  monarchy  considered  hereditary — nomi- 
nation of  Caspars  as  co-rulers. 

Diocletian's  balha,  containing  3,000  benches 
of  white  marble,  while  the  walls  were 
•domed  with  paintings. 


251.  St   Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage. — M» 
nastic  life  originates  about  thU  tune. 

Dispute  between  the  churches  of  ROOM 
and  Africa  about  baptism. 


259.  Pope  Dionysius. 


263.    Paul,  bishop  of  Samosatia,  dei  i«i 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ 


.  Pope  Felix  L 
272.  Ninth  persecution  under  Aurelian. 


274.  Pope  Eutychianes. 

Manes  originates  the  heresy  of  the  Man*- 
chaeans — rejects  all  thesacrainen's  ;  refuses 
allegiance  to  temporal  sovereigns,  dec. 


283.  Pope  Caius. 

The  Jewish  Talmud  arm  Targum  .-ons 
posed. 

Paul,  the  Theban,  the  first  hermit.—  Hell 
gious  ceremonies  multiplied. — Pagan  ritet 
imitated  by  the  Christians. 


286.  Ifierax,  chief  of  the  Hierarians ;  assert* 
that  Melchizedec  was  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
denies  the  resurrection 


— Christian  Era  to  Constantine.] 


THE     JVORLD  b    PROGRESS. 


769 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


251 


East. 


HUNS  o>  i  the  Caspian  Sea. 


209 


200 
261 


2C4 


SJG9 
273 


The  Persians  victorious  in  Asia  Minor. 
Persia :— Sapor's   victory    over  the   Roman 

arms. 

The  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  burnt. 
Sapor,  the  Persian,  takes  Antioch,  Tarsus  and 

Cssarea. 

Odenatus,  king  of  Palmyra— he  is  succeeded 

by  his  wife. 
Zen  obi  a,  who  reigns  with  the  titles  of 

1  Augusta,'  and  '  Queen  of  the  East.' 


Zenobia  conquers  Egypt,  a  part  of  Armenia, 

and  Asia  Minor. 
Zenobia  defeated  at  Edessa,  by  Aurelian,  who 

destroys  her  magnificent  capital,  and  carries 

her  to  Rome. 


280 


The  Persians  lefeated  by  Probus. 


251.- 


West. 


Callus' 


purchases  a  peace  with  the  Goths. — Con- 
federacy of  the  Franks  between  the  Rhint 
and  Elbe. 

— «  great  pestilence  prevails  in  the  empire. 


253.- 
254.- 


E  m  1 1 1  a  r.  u  a  . 
Valerian. 


— is  successful  against  the  Germans  and 

Goths. 
256-69.  Four  great  piratical  expeditions ef  the 

Goths  into  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 
259.  Valerian  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  and 

flayed  alive  by  the  Persians. 


•  G  al  1  i  e  n  u  s  . 


Period  of  the  30  tyrants. 
The  Persians  penetrate  to  Ravenna. 
264.  Alliance  with  Odenatus. 

267.  Cleodamus  and  Athenius  defeat  the  Gotha 
and  Scythians. 

268.  Gallienus  killed  at  Milan. 


Claudius   II. 

defeats  an  army  of  320,(X 
269.  —dies  at  Sirmium. 


Jotha. 


270.- 


-  Aurelian,  ^g 

(a  great  warrior.) 
271.  —defeats  the  Goths  and  Alemanni. 


273  —reduces  Palmyra  after  an  heroic  resist- 
ance, and  takes  queen  Zenobia  prisoner. 

274.  France,  Spain,  and    Britain  reduced  to 
obedience. 

The  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Rome  burnt. — 
Dacia  eiyen  up  to  the  barbarians. 

275.  Aurelian  killed  near  Byzantium. 
An  interregnum  of  6  months. 


Tacitus, 


(a  descendant  of  the  historian,) 
reigns  with  wisdom  6  months. 


277.- 


Probus, 


(a  warlike  prince.) 
— obtains  several  victories  over  the  barba- 
rians.— The  Franks  permitted  by  Probus  to 
settle  in  Gaul. 
282.  Probus  slain  by  his  soldiers. 


C  ar  u  s 


killed  by  lightning. 

Carinus   and    Numerianu*,' 

(effeminate  and  cruel.) 
288.  Fingal,  king  of  Morven,  dies. 


284.- 


Diocletian1 


33 


sends  ambassadors  to  China. 
"The  Era  of  Diocletian,"  or  of  "the 
martyrs,"  Auffust  29. 

287.  Britain  usurped  by  Carausius,  who  reigns 
7  years.  The  empire  attacked  by  the  torth- 
ern  barbarians,  and  several  pronnces 
usurped  by  tyrants.— Maximianui,  a  col- 
league of  the  Emneror. 


70 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Modern  :  Period  I.—  306  yean. 


290 


304 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY.  ETC. 


The  Gregorian  code. 


ffregory  and  Hermogenes,  lawyers ;  Elius, 
Sparlianus,an&.  Vopiscus,  historians ;  Tre- 
bellius  Polio. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


296.  Monks  in  Spain  and  Egypt. 
Pope  Marcellinus 


303.  Tenth  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

304.  Arnobius,  of  Africa,  C.  P.,  converted 
'rom  idolatry. 


The  prettorian  guard  broken  up  by  Constan- 
tlne. 


MODERN:  PERIOD    SECOND.-170  yean  — 

306.  Persecution  of  the  Christians  stopped  by 
Consiantius. 

310.  Pope  Eusebius. 
Arius  excommunicated. 

311.  Pope  Malchiades. 

314.  Pope  Sylvester  I. 

319.  Toleration  of  Christianity  by  Constantino 
the  Great. 


3.TO 


Foundation  of  Constantinople  by  Constantino 
the  Great.— Celebrated  dome  of  St  Sophia: 
the  splendor  of  the  court  so  great  that  it 
cost  more  than  the  legions. 

Constantinople  becomes  the  seat  of  an  and 
literature. 


310 


357 


Ossian,  the  Caledonian  bard,  supposed    to 
Ivive  flourished  about  this  time. 


Eutropiug  and  Marcettintig,  historians ;  Jam- 
btictu  and  Eunapius,  Greek  historian. 


325.  The  Council  of  Nice  (from  June  19th, 
325  to  August  25th)  consisting  of  318  bishops, 
who  condemn  A  nanism.  —Eusebius,  bishop 
of  Cccsarea,  C.  F.,  and  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian. —  Lactantius.  Athanasius,  Arius, 
Ephraim  and  Basil,  C.  F.,  flourish  in  the 
reign  of  Constantino. 

336.  Pope  Marcus. 

337.  Pope  Julius. 

Eleventh  persecution.  —  Saints  invoked, 
the  cross  reverenced,  and  incense  used  by 
the  Christians. 


341.  Christianity  propagated  in  Ethiopia  by 
Frumaintius. 

356.  Pope  Felix  II. 

St.  Hilary  and  Gregory  Nazianztn  ol 
Constantinople,  an  eminent  writer,  C.  P.— 
Elius  Donatus.  bishop  of  Carthage.— 
Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem. — Monasteries  m 
Tnebais. 


—Christian  Era  to  Conslantine.\ 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


771 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


Ecat. 


Narsis,  king  of  Persia,  loses  Armenia,  Meso- 
potamia, and  Assyria. 

Alexandria  taken  by  Diocletian. 

Hormhdaa,  II.,  king  of  Persia,  builds  Ormus. 


West. 

291.  The  Franks  make  themselves  masters  oi 

Batavia  and  Flanders. 
293.  The  Franks  expelled  from  Batavia. 

296.  Britain  restored  to  the  emperor. 


304.  Diocletian  and  Maximian  resign  the  Em 
pire  to 

Constantius  and  Galeriut. 


From  Constantine  to  Odoacer. 


The  first  general  council  a  Nice. 

The  seat  of  government  removed  to  Constan- 
tinople, which  was  solemnly  dedicated  on 
May  llth,  330. 


Great  famine  and  pestilence  in  Syria. 
Revolt  of  Sarmatian  slaves,  300,000  are  dis- 
persed over  the  empire. 
Death  of  Constantine,  and  the  accession  of  his  three  sons, 


306.— CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT,  ^g 

(first  Christian  emperor.) 
Licinius,  Maximian,  and  Mcucentius,  nil 
three  colleagues. 

Constantino  defeats  the  Franks. 
312.  Maxentius  defeated  and  killed. 
314.  Civil  war  with  Licinius. 
319.  Constantine  favors  and  tolerates  Chris- 
tianity. 

321.  —appoints  the  observance  of  Sunday. 

322.  —defeats  and  banishes  Licinius,  and  be- 
comes sole  emperor. 

325.  —abolishes  the  combats  of  gladiators  and 
assemblies. 


331.  Constantine  orders  all  the  heathen  tem- 
ples to  be  destroyed. 


Constantius,    Constans,and    Constantine.' 


150  Greek  and  Asiatic  cities  destroyed  by  an 

earthquake. 
Hermanric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  founds  an 

extensive  empire. 
Gallus  put  to  death  by  Constantius. 


Constantius  dies  at  Tarsus. 

A  disadvantageous  peace  with  the  Persians. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE 

extending  from  the  lower  Danube  to  the  con- 
fines of  Persia. 


340.  Constantine,  the  younger,  defeated  and 

killed  by  Constans  at  Aquilea. 
350.  Constans  killed  in  Spain  by  Magnentiua. 


357.  Six  German  kings  defeated  by  Julian  at 
Strasburg. 

JL 

361.—  Julian,    the  Apostate    ^jgj? 

— attempts  in  vain  to  rebuild  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem. 
303.  — is  slain  in  a  war  with  the  Persians. 


•Jovian. 


364.  Death  of  Jovian,  anduie  accession  oi 
Valentinian  and  Valens,  under  whom  the 
EMPIRE  is  DIVIDED : 

WESTERN  EMPIRE, 

extending  from  the  Caledonian  ramparu 
to  the  for  of  Mount  Atlas. 


772         THE  WOELD'S  PROGRESS.  [Modern:   Period  II.— 170  year* 


A.B.  PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


380 


302 


396 


412 


125 


133 


Aureliua  Victor,  author  of  lives  of  celebrated 
Romans. 


Prudentius  and  Ausonius,  Latin  poets; 
Pappus  and  Theon,  of  Alexandria,  mathe- 
maticians. 


Claudian,  Latin  poet. 


Macrobiua,  Platonic  philosopher. 


Theodosius  establishes  public  schools,  and  at- 
tempts the  restoration  of  learning. 


Tt«  Theodtiian  code  published. 


373.  The  Bible  translated  into  the  Gothic  laa 
guage. 


379.  The  prerogatives  of  the  Roman  See  much 

enlarged. 
381.  The  second  general  Council  of  Ccnsian- 

tinople. 


384.  Symachus  pleads  in  the  Roman  Senate, 
for  Paganism  against  St.  Ambrose. 

385.  Pope  Syricius. 


392.  St.  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Constao 
tinople;  St.  Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Milan; 
St.  Jerome,  St.  Martin,  emd.  St.  Augustine, 
'  Christian  Fathers.' 

Image   worship.— The    Christian  hier- 
archy begins. 

401.  Pope  Innocent  I. 


412.  Cyn7,  bishop  of  Alexandria;  Isidore  and 
Socrates,  ecclesiastical  historians ;  Orosiu*. 
a  Spanish  disciple  of  St.  Augustine;  and 
Pelagius,  a  British  monk,  who  denied  origi- 
nal sin,  >fcc. 

416.  The  Pelagian  heresy  condemned  by  the 
African  bishops. 

417.  Pope  Zozimus. 

418.  Pope  Boniface  I. 

422.  Pope  Celestine  I. 


429.  Nestoriua,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  to 
knowledges  two  persons  in  Jesus  Christ 

431.  Third  general  Council  at  Ephesus. 

432.  Pope  Sixtus  III. 

St.  Patrick  preaches  the  Gospel  in  In 
land. 
435.  Nestorianism  prevails  in  the  East 


440.  Pope  Leo  I.  (the  Great). 

443.  The  Manichaan  books  burned  at  ROOM 
415.  Flavian,  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


Constantine  to  Odo&cer.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


364 


376 


373 


379 


3SS 


392 


394 


395 


$03 


420 


Hi 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


V  al ens . 


IIUNGAR  if,  (ancient  Pannonia,)  invaded  by 
the  Huns,  from  whom  it  is  named.— The 
Goths  expelled  by  the  Huns,  are  allowed  by 
Valens  10  settle  in  Thrace. 

Valens  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Goths  near 
Adrianople. 


-  T  h  e  o  d  o  s  i  u  s  the  Great. gg — 
a  zealous  supporter  of  Christianity. 


Theodosius  defeats  Maximus,  the  tyrant  of  the 
western  empire. 


WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


364.- 


Valentinian    I.  Hf 

elected  by  the  army. 
368.  The  Saxons  invade  Britain,  but  are  d» 
feated  by  Theodosius. 


375.- 


G  r  a  t  i  a  n 


gains  a  victory  over  the  Germans;  suc- 
ceeds to  (he  eastern  empire  on  the  death  ol 
Valens;  Maximus  is  proclaimed  emperor. 
— Gratian  killed  at  Lyons. 


379.  The  LOMBARDS  first  leave  Scandina- 
via, and  defeat  the  Vandals. 


383.- 


•Valentinian  II. ' 


— is  dispossessed  by  Maximus,  hut  is  re- 
stored by  Theodosius ;  makes  Treves  his 
capital. 

384.  —is  strangled  at  Vienna  by  Arbogastes,  a 
Gaul,  commander  of  the  army. 


Theodo  sius 


becomes  sole  emperor  of  the  East  and  West. 

Complete  down  fall  of  Paganism. 

Theodosius   defeats    Eugeriius,    the    usur  per  of  the  West,  and  Arbogastes,  the  Gaul 
Final  division  of  the  empire  be  tween  the  sons  of  Theodosius. 


A  read  i  us . 


-Theodosius 

a  child ;  Athenius,  minister. 


Regency  of  the  emperor's  sister,  Pulcheria. 


Persian  War. 


Armenia  divided  between  the  Persians  and 

Romans. 
A  2 rent  part  of  Constantinople  destroyed  by 

fire. 

Pannonia,  Dalmatia  and  Noricum  gained  from 
the  western  empire. 


H  o  n  o  r  i  u  s  . 


401.  Europe  overrun  by  the  VISIGOTHS. 

403.  Alaric  defeated  by  Stillicho. 

406.  The  Vandals  permitted  to  settle  in  Spain, 

Gaul,  &c. 
410.  Rome  sacked  and  burned  by  the  Goth* 

under  Alaric. 
412   Beginning  of  the  Vandal  power  in  Spain. 

413.  Burgundian  kingdom  begun  in  Alsace. 

414.  The'Visigoths  plant  themselves  in  Tou- 
louse. 


417.  The  Alani  defeated  and  extirpated   by 

the  Goths. 
420.    FRANKS :  —  Pharamond,     theii 

first  king,  on  the  lower  Rhine. 

424. —  Valentinian   III.® 

426.  Britain  evacuated  by  the  Romans. 

427.  Pannonia  recovered  from  the  Huns. 
423.  ^Etius,  the  Roman  general,  defeated  bj 

the  Franks  and  Goths. 

Franks : — Clodion,  king,  extends  hia  COB 
quests  to  the  river  Somme. 

433.  A  1 1  i  1  a  ,  "  The  scourge  of  God,"  formr 
an  immense  empire  from  China  to  the  At- 
lantic. 

437.  jEtius  defeats  the  Goths. 

439.  The  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,  under  G  e  n  s  e  r  i  c  ,  who 
takes  Carthage  and  plunders  Italy. 

441.  The  Roman  territories  invaded  fey  th« 
Huns,  Persians  and  Saxons. 

445.  The  famous  embassy  from  Britain,  wU> 
citing  aid  against  the  Picts. 


774 


THE  WOIILU'S  PROGRESS.  [Modern:  Period //.-170 yeart 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


450 


Zozimus   and   Olympiodorus,  Greek   histo 
nans. 


468 


47J 


The  principle  established  that  every  accused 
person  shall  be  tried  by  his  peers,  or  equals. 


Legislation  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain— Eric 
being  king,  and  founder  of  the  Gothic  mo- 
narchy. 


The  tottering  empire  of  the  west  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Odoacer's  sack  of  Rome,  the 
great  event  which  precedes  the  middle  or 
"dor A  ages."  The  form  of  the  old 
Roman  government  remained — the  senate, 
the  consuls,  &c.— but  Italy,  ravaged  by  a 
succession  of  wars,  plagues,  famines,  and 
every  form  of  public  tyranr-v  and  domestic 
slavery,  was  nearly  a  desert 


447.  Eutychts  assorts  the  existence  of  only 
one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ. 

449.  Ibus,  bishop  of  Edessa ;  and  Eusebiua, 
bishop  of  Doryleum,  deposed. 

450.  Sozomen   and   Theodoret,  ecclesiastical 
historians. 

451.  The  fourth  general  Council  at  Clialr.edon, 
at  which  Eutycheanism  and  NestorianUm 
are  solemnly  condemned 


461.  Pope  Hilarius. 
465.  Pope  Simpliciua. 


Oligarchy  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  Con 
stantinople,  Alexandria,  Armoch,  and  Jeru 
salem— all  striving  for  the  supremacy.— 
The  church  now  begins  to  assume  a  politi 
cal  aspect. 


—From  Cmittantine  to  Odoacer.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


775 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


160 


M  a  r  c  i  a  n  , ' 


157 


4C1 


a  Thracian,  refuses  to  pay  the  annual 
tribute  to  the  Huns. 


Leo   I . ,  (the  Thracian,) 
iperor  ever  crowned  by  th< 


448.  Franks : — Merovoeus  1st,  king  of  the  Me- 
rovingians. 

JEtius  defeats  the  Huns. 


451.  The    arrival    of    the    Saxoni 
in   Britain,   under  Hengist  and  Horsr 

452.  The  city  of  VENICE  founded. 
455.  Valentinian  assassinated  by 

-Petronius   Maximus.  Hg 

A  v  i  t  u  s .  f» 


first  emperi 

War  with  the  Goths. 


.e  patriarch. 


-M  a  j  o  r i  a  n . 


458.  Franks : — Childeric  I.,  conquers  as  fai 
as  the  Loire  and  takes  Paris. 


Peace  with  the  Goths ;  Theodoric  is  received 
from  them  as  a  hostage. 


461.- 
467.- 


•  Se  v  e  r  u  s  . ' 


Athenius. 


(The  last  three  emperors   slain    by 

Ricimer.) 

468-  Spain  :— The  Visigoths,  under  Eric,  esta 
blish  their  kingdom. 


472.- 


O 1 y  b  i  u  s. 


Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  seen  at  Constan- 
tinople. 


473.- 


Glycerius.^ 


474 
175 


Z  e  n  o  . 


a  turbulent  reign :  debaucheries  and  conspi- 
racies. 
Theodoric  becomes  chief  of  the  Ostrogoths, 

and    invades   the   empire.      He    ravages 

Thrace. 


474. Julius   Nepos. 


475.—  Romulus  Aueustulus.  ® 
476.  ROME   taken  by  ODOACER,  king  o» 
the  Herulii : 

END  of  the  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 
1228  years  after  the  building  of  Rome ;  and 
commencement  of  the  kingdom  cf  Italy  un- 
der Odoacer. 


776 


THE   WORLDS    PROGRESS 

MODERN:  PERIOD  m.— 146  win 


498 


601 


611 


613 
614 


616 


631 


533 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY.  ETC. 


Use  of  the  feudal  system  in  France,  under 
Clovis.     ' 


Theodoric    introduces   the    architecture    of 
Greece  to  improve  the  buildings  of  Italy. 


Publication  of  the  Gemara  or  Talmud  of  Ba- 
bylon. 

Burgundian  laies  published,  being  a  collec- 
tion of  the  rights  and  customs  of  the  Bur- 
gundians. 


The  Salic  law  established  in  France. 


Boethius,  the  Roman  poet  and  philosopher. 

Use  of  burning  glass  in  warfare  at  Constan- 
tinople. 

The  Christian  Era  proposed  and  introduced 
by  Dionynius,  a  monk. 


483.  Pope  Felix  III. 

•excommunicated    by   Acaciua,  bishop  of 
Constantinople. 

484.  Christians  persecuted  by  Huntric,  king 
of  the  Vandals. 


492.  Pope  Ge.asius  L 

491.   The  Roman  Pontiff'  mtserts  kit  suprt 

macy. 
496.  Christianity  introduced  into  France. 


The  schools  of  Athens  suppressed. 

The  fables  of  Pilpay  translated  into  Persian. 
Chess  introduced  into' Persia  from  India. 

J'Mtinian's  pandects  and  code  of  laws. 


Architecture:  the  church  of  Si  Sophia  luilt 

at  Constantinople. 
Proelut,  a  teamed  PlatoniK. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


513.  Christianity  embraced   by  the  Panua 

king,  Carbades. 

514.  Pope  Hormisdas. 


519.  The  orthodox  bishops  restored  by  .'urtin. 


523.  Pope  John  I. 

525.  The  Arian  bishops  deposed. 

626.  Pope  Felix  IV. 

Extreme  Unction  introduced. 


529.  The   Order  of  Benedictine  monlu  in 
stituted  at  Mon'.e  Cassino,  near  Naples. 

530.  Pope  Boniface  II. 


533.  Pope  John  II. 


535.  Pope  Agapetus. 
636.      'r   Sylvester  I. 


Separation  of  the  Armenians  from  the  OiMt 

church. 
538.  Poj  e  Vigilius. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  777 

-  Oan.acer  tt  Mahomet.  [  The  "  Middle  or  Dark  Ages"  begin  here.} 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


EUROPE,  generally. 


An  earthquake,  lasting  40  days,  destroys  the 

greater  part  of  Constantinople. 
£eno  makes  Theodoric  general  and  consul. 


Anastasius   I 


The  Green  and  Blue  factions. 

The  emperor's  persecution  of  the  Catho 
lies,  and  protection  of  the  Manichasans,  oc 
casions  a  rebellion  beaded  by  Vitalianus. 


The  empire  ravaged  and  the  imperial  army 
destroyed  by  Carbades,  king  of  Persia. 

Long  walls  built  to  protect  Constantinople 
from  the  Bulgarians. 

A  great  insurrection  in  Constantinople,  10,000 
killed. 


Constantinople  besieged  by  Vitalianus,  whose 
fleet  is  consumed  "by  the  burning  glass  of 
Proclus. 

Anastasius  killed  by  lightning. 


-Justin    I.  ,1 


a  peasant  of  Dalniatia. 
Brilliant  period  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 


•JUSTINIAN    I., 


celebrated  far  his  code  of  laws  and  the 
victories  of  his  generals,  Beliaarius 

and  Narses. 

Belisarius  defeats  the  Persians  under  Chos- 
roes. 


—quells  i  conspiracy  in  Constantinople. 

—defeat*  the  Vandals  in  Africa, 
—subdues  Sicily, 
—takes  Naples. 

—takes   Rome,  defeats    the   Ostroeroths  in 

Italy. 
—the 'Huns  in  Thrace,  and 


33* 


481.  FRANCE  :— C  1  o  v  i  s   I .  ,f| 
of  the  French  monarchy. 


434.  Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain. 
485.    France  : —  Battle    of    S  o  i  s  s  o  D  i 

gained  by  Clovis. 
487.  Britain  :— The  Saxons  defeated  by  Prinoi 

Arthur    and  Ambrosius. 
490 : — Italy  : — ravaged  by  the  barbarians. 

Britain : — kingdom  of  Sussex. 
491.  France  :— Clovis  subdues  Thuringia. 


493.  Italy  : — c  onquered  by  Th  e  o  • 
d  o  r  i  c  ,  kin?  of  the  Ostrogoths.— Odoa- 
cer  put  to  death. 


499.  France :— Clovis  concludes  a  peace  with 

Theodoric  in  Italy. 
500. Burgundy  becomes  his  tributary. 


507. 


ovis  defeats  Alaric  near  Poictiers. 


510.  France :— Clovis  makes  Paris  his  capital 

511.  France : — Clovis  dies. 

Childebert   I.  IBP 

512.  The  HERULII  settle  in  Tfuace. 


516.  The  Christian  Era  adopted. 

517.  Getae  ravages  Illyricum,  Macedon,  Ac. 

619.  Britain :— Prince  Arthur  defeated  a1 
Charford  by  Cerdic,  Who  begins  the  third 
Saxon  kingdom  of  Wessex. 

522.  Spain :— Amalaric,  the  first  Gothic  kirg, 
who  establishes  his  court  in  Spain — his  capi- 
tal, Seville. 


530.  Britain :— kingdom  of  Essex. 

531.  Spain:— Theudis  succeeds  Amalaric. 

532.  Burgundy  conquered  by  Childebef. 


536.  Vitiges,  king  of  the  Ostogrotta, 
ders  his  possessions  in  Gaul  to  the 
king. 

537.  Italy  conquered  by  BeHsariu*, 


778 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  III. — 146  years 


I'KOGKESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


55V 


680 

684 

636 
CSS 


WO 
697 


Th?  manufacture  of  silk  introduced   from 
China  by  the  monks. 


Procopius.  a  Roman  Historian — the  last  of  the 
classic  writers. 

The  Saxon  laws ;  the  king's  authority  limit- 
ed by  thu  Wittenagemut. 

Three  orders ;  the  noble,  the  free,  and  the 
servile. — Trial  by  ordeal. 


Christianity  introduced  among  the  Picts  by 
Columbi. 

The  old  Roman  municipal  system  in  Italv 
overthrown  by  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards 
—and  the  feudal  system  established. 

Written  laws  compiled  among  the  nations  of 
German  origin— first  by  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain. 

Semi-circular  arches  introduced  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  churches,  with  much  grotesque 
sculpture. 


The  Latin  language  ceases  to  be  spoken  in 
Italy,  while  it  supersedes  the  Gothic  in 
Spain. 

The  origin  ofjiefg. 

The  Roman  Catholic  faith  established  in 
Spain. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  the  father  of  French  his- 
tory. 


Brctwalila,  king  of  England,  converted  to 
Christianity. 

AfaJhus,  a  Grecian  historian. 

Oildas,  the  first  British  historian. 

Evagrias,  ecclesiastical  historian. — Cassiodo- 
rus,  the  historian  of  Ravenna,  tutor  to 
Theodoric. 

The  Saxons,  having  conquered  England,  it 
relapsed,  in  a  great  measure,  into  the  state 
of  barbarism,  from  which  it  had  been  par- 
tially raised  by  the  Romans. 


540.   The  Monothelites,   who  acknowledged 
but  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 


552.  The  Fifth  general  Council  at  Couitanu 

nople 
555.  Pope  Pelagius  L 

557.  The  church  of  St.  Germain  de  Prea,  bulk 
at  Paris. 


560.  Pope  John  III. 

The  Tritheists  acknowledge  three  Gods, 
and  deny  the  resurrection. 


573.  Pope  Benedict  L 

575.  The  first  monastery  founded  in  Bavaria. 
Great  increase  of  miracles. 

578.  Pope  Pelagius  II. 


590.  Pope  Gregory  I.  called  The  Great. 

The  doctrine  of  purgatory  first  taught.- 
Mass  introduced. 


398.  St.  Augustine,  first  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, introduces  Christianity  into  Britain. 

504.  Pope  Sabianus,  or  Sahinian. 

606.  Pope  Boniface  III.  made  supreme  head 
of  the  church  by  Phocas. — The  title  of  Uni 
versal  Bishop  assumed. 

The  Waldenses   refuse   submission    tc 
Horn* 


— Prom  Odoacer  to  Mah&met.} 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


779 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


EUROPE,   GENERALLY. 


640 

642 
548 
54  i) 

552 
554 

558 


561 
502 
503 

565 


569 

574 
570 

578 
582 


670- 

600 


Vitiges  at  Ravenna.  —  North  Africa,  Cor- 
sica and  Sardinia,  annexed  to  the  Eastern 
empire. 

Plague  at  Constantinople  —  during  three 
months  from  5,000  to  10,000  die  daily. 

The  Lombards  settle  in  Pannonia,  —  The 
Turkish  monarchy  founded  in  Asia. 

Siege  of  Petra. 


Nurses  defeats  and  kills  Totila. 
Italy  governed  by  Greek  exarchs. 


A  plague  extending  over  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  lasting  nearly  50  years. 


Belisarius  disgraced  by  Justinian. 

"         restored: — he  quells  a  conspiracy. 
Great  fire  in  Constantinople — the  city  nearly 

destroyed. 
Justinian  dies. 


Justin    1 1 .  i 

Belisarius  dies  in  prison. 


The  TURKS  first  mentioned  in  history.— 
They  send  embassies  to  Justin,  and  form 
an  alliance. 

Tiberius  associated  with  Justin  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

Justin  defeats  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia. 


-Tiberius   11.1 


Maurice,  the  Cappadocian,  king;  under  his 
reign  the  empire  extends  to  the  Araxes,  and 
almost  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 


The  Avars  flourish  under  Baian— invade  the 
Eastern  empire,  and  spread  over  Hungary, 
Poland,  and  Prussia. 


— P  h  o  e  a  s.  wf — a  centurion,  elected  king. 
The  empire  invade!  by  the  Persians. 


539.  Italy :  War,  famine,  and  pestilence. 

The  City  of  Milan  ravaged  by  the  Goths. 


542.    Britain :— Prince   Arthur  murdered  in 
Cornwall. 


550.  POLAND  a  dukedom— Lech,  its  first 
duke  and  legislator.  His  brother,  Zech, 
first  duke  of  Bohemia. 

The  Greeks    form    settlements  on   ths 
Spanish  coast,  from  the  Straits  to  Valencia. 

556.  Civil  wars  in  France. 

558.  France :— C  1  o  t  a  i  r  e   I .   TJ& 

559.  Britain :— the    Saxon    Heptar- 
chy   commences. 

560.  Britain :— the  kingdom  of  Northumbria, 
formed  by  the  union  of  Bernicia  and  Deira. 
— Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  subdues  mist  ol 
the  Saxon  kings. 

661.  France :— C  haribert    I.  fg 


565.  Europe  ravaged  by  a  pestilence. 

568.  Italy  conquered  by  the  Lombards,  undei 
Alboin.  He  fixes  his  capital  at  Pavia. 

571.  Britain :— Bretwalda  II., king  of  Wessex. 

575.  "  East  Anglia  formed  into  a  king- 
dom, and  called  Angle-land,  whence  the  ori- 
gin of  the  name  England. 


583.  Spain :— the  Suevi  subdued  by  the  Visi- 
goths. 

France :— C  1  o  t  a  i  r  e   II.  f§ 
586.  Britain :— the  kinsrdqm  of  Mercia  founded. 
Spain  : — Recared,  king. 

588.  The  city  of  Paris  destroyed  by  fire. 

589.  Rome  inundated  by  the  Tiber. 

591.  Britain :— Elhelbert,  king  of  Kent,  gains 
the  pre-eminence,  and  becomes  Bretwalda 
III. 

Italy : — the  Lombards,  under  Autharis, 
successful  against  the  Greeks  and  Franks. 

595.  Istria,  Bohemia,  and  Poland  invaded  by 
the  Sclavonians. 

596.  France  :— Thierry  II.,  king  of  Burgurdy. 

597.  Britain :— Christianity  introduced  by  w. 
Augustine. 

600.  Italy  ravaged  by  the  Sclavonians. 

607.  Britain :— Supremacy  of  the  Pop*  M 
knowledged. 


780 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.          [Modern :  Period  III— 146 yean 


PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


The  aristocracy  acquire  great  power  in 
France,  somewhat  restrained  by  the  mayors 
of  the  palace. 

Rite*  anil  superstitions  increase  in  all  Europe. 
—Relics  sought  for,  and  worshipped.— Lita- 
nies addressed  to  the  Virgin.—  The  burning 
of  candies  by  day. — Exorcisms,  &c. 

Hereditary  Jiefa. — Aristocratic  class. 


615  S;cundus,  historian  of  the  Lombards. 
617 1  Ethelbert  publishes  the  first  code  of  laws  in 
I     England. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


606.  Pope  Boniface  HI. 

607.  Pope  Boniface  IV. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome  dedicated  to  Goo, 
the  Virgin,  and  the  Saints. 
609.  The  Christians  massacred  by  the  Jew§  •' 
Antioch. 


618.  Pope  Boniface  V. 


MODERN:  PERIOD  IV.— 178 years. 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


620 


632 


CJO 


Isadoras,  historian  of  Spain,  grammarian  and 
philosopher. 


Islamism,  and  the  power  of  the  Caliphs  esta- 
blished in  the  East.  In  the  Caliphs  were 
united  the  highest  spiritual  and  regal  autho- 
rity. 


Christianity  introduced  into  China. 

In  England,  some  improvement  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture;  circular  arches  intro- 
duced; churches  built  at  Canterbury,  Glas- 
tonbury,  St.  A 1  bans,  Winchester,  &c. 

In  civil  architecture,  forts  and  castles — Conis- 
boroush  Castle  in  Yorkshire ;  Castletown 
in  Derbyshire.  <fcc. 

University  of  Cambridge  founded. 


gome  nf  the  monasteries  of  Europe  continue 
to  be  the  repositories  of  learning  and  the 
art*. 

Cel  bacy  if  the  clergy  enjoined. 


625.  Pope  Honorius  I.    He  had  a  taste  for 
splendid  cathedrals  and  processions. 
Monks  and  monasteries  increase. 


Africa  and  Asia,  with  the  churches  of 
Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  lost  to 
the  Christian  world  by  the  progress  of  Mo- 
ham  medanism. 


640.  Pope  Severinu*. 
610.  Pope  John  IV. 


642.  Pope  Theodoras.    He  assumes  the  title 

of  "Sovereign  Pontiff." 
644.  Pope  Martin  I.    He  ordains  celibacy  of 

the  clergy. 

Separation    between    the    Greek    and 

Roman  churches. 

654.  Pope  Eugeniua. 

657.  Pope  Vitalian.  He  established  the  uni- 
versal use  of  the  Latin  language  in  tkt 
service  of  the  church. 


672.  Pope  Adeodatua. 


-From  Odoacer  to  Mahomet.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


EUROPE,   GENERALLY. 


610 
612 
C14 

615 


Ileraclius  takes  Constantinople,  kills  Phocas, 

and  makes  himself  king. 
MAHOMET  publishf.1  his  Koran. 
Syria  ravaged  by  the  Arabs. 
Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Persians. 


Constantinople  taken    and   pillaged   by  the 


604.  Britain  :— St.  Paul's  Church  founded  by 
Ethelbert,  king  (••'  Kent. 


612.  Britain :— Ethelfrith,  king  of  Northum- 
bria,  defeats  the  Britons,  and  destroys  the 
monastery  of  Bangor. 

615.  War  between  Lombardy  and  Ravenna. 

617.  Britain:— St.  Peter's  (now  Westmjnirte 
Abbey)  founded  by  Sabert,  king  of  Kent. 
Britain :— Bretwaid   IV. 


—From  Mahomet  to  Charlemagne. 


[Dark  Ages,  continued.] 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  ASIA,  &c. 


EUROPE,  generally. 


622 


632 

633 
634 

636 

641 
642 

647 
653 

S59 
661 


GGS 
670 
673 


The  IIEGIRA ;   or  Mahomet's  Flight   from 

Mecca  to  Medina, 
Era  of  the  Mahometans. 
Ileraclius  defeats  the  Persians  under  Chos- 

roes. 


Death  of  Mahomet. 

Abubeker  succeeds  him  as  caliph  of  the 
Saracens. 


Omar,  caliph. 

"  takes  Jerusalem,  which  is  held 

by  the  Saracens  463  years. 
Omar     takes    Alexandria,     and     destroys 

another  famous  library. 


Constantino   III. 


C  onstans  II. 

(11  years  of  age.) 

The  Saracens  become  masters  of  Africa  and 
Cyprus. 

The  Saracens  take  Rhodes,  and  destroy  the 

Colossus. 
Persia  becomes  a  part  of  the  empire  of  the 

Caliphs. 

The  Saracens  obtain  peace  from  Constans,  by 
agreeing  to  pay  him  100,000  crowns  yearly. 

Constans  goes  to  Rome,  and  plunders  the 
Treasury. 

M  lawiah,  caliph,  makes  Damascus  his  capi- 
tal. 


Constantine    IV.  ^j£f  invades  Sicily. 

Grand  Cairo  founded. 

Siese  of  Constantinople  by  the  Saracens, 
whose  fleet  is  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire  of 
Callinicus.  The  caliph  compelled  to  pur- 
chase a  peace  of  thirty  years,  by  paying  a 
yearly  tribute. 


628.  France  :--D  a  g  o  b  e  r  t   I .  Wf He 

builds  the  church  of  St.  Deny,  the  burial 

place  of  the  French  kings. 
631.  Samo,  a  merchant  of  France,  makes 

himself  king  of  Bohemia. 
633.  Britain :  — Bretwaid  V.;  he  embraces 

Christianity. 


634.  Britain :— Bretwaid  VL 


638.  France  — C  1  o  v  1  s   II  .W5  years  old. 
The  kingdom  divided,  Sigeoert,  (18  year* 
old,)  being  king  of  Austrasia. 

642.  Britain:— Bretwaid VII. 

644.  Britain :— The  University  of  Cambridge 
founded  by  Sigebert,  king  of  E.  Anglia. 

650.   Britain:  —  Mercia  converted  to   Chris- 
tianity. 

656.  France :— C  lotaire   III.  @ 


660.  France :— C  h  1 1  d  e  r  i  c    II. 


663.  Lombardy  conquered  by  Grimoald.  duke 
of  Benevenlura. 


672.    The  Saracens  driven   from  Bpaia,    kf 
Wamba  king  of  the  Goths. 


782 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  IV.  178  yean. 


PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY.  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


674 


68? 


709 


715 


7J8 


Stone  buildings  and  glass  come  into  use  in 
England. 

The  abbey  of  Whitby,  and  the  monastery  of 

Gilling  founded. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  advance  in  civilization 

and  power,  by  the  introduction  of  Chris- 

tiunily. 
In  France,  the  Teutonic  language  supersedes 

the  Laiin. — National  assemblies  established, 

though  confined  to  the  aristocracy. 


In  Persia,  the  Magian  religion  gives  way  to 

ihe  Mohammedan. 
Severe  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Spain. 


Julian,  of  Toledo,  historian  and  moralist 
The  venerable  Bede,  Ecc.  historian. 


A  king  first  elected  in  Poland. 

Adhelm,  the  first  British  writer  in  prose  and 

verse. 
Sclavonian  republics  in  Bohemia. 


Christianity  greatly  extended  among  the  Ger- 
man naiions  and  other  people  in  the  north 
of  Europe ;  but  almost  exterminated  in 
Africa,  by  the  progress  of  Mohammedan- 
ism. 


Tie  art  of  making  paper  brought  from  S 

marcand  by  the  Arabs. 
George  Syncellus,  a  Grecian  chronologist. 
Giastcnbury  Abbey  rebuilt  by  Ina. 


676.  Pope  Domnus. 

The  popes  become  indeper  lent   of  the 
Greek  emperor. 

679.  Pope  Agatho. 

630.  The  sixth  general  Council  at  Constantino- 
ple, called  by  the  emperor  Constantine,  who 
presides. 

y.  Pope  Leo  II.    He  usurps  the  right  of  in 
vestiture. 

684.  Pope  Benedict  II. 


085. 
686. 
687. 


John  V. 
Conon. 
Sergiua. 


701.  Pope  John  VI. 

704.  The  first  province  given  to  the  pop*. 

705.  Pope  John  VII. 

708.      "     Sissinius  (20  days). 
708.      "     Constantine. 


711.  Custom  of  kissing  the  Pope's  foot  tetf» 
duced. 


714.  Pope  Gregory  IL 


Leo  (Eastern  Emperor)  attempts  to  pro- 
cure the  assassination  of  the  Pup*.  Thf 
Romans  defend  Him. 


— from  Mahomet  to  Charlemagne.} 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


783 


EASTERN  UMPIRE,  ASIA,  &c. 


EUROPE,  generally. 


rhe  kingdom  of  Bulgaria  founded. 
if  ezid,  caliph  of  the  Saracens. 

Moawiah  II.,  caliph. 
Abdallah,  caliph. 


Justinian    II. 


Abdulmelek,    caliph.     He   discontinues   the 
tribute  to  the  Greek  emperor 


histinian  II.  deposed,  and  his  nose  cut  off  by 

Leonitius,  who  is  also  deposed  by 

Absimerus  Tiberius. 

Armenia  and  the  provinces  between  the  Black 
and  Caspian  Seas  subdued  by  Caliph  Abdul- 
melek. 

Carthage  rased,  and  the  north  coast-of  Africa 
completely  subjugated. 


Justinian  II.  restored. 

Syria  recovered,  200,000  Saracens  slain. 


Africa  subdued  by  the  Saracena. 


Justinian  put  to  death  by  Philip  Bardanes. 
who  reigns  under  the  name  of  Philippicus! 


673.  France :— T  h  i  e  r  r  y   I .  as 

675.  Spain:— Wamba  gains  a  naval  victory 
over  the  Arabs,  who  attempt  to  invade  hM 
kingdom. 


682    Spain:  —  Wamba  abdicates  and 
monk. 


690.  France :— P  epin  d'Heriste]  ,M 
mayor  of  the  Palace  and  duke  of  Austrasia 
defeats  Thierry,  and  becomes  king. 


-Anastasius    II. \ 


Theodosius    III.  ^g pro- 
claimed by  the  revolted  army  ol  Anastasius. 


1  e  o  III.,  (the  Isaurian.)  ' 

of  a  shoemaker. 


691.  France :— C  1  o  v  i  s    III .  W — 


695. 


— Childebert    II. 1 


98.  Poland  : — Cracow  founded. — An  electiv* 
monarchy  established. 

Venice  : — Luc  Anafetto,  first  Doge. 

700.  Britain :— Anglo-Saxon  Octarchy. 

France  : — Aquitaine,  Burgundy  and  Pro- 
vence become  separate  dukedoms. 

705.  Britain :— Alfred    the    Wise,  in  North- 
umbria. 


710.    Spain :  —  R  o  d  e  r  i  c  ,   king, 
last  of  the  Goths.) 


Ctht 


711.  France  :— D  agobert    II .®    


conquered_by     t  h  • 

the  mar- 


713.  Spain 

Saracens  under  Muca.  By 
riage  of  Abdallah,  the  Moor,  wilh  the  widow 
of  the  Gothic  king,  the  two  nations  art 
united  in  interest. 

714.  France :— Charles  Martel,  duke  of  An»- 
trasia. 

715   France :— C  h  i  1  d  e  r  i  c    II    $& . 

716.  Britain :— Ethelbald,  king  of  Mercia. 


718.  Spain :— Pelagius  founds  the  kingdom  «i 
Asturias. 


720.  France :— T  hlerrjr    II.' 


784 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Modern:  Period  IV. — 178  yean 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  ETC. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


Increasing 
power, 

spiritual 
and 

temporal 
of  the 
Popes. 


Dark 

period 

of 
European 

literature. 


7-10 


742 
748 


757 

760 


785 


788 
793 


Winifred,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  preaches  the  gos 
f  el  to  the  Prisons. 

The  venerable  Bede  dies — a  grammarian,  phi- 
losopher, historian,  and  tlieol 

The  Abassidae,  caliphs  of  thi 
courage  learning. 


jlofian. 
;e  Sarac 


cens,  en- 


Fredegaire,  a  French  historian. 

Virgilius,  a  priest,  is  condemned  as  a  heretic, 
for  believing  in  the  existence  of  antipodes. 


An  organ  sent  by  Constantine  to  France. 

John  of  Damascus,  a  founder  of  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Fredegaire  continues  the  history  of  Gregory 
of  Tours. 

The  schools  of  Bagdad,  Cufa,  Alexandria, 
Fez,  and  Cordova,  promoted  by  the  Abas- 
tidae  caliphs. 


Ignorance,  profligacy,  and  misery,  character- 
ized the  age  preceding  Charlemagne. 


The  first  palm-tree  planted  in  Spain. 

Golden  period  of  learning  in  Arabia,  under  the 
caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid. 


Pleadings  in  courts  of  justice  first  practised. 
Foundation  of  schools    in  monasteries   and 

cathedrals,  by  Charlemagne. 
The  Gregorian  chant. 
The  Synod  of  Frankfort. 
George,  the  mink. 


726.  Image  worship  being  forbidden  by  the 
emperor  Leo,  causes  great  disturbance. 

727.  Peter's  pence  first  collected  in  England. 

728.  Leo  orders  the  pope  to  be  seized. 

730.  Gregory  excommunicates  the  emperor. 
The  'Iconoclasts,  or  image  breaker*. 

731.  Pope  Gregory  III. 


736.  The  images  throughout  the  empire  de- 
stroyed by  order  of  the  emperor. 

Monks  persecuted. 
741.  Pope  Zachary 


752.  The  Pope  dethrones  Childeric,  king  ol 
France,  by  a  papal  decree. 

752.  Pope  Stephen  III.  at  war  with  the  Lom- 
bards, assisted  by  Pepin. 


754.  —he  journeys  to  Pepin  to  implore  his 
protection. 

755%Commencem  ent  of  the  Pope's 
temporal  power  under  the  auspices 
of  Pepin,  who  bestows  on  Stephen  the  ex- 
archate of  Ravenna. 

757.  Pope  Paul  I. 


768. Stephen  IV. 

769.  Council  of  the  Late  ran. 

770.  The  Eastern  monasteries  dissolved  by  th« 
emperor. 

772.  Pope  Adrian  I.,  on  whom  the  Ecclesias- 
tical state  is  conferred  by  Charlemagne. 


770.  Imposition  of  Tithes  enforced  by  Char- 
lemagne, for  the  support  of  the  clergy, 
churches,  schools,  and  the  poor. 

785.  Forcible  conversion  of  the  Saxona  by 
Charlemagne. 


787.  The  seventh  general  Council  at  Nice,  in 
which  the  doctrine  of  the  Iconoclasts  was 
condemned. 

794.  Pope  Leo  III.  sends  to  CharlemagM  fcc 
confirmation. 

Masses  said  for  money. 


*-Fr-om  Mahomet  to  Charlemagne.} 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.       785 


EASTERN  EMPIRE,  ASIA,  etc. 


EUROPE,  generally. 


741 

74C 


?62 
766 


774 
775 


781 
786 
786 

788 
793 


The  Arabs  invest  Constantinople  by  land  with 
l'^0,000  men,  and  by  sea  with  1800  ships. 
The  city  is  saved  by  the  Greek  fire — the 
Arab  fleet  being  almost  entirely  destroyed. 

Leo  confiscates  Calabria  and  Sicily. 

The  Greek  possessions  in  Italy  are  lost  if  cor- 
sequence  of  the  edict  nrbidding  image  wor- 
ship. 


Constantine  V.  (Copronymus). 


The  Arabs  defeated  by  Constantine.— Rhodes 
Cyprus,  and  Antioch  captured. 


Almanzor,  caliph ;  builds  Bagdad  and  makes 

it  his  capital. 
Asia  Minor  ravaged  by  the  Turks. 


Great  victory  over  the  Bulgarians. 
Leo     IT. ft? 


Constantine  VI.  (Porphyrogenetus).^ 
Irene  (Queen  mother)  restores  image  worship. 
The  empire  is  invaded  by  Haroun  al 

R  a  s  c  h  i  d  ,    caliph  of  Bagdad. 
Constantine  imprisons  his  K".otl;er,  Irene,  for 

her  cruelty. 


•Irene 


and  assumes  the  s>le  power, 
—proposes  to  marry  Charlemagne 
—is  dethroned  by  Nicephotus. 
Tlw  Saracens  ravage  Thrace. 


puts  him  to  death, 


725.  France :— Charles  Martel  crosses  thi 
Rhine,  and  subdues  Bavaria. 

727.  Britain :— Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  begins  the 
tax  called  Peter's  pence,  to  support  *  col- 
lege at  Rome. 


732.  France :— Charles  Martel  gains  a  great 
victory  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours. 

740.  Spoletto  taken  by  the  Normans,  but  re- 
covered by  the  Pope. 

742.  France :— C  h  i  1  d  e  r  i  c    III.  W 


752.    France :— End  of  the  Merovingian   line 
of    French  kings. 


-Pep  in   le    Bref,l 


first  of  the  Carlovingian  line. 
753.  Pepin  le  Bref  aids  the  Pope  with  a  large 
army  against  the  Lombards. 
Italy :— Ravenna  a  dukedom. 


756.  Spain :— Separated  from  the  Caliphate  . 
Abderhama. 


761.  Spain :— Froila,  grandson  of  Pelagius, 
builds  Oviedo,  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  hi* 
kingdom. 

768.  France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or  Charles 
the  Great,  reigns  with  his  brother,  Carlo- 
man,  until  771. 

774.  Charlemagne  invades  Italy;  defeats 
Didier,  king  of  Lombardy,  and  annexes 
Iialy  to  his  empire. 

End    of    the    Lombard     king- 
dom. 

778.  A  part  of  Charlemagne's  army  defeated 
at  Roncesvalles. 

779  Charlemagne  conquers  Navarre,  Sardinia, 
and  the  Saxons. 

Charlemagne  conquers  the  Avari. 
—attempts  to  unite  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube. 

787.  Britain :— First  recorded  invasion  of  Ihs 
Danes :— The  -Sea  Kings  and  Viking*. 


794.  Charlemagne  extirpates  the  Hunt. 
Sweden  conquered  by  Iva  Viafama 


786 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


PERIOD.  V.— The  Middle  Ages.  -266  yean 


4.D.1 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY. 

ECCLESIASTICAL. 

NEW  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

800 

Agriculture     and      horticul- 
ture encouraged  by  Charle- 

500. The  Pope  separates  from 
the  Eastern  Empire,  and 

800.   NEW  EMPIRE  of  the 
WEST  founded  by  Charle- 

* 

magne;    both    flourish    in 

becomes  supreme  Bishop  of 

magne,  who  is  crowned  at 

Spain  under  the  caliphs. 

the  Western. 

Rome,  by  the  pope,  king  of 

Italy,  Germany,  and  France 

Gold  mines  worked  in  Spain. 

801 

Paul  Warefredus  (Diaconus) 

Charlemagne  reforms  the 

the  historian. 

church. 

80S 

Haroun  al   Raschid,  courting 
his  alliance,  presents  Charle- 
magne with  a.  striking  clock. 
This  clock  was  adorned  with 

Many  bishoprics  founded. 
—  Great  increase  of  monastic 

302.  Charlemagne  receives  an 
embassy   from  Nicephorus 
and  from  Haroun  al   Ras- 
chid. 

automaton    figures,    which 

institutions. 

moved   and  played  on   va- 

rious musical  instruments. 

Fine  Arabian  breed  of  horses 
introduced  into  Spain. 

804 

Alcuin,  of  York,  a  pupil  of 

Bede,  forms  schools  at  Tours 
—  patronized     by     Charle- 

806.    Charlemagne     di- 
vides the  empire  be- 

magne. 

tween  his  three  sons. 

Transient  revival  of  learning 
under  Charlemagne. 

808.  First  descent  of  the  NOR 
MANS  upon  France. 

Eginhard,    historian,    secre- 

tary to  Charlemagne. 

813 

The  reign  of  Mamun  (caliph) 
is  regarded  as  the  Augustine 
age  of  Arabian  literature. 

313.    Insurrection    at    Rome 
against  the  pope. 

313.    Charlemagne  dies,  Jan. 
28. 

814.  L  o  u  i  s  1  .  9—  • 

(Debonaire)   an    inglorious 

816.  Pope  Stephen  V. 
817.     "     Paschal  I. 

and  turbulent  reign. 
817.  Louis  divides  the  empire 

The  College  of  Cardinals 
founded. 

between  his  three  sons. 
320.  Invasion  of  the  Normans. 

824.  Pope  Eugenius  II. 

Christianity  in  Denmark 

and  Sweden. 

628 

St.  Mark's  Church  at  Venice 

327.  Pope  Valentine. 
828.     "     Gregory  IV. 

j      DUlIt. 

Missionaries    sent    from 

829 

Turpin,  archbishop,  to  whom 

France  to  Sweden. 

is    attributed    the    famous 
"  De  Vila  Caro'i  Magni  el 
Rolandi." 

831.  Paschasius  Radbertus,  a 
monk  of  Corbey,  father  of 
the    doctrine    of    transub- 

833.  Lothaire,  a  fourth  son  of 
Louis,  associated  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

stantiation.      This  doctrine 

disowned   by    the    English 

340.  —  L  o  t  h  a  i  r  e  .  w  — 

Church. 
Ratramus  and   Scotus  Eri- 

841.  —defeated  by  his  brothers, 
Louis  and  Charles,  in  the 

gena,  theologians,    holding 
much  the  same  opinions  as 
Luther. 

battle  of  Fontenoy. 
Division  of  the  empire. 

France:—  C  ha  rl«i  iT^f 

(the  Bald>. 

Ger.  :—  L  o  u  i  B    I  .  ¥& 

ournamed    the   Ger 

man. 

Italy:—  Lothaire  @ 

with  imperial  dignity. 

The    Normans    plunder 

Rouen,  and  advance  to  Paris 

THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
(A.  D.  800-1 06t»v — Charlemagne  to  William  the  Conqueror. 


787 


A.D.  EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


— N  icephorus  .^g — 

The  Saracens  ravage  Asia 
Minor,  capture  Cyprus,  and 
compel  Nicephorus  to  pay  a 
tribute. 


—  Michael   I.  ^f 

(Caropaltes) ;    at  war  with 
the  Bulgari. 

L  e  o  V  .^Hp (the 

Armenian). 


Earthquakes,  famine,  fire,  &c. 
ravage  the  empire. 


Michael  1 1 .  W 

(Balbus  or  the  Stammerer). 

Constantinople  besieged  by 
the  Saracens.  The  Bulga- 
rians raise  the  siege.  The 
Saracens  obtain  possession 
of  Crete,  and  name  it  Can- 
dia. 

— T  h  e  o  p  h  i  1  u  s  .  f|g — 


-Michael  III. 

(the  Drunkard). 


ENGLAND. 


813.  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex, 
defeats  the  Britons. 


J27.  The  seven  king- 
doms of  the  Hep- 
tarchy united  by  Eg- 
bert,king  ofWessex, 
under  the  name  of  ENG- 
LAND, or  the  Land  of  the 
Angles. 

E  g  b  e  r  t .  f|f 

Invasion  of  the  Danes. 

838.  —Ethel  wol  f,W— 
a  weak  prince. 

Scotland : — Kenneth,  king 
of  the  Scots,  defeats  and  ex- 
tirpates the  Picts,  and  be- 
comes sole  monarch. 

The  Danes  return,  and 
ravage  the  country  unmo- 
lested, and  bum  the  city  of 
London. 

Ethelwolf  makes  a  pilgri 
mage  to  Rome. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


801.  DENMARK  become.    • 
kingdom  under  Gotricu* 


818.  Al  Mamun  (caliph)  a  pa- 
tron of  learning. 

320.  First  dismemberment  of 
the  Arabian  monarchy.  The 
dynasty  of  the  Taherites 
founded  at  Khorassan. 

826.  The  Danish  prince,  Ha- 
rold, is  baptized  at  Ingel- 
heim. 


833.  Motassim,  caliph.  He 
builds  Saumora,  which  he 
makes  the  seat  <f  gorera- 
ment. 


788    THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.       [Period  V.— (A.  D.  800-1066.)— 266  years. 


A.D.        PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  SPAIN,  GERMANY. 


The  aristocratic  Feudal  sys- 
tem in  all  its  power.  Here- 
ditary nobility,  which,  with 
the  clergy,  was  the  domi- 
nant order  in  the  state. 

The  barons  independent  of 
the  king.  Gradual  intro- 
duction of  the  Roman  and 
csmmon  law. 


First  indosfire  of  lands  at 
Spalding,  where  Richard  de 
Rules  does  much  to  improve 
agriculture. 


Clocks  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople from  Venice. 


The  Faroe  Isles,  and  Iceland 
discovered  in  this  century. 


844.  Pope  Sergius  III.  (Bucca 
Porci). 

Ignatius,     patriarch     of 
Constantinople. 

Persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Spain. 
847.  Pope  Leo  IV. 

850.  Christianity  propagated 
by  Auscharius  in  Denmark 
and  Sweden. 

855.  Pope  Benedict  in. 


858.  Pope  Nicholas  I. 

First  coronation  of  a  pope. 

859.  Eulogius,  archbishop  of 
Cordova,  martyred. 

860.  The  schism  of  the  Greeka 
begins. 


864.  The  Bible  translated  into 
Slavonian. 

867.  Pope  Adrian  II. 

8th  Council  at  Constan- 
tinople.— Photius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  deposed. 

872.  Pope  John  VIII. 


882.  Pope  Martin  n. 
884.     "     Adrian  HI. 


885. 


Stephen  VI. 


55.  Lothario  retires  to  a  mo 
nastery  and  dies. 

New  division  of  the  em- 
pire at  Mersen. 

856.  Germ.  :—L  o  u  i  s  II. @ 
has  Italy  with  the  im- 
perial dignity. 

—establishes  his  court  at 
Pavia. 

858.  France  invaded  by  Louis 
the  German,  who  is  finally 
compelled  to  retire. 


68.    Lorraine 
France. 


annexed     to 


877.  Fr.:— Louis 
(the  Stammerer). 


879.- 


-Louis  III.  and 


C  s.  rl  o  m  an 
reign  jointly. 


4.  France:— Charles^ff 
the  Fat,  an  usurper. 

885.  Paris    besieged    by    the 
Normans;  gallantly  defend- 
ed by  archbishop  Goslin. 

886.  Charles  makes  a  disgrace- 
ful peace  with  the  Normans. 

887.  Germany : — A  mold, 

emperor.^g (the  Im- 
perial dignity  transferred 
from  France  to  Germany). 

888.  France  :— E  u  d  •  i  8f — 


—  Charlemagne  to  William  I.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


S44 


861 


Decline  of  the  Caliphate  be- 
gins.— Jews  and  Christians 
persecuted. — Frequent  wars 
between  the  Greeks  and  Sa- 
racens. 


-B  a  z  i  I    I . 


(the    Macedonian),    defeats 
the  Saracens. 


Crete  and  the  Sicilies  reco- 
vered from  the  Arabs. 


819.  Alfred  the  Great,  born. 


852.     Ethelwolf   defeats     the 
Danes  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet. 


857.  Ethel  bald  and  Ethel- 
be  r  t  fjg—  reign  jointly  :— 
increase  the  influence  of  the 
clergy. 


867 

KS 


Basil  commences   the  Mace- 
donian dynasty. 
Publication  of  the  Basilica. 


866.  — E  t  h  e  1  r  e  d  .^jj 

867.  The  Danes  conquer  Nor- 
thumberland. 


872.  ALFRED  THE  GREAT" 
— defeats  the  Danes. 


879.  Alfred  abandoned  by  his 
subjects,  retires  to  the  Isle  of 
Athelney,  bat  soon  draws 
together  his  friends  and  con- 
quers the  Danes. 


Leo    VI 

(tfle  philosophet 


845.  The    Normans    plundei 
Hamburg,  and  penetrate  into 
Germany. 

846.  The  Saracens  destroy  the 
Venetian  fleet,  and  besiege 
Rome. 

849.  —defeated  by  the  Pope'i 

allies. 
851.  Sardinia  and  Corsica  r* 

vaged  by  the  Saracens. 


856.  The    coasts  of    Ho.  and 
plundered  by  the  Normans. 


860.  Gorm  the  Elder,  (descend- 
ed from  Odin;)  unites  Jut- 
land and  the  Danish  Isles, 
and  becomes  king  of  Den- 
mark. 

861.  Iceland  discovered  by  the 
Normans. 

862.  RUSSIA:— Ruric,    first 
grand  Prince,  builds  the  city 
of  Lagoda. 


868.  Esypt  throws  off  its  de- 
>endence  on  the  caliphs,  un- 
ler  Ahmed. 

874.  Iceland,  a  republic,  found 
ed  by  the  Normans. 

875.  NORWAY:  —  Harold 
Harfrage,  first  king. 


866.  The  Scythians  Mice  Cr» 
alia. 


89.  Hungary:  —  Arnad  l«yw 
the  foundation  of  the  kinjr 
dom. 


790     THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.       [Period  V.— (A.  D.  800-1 066.)— 266  years, 


4.0.        PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


Oxford  University  found- 
ed.— Alfred  the  Great  esta- 
blishes a  regular  militia 
and  navy,  and  the  mode  of 
trial  by  jury ;  institutes/airs 
and  markets.  —  Johannes 
Scotus  Erigenu,  a  learned 
philosophical  writer. 

England  divided  into  coun- 
ties, hundreds,  and  tithings. 
The  county  courts,  held 
monthly,  become  the  great 
safeguard  of  the  civil  rights 
of  Englishmen. 

Hired  troops  substituted  for 
the  feudal. 


The 
bridge  founde 


I 


Cam- 


The  Anglo-Saxon   monarchy 
rises  into  importance. 


AzojM,  Arabian  astronomer. 


Printing  invented  among  the 
Chinese  (?) 


Cordova,  in  Spain,  becomes 
the  seat  of  Arab  learning, 
science,  industry,  and  com- 
m«rce.  Its  celebrated  schools 
of  gcometry.astronomy,  che- 
mistry and  medicine,  toge- 
ther with  its  equally  cele- 
brated poets  and  philoso- 
phers, render  it  famous 
throughout  the  world. 

Luitprand,  the  historian. 

Mints  established  in  Kent  or 
Weasex. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


891.  Pope  Formosus. 
896.     "      Boniface  VI. 
"     Stephen  VII. 
6.     "     John  IX. 

Veneration  for  saints  anil 
a  passion  for  relics  prevail. 


900.  Pope  Benedict  IV. 
903.     «     Leo  V. 
905.     "     Sergius  IIL 


912.  The  Normans  in  France 
embrace  Christianity. 


914.  Pope  John  X. 


921.  The  Bohemians  embrace 
Christianity. 


928.  Pope  Leo  VI 

929.  "     Stephen  VIII. 
Eudes,  monk  of  Cluni. 

931.  Pope  John  XI. 

Mere  children  elevated  to 
the  highest  offices  in  the 
church. 


936.  Pope  Leo  VII. 


939. 


Stephen  IX. 


943.  Pope  Martin  III. 


FRANCE.  GERMANY,  &c. 


890.  Arnold,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, takes  Home. 


898.  Fr.:— Charles  III.Bff 
(the  Simple). 

899.  Ger.:— Louis    III.® 
Invasion  of  the  Hunga- 

rians. 

Contests  between  the  no- 
bles and  bishops 


9 1 2.  France  :— R  o  b  e  r  t ,  d uke 
of  Normandy. 

The  Normans,  under 
R  o  1 1  o  ,  establish  them- 
selves in  Normandy. 

Ger. :— Conrad  I.fg 

(the    empire    becomes 

elective). 


919  Ger. :— Henry  I.^J  — 
(the  Fowler),  fust  ol  the 
Saxon  line. 

921.  France :— Robert  I.  de- 
feated and  killed  by  his 
brother  at  Soissons. 

923.  France :— Rudolph  elect- 
ed  duke. 

Italy:  — Hugo,  count  ol 
Provence,  oppresses  the  aris- 
tocracy, who  call  to  their  aid 
Berenger. 

France :— Civil  ware. 

929.  "  —Charles  dies  a 
prisoner  at  Peronne. 


936.  Ger. :— O  t  h  o    I  .\ 
(the  Great). 


Fr. : — L  o  u  i  i 
(the  Stranger). 


IV 


940.  Burgundy,  a  fief  0 
empire. 


— Ckarlenagne  to  William  l.\ 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


791 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


81)0 
8'J7 


Southern  Italy  subject  to  thi 

Greek  empire. 
War    with     ihe    Bulgarians, 

Lombards,  and  Saracens — 

the  latter  take  the  island  o 

Samoa. 


804 1  Russian  expedition  under 
Oleg,  against  Constantino 
pie. 


910 


91? 
919 


891.  Invasion  of  the  Danes. 
The  first  land  tax. 


901.  E  d  w  a  r  dfg? 

(the  Elder),  the  first  who 
takes  the  title  of  "  Rex  An- 
glorum." 

War  with  the  Danes. 


-Constantino    VII.  f^. 
associates  his  (bur  sons,  so 
that  there  are  five  emperors. 


Constantinople  besieged  by  the 
Bulgarians. 

Roman  us,  general  of  the  fleet, 
usurps  the  empire,  with  his 
three  sons,  Christopher,  Ste- 
phen, and 

Ai 

-Constantino  VIII.W?- 


942 
MS 


Romanus  gains  a  naval  victory 
over  the  Russians,  who,  led 
by  Igor,  enter  the  Black 
Sea  with  10,000  ships  or  ca- 
noes. 


Naples  annexed  to  the  empire. 

The  empress  Helen  usurps  the 
throne. 


924.  — A  t  h  e  1  s  t  a  n  .  W — 


934.  — by  the  victory  of  Bru- 
nanbureh,  he  becomes  king 
of  all  Britain. 


940.  — E  d  m  u  n  d  I .' 
brother  of  Athelstan. 


900.  Scotland :  —  Constantini 
III. 

901.  Italy :— The  r  e  p  u  b  1  i  c« 
of  Venice  and  Genoa 
founded. 


908.  The  race  of  Fatimites  in 
Egypt. 

910.  Spain  :— Kingdom  of  Leon 
founded  by  Garcia. 

912.  Spain :— Abderrahman  III. 
the  greatest  Arab  prince  pi 
Spain— builds  the  splendid 
city  and  palace  of  Zehra. 

914.  Spain  :— Ordogno  II.,  king 
of  Oviedo,  makes  Leon  his 
capital. 

Commencement   of    the 
heroic  age  in  Spain. 


921.  Poland :— Lesko  IV. 
"       — Zemormysl. 

923.  Spain :— Fruela,  king  of 
Leon. 

924.  "     — Alphonzo  IV. 
927.       "     — Rauiiro  II. 


930.   Denmark  :— Harold  VI, 
firs'  Christian  king. 

932.  4rnolf  of  Bavaria,   de- 
feate.l  near  Verona. 

933.  Norway :— Eric,    king— 
his  cruelty  leads  the  people 
to  revolt. 


940.  Spain :— Ramiro,  king  ol 
Leon,  defeats  ihe  Moors,  un- 
der Abderrahman,  in  the  bafc 
tie  of  Simaacus. 


792     THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.        [Period  V.— (A.  D.  800-1066.)—  266  years. 


A.».        PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY. 


The  mercantile  character 
raised  by  a  law  of  Athelstan, 
that  a  merchant  who  made 
three  voyages  over  the  high 
seas  with  a  ship  and  cargo 
of  his  own,  should  enjoy  the 
rank  and  privileges  of  a 
thane. 

The  figures  of  arithmetic 
brought  into  Europe  by  thi 
Saracens. 

Silver  mines  in  the  Hartz 
Mountains. 

Manufactories  of  linens  and 
woollens  in  Flanders,  which 
becomes  the  seat  of  western 
commerce. 


Geber,  Arabian  astronomer. 
Suidas,  grammarian  and  lexi- 
cographer. 
Rhazes,  Arabian  physician. 


The  Saxonfleet,  consisting  of 
360  sail,  in  three  squadrons, 
makes  the  circuit  of  the 
island,  under  the  command 
of  king  Edgar. 


Abbo,  monk  and  astronomer. 


981  Albirunius,  Arabian  geogra- 
I     pher. 

982  Greenland  discovered  by  the 

Norwegians. 


Aimoin,  historian. 


Dublin  much  frequented  for 
trade,  also  many  places  on 
the  Baltic. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


946.  Pope  Agapetus  II. 


955  Baptism  of  Olga,  and  con- 
version of  Russia  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

956.  Pope  John  XII. 

Quarrel  with  the  emper- 
ors respecting  investiture. 

959.  St.  Dunstan,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  attempts  to 
reform  the  church— enforc- 
ing clerical  celibacy. 

The    influence    of     the 
monks  greatly  increased. 


963.  Pope  Leo  VIII.  elected  by 
Roman  citizens. 


964.  Benedict  V.  elected  by  a 

council. 
905.  John  XIII. 
Poland   receives    Christianity 

under  Miecislus. 


972.  Pope  Benedict  VI. 

973.  Boniface  VII. :  deposed 
and  banished  for  his  crimes. 

974.  Domnus  II. 

975.  Benedict  VII. 


984.  Pope  John  XIV. 


986. 


John  XV. 


989.  Christianity  propagated 
in  Russia  by  waldimir— 
they  hold  to  the  Greek 
church. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  <kc. 


950.  Germany  :—  Bohemia  b» 
comes  tributary  to  Olho. 

953.  The    Hungarians    sub- 
dued. 

954.  Fr.  :—  Lothaiie  I.ffp 
—  confers  the  dukedoms  of 
Burgundy  and  Aquitaine  on 
Hugh  the  Great. 


957.  Germany  :—  Otho 
the  Slavonians  in  Saxony. 


964.  Italy  united  to  the  empire 
of  Germany. 

Tuscany  becomes  a  duke- 
dom. 


973.  Ger. :— O t  h o  II.fi 

subdues  the  Bohemians. 


979.   Otho  at  war  with   Lv 
thai  re. 


983.  —Otho    1 1  !.,!§  — 
(3  years  of  age). 

36.  Pr. :— Louis   V.,V_ 
("the  Slothful,")  lastoTlh* 
Carlovingian  race. 

38. Fr.:  Hugh  Capet, 
—founder  of  the  third  of 
Capetian  line  of  French 
kings. 


— Charlemagne  to  William  l.\ 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND,  &c. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


959 


963 


9G7 


969 


970 


Bee 


Constantino  III.  retires  into  a 
cloister. 


— Rom  an  us    1 1  .fjJP 
poisoned  by  his  wife,  Theo- 
phano. 


— Nicephorus  II.  Wm — 


—he  recovers  Cyprus  and  An- 
tioch  from  the  Saracens. 

— is  murdered  by 

—John   Zimisces.^g — 


Basil  and  Constaniine 
VIII.  @ 


Apu.ia  and  Calabria  recover- 
ed and  united  to  the  empire. 


946. 

governed  by  Dunstan,  abbot 

of  Glastonbury. 
952.    Scotland:— Malcolm  I. 

king. 


955.  Scotland :— Indulf,  king. 

955.  E  d  w  y  ® 

insulted  by  Dunstan.  and 
deposed — his  queen,  Elgiva, 
put  to  death. 


959. E  d  g  a  r  ^g 

marries  the  beautiful  EI- 
frida,  after  the  violent  death 
of  Athelwold,  her  lover. 

960.  Scotland :— Duff,  king. 

Wolves  expelled  from 
England  and  Wales,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  reward  being 
offered  for  the  purpose  by 
the  king. 

Violent  disputes  between 
the  monks  and  the  clergy. 


975.  E  d  w  a  r  dW 

(the  martyr),  murdered  by 
his  stepmother,  Elfrida. 


978.  —  Ethelred  II..W- 
("  the  Unready.")— Dunstan 
still  minister. — The  people 
become  discontented. 


985.    Danish  invasion,  under 
Sweyn. 

The  king  purchases  their 
retreat. 


950.  Spain  :— Ordono  III.  kinf 
of  Leon. 


955.  Spain :— Sancho  I.,  king 
of  Leon. 


958.  Italy ;- War  between  th» 
Normans  and  Saracens. 


961.  Candia  recovered  from 
the  Saracens. 

962.  Poland: — Miecislas  esta- 
blishes Christianity. 


967.  Spain:— Ramironi., king 
of  Leon. 

968.  The  Northmen  devastate 
Galicia,  but  are  defeated  and 
almost  exterminated. 


973.  Hungary :  —  St.  Stephen, 
first  hereditary  king,  extends 
the  kingdom  eastward ;  gives 
it  a  constitution  and  written 
laws. 

976.  Spain :— Hixem,  caliph 
of  Cordova. 

Almansor,  regent,  obtains 
many  Tictories  over  the 
Christians. 

980.    Russia:— Waldimir  I; 
marries  Anna,  sister  of  the 
emperor  Basil  II. 
63.  Italy  : — Venice  distracted 
by  violent  commotions. 

985.  Sweyn  I.,  or  Sweno,  king 
of  Denmark,  invades  Eng- 
land. 


34 


794   THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.       [Period  V—(A.D.  800-1066.)— 266  years. 


A.u.        PKOOHESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


993.     First    canonization    of 

saints. 

Venice  and  Genoa  carry  on  a 
flourishing    trade     between 
Asia  *nd  Western  Europe.   !996.  Pope  Gregory 
Siephe.i,    duke    of     Hunga-  997.      "     John  XVI. 
ry,  propagates  Christianity 
among  his  subjects. 


999.  Pope  Sylvester  II. 


Paper  made  of  cotton  rags. 


Spain,  the  seat  of  Arabian  and 
Jewish  learning. 


Churches  first  built  in  the 
Gothic  style. 

Foundation  of  the  House  of 
Wisdom  at  Cairo. 

The  French  language  first  be- 
gins to  be  written. 

Leo,  the  grammarian. 

The  arts  faintly  revive  in  Italy 
— paintings  in  fresco  and 
mosaic. 

Literature,  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences,and  commerce  flourish 
at  Ghizni. 

Musical  scale,  consisting  of  six 
notes,  invented  by  Guido 
Aretino. 

Avicenna,  a  famous  Arabian 
chemist  and  physician. 

Olaber  ttad,  historian. 

Campanes,  of  Navarro,  astro- 
nomer. 

Hermannus  Contracts!  ,monk 
and  mathematician. 


Hungary    a   fief  of  the 
Romish  church. 


1003.  Pope  John  XVIII. 


1009.  Pope  Sergtus. 
1012.     "     Benedict  VIII. 


Persecution  of  the  Albi- 
genses  in  Languedoc. 


1024.  Pope  John  XIX.  He 
gained  his  election  by  bribe- 
ry. He  was  not  of  the  clergy, 
but  consul  and  senator  of 
Rome. 


1033.  Pope  Benedict  IX.,  (ten 
years  old). 

"Peace  of  Ood,"  pub- 
lished by  '.he  bishops. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  &c. 


996. Fr.:—  Robert  II.,?jjjf 
— (the  Wise,)  succeeds  his 
father  Hugh. 


998.  — is  excommunicated  by 
the  pope  for  marrying  his 
cousin  Bertha. 


1002. Ger. :— Henry  II.  ^gf 
—(duke  of  Bavaria). 

Italy  : — Ardoin,  margrave 
of  Ivrea,  elected  king. 


1004.  Italy :— Henry  invited  by 
the  German  party  — Ardoin 
loses  most  of  Italy  and  re- 
signs. —  Pavia  burnt  in  a 
quarrel  between  the  troops 
and  people. 


1015.  Germany:— The  empe- 
ror receives  an  annual  tri- 
bute from  Poland. 


1024.  Ger.  :-Conrad  II. fS 
—(the   Salic,)   first  of    tr 
Franconian  line. 

1025.  Expedition  into  Italy. 


1029.  War  with  the  Poles. 

1031.  Fr.:— Her.  ry  I.® 

1032.  Burgundy   annexed 
the  empire. 


— Charlemagne  to  William  /.] 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


795 


1000 


1018 


1028 


1031 


103-1 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


Basil  drives   the    Bulgarians 
from  Thessaly . 


Bulgaria  again  reduced  to  a 
Grecian  province. 


— Roman  us    III..^jf — 
(Argyrus). 

— -expels  the    Saracens    from 

Syria. 
— poisoned  by  his  wife  Zoe. 


—Michael    IV.  W — 


ENGLAND,  &c. 


THB  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


994.  Scotland  :  —  Constantine 

IV.  slain  by 
9%.  Kenneth  IV.,  (the  Grim) 


1002.  Dreadful  massacre    of 
all  the  Danes  in  Ensland — 
upon  which  Sweyn  lands  a 
large  armament,  and  brings 
war  and  all  its  miseries  upon 
the  country. 

1003.  Scotland:— Malcolm  II., 
an  able,  renowned  prince. 


1012.  An  annual  tribute  pro- 
mised to  the  Danes. 

1013.  The  Danes,  under  Sweyn, 
become  masters  of  England. 


1016.— Edmund  Il-ifJ— 
(Ironsides.)  fights  six  baules 
with  Canute,  king  of  Den- 
mark, with  whom  he  finally 
divides  the  kingdom. 

1016. Canute  f§ 

the  Great,  patronizes  litera- 
ture and  the  church. 


1027.   Ireland :  —  Brian  Boru. 
sole  monarch. 


. 
Scotland 


ute  pen 
—  subdu 


es  Malcolm. 


1032.  —  performs  a  pilgrimage 
to  Rome. 

1034.  Scotl'd  :—  Duncan,  king. 

1035.  —Harold   I  .  .W?— 
(Harefoot,)    cruel   ana    un- 
popular —  ruled     by    fiarl 
Godwin. 


995.  Norway  :— Olaf  I. 

Christianity  introduced. 

997.  Dromheim  founded. 
Man  mud  Sultan  ofGhiz- 

ni,  adds  Transoxiania,  Ca- 
but,  and  part  of  India  to  hii 
dominions;  patronizes  litera- 
ture. 

998.  Spam : — Division  of  the 
Mohammedan  kingdom    01 
Cordova. 

1000.  Sancho  III.,  (the  Great,) 
king  of  Navarre,  takes  the 
title  of  emperor. 

1000.  Savoy : — independent  un- 
der Bervald,  its  first  count. 

Poland :  —  Roleslas     I., 
(the  Lion-hearted). 


1006.  Pestilence  in  Europe  foi 
three  years. 

1012.  Spain: — Suleiman,  ca- 
liph. 


1014.  Denmark  :— Harold  111., 
king. 

1015.  Norway :— Olaf  II. 

1016.  Denmark  .-—Canute  II., 
(the  Great). 


1019.  Norway  conquered  by 

Canute. 

Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa 

rise  into  importance. 
1025.  Poland :— Miecislas  II. 


1035.  Spain  : — Ramiro  I    king 
of  Arragon. 

1037.  Ferdinand  I.,  of  Castile, 
in  right  of  his  wife  succeedi 
to  Leon  ;  successful  against 
the  Mohammedans. 

1036.  Denmark  :  —  Hardies- 
nute  HI. 

1037.  Norway :— Magmu    L, 

(the  CrvvU 


796      THE  WORLD'S.  PROGRESS.        [Period  V.— (A.D  800-lObG.)— 266  yean. 


•i.o.    PKOORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY.  &c. 


Ferdusi,  the  Persian  Homer. 
Franco,  mathematician. 
George  Cedrenus,  historian. 


1065 


Michael  Psellus,  a  celebrated 
Greek  philosopher  and  his- 
torian. 


English  parents  prohibited  by 
law  from  selling  their  chil- 
dren. 


Pint  age  of  scholastic  pkilcsc- 
phy. 


1038.  The  Pope,  for  his  scan 
dalous  conduct,  driven  from 
Rome,  but  re-established  by 
the  emperor,  Conrad. 


1044.  — again  driven  from  the 
throne,    and  succeeded    by 
Sylvester  III.     After  three 
months  Benedict  is  restored 
by  the  Counts  of  Tusculum. 
But  finding  (he  people  will 
not  tolerate  hia  crimes,  he 
sells  the  papal  chair  to  Gre- 
gory. 

— deposed  for  simony,  by 
a  council  called  by  Henry 
HI. 
1046.  Pope  Clement  II. 

1045.  Damascus  II.,  23  days. 

"      Leo  IX.,  the  first  who 
kept  a  regular  army. 


1053.  —is  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Normans. 

1054.  The  papal  chair  vacant 
one  year. 

Excommunication  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  Greeks. 


1055.  Pope  Victor  II. 

Hildebrand.  the  real 
head  of  the  church  from  the 
time  of  Leo  IX.  The  church 
improving  in  piety  and  dis- 
cipline. 

1057.  Pope  Stephen  IX. 

1058.  Nicholas  IL 
Benedict  X.,  (antipope). 
The    election  of    pope 

transferred  to  a  conclave  of 
cardinals. 

1059.  Quarrel     between    the 
popes  and  the  German  em- 
perors,   respecting   investi- 
tures and  nomination  to  the 
Holy  See. 

1061.  Pope  Alexander  II. 

1062.  Berenger,  a  celebrated 
French  ecclesiastic. 

Alexander  forbids  the 
massacre  of  the  Jews. 

1066.  Alexander  deposes  Ha- 
rold, and  gives  England  to 
William  the  Conqueror, 
duke  of  Normandy. 


1039.  Ger.:-Henry  IH.jg 
— defeats  the  Bohemians 
and  Hungarians— claims  ths 
right  of  nominating  to  the 
papal  chair. 


1046.  France  :— Dispute  be- 
tween William  the  Con- 
queror and  William  of 
Arques,  for  the  duchy  ol 
Normandy. 


1053.  Germany :— Henry  El. 
causes  his  son,  Henry,  to  be 
proclaimed  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans. This  title  was  ap- 
plied, for  several  centuries, 
to  the  king's  eldest  son. 


Ger.  :-Henry  IV.l£ 

— (the  Great),  aged  six  years, 
under  the  tutelage  of  hia 
mother. 

1058.  Roger,  duke  of  Apulia, 
becomes  a  vassal  of  th» 
pope. 


1060  Pr.:— Phi  lip  I  W- 


•^•Charlemagne  to  William  I.] 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


797 


A.D 

EASTERN  EMPIRE. 

ENGLAND,  &c. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1038 

Earthquakes   and  famine   at 

*&* 

Constantinople. 

1039.  -Hardicanute.©- 

Scot'd.  :  —  Macbeth  mur- 

1041 



ders  Duncan,  and  usurps  the 

(Ualaphales). 

throne. 
The  Saxon  line  restored 

1042 

—  Zoe  &  Theodora.®— 

under                        js 

1042.  Edward^  

1042.    Denmark  :  —  Magnus, 

1042 

—  Cons  tan  tine  X.,^g— 

(the  Confessor).    The  coun- 

(the Good,)  of  Norway,  king. 

(Monomarchus). 

try  prospers  under  his  mild 

First  invasion  of  the  Seljuk 
Turks. 

sway. 

IMS 

The  Russians  invade  Thrace 

with   100,000  men,  and  are 

repeatedly  defeated  by  the 

Greeks. 

1047.   Denmark  :—  Sweyn  Es- 

tritson,  or  Suenon  II. 

X. 

1050.  The  Pisans  and  Genoese 

1051.  Rebellion  of  Earl  God- 

take Sardinia  and  Corsica 

win  and  his  sons. 

from  the  Saracens. 

William,  duke  of  Nor- 

mandy, visits  Edward. 

1053.  The  Dane-gelt  abolished. 

Earl  Godwin  dies 

The  Welch  and  the  Irish 

several  times  invade   Eng- 

land, but  are  repressed  by 

jl 

Harold,  son  of  Godwin. 

1054 
1054 

Theodora,  Ss  
the  last  of  Macedonian  dy- 
nasty. 
The  Greek   church  becomes 

1054.    Macbeth  defeated    and 
killed     at     Langfanan,    by 
Si  ward,  earl  of  Northum- 
berland. 

1055.  The  Turks  reduce  Bag- 
dad, and  overturn  the  em- 
pire of  the  caliphs. 

independent. 

1056 

Michael   VI.,©  

(Stra  iotichus). 

1057 

i      ^b 

1057.  Scotland  :—  Malcolm  III. 

(Comnenus). 

1059.   Sweden:  —  Ingeldus  or 

Ingo  I.,  the  first  Christian 

king. 

1060.    Robert    Guiscard,   the 

Norman,  is  created  by  the 

pope,  duke  of  Apulia. 

1062.    70,000    Europeans   are 

069 

-(Uucaa). 

killed,  or  made  prisoi.ers  by 
the  Turko  in  Palestine. 
1065.  Jerusalem  taken  by  thi 

Saracens. 

J&. 

1065.  Castile  and  Leoa:-  Al 

1066.  —Harold   II.,  if— 

phonzo,  kii  g. 

elected  king;   killed  at  the 

BATTLE  of  HASTINGS. 

—  WILLIAM  I  ,®  — 

duke  of  Normandy,  styled 

"the  Conqueror." 

End  of  the  Anglo- 

Saxon    dynasty. 

Edgar  Atheling  flies  to 

Scotland. 

798 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

PERIOD.  VI.—  The  Middle  Ages.— (Continued.)- 


A.D.     PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


1062 


1073 


Feudal  System  introduced  in 
England  by  the  Normans. 


Surnames  first  used  among 
the  English  nobility. 


Knights  errant  in  Spain. 


[  Ingulphus,  historian,  secre- 
U»y  to  William  the  Con- 
oueror. 


Maricmus  Scotut. 
BookstUert  first  heard  of. 


London  Bkidgs  and  Westmin- 
ster Hal!  Vn-U 


1081 


1061 


1090 


Lanfranc,  archbiatopof  Can- 
terbury. 

Doomsday  Book  compiled  by 
order  of  Williatu  jLt  Con- 
queror. 


William  of  Spires,  rrmhei>.a. 

tician. 
A  rigid  police  establiehed    in 

England.— The  curfew. 
Norman  French,  taught  in  All 

the  schools,  and  made  use  of 

in  all  legal  proceedings. 
Literature   patronized  in   the 

East  by  Melek  Shah. 


Fortress  of  Newcastle  and  of 
Carlisle  built. 


ECCLESIASTICAL.  FRANCE,  GERMANY,  <fc  SPAIN 


Popery  at  the  height 
of  its  power,  claiming 
supreme  dominion,  tem- 
poral and  spiritual,  over 
all  the  states  of  Christen- 
dom. 


1066.  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy,  claims  the  crown  ol 
England,  and  makes  war 
upon  Harold  to  obtain  it 


1071.  Philip  engages  in  a 
war  with  Robert,  count  of 
Holland. 


1072.  Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 
summoned  befpre  the  pope, 
for  selling  the  investiture  oj 
bishops.     Treats  the  man- 
date with  contempt. 

1073.  — summoned   again    by 
Gregory  VII. 


1073.  Pope  Gregory  VII., 
(Hildebrand,)  who  attempts 
to  free  all  the  clergy  from 
the  civil  jurisdiction.      He 
quarrels  with  the  emperor. 

1074.  Simony    and    celibacy 
forbidden. 

1075.  The  pope  sends  legates 
to  the  various  courts  of  Eu- 
rope. 

1076.  — sends  an  ambassador  to 

to  depose  the  pope — is  excom  municated  by  Gregory.  Goes 
barefoot  to  his  holiness,  makes  humble  submission,  and  kisses 
his  feet. 

1076.  Tuscany  and  Genoa  be  queathed  to  the  Holy  See  by 
the  Empress  Matilda. 

1076.  Spain :— The  Cid. 

1078.  The  pope   sets  up   Ru  dolph,   of  Bavaria,  as    anti- 
emperor.      Rudolph    dies    in 
1080.    Ger. :— Henry    IV.    de- 
grades   Gregory    for    his  in  trigues  against  him,  and  makes 
an  expedition  into  Italy,  and  procures  another  pope  to  be 
elected.     The  war  continues  till 

1084,  when  Henry  triumphs 
over  Gregory,  who  flees  to  Sa  lerno.  and  dies  in  exile  in  1085. 


10,t4.  The  order  of  the  Carthu- 
•ins  instituted  by  Bruno. 


103C    Pope  Victor  III. 


1083.     «     Urban  II. 


1085.  Spain :— Toledo    taken 
from    the    Moors,  by   Don 
Rodrigo,  the  Cid,  assisted  by 
Raymond,  count   of    Tou- 
louse. 

1086.  Spain:— The    battle  ol 
Zalaca. 

1087.  France  :  —  War    with 
England :  Robert,  duke  of 
Normandy,    opposes    WU- 
liam  Rufus. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
1066-1299. —  William  the  Conqueror  to  Olhman  I. 


799 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


Eudocia.® 

She  marries 

Romanus  III.,  ffijg 

(Diogenes.)*  He  valiantly 
but  vainly  opposes  the 
Turks  —  is  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Alp  Ars- 
lan,  Emir  of  Omrah. 


Michael 


(Parapinaces). 
Andronicus  I. 


-Constantine  XII.' 


Syria  and  Palestine  subdued 
by  Melek  Shah. 


-Nicephorus, ' 


(Botoniales). 

—  Alexius  I. gs (Com- 

nenus).  The  empire  in- 
vaded by  Robert  Guiscard, 
the  Norman,  who  defeats 
Alexius-  at  Durazzo. 


After  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem, by  the  Turks,  the  Chris- 
tian pilgrims  are  insulted, 
robbed  and  oppressed,  which 
gives  rise  to  the  crusades. 
— Great  struggle  between 
Christianity  and  Mohamme- 
danism. 


1066.  -WILLIAM   I.,1JK- 

"  THE  CONQ.UEROR,"  tirst  of 

the  Norman  line. 


1068.  Edgar  Atheling,  heir  of 
the  Saxon  line,  takes  refuge 
in  Scotland.  His  sister. 
Margaret,  marries  Malcolm 
III. 

1070.  The  feudal  system  in- 
troduced by  the  king.  All 
the  offices  of  the  government 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Nor- 
mans. The  Norman  lan- 
guase  introduced. 

Malcolm  III.  of  Scotland, 
ravages  Durham. 

1072.  Peace  between  the  Nor- 
mans and  the  Scots 


1076.  Robert,  the  king's  son. 
raises  a  rebellion  in  Nor- 
mandy . 


1087.  William  invades  France, 
and  is  killed  at  Mantes. 

1037.  —William   II.,® 

(Rufus). 

Revolt  of  the  Norman 
nobles. 


1067.  Poland  :  —  Boleslas 
— he  conquers  Russia. 


1068.  Poland  :— Romanus  Di*- 
genes. 


1070.  Norway :  —Bergen  built 


1074.  Syria:  — Melek  Shah, 
(Emir,)  extends  his  domin- 
ions from  the  Jaxartes  to  tha 
Mediterranean. 

1076.  Denmark  :— Harold  IV. 

Palestine  invaded  and 
subdued  by  Melek  Shah. — 
Jerusalem  taken. 


1077.  Hungary:  —  Ladislas  I. 

1079.  Poland :— Stanislas,  bi- 
shop of  Cracow,  murdered. 
The  king  excommunicated 
and  dethroned. 

1079.  Poland  :— Uladislas  I. 


1080.    Italy :  —  Rome     taken 

after  a  siege  of  two  years, 

by  Henry  IV. 
1084.  BOHEMIA  erected  into 

a  kingdom  by  the  empereor 

Henry  IV. 


[090.  Sicily  conquered  by 
Roger  the  Norman,  after  a 
war  of  thirty  years  will  iu 
masters,  the  Saracens. 


800 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.    PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


1095 


1096 


1099 


1100 


1118 


uao 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE.  GERMANY  &  SPAIN 


1093.  Conrad,  son  of  the  em 
peror,  rebels. 

The  popes  continue  to  struggle  against  the  empire. 

1094.  Spain :— Pedro  I.,    k. 
— of  Navarre  and  Arragon, 

The    Crusades :— Peter,    the  Hermit,  preaches  against  the  Turks  in  all  the  countries  of 
Christendom.  •  i  § 

|  THE  COUNCIL  OP  CLERMONT. 


The    FIRST   CRUSADE ;—  Peter    the     Hermit, 
out  with  a  vast  rabble,  300,  000  of  whom  perish  before  the 


and  Walter,  the  Pennyless, 
warriors  are  ready  to  start. 


Nathan  Ben  Jechiel,  learned 
Jew. 


Knights  of  St.  John  insti- 
tuted. 

Anna  Comnena,  daughter  of 
Alexius  I.,  Eastern  emperor, 
historian. 

William  of  Poitou,  first  trou- 
badour. 


Abetard,  French  scholastic. 
Jeffrey  of  Monmouth,    histo- 
rian. 


The  Knights  Templars. 


Tograi,  Hairi,  and  Abdattah 
Sharfaddin,  Arabian  poets. 

Scholastic  Philosophy  attains 
its  highest  point  by  the 
writings  of  Peter  Abelurd. 

Peter,  the  Lombard,  (master 
of  sentences). 


The    chieftains  of    the  first  crusade  were, 

1.  G  od  fre  y    of   Bcuillor 
or  Boulogne. 

2.  Hugh  of  Vermandois. 

3.  R  o  b  e  r  t    of  Normandy 

4.  Robert  of  Flanders. 

5.  Stephen  of  Chanres. 

6.  Raymond  of  Toulouse. 

7.  Bohemond. 

.  T  a  n  c  r  e  d  . 

600,000  warriors,  100,008 
cavalry. 

1099.  Pope  Paschal  II. 


1104.  Spain :— Alfonzo  I.,  king 
of  Navarre  and  Arragon. 

1106.  Ger.:— Henry  V  .& 
—maintains  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture. 


1108  Fr.:— Louis  VI., ^ 
— Le  Gros.  Abbe  Sugar, 
minister. 

1109.  Germany :— Henry  en- 
ters Italy,  takes  the  pope 
prisoner,  and  compels  him 
to  crown  him. 

1114.  Henry  V.  marries  Ma 
tilda,  of  England. 


1118.  Pope  Gelasius  II. 

1119.  "     Calistus  II. 


1123.  First  Lateran,  or  ninth 
general  council. 

1124.  HonoriusII. 


1118.  Spain  :—A>fcnso  I.  cap- 
tures Saragossa. 


1120.    Rivalry  between   Eng- 
land    and     France     com- 


1125.  Germany: — Lothaira 

1 1  .yp? opposed  by  Fre- 
deric, and  Conrad,  dulco  of 
Suabia. 


^066-1229.— Continued.1 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


801 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1099 


1104 


1109 


1111 


1118 


Order,  learning,  and  corn 
merce  revive. 

By  the  courage  and  talents  o: 
the  Comneni,  the  empire  is 
feared  or  respected  by  the 
nations  of  Asia  and  Europe. 

Invasion  by  the  crusaders : 
great  numbers  pass  through 
Constantinople. 


Battle  of  Doryteum,  which 
secures  the  march  of  the 
crusaders  through  Asia  Mi- 
nor. 


Acre  taken  by  the  crusaders. 


TripoIIs  taken  by  crusaders. 


Berytus  and  Sidon  taken  by  the 
crusaders. 


— John  I.,  f^y (Comne- 

nus),a  noble  prince :  reforms 
the  manners  ot  his  people. 


Tyre  taker,  by  the  crusaders. 


34* 


1093.  Scotland  .-—Malcolm  III 
invades     England,    and    i 
slain  near  Alnwick  Castle  by 
Roger  de  Mowbray. 

1094.  Scot. :— Donald    Bane 
king. 

William  again  invade; 
Normandy. 

Sci'd. : — Duncan  usurp 
the  crown. 

William  quarrels  with 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Can 
terbury. 


1098.  Scotland  :— Edgar  puts 
out  Donald's  eyes  and  de 
thrones  him. 


1100.  William  II.  accidentally 
shot  by  Sir  Walter  Tyrel. 

— H  e  n  r  y   I .  $jg — 

(Beauclerc,)  grants  the  Eng- 
lish a  charter,  and  marries 
Maud,  a  Saxon,  thus  uniting 
the  Norman  and  Saxon  in- 
terests. 

101.    Robert,  duke  of    Nor 
mandy,  invades  England. 


106.  Henry  invades  Norman 
dy ;   takes   Robert  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Tinchebrai. 

Scotland :— Alexander  I. 

107.  Henry  quarrels  with  An- 
selm. 


120.  Shipwreck  and  death  of 
Prince  William  and  140  no- 
blemen. 

124.  Insurrection  in  Norman- 
dy suppressed. 

Scotland  : — David  I.  pro- 
motes civilization. 


1095.  Hungary: — Colomac. 


1096.    Egypt: 
takes  Jerusalem. 


Mustali,   As 
eighth  Fatimite  caliph.    II« 


1097.     Baldwin    founds     UM 
principality  of  Edessa. 


1099.  Jerusalem  taken  by  th« 
crusaders,  under  Godfrey 
who  is  elected  king. 


1102.  Poland  :— Boleslas  III 


105.  Denmark :  —  Nicholas 

106.  Italy : — Venice,  Genoa, 
and   Pisa   greatly  enriched 
by  the  crusades. 


109.  Norway: — Segurd's  ex 
pedition  to  Palestine. 


117.  Persia  :— Sanjar  subdue* 
Khorasan  and  Samarkand. 

119.  War  between  Pisa  and 
Genoa. 

120.  Italy :  —  Rise    of    th« 
house  of  Guelph. 

Zengi,  governor  of  M 
sul,  a  great  prince 


802 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  VI  — The  Middle  Age*.— 


A.D 

PROORBSS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ECCLESIASTICAL. 

FRANCE,  GERMANY  &  SPAIN. 

1112.    Spain-  —  Alfonzo  Vfl., 

king,  Leon  and  Castile. 

Aristotle's    logic   comes  into 

1127.    —  makes    war    against 

repute. 

Roger,  king  of  Sicily. 

1130.  Innocent  II.  and  Anacle- 

I 

tus,  rival  popes. 

1134.  Spain  :—  Garcia  IV.,  king 

of  Navarre. 

Ramiro  II.,  king  of  Arra- 

gon. 

1135.  Lothaire  in  Italy—  cap- 

ture of  Amalfi. 

1137 

Pandects  of  the  Roman  law 
(Justinian,)    discovered     at 

1137.  A  pretended  Messiah  in 
France. 

1137.  Fr.  :-Louis  VII.  9 

—  (le  Jeune). 

Amalfi,  and  the  study  of  the 

1138.  —another  in  Persia. 

1138.     Germany:  —  H  o  »  8  « 

civil  law  revived. 

of   Suabia: 

—Conrad    I.®  

1139.  Second  Lateran,  or  tenth 
general  council. 

1139.  Portugal  becomes  a  king- 
dom. —  Henry  of  Besar.con, 

1140 

Qratian  collects  the  canon  law. 

king. 

William  of  Malmsbury,  Eng- 
lish historian. 

1143.  Pope  Celestin  II. 

L141.    Germany  and  Italy.— 
Dissensions  of  the  G  u  e  J  f  s 

Vacarius  teaches  civil  law  at 

1144.     "     Lucius  II. 

and  G  hi  be  lines. 

Oxford. 

1145.     "     Eugenius  HI. 

Otho,   bishop  of  Friesengen, 

historian,  introduces  the~pe- 
ripatetic     philosophy     into 
Germany. 

1147.TheSecondCrusade  excited   by  St.    Bernard, 
and  joined    by    the  emperor  Conrad  and  his  nephew  Fre- 
deric Barbarossa,  and  Louis  VII.  of  France. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  Jew, 

travels  from  Spain  to  India, 
by  Constantinople,  and   re- 

1149. France:  —  Louis  divorces 
his  queen,    Eleanor,     who 

turns  through  Egypt, 

marries  Henry  of  Anjou.  af- 

terwards king  of  England; 

thus  Guienne  and  Poitou  are 

lost  to  France. 

1150 

The  magnetic  needle  known 

1150.  Spain  :—  Sancho  V.,  king 

in  Italy. 

of  Navarre. 

Suidas.  lexicographer. 

1152.  Germany  and  Italy  :— 

Eben  Ezra,  of  Toledo,  Jewish 
historian. 

153.  Pope  Anastasius  IV. 
.154.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  (an  Eng- 

Frederic   I.,  ^g— 

lishman,  Nicholas    Breaks- 

(Barbarossa). 

1155 

Arnold,  of  Brescia,  condemn- 

peare). 

ed  and  burnt. 

Eustathius,  commentator  on 

Homer  and  Dionysius  Per. 

1157.    Spain  :—  Castile    and 

Leon  divided  under  Ferdi- 

nand II.  and  Sancho  II. 

1558 

Banli  of  Venice  established.— 

1158.   Germany  :  —  The  empe- 

Fairs at  Leipsic. 

ror  Frederic    receives    the 

title  of  king  of  Bohemia  at 

London  contains  40,000  inha- 

the diet  of  Ratisbon:—  con- 

bitants 

quers  Poland,  and  makes  ii 

tributary. 

Poem  of  the  did. 

159.  Pope  Alexander  HL 

Victor  IV.,  antipope. 

Colleges'  :f  theology,  philoso- 

160. Order  of  the  Carmelites 
instituted. 

phy  and  law  at  Paris. 
English  commerce  confined  to 
the  exportation  of  wool.  —  A 
woollen    manufactory  esta- 
blished at  Worsted,  and  soon 

The  Waldenses  and 
Albigenses  begin  to  ap- 
peanr 
164.  Pascal  III.,  antipope. 

1162.  Frederic  destroys  Milan. 
Spain  :  —  Allbnic      D, 
king  of  Arragon. 

after  at  Norwich. 

167.  Rome  taken  by  Frederic 

BalNtrosn. 

168.  Oalistus  III.,  antipop*. 

1066-1229.— Continued.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


803 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1143 


1148 


1155 
1156 


— Manuel  Commenus.  Ws — 


Edessa  being  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  gives  rise  to  the 
second  crusade. 

The  Normans,  under  Roger, 
arrive  before  Constantino- 
ple ;  are  repulsed  by  Manuel. 


The  Greeks  reduce  Apulia 
and  Calabria. 

Manuel  forms  the  design  of 
conquering  Italy  and  the 
western  empire,  but  fails. 


Kelso,  Melrose,  and  Holy 

rood  house  founded. 

1127.      Matilda,     the     king' 

daughter,  marries  Geoffrej 

Plantagenet. 


1135.  8tephenf|? 

of  Blois. 

1136.  Matilda  asserts  her  righ 
co  the  throne ; 

David,  king  of  Scotland 
assists  her. 

1138.  —is  defeated  in  the  "  bat- 
tle of  the  Standard." 


1141.  Stephen  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Lincoln. 


Civil  war:  Stephen  and 
Matilda. 


1149.   Henry   Plantagenet  in 
vades  England. 


1154.  —Henry    II. 
(Plantagenet). 


158'  Thomas  a  Becket  intro- 
duced to  the  king's  notice  by 
Theobold,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury — becomes  chan- 
cellor and  preceptor  of  the 
prince. 

159.  Becket  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  France. 


.162.  — made    archbishop    of 

Canterbury  —  opposes    the 

king. 
.164.  — resists  the  constitutions 

of     Clarendon  —  flies     '•> 

France. 
166.  Scotland :— William. 


1130.  Sweden :— Ragwald  I 
1133.       "  Magnus  I. 


1139.  PORTUGAL  becomes  • 


Sweden :— Suercher  II. 


[147.    Russia:  —  the  city  ol 
Moscow  founded. 


150.   Denmark  : — The  coast* 
infested  with  pirates. 
150.  Sweden :— Eric  X 


157.  Denmark :  Waldemar  I. 


158.  Venice  a  great  maritime 
power. 


162.  Sweden : — Charles  VT1 


1167.  Italy :— League  of  the 
Italian  cities  to  preserve 
their  liberties. 


804 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


1175 
1177 


1178 


1189 


1190 


1196 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


Foundation  of  the  military 
order  of  Santiago. 

Circuit  Judges  appointed  in 
England. 

1178.  Innocent  HI.,  antipope. 

The  pope  Alexander,  by  a  special  act,  relieves  the  clergy 
of  Berkshire  from  keeping  the  archdeacon's  dogs  and  hawks 
during  his  visitation. 

The  Waldenses  spread  over  the  valley  of  Piedmont.  They 
circulated  the  Sacred  Scrip  tures.  They  were  the  fore- 
runners of  Protestantism.  Con  demned  by  the  Eleventh  Gene- 
ral Council,  and  severely  per  secuted. 

1179.  Third  Lateran,  or  Ele- 
venth General  Council. 

Robert  Wace,  first  French 
poet.  Translation  of  his 
Hist,  des  Rois  d'Angleterre, 
by  Layamon,  the  first  Eng- 
lish composition. 


John  Tzetes,  Greek  gramma- 
rian. 

Maimonides,  of  Cordova,  one 
of  the  most  learned  of  the 
Jews. 

Henry,  of  Huntington,  and 
William,  of  Newbury,  his- 
torians. 

Rainulph  de  Glanville  makes 
a  digest  of  laws  and  customs 
of  England. 


Dreadful  massacre  of  the  Jews 
at  the  coronation  of  Richard 
I. 

Teutonic  order  instituted. 

Boahoddi  Ibu  Shadad,  author 
of  a  Life  of  Saladin,  in  Ara- 
bic. 


The  Jews  become  the  princi- 
pal bankers  of  the  world. 

Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in- 
•tituted  in  Germany. 


1181.  Pope  Lucius  m. 


1185.  Pope  Urban  III. 


1187.  Pope  Gregory  VHI. 
1187.       «    Clement  III. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  &  SPAIN. 


1170.  France:— The  Walden- 
ses. They  derived  theil 
name  from  Peter  Waldo,  t 
merchant  of  Lyons. 


1 174.  Frederick's  fourth  expe 
dition  into  Italy. 


1176.  Frederick  defeated  al  lh» 
battle  of  Legnano. 


1178.  Henry,  the  Lion,  duke 
of  Saxony,  deposed,  and 
Saxony  divided. 


1180. Fr.:— Philip  II. ,1 
(Auguste). 


1183.  The  Peace  of  Constance 
re-establishes  the  independ- 
ence of  Italian  republics. 


1188.  Spain:  — Alfonzo  IX. 
king  of  Leon. 


1190.  Third  C  r  u  s  a  d  e  ied  by  Philip  Ausustus,  of 
France,  and  Richard,  of  Eng  land,  and  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa. 

1 190.  Ger. :— H  e  n  r  y  V I .  W 
emperor  and  king  or  luFj 
and  the  Sicilies. 


1191.  Pop*  Celestine  HI. 


1198.  Pope  Innocent  III. 


1196.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
seized  and  retained  in  cap 
tivity. 

1198.  Philip,  of  Suabia,  and 
Oiho,  of  Saxony,  dispute  the 
crown;  the  former  sup 
ported  by  the  Ghibelines 
and  the  latter  by  the  Guclfa 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 
no. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


805 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1180 


1133 


1185 


-Alexius  II. 


•  Andronicus  I. 


-Isaac  II. 1 


1190 


1195 


(Angelus). 


The  empire  invaded  by    the 
Bulgarians. 


Iconium  taken  by  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  bu*.  afterwards 
restored. 


Alexius  Angelus,* 

usurper  and  tyrant. 


1170.  Becket  returns  to  Eng- 
land, and  is  murdered  at  the 
altar. 

1172.  Henry  conquers 
Ireland. 


1174.  Treaty  of  Falaise,  in 
which  William  agrees  to  do 
homage  for  Scotland. 

Henry  makes  a  pilgri- 
mage to  the  shrine  of  Becket. 


1171.  Egypt :— SALADIN,  sul 
tan. 

—He  extends  his  domi- 
nions in  Egypt,  and  Con- 
quers Syria,  Assyria,  Mesa 
potamia,  and  Arabia. 

1174.  Poland :— Miecislaus  111 

1175.  Portugal— a  fief  of  tt» 
Holy  See. 


1178.  Poland  :--Casimir,  (th« 
Just; 


1182.  Denmark  : — Canute. 

1183.  Saiadin    lakes  Aleppo, 
and  deposes  the  sultan  of 
Mosul. 


1185.  Portugal :— Sancho  I. 
1136.    Saiadin  directs  all    his 
efforts  against  the  crusader*. 


1187.  —gains  the  victory  o 
Tiberias,  and  takes  Jerusa. 
lem,  which  leads  to 

1190.  The  third  crusade. 


1191.    Kingdom    of    Cyprni 

founded. 
1191.  Acre  taken  by  the  cm 

saders. 


1193.  Richard  defeats  Saiadin  in  the  battle  of  Ascaion ;  but, 
abandoned  by  his  associates,  concludes  a  truce  of  thtM 
years. 


1189.— Richard  I.® 

(Cojur  de  Lion).      He  en 
gages  in  the  third  crusade. 


1193.  John  attempts  to  seize 
the  crown  in  the  absence  of 
Richard. 


1193.  Saiadin  dies. 


806          THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.B.    PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc.  ECCLESIASTICAL.  FRANCE,  GERMANY  &  SPAIN 


1203 


1209 


1222 


The  power  ol  the  pope  supre  me  —  Rome  mistress    of   the  world,  and  kings  her  vassals 


The  University    of    Bologna 
contains  10,000  students. 


Ville  Hardouin,  historian. 
Sato  Grammaticu8,hiatorian. 


University  of  Paris  founded. 


The  order  of  Franciscan  fri  ars  instituted. 


1200.  The  pope  excommunica  tes  Philip  of  Prance. 

1202.  The  fourth  crusade  by  the  French,  Germans,  and 
Venetians  under  the  Marquis  of  Monserrat.  They  taka 
Constantinople. 


1204.  The  Inquisition  in  Fran  ce. 


The  works  of  Aristotle,  im- 
ported from  Constantinople, 
condemned  by  the  council 
of  Paris. 


Period  of  the  Troubadours  in 
France ;  the  Minstrels  in 
England;  and  the  Minne- 
singers in  Germany. 


University  of  Padua  founded. 


Stephen  Langton,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 


Bitter  persecution  of  the 
Albigenses. 


The  doctrine  of  transub- 
slantiation  and  auricular 
confession  established. 


1215.  Fourth    Lateran,     and 
twelfth     General     Council 
against  the  Albigenses,  and 
all  heretics. 

1216.  Pope  Honorius  III. 

1217.  The    fifth    crusade  by 
Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hun- 
gary. 


1227.  Pope  Gregory  IX. 


1229.  The  Inquisition  at  Tou- 
louee. 

The  Scripturts  forbid- 
den to  all  laymen. 


Normandy  reunited   to 
France. 


1210.  Germany  :— Otho  place  i 
under  the  ban  of  the  pope. 


1212. — FrederickII.1 


Spain : — The  Christiana 
gain  the  battle  of  Navaa  de 
Tolosa. 


1215.  Otho  loses  the  battle  of 
Bovines. 


1217.  Spam-— Ferdir and, king 
of  Castile. 


1223.  Fr.:  Louis  V.. I.® 

(The  Lion). 

Crusade  against  the  Al- 
bigenses. 

1226.  Fr. :  L  o  u    s     X    S 
— (Saint). 

1227.  Germany :— Crusade  of 
the  emperor  after  being  ci 
communicated. 

1230.  Spain :  —  Castile  anJ 
Leon  united  by  Ferdinand 
III.,  who  tal'es  Cordova*  Se- 
ville. Cadiz,  fee.  from  tht 
Moors. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


807 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1204 


1206 


-Alexius    IV. 


The  crusaders   plunder  Con- 
stantinople. 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders. 


-Henry   II. 


1216 


321 


•  Peter 


Robert 


i228 


— John  of  Brienne,fgf 

king  of  Jerusalem,  and  em- 
peror. 


-Baldwin  II.' 


Richard,  returning  home 
in  disguise,  through  Ger- 
many, is  imprisoned.  Is 
ransomed  by  his  subjects  for 
10,000  marks. 

—declares  war  against 
France. 
1199.  Richard  cies. 


1200. John,  Iff 

(Lackland.) 
1201.  Prince  Arthur  supported 

by  France. 


1207.  The  kingdom  laid  under 
an  interdict. 

1208.  John  excommunicated. 
London  obtains  the  right 

to  elect  its  own  Lord  Mayor. 


1213.  The  pope  declares  John 
a  usurper.    John  submits  to 
hold  his  crown  as  a  vassal  of 
the  pope. 

1214.  Scotland :— Alexander  II. 


1215.  Magna  Charta  signed  at 
Runny  mede. 


1216. —Henry  III.® 

(4th  Plantagenet.) 

Earl  of  Pembroke,  pro- 
tector. 


[224.  Henry's  province  of 
Poitou  seized  by  the  king  of 
France. 


1202.  Denmark :  —  Waldemw 
II. 

Poland :  —  Lesco,  (the 
white). 

Livonia : — Institution  ol 
the  order  of  short  swords  to 
conquer  the  Prussians. 


1206.     Genghis      Khan 
subdues  the  north  of  China 


1210.  Italy  :— First  war  of  Ve- 
nice and  Genoa. 


1213.  Russia :— Jurje  II. 


1214.  Frederick  cedes  to  Den- 
mark all  the  provinces  be- 
yond the  Elbe  and  Eiser. 


1216.  Tartary :— Overrun  by 
the  hordes  of  Genghis  Khan. 

1217.  Norway :— Haco  V. 


1222.  Two  Greek  kingdoms  in 
Asia,  Nice  and  Trebizond. 

John  Ducas,  emperor  of 
Nice. 

Hungary :  —  Charter  ol 
Andrew  II.  Foundation  o( 
the  national  liberty. 


1229.  First  expedition  of  Henry 
into  France  for  the  recovery 
of  his  estates. 

1233.  First  discovery  of  coal 
at  Newcastle. 


1234.  Italy :— War  of  the  Lom- 
bard cities  with  Frederick  ol 
Germany. 

1236.  Dreadful  invasion  ol 
Europe  by  the  Mongols,  ur> 
dar  Batn  Khan. 


808 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  Vl.—  The  Middk  Ages.— 


A.D.    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY  <fc  SPAIM. 


Robert,  of  Gloucester,  the  first 
English  writer  in  rhyme. 


First  war  fleet  in  Spain  at  the 
conquest  of  Seville. 

Foundation  of  the  Mhambra 
near  Granada. 

St.  Edmund,  of  Canterbury, 
dies. 

The  University  of  Salaman- 
ca founded. 


Silk  manufactory  in  Lucca; 
woollen  in  Milan  and  Tus- 
cany. 

Peter,  of  Albano,  astrologer, 
physician,  and  naturalist. 

Rubruquis  travels  among  the 
Mongols. 


Private  war  and  judicial  com- 
bats suppressed  in  France 
by  the  laws  of  St.  Louis. 


Parliament  in  England. 


The  monastic  orders,  by  their 
wealth,  rigid  discipline, 
and  popular  influence,  be- 
come powerful  aids  to  pon- 
tifical ambition. 


1241.  Pope  Celestine  IV. 


1243.  Pope  Innocent  IV. 

Continual  struggles  with 
the  emperor  Frederic. 


Sect  of  the  Flagellants, 


123S.     Germany :  —  Frederic 
again  excommunicated. 


1243.  The  H  a  n  s  e  a  t  i  e 
1  e  a  g  u  e — the  chief  towns 
are  Lubec,  Cologne,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Dantzic. 

1246.  Henry  of  Thuringia  set 
up  for  emperor  by  the  pope, 
and 

1247.  William,  of  Holland. 

1248.  France : — Louis  sets  out 
on  the  seventh  crusade. 


1254.  Pope  Alexander  IV. 

The  Jews  every  where 
persecuted. 


1250.  Germany: 

— Conrad  IV.® 

1252.    Spain:  —  Alfonso  X. — 
king  of  Castile  and  Leon. 


1261.  Pope  Urban  IV. 

The  popes  claim  the 
right  of  presenting  to  every 
benefice  in  the  world. 


1261.  France :— Burgundy  fall* 
to  the  crown. 


1265.  The  pope  succeeds  in  his  long  struggle  for  the  do- 
minion of  Italy,  and  places  Charles  of  Anjou  on  the  thront 
of  Naples. 

1265.  Pope  Clement  IV. 

1266.  Henry  of    Castile,    *  Roman  senator 

1 1268. 


1268.  No  pope  for  about  three 
years. 


1271.  Pope  Gregory  X. 


Pragmatic  sanction- 
foundation  of  the  liberties  of 
the  Gallican  church. 


1270.  France  .-—Louis  IX.  seta 
out  on  the  eighth  and  last 
crusade,  and  dies  before 
Tunis — succeeded  by 

— Philip  111.9 — 
(The  Hardy). 


1066-1299.  —Continued.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


809 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  <fc  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1260 
261 


—Michael  Palaeologus.  1j$g — 
—recovers  Constantinople. 


The  Mongols  in  Asia  Minor. 


The  Mongols  take  Antioch, 


1240.  Richard,  earl  of  Corn 
wall,  heads  the  sixth  cru 
sade,  and  redeems  Jerusa 
leiu. 


1242.  Second  expedition  into 
France — defeated  and  com 
pelted  to  make  peace. 


1246.  Henry  marries  Eleanor 
of  Provence. 


1249.  Scot. :  Alexander  El. 

— Repulses  Haco,  king 
of  Norway  —  obtains  the 
Scottish  Isles. 


1241.  Denmark :— Eric  VI 


1258.  Famous  parliament  at 

Oxford. Simon     d  e 

M  o  n  t  f  o  r  t . 

1259.  Peace  with  France. 


1249.  The  Hanse  towns  cap 
ture  Copenhagen. 

1250.  Egypt :— The  M  a  m  e  - 
1  11  k  e  s  rule  —take  Damas- 
cus and  Aleppo. 


1255.  Nice :— Theodore  Lasca- 
ris,  emperor. 

1256.  Hulaku  enters  Persia, 
becomes  sultan — takes  Bag- 
dad, and  puts  an   end    to 
the    caliphate. 

1258.  Italy  :— Dreadful  naval 
war   between    Venice    and 
Genoa. 

1259.  China :— Kublai    Khan 
builds  Pekin,  and  makes  it 
his  capital. 


1261.  Norway  :—  Iceland  sub 
jected. 

Italy  :—  Charles  I.  - 
[262.  —  becomes  a  papal  fief. 
Greenland  tributary  to 
Norway. 
Norway  : 


1265.  First  regular  parlia- 
ment.— Civil  war — the  king 
made  prisoner  at  Lewes — is 
released,  and  gains  the  bat- 
tle of  Evesham. 


1270.  Prince  Edward  joins  the 
'"tub  crusade. 


265.  Abaka  Khan  of  Persia. 


266  Magnus,  of  Norway, 
cedes  to  Scotland  the  Us 
brides  and  the  Isle  M  Alan. 


270.  Hungary :- 
Stephen  V 


810 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  VL—Tlie  Middle  Ages.- 


A..D.    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


Marco    Polo    travels    in    the 
East  as  far  as  Pekin. 


First  patent  of  nobility  grant- 
ed to  his  goldsmith  by  the 
kii.'g  of  France.  This  was 
designed  as  an  attack  upon 
the  feudal  barons,  and  all 
the  landed  and  hereditary 
aristocracy. 


Literature  and  science  flourish 
in  Spain,  under  Alfonzo,  the 
learned. 


Chivalry  and  the  tournaments 
introduced  into  Sweden. 


University  of  Lisbon  founded. 


Roger  Bacon,  of  Oxford,  the 
most  learned  man  of  the 
middle  ages. 


Institution  of  the  three  great 
courts  of  law  in  England. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  &SPAIM 


1272.  Languedoc  falls  to   the 
crown. 


1273.  Ger.  :— Rodolph.® 

founds     the    house     o  1 
Hapsburg. 


1274.    14th    General    Council  at  Lyons;    first  reunion   of 
the     Eastern     and     Western  Churches. 


1276.  Pope  Innocent  V.,  4  mos. 

"    Adrian  V.,  1  mo. 
"   John  XXI.,  8  mos. 

1277.  Nicholas  III.,  enriching 
his  family  at  the  expense  of 
the    church — he  introduces 
Nepotism. 


1281.  Pope  Martin  IV. 


1285.  Pope  Honorius  IV. 


1288.  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 

Nicholas  IV.  patronizes  civil  and  religious  literature, 
improves     and     embellishes  Rome. 


Albert,  the  mathematician,  and 
Provencal  poet. 


1276   France  at  war  with  CM- 
tile. 


1283.    Germany Rodc.pb 

makes  his  son,  Albert,  duk* 
of  Austria. 


1285.  Fr.:— Philip  IV.  \ 
(the  Fair.) 


1286.  Spain :— Alfonzo  ID . 
king  of  Arragon. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


811 


A.D.  EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


1273 


'274 


Andionicas, ' 


(the  Elder.) 


Union  with  the  Latin  church. 


L277 


Persecution  of  the  Greeks. 


Othman  establishes  an  inde- 
pendent rule,  as  chief  of 
400  families,  in  the  north  of 
Asia  Minor. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND. 


1272. —  Edward    I.f» — 


1276.  War  between  England 
and  Wales. 


1283.  Edward  has  a  son  born 
at  Caernarvon,  from  which 
the  title,  Prince  of  Wales, 
descends  to  the  eldest  son  of 
the  king. 

Scotland  : — Robert  Bruce  and 
John  Balliol  contend  for  the 
crown. 


1289.  Last  payment  of  ti  ibute 
to  the  pope. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1272.  Hungary:- 


— Vladislas  VI. W — 


1276.   Sweden  :  —  Magnus    L 


Russia :— Hanseatic  set- 
tlement at  Novogorod. 

1279.  China  :-Kublia  Khan 
subdues  the  southern  king- 
dom, and  becomes  the  Great 
Khan. 

China  visited  by  Marco 
Polo.  J* 

1279.  Poland :— Lesco  II.  @— 

1279.  Portugal : — Dennis,j@p 
the  father  of  his  coun- 
try. 

1280.  Norway :— Eric  11.^— 


1282.  Sicilian  vespers. 
1282.   Denmark  : — Parliament 
at  Wurtemburg. 
First  Handveste. 


1286.  Denmark  :-Eric  Vl.^ 


1289.  The   Mongols    invade 
Hungary  and  Poland. 

1290.  Hungary  :  —Andrew  III 


the  Venetian. 

Poland  : Wenceslas, 

king  of  Bohemia,  taken  Cra- 
cow, and  becomes  duke  o 
Lesser  Poland. 


812        THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  VI.—  The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE.  GERMANY  <k  SPAIN. 


Peter,  of  Albano,  astrologer 
physician,  and  naturalist. 


John  Holy  wood,  of  England 
astronomer. 


Richard  Middleton. 


Cimabue,  the  first  of  modern 
painters  at  Florence. 


Arnolf  di  Lapo,  the  father  of 
modern  Italian  architecture 


The   Influence  of  the 
crusades  was  great 

expanding    the 

mind  of  Europe — re- 
fining   the    general 


manners  —  exciting 
a  spirit  of  geogra- 
phical research  and 
adventure — and  pro- 
noting  improvement 
in  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences—  thus  under  mining 


1292.    Celestine  V.— he    abdi 

cates. 
1292.  The  papal  chair  vacant 

two  years  and  three  months 
Institution  of  the  order 

of  the  Celestines. 


1294.  Pope  Boniface  VIIL 


1296.  Struggles  with  France. 


1297.   Canonization  of  Louis 
IX. 


1291.  Germany: — 

—  Adolphus  ,^jg — 
of  Nassau. 


Spain:— James  II.  k.  of 
Arragon. 


Pirs't  letters  of  marque  grant- 
ed by  Edward  HI.  against 
the  Portuguese. 


of 
the 


instead 
s  tre ng thening 

?ower  ofp ap alRome, 
y    advancing    libe- 
ral  ideas   and  fr e e  • 
dom   of  thought. 


1295.  Spain :  -  Ferdinand  IV. 
in  Castile  ar  d  Leon. 


Philip  successfully   in- 
vades Flanders. 


l298.  Germany :  —  Adolphus 
deposed  by  a  Diet,  which 
elects 

—  Albert  I.W — 
son  of  Rodolph. — Adolphiw, 
slain  in  the  struggle  which 
ensues. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


813 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1291 


1292 


Capture  of  Acre  by  the  Ma- 
melukes— end  of  the  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem. 

The  Mongols  drive  the  last 
sulian  of  Iconium  from  his 
throne. 


The  Genoese  obtain  the  trade 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  rise  to 
great  power 


1291.  Edward    decides    the 
Scottish  dispute  in  favor  of 
Baliol. 

1292.  A  piratical  warfare  be- 
tween England  and  France. 
— Philip  gets  possession  of 
Guienne. 


1292.  Hungary:— The  pop« 
sets  up"  Charles  Martel, 
crown  prince  ot  Naples,  sa 
king. 


1294.  China:— Tymui  than. 


1295.  Poland :- 


129) 


Othman  invades  Nicomedia, 
and  establishes  the  Ottoman 
empire. 


1296.    Balli'l   defeated;   sub- 
mits to  Edward. 


1297.  Scotland  :—S  i  r  Wil- 
liam Wallace  . — S  i  r 
William  Douglas, 
Robert  Bruce,  and 
other  chiefs  head  a  rebellion 
against  the  English. 


1299.  —they  are  defeated  at 
Falkirk  by  king  Edward  I. 


— Premislas  II. 


1296.  Poland :— Less  II.  W— 


1299.  Foundation  of  the 
OTTOMAN  or  TURKISH 
EMPIRE  in  Bythinia,  u» 
der  Othman  I. 


814 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PERIOD  VII.—  The  Middle  Ases.—lZm  to  1453.— 


t.D.    PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  &  SPAIS. 


University  at  Lyons  founded 
— Rapid  advances  in  civili 
zation. — Revival  of  ancieni 
learning. — Improvements  ir 
the  arts  and  sciences — anc 
progress  of  liberty. 

THE  MARINER'S  COM- 
PASS invented  at  Naples, 
by  Gioia,  native  of  Amain 

University  at  Avignon. 

Dante,  {he  father  of  modern 
Italian  poetry,  flourishes. 

Amid  the  struggles  of  the 
Guelfs  and  Ghibelines, 
Italy  becomes  the  cradle  ol 
modern  literature  and  im- 
proving civilization. 

Dnivcrsity  at  Orleans. 


University  at  Perugia. 


University  at  Coimbra. 


1303.  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
Council  of  Paris. 
Bull  unam  sanctum. 
Pope  Benedict  XI. 
Vacancy  in  the    papal 
chair  nearly  eleven  months. 
— The  papal  power  de- 
clines. 

1305.  Pope  Clement  V. 


1302.  First  convocation  of  ih« 
States-general  in  France. 

Guienne  restored  to  Eng- 
land. 


1304.    France    at    war    with 
Flanders. 

Germany :— The  Swiss 
towns  rise  into  importance 
— oppressed  by  the  House  of 
Hapsburg. 


Seat  of  the  popes  transferred   to    Avig- 

non. 

1306.  Persecution  of  the  Jewi 
in  France. 

Germany  •  —  Rudolf 


Knights  of  St.  John  at 
Rhodes. 

Order  of  Knights  Templar 
abolished. — The  barons  in 
England  extort  from  Ed- 
ward II.  a  reformation  of 
abuses.  Parliaments  are  to 
be  held  every  vear,  and  to 
to  all  important 


1311.  General  Council  at  Vien- 
na. 

Another  vacancy  in  the 
papal  chair  of  more  than 
two  years. 


1316.  Pope  John  XXII. 

Taxes  imposed  upon  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  to 
enrich  the  treasury- of  the 
church. 


of  Austria- 


the 


1307.  Persecution    of 
Knights  Temp'ar. 

Ger.:  —  William   Tell 
shoots  Gesler. 

1308.  Germany  :  -  H  e  n  r  y 

of  Luxemburg.  1jg  -  — 

General  insurrection  in 
Switzerland. 

1309.  Spain:—  Ferdinand  IV 
takes  Gibraltar. 


1311.  Lyons  united  to  France. 

1312.  Spain :— Alfonzo  XL 
— of  Castile  and  Leon. 

1314.  Fr.  :-Louis  X.®- 
(Hutin.) 

Ger. : — Louis  of  Bava- 
ria, and  Frederick  of  Aus- 
tria, contend  for  the  crown. 

1315.  Fr  :— Edict  for  the  en- 
franchisement of  slaves. 

Battle  of  Morgarten--th« 
Austrians  defeated  by  th« 
Swiss. 

1316.  Fr.  :-Philip  V.W- 
(the  Lon<*.)    He  succeeds  b) 
virtue  of  the  Saliqu*  .aw 
now  first  established. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
154  years. — Othman  to  the  Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 


815 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1303 


War  ef  the  Catalans,  under 
Roger  de  Flor. 

Othman  increases  his  posses 
sions  ;  abandons  the  pasto- 
ral life,  and  fortifies  towns 
and  castles. 


1303.  Edward  invades  Scot 
land.  — Wallace  betrayec 
and  beheaded.  —  Scotlanc 
submits. 

Edward   recovers   Gui 
enne. 


1306.  Scotland  :  —  R  o  b  e  r  t 
Bruce    proclaimed 

— is  obliged  to  flee ;  but, 
Edward  dying,  resumes  his 
position. 

1307.  Eng.  :EdwardII.< 

Scot. : — Bruce  strengtti- 
ens  himself  by  repeated  ad- 
va.Mages  and  prudent  con 


1310 


The  Knights  of  St.  Johr.  of 
Jerusalem,  established  at 
Rhodes. 


1314.  Edward  invades  Scot- 
land, and  is  defeated  at  the 
Battle  of  Bannock- 
b  u  rrj- 

The  Scots  invade  Eng- 
land and  Ireland. 


1301.  Hungary  : — Andrew5  the 

Venetian.  f§f 

Extinction  of  the  house 
of  Arpad. 

— Wenceslas  III.  of  Bo 

hernia.  t§? 

1304.  — Otto    V..    of   flara 


1305.  Polai  d :— Vladislas  IV., 
in  Little  Poland,  and 

Duke  Henry,  of  Glogau, 
in  Great  Poland. 

Russia  subject  to  the 
Khan  of  Tartary. 


1307.  Switzerland: 

W  m .  Tell  escapes  from 
Gesler : 

SWISS  Republics 
founded,  Nov.  7. 

1308.  Hungary : — Carobert,  of 

Anjou.gg 

1309.  Poland  united  into  one 
monarchy   under    Vladislaa 
IV. 

Naples  : —  Robert,  the 
Good.  He  aspires  to  the 
dominion  of  Italy. 

1310.  Italy  :— The  Council  of 
Ten  established  at  Venice. 


313.  Italy ;— Matteq  Visconti. 

314.  Tunis  made  tributary  to 
Spain. 


316.  Italy  : — Castruccio,  Lord 
of  Lucca  and  Pisa. 

317.  Robert,  the  Good,  a  sena- 
tor of  Rome,  and 

318.  —lord  of  Genoa. 

319.  Final  establishmen   of 
the  oligarchy  at  Venice, 


816 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  V1L—  Tlu:  Middle  Age*.— 


A.D.     PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


Dante,  dies. 


John  de  Muria  introduces 
notes  of  different  length  into 
music — and  the  meihod  of 
distinguishing  them. 

Romance  poeiry  of  the  middle 
ages  flourishes. 

May  roais  commences  the  cele- 
brated disputations  in  the 
Sorbonne. 

Clock  constructed  on  mathe- 
matical principles,  by  Rich- 
ard Valiglort. 

Linna.  a  monk,  and  astrono- 
mer of  Oxford,  constructs  a 
map  of  the  northern  seas. 

Thomas,of  Bradwardine,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 


Giotto,  a  shepherd  boy,  the 
first  who  drew  portraits 
from  life. 

Greek  literature  revives. — 
Barlaam  leaches  Petrarch, 
— Leontius  lectures  on  Ho- 
mer at  Florence. 

First  comet,  whose  course  haa 
been  accurately  described. 

GUNPOWDER  in  use  at 
the  battle  of  Cressy. 

Lippo  Memmi  Giotino,  Flo- 
rentine painter. 

First  bank  at  Genoa. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


1334.    Contest  of    the   popes 
with  Louis  of  Bavaria. 


1328. Crusade  preached  again  s; 
Louis,  who  sets  up  Nicholas 
V.  as  ami- pope. 


1334.  Pope  Benedict  XII. 


1339.  Struggles  in  Rome  be- 
tween the  Colonna  and  the 
Ursini. 


1342.  Pope  Clement  VI. 


Democracy  at  Rome,    under  Rienzi,  the  last  of  the   Tri- 
bunes. 


Manufactures  improve  in 
England.  —  Commerce  in- 
creases. 

Bartolus  and  Baldus,  cele- 
brated jurists 


Merino  sheep  introduced  into 
Spain,  by  Peier  IV.  of  Ara- 
gon. 

Sir  John  Mandeville's  Tra- 
vels, the  first  English  book 
in  prose. 


1352.  Pope  Innocent  VI. 

1354.  Rienzi  killed.— Albernoz, 
cardinal  legate,  restores  the 
papal  dominion. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  A;  SPAIX. 


1322.  France :  —  C  h  a  r  I  a 

1  V.^— (the  Fair.) 

Germany  : — Frederic,  of 
.Austria  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner. 

1324.  Germany :  —  Louis  ax- 
communicated  by  John  XII 
— appeals  to  a  general  coun- 
cil. 


1328.  France  :— P  h  i  1  i  p  V I 
of  Valols.W 


1332.  France  :— The  Flemings 
revolt  and  acknowledge  Ed- 
ward III.  aa  king  01  France. 


1338.  France :- War  with  Eng- 
land. 

Germany : — Declaration 
of  tlie  Diet  of  Frankfort, 
that  the  pope  had  no  tempo- 
ral power  in  ihe  empire. 

Louis  sides  with  the 
English  against  France. 


1346.  France :  —  Normandy 
overrun  by  Edward,  with 
his  son,  the  Black  Prince.— 
French  defeated  HI  Cressy. 
Germany  : — C  h  a  r  1  e< 
IV.,  king  of" Bohemia. 

The  empire  offered   10 
Edward  III.,  who  declines. 

JL 

1350.  France  :— J  o  h  n  ,  W— 
(ihe  Good.) 


1355.  Germany  :  —  Promt  Igr 
tion  of  ihe  gulden  Bali. 

1356.  France  :— King  John  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  at 
P-itiers.— Charles  the  dau- 
phin resent. 

Insurrection  in  Paris. 


1360.  France:— John  regain* 
his  liberty— cedes  much  ter- 
ritory to  England 


1299-1453— 154  year*.— Continued.]          THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS.          817 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.  THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1320 


Disputes  and  civil  war  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  his 
son,  Michael. 


1322.  Lancaster  executed, 

1323.  Conspiracy  against  the 
km?. 


1326 
1328 


Orklian,  sultan  of  the  Turks, 
makes  Prusa  his  capital. 

Amlronic.us,  gg 

(the  younger.) 


1341 


John  Cantacuzene.  gg  — 


1343 


War  with  the  Genoese,  defeat 
of  the  Greeks  and  Venetians. 


-John  Palaeologus. 


1360 


1327.  Peace  between  Scotland 
and  England.  —  The  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  ac- 
knowledged. 

— EDW  ARD  III  .^§~ 
1329.  Scotland  :— David  11. 

1332.  Edward    invades  Scot- 
land.— lidlliol  crowned,  but 
soon  expelled. 

1333.  Battle  of  Halidon  Hill. 
— Balliol  restored — does  ho- 
mage to  Edward. 


1338.  Struggle  for  the  French 
crown, which  lasts  120  years. 


1340.  The  victory  of  Helvoet 
Sluys —  gives  spirit  to  the 
English  navy. 

"David,  of  Scotland,  in- 
vades England. 

1346.  Battle  ofCressy. 

1  )47.  Siege  and  capture  of 
Calais. 


1350.  Viciory  over  the  Spanish 
fleet.  —  Parliament  divided 
into  two  chambers,  lords 
spiritual  and  temporal. 


ia56.  Edward,  the 
Black  Prince, 
gains  the  battle  of 
Poitiers.—  John  made 
prisoner. —Two  years'  truce. 
— Edward  again  invades 
Scotland — is  obliged  to  re- 
treat. 

1358.  — again  invades  France. 


Amurath    1.,    Sultan   ol     the  <  1360.  Peace  of  Bretigni. 
Turks. 

315 


1320.  Russia :  —  The  grand 
duchy  of  Wladimir  confer- 
red on  Ivan  Uamlovitsch. 


1326.  Tartary  : — T  a  m  e  r  - 
lane    born  at  Kesh. 

1327.  Italy  :-  Invaded  by  Louis, 
emperor  of  Germany. 


1333.  Poland :  — Casimil    Che 

JL 

Great.il? 


1339.  Italy:— Simon   Bocane- 
gra,  doge  of  Genoa. 

1340.  Denmark  :  —  Waldemar 
IV.  restorer  of  the  kingdom 

1342.  Hungary  :  —  Loufs  the 
Great. 

1343.  Italy  : Commercial 

treaty   between  Venice  and 
the  sultan  of     Egypt    anil 
Syria. 

1347.  Italy:— R  ienzi,  the 
last  of  the  Tribunes,  rules 
at  Rome. 


1350.  Italy  :— Naval  war  be- 
tween Venice  and  Genoa. 

353.  Establishment  of  the  Ot- 
tomans in  Europe. 

.354.  Italy  : — Rienzi  killed— 
papal  f»wer  restored. 

1356.  First  war  between  Hur 
gary  and  Venice. 


1359.  Hungary :— Conquest  ol 
the  principalities  lying  co 
the  Danube. 


818  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  VII.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


4.D.     PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE.  GERMANY  &  SPAIN, 


Petrarch  and   Boccacio. 


Charles  V.  founds  a  college  of 
medicine  and  astrology  at 
Paris. 


Foundation  of  the  University 
c/  Vienna. 


Oeof.  Chaucer,  fat  h  er 
of  English   poetry. 


1362.  Pope  Urban  V.  at  Avig- 
non— beautifies  the  city  of 
Rome — presents  the  right 
arm  of  Thomas  Aquinas  to 
Charles  V.  of  France,  as  an 
object  of  worship. 


1370.  Pope  Gregory  IX. 


1383 


1386 


1390 
1392 


1400 


1402 


Mysteries  played  in  France. 


Wickliffe's  translation  of  the 


University     of     Heidelberg 

founded. 

Froissart't  Chronicles. 
John  Van  Eyc/e,  invented  oil 

painting  —  founder  of   the 

Flemish  school. 


The  first  mill  in  Germany  for 
the  manufacture  of  linen 
paper. 

Chaucer's  Astrolabe  written. 


Revival  of  Greek  literature  in 
Italy. 


Chaucer  dies. 


John  Guver,  English  poet. 


1378.  "  Schism  of  the  West :" 
Pope    Urban     VI.     ac- 
knowledged  in  the  empire 
and  England. 

Clement  VII.  acknow- 
ledged in  France,  Spain,  and 
Scotland. 


1389.  Pope  Boniface  IX.  at 
Rome. 

1391.  The  English  clergy  for- 
bidden to  cross  the  sea  for 
benefices. 

1394    ?ope  Benedict  XIII. 


1364.  Fr.  .-—Charles  V. 
(the  Wise.) 


1365.  War  with  Navarre—baU 
tie  of  Amoy. 


1378.  Germany: — W«  nces- 
las,  (king  of  Bohemia), 
emperor. 


1380.  Fr. :  Charles  VI. fg 
(the  Maniac). 

1382.  Battle  of  Rosbecq— the 
Flemings  defeated  — Arte- 
velde  killed. 


1386.    France  :—  Fruitless  at- 
tempt to  invade  England. 


1392.  —Charles  seized  with 
madness. 

1394.  Germany  : — The  emf  or- 
or  imprisoned  by  the  peop:.« 
of  Prague. 


1400.  Ger.:— Roberto 
(Count  Palatine). 


1299-1453  —154  years.— Continued.]          THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.          819 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


1373 


1389 


1391 


I39G 


1402 


Treaty  with  Murad,  the  Otto- 
man emperor. 


Bajazet  1.,  sultan  of  the  Turks. 


Manuel  II. 


emperor. 


Victory  of  Nicopolis. — Sigis- 
moml,  of  Hungary,  'Healed 
by  Bajazel  I. 


Bfcjazet  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Tamerlane,  at 
the  battle  of  Angora. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND. 


13C>'>.  The  Black  Prince  aids 
Peter  the  Cruel,  of  Castile, 
to  recover  his  throne. 


1369.  A  new  war  with  France ; 
unsuccessful. 


1371.  Scotland  :— Robert  II.— 

the  House  of  Stuart. 
1376.    Death   of     the    Black 

Prince. 

1377.— Richard  II.  f|f— 
First  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons. 


1378.    Fruitless   invasion    of 
France. 

Insurrection  of  Wat  Ty- 
ler. 


1382.  The  king  marries  Anne, 
daughter  of  Charles  IV. 

1384.  The  Scots,  assisted  by 
France,  invade  England. 

1385.  The  English  burn  Edin- 
burgh. 


1388.  Battle  of  Otterbourne. 

1390.  Scotland  :  Robert  III. 

Persecution  of  the  Wick- 
\\6tes. 


1398.  Henry,    of     Lancaster, 
banished. 

House  of  Lancas- 

1399.  —Henry   IV.^ — 
Richard  II.  deposed. 

1401.  Rebellion  of  Owen  Glen- 
dower,  and 

1403.  of  the  Percys,  who  are 
defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Shrewsbury. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1362.    Italy  :  —  War  betwt« 
Pisa  and  Florence. 


1369.  Tartary  :  —  Tamerlane 
makes  Samarcand  the  capi- 
tal of  his  new  empire. 

1370.  Poland  :— Extinction  ol 
the  royal  race  of  Piasts. 


1378.  Italy :— Silvester  de  Me- 
dici, gonfaloniere  of  Flo- 
rence. 


1380.  Russia :— Dimitri  Ivano- 
vitsch  victorious    over   the 
Tartars,  near  the  Don. 

1382.  The  Tartars  sack  Mw»- 
cow. 

1381.  Persia: — Invaded    by 
Tamerlane ;  Ispahan  taken. 
— Pyramids  ol  human  heads. 

1335.    War    between  Austria 

and  Switzerland. 
13S6.    Battle  of  Sempach  : — 

the  Austrians  defeated. 
1387.  Denmark  &  Norway  :— 

Margaret,  ggf the  Semi- 

ramfs  of  the  north. 
1391.  Italy:— Pisa  falls  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Visconti. 


1395.  Tamerlane  overruns 
Kif.chak  and  Russia 

1397.  Union  of  Calmar,  form- 
ing Denmark.  Sweden,  and 
Norway  into  a  single  mo- 
narchy. 

1399.  Invasion  of  India  by 
Tamerlane. 


820 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [pe>  iod  VII  -  The  Middle  Ages.- 


JL.D.     PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE,  GERMANY,  &  SPAIN 


Hodrigo,  of  Zamora.  Spanish 
historian. 

University  of  Leipsic  found- 
ed. 


Thomas  a  Kempis. 
John  Huss. 
Jerome,  of  Prague. 


First  Portuguese  colonies  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  Madei- 
ra, &c. 


George  of  Peurbach,  astrono- 
mer at  Vienna. 


Peter  d'Ailly,  theologian. 


The  arts  promoted  in  Italy  by 
Cosmo  de  Medici. 


England  increases  her  trade 
with  the  Mediterranean. 


Michael  Walhgemuth,  Ger- 
man painter,  (teacher  of 
Durer). 

Fra.  Filippo  Lippi,  painter. 


INVENTION    OF    PRINT 

ING  at  Mayence. 
John  Mdller  Regiomontanus, 

German     astronomer     and 

mathematician. 


1404.  Pope  Innocent  VII. 
1406.      "     Gregory  XII. 


1409.  The  council  of  Pisa  de- 
poses   Gregory   and    Bene- 
dict, and    elects  Alexander 
V. ; — neither  will  yield,  so 
that  there  are  three  popes  at 
once. 

1410.  Pope  John  XXIIL 


1414.  Council  of  Constance. 


1416.  John  Huss.  and  Jerome, 
of   Prague,    burnt    by    the 
Council  of  Constance. 

1417.  Pope  Martin  V. 


1407.    France  :  —  Murder  of 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans. 

Spain : — John    II.,  kuij 
of  Castile. 


1410.  Spain  : —Ferdinand,  king 
of  Arragon.  —  Yustef  III., 
king  of  Granada. 

1410.  Fr. : — Civil  war  between 
the  parties  of  Orleans  and 
Burgundy. 

Germany  :  —  Death   of 
Robert. 

1411.  S  i  g  i  s  m  u  n  d  ,  (king 

of  Hungary),^f empe- 
ror. 

1413.  France:  — The  French 
defeated  by  Henry  V.,  of 
England,  at  Agincourt. 

1416.  Spain :— Alfonzo  V.,  kinf 
of  Arragon  and  Sicily. 


1419.  Sigismund    succeeds  to 
the  Bohemian  crown. 


1422.  France  :— Death  of  Char 
les  VI  —  Henry  VI.  pro- 
claimed at  Paris  king  ol 
France  and  England. 

— Charles  Vll.flf-*— 
at  Poitiers. 

1427.  Orleans  besieged  by  (he 
English. 

1429  —saved  by  J  o  a  n  o  I 
Arc. 

Charles  crowned  at 
Rheims ;  makes  a  vain  at- 
tempt to  gain  Paris. 

1431.  Joan  of  Arc  taken  pri- 
soner and  burnt  as  a  witch. 

1431.  Germany :  — Sigismund 
visits  Italy,  and  is  crowned 
emperor  by  Pope  Eugeniat 
IV. 

1435.  Peace  of  Arras,  between 
France  and  Burgundy. 


1436.    Franre :— Recovery    of 
Paris. 

1438.   Pragmatic   sanction   of  Bruges,  estab'ishe*  the  liber 
ties  of  the  French  church. 


1429.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  at 
Avisnon,  resigns,  and  ends 
the  "  Schism  of  the  West." 


1431.  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 
Council  of  Basle. 


1299-1453 :— 154  years.— Continued  ]         THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


821 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


.40; 


Solyman    I.,    Sultan    of    the 
Turks. 


Mohammeu  I.,  Sultan  of  i 
Turks. 


Amurath  II.    Sultan    of   the 
Turks. 


John  VII. 


14:  w 


The  emperor  visits  Italy  to 
obtain  help  against  the 
Turks— submits  to  the  pope. 


1406.  Scotland  .-—James  1. 


1413.  —Henry    V  .fjj| — 

1414.  —  claims     the    French 
crown. 

1415.  —  gains    the    battle 
of    Agincourt. 


420.  Treaty  of  Troyes.-Henry 
marries  Catharine,  daughter 
of  Charles  VI.,  and  is  de- 
clared heir  to  the  French 
crown. 

422.  Death  of  Henry  V. 

— Henry    VI.^§ — 

424.  The  Duke  of  Bedford 
defeats  the  French  at  Ver- 
neuil. 

427.  — besieges  Orleans. 

429.  The  sie^e  raised  by  the 
Maid  of  Orleans. 


431.  — she  is  taken  prisoner 
and  burnt. 


435.  Death  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,    followed    by    the 
loss  of  all  the  English  pos- 
sessions in   France,  except 
Calais. 

436.  War  with  Scotland. 

437.  Scotland  :— James  II. 


1406.  Italy  :  -  Pisa  cor  quered 
by  Florei  ce.— Subjugation 
of  Padua  and  Verona  by 
Venice. 


i412.  Italy:— Sack  of  Rom« 
by  Ladislas,  king  of  Naples. 
Denmark,  Norway,  &c.  : 

Eric  VII.,  ofPomerania.flJ 
415.  Conquest  of  Ceuta,   by 

the  Portuguese. 
419.  Bohemia : — Hussite  war. 


420.    Discovery  of  Madeira 
by  the  Portuguese. 


424.  Bohemia  :-Death  of  John 
Ziska,  the  Hussite  leader. 

Italy  :— VVar  of  the  Duka 
of  Milan  against  Florence. 


429.  Florence:— Cosmo  di 
Medici,  patron  of  the 
arts  and  sciences. 


431.   Italy  :— Second  war   ot 
Venice  and  Milan. 


434.  Poland  :-Vladislas  IIL 


436.  Italy  :— Third  war    be- 
tween  Venice  and  Milan. 

437.  Portugal :  —  Expedition 
into  Africa. 

438.  Portugal :— Alfonso  V., 


822 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  VII.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.    PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ECCLESIASTICAL. 


FRANCE.  GERMANY  «k  SPAIN. 


1414 


1446 


1147 


1448 


1460 


Leonardo  da  Vinci,  sculptor, 
architect,  and  painter — dis- 
covers perspective. 


Pet.  Perugino,  founder  of  the 
Roman  school  of  painting, 
teacher  of  Raphael. 

Library  of  the  Vatican,  found- 
ed. 


The  Azores  discovered. 
Alain  Chartica,  French  poet. 


Flourishing  period  of  Flan- 
ders' trade. — All  European 
nations  have  warehouses  at 
Bruges  and  Ghent. — Book 
trade  at  JMuyence. 


let. 


1447.  Pope  Nicholas  V. 


1448.  Concordat  of  Aschaffen- 
berg,  by  which  the  liberties 
of  the  German  church  are 
compromised. 


1438.    Germany :  —  House 
of   Austria: 

—  Albert  II.©  — 
(king  of  Bohemia  and  Hun- 
gary-) 


1440.  Ger.  :-F  rede  ric  III. 


France :— The  dauphin, 
(Louis  XI.),  rebels— but  U 
pardoned. 


1444.  — establishment  of  tho 
companies  of  Archers,  tho 
first  national  standing  army. 


1446.  Germany :  —  War  with 
Hungary,  for  refusing  to 
give  up  the  young  prince, 
Vladislas. 


1451.  Expedition  of  Frederic 
to  Rome. 


1453.  Austria  made  an  hersdj- 
tary  duchy  by  Frederic. 

End  of  the  Trench  and 
English  wars. 


1299-1453.— 154  yeai  s.— Continued.]         THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


823 


EASTERN  EMPIRB. 


ENGLAND  &  SCOTLAND.          THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


14*3 


>444 


Insurrection  of  S<andeberg— 
victory  over  the  Turks  near 
Nissa. 


Battle  of  Varna  —  Vladislas, 
king  of  Poland,  defeated  and 
killed  by  the  Tarks. 


1444.  Truce  with  France.— 
Marriage  of  Henry  to  Mar- 
garet, of  Anjou. 


1447.  Gloucester  arrested  for 
treason— dies  suddenly. 


•443 


Wil 


1463 


— Constantino  X1T.  ^ 

(Palaeologus,)  the  last  of  the 
Greek  emperors. 


Mohammed  H.,  Sultan  of  the 
Turks. 


Siege  and  capture 
of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turk*: 

END  OF  THE  EAST- 
ERN EMPIRE. 


1450.  Insurrection  of  Jack 
Cade — calling  himself  Mor- 
timer. 

Civil  Wars  of 
''the  Roses:'1 

Richard,  duke  of  York, 
claims  the  throne. 


Scotland :— Struggles  be- 
tween the  king  and  aristo- 
cracy for  power. 


1440.  Hungary :  —  v;adi»U« 
chosen  kmg.figf — 

1441.  Italy  :-  Peace  oi  Marti 
nego. 

1443.  Alfonso  V.,  of  Arragon, 
unites  the  crown  oi  the  Two 
Sicilies. 


1445.  Poland  :  Casimir  IV  l£ 

1446.  Tartary  :  —  Ulugh  Beg, 
patron    of    astronomy  and 
geography. 


1448.  Denmark  :— Christian  L 
of  Odenburg.^g 

Sweden :— Charles  VHI.^ff 

1450.  Italy  :— Francesco  Sfor- 
za,  duke  of  Milan. 

Norway  : Christian 

crowned  at  'Drontheim.^g 

Delhi :— Behol  Lodi  en- 
larges (he  kingdom. 
1453.   Poland : —Confirmation 
of  the  national  liberty  in  th* 
Diet  of  Petrikan. 


824 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PERIOD  VIII.— 1453-1598.- 


*  0. 

PRJGRESIS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOTLAND. 

FRANCS. 

SPAIN  AND 
PORTUGAL. 

Philip  de    Comines,  French 

1464.  Spain  :  — 

historian. 

Henry  IV.  ol 

1455.  Battle  of 

St.  Albans. 

Castile,  'pgr 

U6C 

Wood  engraving  invented. 

House 

of    York: 

1460.       lames 

1461.  —  Ed- 

HI. 

1461.  Louis 

U04 

Post-  Offices  in    France    and 

ward  IV 

1169.  Marriage 
ofFerdinand, 

England. 

fa  —  gains 

Civil  war.—  :     of   Arrasoni 

the  battle  of 

—  Peace     o 

with  Isabel- 

Towton. 

Conflans. 

la,    of   Cas- 

i4G6 

Faust  dies  at  Paris,  whither 

tile. 

.u  journeys  twice  to  sell  fits 

Latin  Bible. 

170 

Beerhard  invents  the  pedal  to 

the  organ. 

1469.Warwick 

171 

Printing  in  England—  Cox- 

banished. 

ton. 

' 

1471.  Battle  of 

Barnet  :  

173 

Printed  musical  notes. 

Warwick 

Hungary  :—  Mathias  patroni- 

slain —  Hen- 

zes literature  and  the  arts. 

ry  VI.  dies  in 

Large    library  at    Ofen—  300 
copyists  of  manuscripts. 

the  Tower. 

1175.  War  be- 
tween Louis 

and  Charles 

170 

German  ballads—  war  songs  of 

1483.  Ed- 

of    Burgun- 
dy 

Veil  Weber. 

ward    V  . 

1479.  War  with 

1476.  —who  is 

1479.   Union 

XM 

England  .  — 

defeated     at 

o  f  Castile 

477 
t 

491 

Watches  first  made  at  Nurem- 
'  burg. 
Mikrond  and  Rondemir,  great 
Persian  historians. 

Lady  Juliana  Berners,  one  of 
the  earliest  female  writers 
of  England. 

Richard, 
Protector.  ~ 
The  kin?  <fe 
his    brother 
murdered  in 
the  Tower. 

—Rich- 
ard   III. 

Conspiracy 
of    the    no- 
bles ;  —  they 
take  the  king 
prisoner. 

Granson  anil 
Moral,  and 
1477.  —  slain  at 
Nancy.  
Artois     and 
Burgundy 
united  to  the 
French 
crown. 

and   A  r  r  a  - 
gon    under 
Fe  rd  inand 
1  1  .  and  Isa- 
bella. 
1480.  T  h  e  I  n  - 
q  u  i  R  i  t  i  o  n  . 
—  X  i  m  e 
n  e  s  ,  bishoj: 
of  Toledo. 

(fi^» 

1481.   Port.  :  

I  fans  Holbein,  painter. 

es  

461 

Franchino  Gafurid,  teacher  in 
the    first  public   school   of 
music  at  Milan. 

1485.   -Henrv, 
earl  of  Rich- 
mond, lands 
at      Mil  ford 

1483.-Char- 
les  VIII. 

John  II.  @ 

1484.  First  au 
da-fe  at   S« 

viMc, 

Haven. 

V1H& 

Josquin  de  Prez,  greatest  mu- 
sical genius  of  his  age. 

Battle 

0  f    B    0    8- 

worth 

Field: 

Richard 

defeated  and 

slain. 

THE  WORLD'S  PROOKESS. 
y,kman  to  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 


825 


A.D. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 

EMPIRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1454.  Strugg  e 

1454.  Poland  :—  War  with  the 

between  Cos- 

1455.  Turk*  re- 

Teutonic Order. 

mod  da  Me- 

pulsed at  Bel- 

dici and  the 

grade. 

aristocracy. 

1458.  The 

1458.    Hui.^ary  :  Malhiu 

French  rule 

in  Genoa. 

Corvin.ffijg  .nakes  hi* 

1162 

The  emperor  besieged  in  his 

Pope  Pi- 

country  formidable    to  tjU 

court  dt  Vienna  —  delivered 
by  G.  Podiebrad,  of  Bohe- 
mia. 

us  II. 
1463.    War  of 
Venice  with 

the  Turks. 

neighbors. 
1462.  Russia:  —  Ivan  1  f^B  — 

1464.  Pietrode 

the  Great—  takes  the  title  if 
Czar. 

Medici   at 

Florence. 
Pope  Paul 

14G4.  War  with 
Hungary. 

14G6.  Peace  of  Thorn.—  East 
Prussia  a  fief  of  Poland.— 

11. 

1406.    Galeaz- 

West  Prussia  ceded  to  Po- 
land. 

zo,  duke   of 

1468.  Uzun  Hasan,  master  of 

Milan. 

all  Persia. 

1469 

Invasions  of  the  Turks. 

1469.  Loren- 

1472 

University  of  Ingoldstodt. 

zo  de  Me- 
dici,   suc- 
ceeds Pietro. 
1471.      Sixtus 
IV.  pope. 
Power  of 
the     Medici 
increases. 
Learning 
flourishes. 

of     Burgu.i 

1470.  —  forms  an  alliance  with 
the  Venetians  and  the  duke 
dy    against    (he    Turks—  con- 
quers liasdad. 
1472.    Russia  :  —  Ivan   marries 
Sophia,  niece  of  the  Greek 
emperor. 
1474.  —  shakes  off  the   Tartai 
yoke,   and  captures   Novo- 
gorod. 

.477 

Marriage  of  Maximilian  and 

Maria  of  Burgundy. 

1478.    Conspi- 
racy of   the 

1477.    Hungry  —  War    with 
Frederic  III. 

, 

Pazzi  at  Flo- 
rence.— Giu- 

1479.  Fruitless 

. 

lio,    brother 
of    Lorenzo 

attempt  upon 
Rhoaes. 

de     Medici, 

slain. 

1480.  -capture 

and   destroy 

— 

O'ranto. 

in 

1481.     tiajazel 

Sweden. 

\ 

the  first  un- 

warlike  sul- 

tan. 

1484.  Innocent 
VIII.,  pope. 

1488.    Hungary:  Mathias 
takes  Vienna. 

826 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period   V11L— 


i.e. 

PKOORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOT- 
LAND. 

FRANCE. 

SPAIN  A.NB 
POKTUOAL. 

House      of 

Tudor:— 

—Henry  VII. 

1486.    Imposture    of 

1490 

Martini     Behaim,    (Nuretn- 

Lambert  Svmnel. 

1487  :  — 

burg,)  publishes  a  map  of 

The  Star  Cham- 

James 

the  world. 

ber  established. 

IV. 

1491.     Bretag- 

ne  united  to 

[492 

DISCOVERY      OF 

the      crown 

1492.     Con 

AMERICA. 

by  the  king's 

quest    > 

marriage 

Granada. 

1493 

First  printing  press  at  Copen- 

1493.   Perkin    War- 

with  Anne. 

by    Gimzale 

hagen. 

beck,   pretends  to 

de  Cordova. 

be  Richard,  duke 

1494.  Invasion 

Discovery 

The  second  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus. —  A   Spanish  colony  at 

of  York  —  defeated 
on  Blackheaih. 

of  Italy. 

o  f  A  me  r  i- 

ca,  by  Co- 

Hispaniola. 

lumbus  . 

1497 

The  discoveries  of  John  and 

1497.    Cabot    makes 

1498.—  Louis 

1498.    Vasco 

•8 

Sebastian  .Cabot. 

discoveries  in   A- 

J9 

d  e  G  a  m  a 

merica.       —  —  ,,- 

XII  .&— 

doubles    the 

1498 

Third  voyage  of  Columbus. 

•  Cape    of 

He  discovers  Trinidad  and 

1499.      Earl      of 

1499.  in- 

Good Hope. 

the  Continent. 

Warwick,  last 

vades    Italy 

and   reaches 

Lisbon,  the  great  seat  of  trade. 

of   the     Planiage- 

—  conquers 

India. 

—  Venice  declines. 

nets,  executed. 

the  Milanese 

Maritime  enterprises  greatly 
extended. 

Duchy. 

Sir  Thomas  Mare's  Utopia, 

published. 
Nicholas  Machiavelli,  states- 

1500.     Treaiy 
with    Ferdi- 

man and  historian. 

nand,  of  Ara- 

1499 

Amerigo  Vespucius's  voyase. 
Fourth  voyage  nf  Columbia. 
Raphael.  Michael  Angela,  Ti- 

gnn, for  the 
conquest  and 
partition    of 

1506.     Colurr- 

tian,  Corregio,  painters. 

1503.:  — 

Naples. 

bus   dies   ai 

James 

Valladolid. 

St.  Peter's,  and  other  magni- 

marries 

1507.  Cardinal 

ficent  churches  built. 

1509.    H  e  n  r  y 

Marga- 

Ximenes 

ft 

ret,  of 

Board  oi 

viii  .^jjy  —  — 

Brig- 

1510. The 

American 

and. 

Council     of 

trade  at  Se- 

joins the    League 

Tours,  to 

ville. 

of  Cambray. 

support  the 

i515 

The  cele'  rated  tapestry,  after 

1513.  Invasion  of  the 
Scots.  —  Battle  of 

king  against 
the    Hoiy 

Raphael  ;  —  Cartoons  woven 

Flodden  —  the  king 

League. 

in  the  Netherlands. 

and     chief    Scots 

killed. 

1513.  :  — 

1517 

LUTHER,  Erasmus, 

1515.      W  o  1  s  e  y  , 

James 

515.  —  Fran  - 

Melancthon  ,  and  other 

chancellor  and  car- 

V. 

reformers. 

dinal. 

ci  s  I  -as  —  - 

Roger  Ascham,  tutor  of  queen 

1520.  The  Emperor 

—  invades 

Elizabeth. 
Hans  Sachs,  founder  of  Ger- 
man drama. 

visits  England.  — 
Meeiing  of  Henry 
and  Francis  at  the 

taly  —  victory 
of  Marigna- 
no  —  Genoa 

1516.—  Char 

•'Field  of  the  Cloth 

and      Milan 

£JX» 

Copernicus,    discovers 
the  true  system  of  the  Uni- 
verse —  his  great  work,  De 
Orbium  Ccelestium  Revolu- 

tiombus. 

of  Gold." 
1521.  The  Reformed 
doctrines  opposed 
by   Henry,  in   his 
book  i  n  the  Seven 
SacraMents  —  he 

submit. 
516.    Concor- 
dat with  the 
pope.insiead 
ol    pragma- 
tic sanction. 

king  ol    all 
Spain,  and 
the    Nether- 
lands. 
1519.     Con 

1522 

Firs.t    complete  circumnavi- 
gation of  the  globe,  by  Ma- 
gellan 

receives  the    title 
of   "  Defender   of 
the  Faith." 

521.  First  war 
with     Char- 
les V. 

quest    o  I 
Mexico 
by  C  o  i  c  e  s  . 

1453-1598.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


827 


i.D. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  WOULD,  elsewhere. 

1438.   India  :—  Sekander  Lodi, 

king  of  Delhi. 

1492.   Poland:—  John   Albert. 

AMERICA  discovered  by  Co- 

lumbus. 

1492.  Pietro  II. 

succeeds  his 

father.     Lo- 

<* 

renzo,  in  Flo- 

14*; 

--Maximilian   I  .ffig  — 

rence. 

1493.  Wars 

1493.  Spanish  colony  at  Ilia 

Pope  Alex- 

with Egypt, 

paniola. 

ander  VI., 

Hungary, 

(Borsia.) 

and  Venice. 

1494.    Expedi- 

tion ol  Char- 

les VIII.  in- 

to Italy. 

1499.  Voyage  of  Amerigo  Ves- 

1499.  Amerigo 

pucius.  —  South  American 

Vespucius's 

coast  explored. 

voyage       to 

America. 

1500.  Partition 

4, 

of  Naples 

ISOl.Polaiul  :  —  Alexander.  |§g 

between 

France    and 

Spain. 

1502.  Ismail  Shah  Sooftrnakea 

160&.  Florence: 

Machiuvetli, 
Secretary  ol 

1503.  Peace 
with  Venice. 

himself  sole    sovereign    of 
Persia. 

502 

University  of  Wittenburg. 

Slate. 
1503.     Naples 

1505.  War  with 

annexed     to 

i  eisia. 

the  Spanish 

1506.    Poland  :—  Sigismund  I. 

Pope  Pius 
III. 

1512.  Selim  I., 

$H  (the  Great.) 

.508 
1512 

Maximilian  enters  Italy  to  be 
crowned  by  the  pope, 
—joins  the  League  of  Cam- 
bray. 
—  divides  the  empire  into  ten 
circles. 

Pope  Ju- 
lius II. 
1508.    League 
of  Cambray 

against    Ve- 
nice. 

thrones   arid 
puts  to  death 
his  father. 
1514.  The  Per- 
sians defeat- 

1509. Bohemia:  —  Louis,f|g  — 
3  years  old. 
1510.    America:  —  Settlement 

1510.  Holy 

ed  at  Kalde- 

at  Darien. 

League     to 

roon.  —  Me- 

.511. America  :  —  Cuba  con- 

expel the 
French. 

sopotamia 
and  Kurdis- 

quered. 
:512.  America:  —  Florida 

1511.    Council 

tan  added  to 

discovered. 

of  Pisa. 
1513.  Pope 

the  empire. 
1516.  Cairo 

1513.  South  Sea  first  reached 
by  Balboa. 

LEO    X  . 

taken  by 

1517 

COMMENCEMENT  OF 

(de  Medici.) 
patron  of  li- 

siorm. —  Ma- 
meluke   do- 

1516. Hungary  and  Bohemia  : 

1518 

THE     RSFORMATION. 

Luther  summoned  before  the 

terature  and 
arts. 

minions  an- 
nexed to  the 

—  Louis  II.  ^ff  

diet  of  Augsburg. 

The  build- 
ing   of    St. 

empire. 
1520.  Soliman, 

1517.    India  :  —  Ibrahim    Lodk 
king  ol  Delhi 

1519 

—  •CHARLES    V  .f§?  — 

Peter's  com- 

iJift 

1517.  America:  —  First  patem 

1«1 

of  Spain. 
The  archduke  Ferdinand,  mar- 

menced. 
1519.  Cardinal 

Magnificent.) 

for     importing    Kegroes~ 
granted  by  Spain. 

ries  Anne,  sister  ol  Louis  — 

de  Medici 

1521."  Belgrade 

1518.  Corsairs  in  Algiers. 

whence    the    accession    of 
Bohemia  ar.d  Hungary    to 
the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

holds  rule  in 
Florence. 
1522.  Pope 

tak:n  by 
stnrm. 
1522.     Rhodes 

1519.  MEXICO  conquered  bj 
the  Spaniards,   under  Co* 
tes. 

Diet  of  Worms. 

Adrian  VI. 

capitulates. 

S28 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


[1  eriod  VIII.— 


I.D 

PROSRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOT- 
LAND. 

FRANCE. 

-» 
SPAIN  AND 
PORTUGAL. 

Xavier  plants  Christianity  in 

India. 

Ariosto,  Italian  poet. 

1525.     Franci 

defeated  am 

taken    pri- 

soner at  Pa 

via. 

1527 

Albert  Durer. 

1527.  Second 

F.rst  work  on  military  archi- 

war   with 

tecture. 

Charles  V. 

1529.    Sir    Thomas 

1529.  Treaty  o 

More,  Lord  Chan- 

Cambray. — 

cellor.  —  Rise  o 

Great   en- 

Cranmer,  archbi- 

couragemen 

1530 

Jorgens  invents  the  spinning 

shop    of    Canter- 

given loans 

wheel  for  spinning  flax. 

bury. 

and  sciences. 

Rabelais,  French  humorist. 

—The   Lou- 

vre   com- 

menced. 

15^2.  The  king  mar- 

532.   Calvin 

ries  Anne  Boleyn. 

preaches. 

1533 

Botanic  Gardens  at  Padua. 

Third 

French  war. 

—  Siege    of 

Marseilles. 

530 

Ignatius  Loyola  founds  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits. 

1535.  Bishop  Fisher 
and    Sir    Thomas 
More  beheaded. 

Henry  excom- 

municated by  the 

333 

633 

Papal  bull  declaring  the  Ame- 
•  rican  natives  to  be  rational 
beings. 
The  diving  bell  invented. 

Pope 
.536.  —  marries  Jane 
Seymour.  —  Sup- 
pression   of     the 
smaller    monaste- 

536. :  — 
Spread 
of  the 
lefor- 
nation. 

538.  Truce  ol 
Nice—  lor  10 

536.  ACCUJSI 
tion  of'  Mi 
Ian. 

CALVIN  founds  the  Univer- 
sity of  Geneva. 
Pins  first  used  by  Catharine 
Howard,  queer;  of  England. 
John  Knox,  Scottish   Relbr- 

ries. 

—  Pro- 

estants 
persecu- 
ed. 

years. 
Attempt  to 
recover  pow- 
er in  Italy  ; 
hence  the 

540.   Portu- 
gal :  —  Lis- 
bon,the  mar 
ket   of     ths 

world. 

A  jommercial  treaty  between 
Portugal  and  Japan. 

543    Henry  invades 
France  takes 

542.  :  — 
Mary  . 

542.  Fourth 
French  war. 

542.    Com- 
mercial trea- 
ty    between 

Boulogne. 

—  BB  — 

Portugal  Hid 

544.     French     fleet 

Jan  of 

544.  Peace  of 

Japan. 

Mi' 

Veedles  first  made. 
Vasalius's  work  on  Anatomy. 

gain  a  victory  over 
the    English,     off 
the  Isle  of  Wight, 

irran, 
egent. 

Crespy. 
France  gives 
up  Italy. 

51; 

levival  of  Stoicism,  by  Justus 

547.  —  Edward 

547.  Henry 

Lipsius. 
'alestrina,  founder  of  Italian 
church  music. 

Somerset  invades 
Scotland  —  defeats 

The    fa- 
lous  Catha- 

Giacomo Carisimi. 

the  Scots  at  Pin- 

rine     de 

kie. 

Medici, 

*ki 

Orange  trees  introduced  into 
Europe. 

Formal     esta- 
blishment of  Pro- 

queen. 

testantism. 

1453-1598.J 


THE    WORLDS    PRCGRESS. 


A.O 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE   WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1523.  Clemen 

1523.  Sweden  :—  Revolt  under 

VII.,  pope. 

Gtistavus  Vasa  .  —  Tho 

Danes  expelled.  —  Union  of 

Calmar  dissolved. 

Denmark  and  Norway  • 

—Frederic  I.gg  

1625 

General   insurrections  of  the 

1525.  Spain  ac- 

1525. Albert,  duke  of  Prussia 

peasantry,    under    Thomas 

quires      the 

Miinzer. 

ascendency 

by  the  victo- 

ry of  Pavia. 

/52G 

Charles  marries  Isabella,   of 

1526.  Invasion 

Portugal. 

of  Hungary 

Death  ol  Frederic,  of  Saxony. 

1527.  The  Me- 

dici expelled 

ir,29 

The  Turks  invade  Germany. 
—  Diet  of  Spires.  —  Luther- 

from   Flo- 
rence. 

1529.  Invasion 
olGermany 

ans  first  called  Protestants. 

—  Siege      o 

League  of  Smalcald. 

1530.  Medici 

Vienna. 
The  Otto- 

1530.    Malta    giver     to    ihe 

restored.  — 
Charles     V. 

man     navy 
formidable 

knights  of  Rhode; 

crowned    at 

under    the 

Bologna. 

command  01 
Burbarossa  : 

1532.  Union  of  Norway  and 
Denmark. 

1533.   Conquest   of   P  e  • 

.r  u  ,    by  Cortes. 

1534.  Paul  III., 

pope. 

1535.  —who 

Russia  :—  Ivan  IV.,  (the 
Terrible). 

seizes     Tu- 

nis. —  The 

emperor, 

Charles    V., 

1536.  Cortes  discovers  Califor- 

restores   the 

nia. 

1537.    Cosmo 

Moorish 

de     Medici, 

king. 

1538 

Congress  of  Nice  between  the 

duke  of  Tus- 

Emperor, the  Pope,  and  the 
king  of  France. 

cany. 
540.     Investi- 

ture of  Mi- 

lan    confer- 

red by  Char- 

'.es    V.     on 

541.  Destruc- 

Philip. 

tion  of  an  ar- 

M3 

War  in  alliance  with  England 

mament,  led 
by     Charles 

543.  First  standing  army  in 
Sweden. 

against  France. 

V.      agairst 
Algiers. 

1545 

Diet  of  Worms. 

.645.    Council 

545.  South  America:  —  Mine* 

164(5 

War  of  the  Smalcaldista. 

of  Trent. 

of  Potosi  discovered. 

(647 

Duke  Maurice,  elector  of  Saxo- 

547. The 
Turks    in- 

ny. 

vade  Persia, 

and  capture 

Ispahan. 

548.  Poland  :—  Sigismmul  II. 

BS  (A  Jgustus). 

830 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  F///.. 


M, 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOT. 

LAND. 

FRANOB. 

SPAIN  AND 
PORTUGAL. 

Scatiger,  Philologist. 

1549.   The    English 

ifturgy    comple 

led  and  establish 

Montaigne,  French  Essayist. 

ed  by  act  of  Par 
llament 

1552.  Fifth  war 
with    Char 

1533.     Northurnoer 

les  V. 

land   intrigues    to 

settle  (he  crown  on 

Lady  Jane    Grey 

his      daughter-in 

law. 

—  Mary  .^g— 

Catholicism  re- 

stored. 

1554.     The      queen 
marries  Philip,  oi 
Spain.  —  Lord  Dud- 
ley and  Lai  ly  Jane 
Grey  executed. 

1554.    Cerent, 
in  India,  lost. 
556.  Charles 
abdicates  — 

1555.    Bloody  perse- 
cution of  Protes- 

Philip n.& 

m 

Cardan,  Italian  philosopher. 

Sealing  wax  comes  into  use 
in  Europe. 

tant*. 

1557.    War  with 
France  to  support 
Spain.—  Calais 
lost. 
1558.  —  ELIZA- 

1560.  Ca- 
holic- 
siu  abo- 
ished 
)y    par- 

1557.  The 
?rench  defeat- 
ed at  St. 

iili'Iilln. 

358.  —  at  Gra- 
velines. 

557.    Portu- 
gal :  —  Sebas- 

£an 

559.  Peace  01 

BETH.    'gjf  

lament. 

Chateau  — 

Foundation  of  Jesuit  Colleges 

Vlary 

Cambresis. 

in   opposition  to  Protesiant 
Schools.    The  first  at    Co- 
imbra,  in  Portugal. 

Cecil,    Lord 

Burleigh,  Secreta- 

narries 
..ord 
>arn- 

F  r  a  n  c  i  s 

tary  of  Slate. 

ey. 

•  sa 

oO'J 

Only  two  carriages  in  Paris- 
horses  and  litters  generally 
used. 

Protestantism 
established. 
The  Puritans 
begin  to  rise. 

565.  :  — 
levolt 
of  Pro- 
estants  . 
567.  :  — 

Duke    of 
Guise,  min- 
ister. 
560.—  Char- 

50ii 

SnuflTfirst  brought  into  France. 

)arnley 
murde  I'- 

lesIX.9 

—  Knives  first  made  in  Eng- 
land. 

d—i  he 
ueen 
names 
arl  of 

562.  Religious 
liberty  grant- 
d  10  the  Hu- 

564. Acquisi- 
tion   of   th« 
Philippines. 

Both- 

guenots. 

well  —  is 

First  civil 

ethron- 

eligious    war 

Torquato     Tasso     Ghiarini, 

d   and 
mpri- 
oned  at 
.iochle- 

—  Huguenots 
upported    by 
England  —  de 
ieated  at 
)  re  u  x 

567.  Duke  ol 
Alva,  gover- 
nor   of    the 
Netherlands. 

poets. 

en. 

5(57.   The  se- 

a m  e  s 

cond  war.— 

Huguenots 

f  |  tig} 

defeated     at 

Camoent,  Portuguese  poet. 

1568.  —  Mary,  queen 

St.  Denys. 

of  Scots,  takes  re- 

fuse in  England— 

and  is  imprisoned. 

569.  —  routed 

Thomas  Tallit,  English  mu- 
sician. 

1570.  Civil   wars  of 
the   Desmonds   in 
in  Ireland. 

570.  :— 
,ennox  , 
'egent. 

at  Jarnac.  — 
C  o  n  d  e 
killed. 

i70.    War 
wi'h  the 

Turks.—  Na- 

val   victorj 

at  Lepaata 

^453-1598.] 


THE    WORLD  S     PROGRESS. 


831 


».D. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  W  >RLD,  elsewhere. 

1550.  Julius 

1361 

Treaty  of  Passau  secures  reli- 

III., pope. 

1551.     Tripoli 

gious   liberty  to  the  Protes- 

taken   from 

tants. 

the   Maltese 

Fruitless  siege  of  Mentz. 

knights. 

1552.  Invasion 

of  Hungary. 

* 

1553.  War  with 

1553.  >ew  Mexico  diaccYwad 

Persia. 
Building  of 

by  t'  ie  Spaniards. 

the   mosque 

of  Solyman- 

yah,  at  Con- 

stantinople. 

1555.    Marcel- 

1556 

Charles  abdicates. 

lusll.,  pope. 

14M.   India:—  Jelaleddin    Ak- 

Paul  IV., 

>ar,  a  patron  of  science  and 

(Caraffa) 

iterattire,  aided  by  his  min- 

rope. 

isters,  Abu  Fazl  and  Sheikh 

Faizi. 

—  raises  the  Mogul  em 

pire  to  its  greatest  splendor. 

)&58 

—  Ferdinand   I  .wj  — 

king  of  Hungary  and  Bohe- 

mia. 

Coronation  by  the  pope  relin- 

quished. 

1559.  Pius  IV. 

1559.    Naval 

1559.  Denmark  and  Norway 

(Medici) 

victory   of 

Jl 

pope. 

Galves,  gain- 

—Frederic II.  ^g  

Peace  of 

ed  by    Dra- 

Chateau    — 

gut. 

Decrease  of  the  influence 

Cambresis 

Military 

of  the  Hanse  townu. 

terminates 

power  if 

•£. 

the    French 

the  Turks  at 

1560.  Sweden  :—  Eric  XIV.  fj§ 

IsM 

—  M  aximilian  II.  *j§  — 

wars  in  Italy. 
Tranquil- 
lity for  66 

its     greatest 
height,     un 
derSoliman. 

years. 

1562.    Council 

1562.   War  with   Russia  and 

of  Trent  re- 

1565.    Unsuc- 

Poland.— An     Ftigi^sh    am- 

assembled. 

cessful  siege 

bassador  in  Pewia. 

1566.  Pius  V., 

of  Malta. 
1566.  Death  of 

1564.  Coligny  gtnds  a  colony 
of  Husuenotp  to  Florida  — 

pope. 
15C9.  Florence, 

Soliman    at 
tho  siege  of 

destroyed  by  the  Spaniards. 
[568.  Prussia:  —  Alber'  Frede 

a  grand  du- 

Sigeih. 

<» 

chy 

'  Selim  II. 

lie  ?B?  

Cosmo 

ft 

<» 

d  e    M  c  (1  i  - 

as  — 

Sweden:-  John  I'l.ggf  - 

C  i  ,  declared 

grand    duke 

of  Tuscany, 

by  Pius  V. 

1570.    War  of 

Venice      with 

.270   Peace  ol  Stetin,  between 

the  Porte. 

Denmark,      Norway,      and 

1571.    Cyprm 

reduced  by  the 
Turks. 
Battle  of 

Sweden. 
157  1    Russia  devastated  by  th« 
khan  of   Crim    Tartary.- 

Lepanto.             Moccow  burnt. 

832 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


\Pe>iod 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

ENGLAND. 

SCOT- 
LAND. 

FRAKOE. 

SPAIN  ANB 
PORTUGAL. 

1572.  Massacre 

of  St.    Bar- 

tholomew. 

1573 

Cervantes,    author    of    Don 

1573.  Peace  ol 

Quixotte. 

Rochelle. 

Titian,  and  Paolo  Veronese, 

painters.     . 

1574.  —Hen- 

ry HI.  |f 

Fifth  war 

with   the   II  u- 

suenots. 

1576.  The   Ca- 

tholic 

League. 

1677 

Sir  Francis  Drake's  voyage 
round  the  world. 

1578.    The     queen 

1577.  Sixth  re- 
ligious war. 

(578.  Port  :— 

sends  help  to  the 

revolted  Nether- 

Henrv ^w- 

Sir  Philip  Sydney's  Arcadia. 

lands. 

' 

1580.  Portugal 

1581.  :— 

falls     uiulei 

Gow- 

Spanish  do- 

1582 

Gregorian  Reformation  of  the 

rie's 

minion. 

Calendar. 

1583.  Levant    Com- 

conspi- 

pany chartered. 

racy 

1584.  Raleigh's  co- 
lony in  Virginia. 

against 
the  king. 

1585 

Greenland  discovered  by  Sir 

1585.   War  with 

Francis  Drake. 

Spain. 

1586 

Tobacco  first  brought  to  Eu- 
rope. 

1586.  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  killed  at 

Zutphen. 

1587.  The  Queen  of 

1588 

First  newspaper  in  England. 

Scots  beheaded. 
1588.    The    Spanish 
armada  destroyed. 

1588.  Revolt  of 
Paris. 

1588.  Defeat  of 
the  Spanish 

1589.  Alliance  with 
Henry  II.  in  aid 
of  Protestantism. 
—  Troops  sent  to 
France. 

1589.    House 
of     Bour- 
bon : 

—II  E  N  R  Y 

armada. 
1589     English 
volunteers 
umler  Drake 
and   N  orris, 

^Jjla 

repulsed 

I  V  .  THf 

from  Lisbon. 

1690 

Telescopes  invented  by  Jan- 

1590.  :— 

159U.  Sie^e  of 

sen,  a  German. 

The 

Paris,  raised 

cing 

by  the  Spa- 

Tajso, Italian  poet. 
The  Carnicci,  celebrated  pain- 

1593. Act  for  reli- 
gious conformity. 

names 
Anne,  Of 
l)eu- 

niards. 
1593.    Henry 
abjures      Pro- 

ters. 

In   England  :  —  Spenser, 
SHAKSPEARE,  Bnau- 

1594.  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins's Voyages. 

nurk,. 

testantism. 
1594.    Jesuits 
banished. 
1595.  War  with 

•mnnl  &  Fletcher,  Ben  Jon- 
son.  —  Adapter  invents  loga- 
rithms. 

Lord  BACON,  celebrated  phi- 

1596.   Cadiz    taken, 
and    the    Spanish 
fleet  burnt,  by  the 
earl  of  Essex. 
Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
minister. 

Spain     con- 
tinued. 
1598    Peace  Df 
Vervius. 
Ministry  of 
Sully:  — 

1593.   Phi  p 

losopher. 

restoration 
of  order. 

Lope  de    Vega,  dramas   and 
novels. 

Kepler,  Tycho  Brahe,  astro- 
nomers. 

1599.  Troubles  in 
Ireland  :  —  Revolt 
of  O'Neill,  earl  of 
Tyrone. 

EDICT  OP 
NANTES 
—  granting 
toleration  to 

Protestants. 

1453-1598.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


A.D. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere 

1572.   Gregory 

XIII.,  pope. 

1573.     Cyprus 

yielded      to 

the      Porte  ; 

peace  with  Ve- 

1574 Florence: 
—  Frances  Ma- 

nice. 
1574.  —  Murad 

1574  Poland  :—  Henry,  of  Va 

ria  succeeds 

j4 

lois.  ff|?  

Cosmo. 

III.  ^§f  

1575    Poland  :—  Stephen    Ba- 

1676 

Rodolph    II.©  — 

1576.  War  with 

thori.^g  — 

king  of  Bohemia  and  Hun- 

Persia. 

gary. 

1578.  Alliance  of  Sweden  and 

Poland  against  Russia. 

1:379.  Commencement 

ofthe    Republic    of 

1580.    Charles 

I580.Warwith 

HOLLAND,  by  the   union 

Emmanuel, 

the     Druses 

at  Utrecht: 

duke  of  Sa- 

in Syria. 

William,   Prince 

voy. 

of     Orange,    stadthol- 

1583.   First 

der. 

trade  with 

England. 

1584.  North   America: 

—  First  English  colony  found- 

ed  in  Virginia,  by  Sir  W. 

Raleigh. 

1585.   Sixtus 

1585.    Persia  acquires  power 

V.,pope, 

under  Abbas  the  Great. 

The  imperial  authority  disre- 
garded by  the  princes  of  the 
empire,     who     wage    war 
among  the  uselves. 

active    and 
energetic  — 
corrects 
abuses  in 
the  church  ; 

Holland  :  —  Maurice,  of 
Orange,  stadtholder. 
1586.  Battle  of  Ziuphen:  death 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

restores    the 

1589.  Predato- 

1588.  Denmark  :  —  Christian 

Vatican     li- 

ry incur- 

f':*.. 

brary. 

sions  of  the 

IV.  <jggf  

Cossacks. 

Revolt  of 

the    Janiza- 

ries. 

1593.  War  with 

the    Empire 

1590.  Urban 

in  Hungary. 

VII.,  pope. 

1594.  The"     ' 

1592.   Sweden  :  —  Sigismund, 

Gregory 

Grand    Vi- 

king of  Poland. 

XIV.,  pope. 

zier  takes 

India:  —  Mizam  Shah,  re 

1591.  Innocent 

Raab. 

pulsed  from  Choul,  by  tha 

IX.,  pope, 

1595.  Moham- 

Portuguese. 

two  months. 

*&,. 

1594.  The  Falkland  Isles  dis- 

1W4 

Union  of  Protestants  at  Heil- 
bronn. 

Clement 
VIII.,  pope. 
1592.    The  Ri- 
al to  and  Pi- 

med  III.  W 
Turkish 
power  in 
Hungary  de- 

covered by  Hawkins. 
1595.  The  Dutch  first  in  Indi*. 
Sweden  :  —  The  regent  a« 
sumes    independent  autli> 

'  azza  di  San 

clines  ;     de- 

rity. 

Marco  built 

feated  at 

at  Venice. 

Gran  —  re- 

volt of  Wal- 

lachia. 

1598.   Russia:  —  Boris    Godu 

1597.   Moham- 

*&« 

med  leads  his 

nov,B§f  begir.6  a  n>iw 

troops,  and 

dynasty. 

defeats   the 

Sigismund  lands  in  Swe 

Germans  at 

den,  to  re-establish  his  pow 

Agria. 

er  —  but  is  defeated,  and  r« 

turns  to  Poland. 

834 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

PERIOD  IX.— 120  vears.- 


A  I). 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

ENGLAND. 

FRANCE. 

"US 

English  East   India    Compa- 

1601.  Earl  of  Essex  be- 
headed. 

ny  four*de\_ 

^t 

1603.—  James    I  ,<gf  — 

Union    of    L  h  e 

Exportation  o    English  wool 
prohibited. 

1604.—  Acadia   co- 
lonized    by    the 

English     and 
Scotch     crowns. 

French. 

1603 
1604 

Conference  at  Hampton  Court. 
New   Translation  of  t/ie  Bi- 

1605.   The     Gunpowder 
Plot. 

I  GOO 

ble  hegun;  (published  1611). 
Dr.  Gilbert  discovers  the  pow- 
er of  electricity,  and  of  con- 

1606. —  Discovery 
of  Hudson's  Bay. 

ductors  and  non-conductors. 

1607.—  E  n  g  1  i  s  h 

settlement  at 

Jamestown, 

(1st     permanent 

one  in  N.  Ame- 

rica.) 

1608.  —Quebec 

founded. 

1609.  —  Jesuit   mis- 

1610 

Telescopes  invented  by  Gali- 

sions    in    Para- 

1610.   Assassi- 

leo. 

guay. 

1612.  English  factories  at 
Surat. 

nation  of 
Henry    IV., 
by     Ravail- 

lac. 

L  o  u  i  a 

1615 

Coffee  at  Venice. 

XIII,  .@ 

1610 

7'obacco  in  Virginia. 

1616.—  The  Tobac- 

1616. Ministry  of  Villiers, 

(9  years  old). 

Bacon's    Inductive  Philaso- 

co  plant  introdu- 
ced   into   Virgi- 

duke of  Buckingham. 

Mary  de  Me- 
dici, regent. 

phy. 

nia. 

1617.  Sir  Francis  Bacon, 

1614.    Last  as- 

lord chancellor. 

sembly  of  the 

1016 
1620' 

Harvey  discovers  the  circvfa- 
lion  of  the  blood. 
Thermometers    invented    by 
Drebel. 

1620.—  Negro 
slaves    first    im- 

1618.   Sir    Walter     Ra- 
leigh's   unsuccessful 
voyage    to    America  — 
he  is  beheaded  on  his 

States-gene- 
ral. 
1615.  The  king 
marries 

Inigo  Jones,  celebrated  archi- 

ported to  Virgi- 

return. 

Anne,  of 

tect. 

nia. 

Austria.  • 

Martin  Opitz,  German  poet. 

Emigra- 

Civil war:  — 

Negro  Slavery  co  •:•  oienced  in 

tion   of   Pu- 

C o  n  d  e 

Virginia. 

ritans    to 

heads  the 

New       Eng- 

Hugue- 

land. 

nots. 

1621.  —John   Car- 

ver,   1st    Gover- 

nor of  N.  E. 

ifc>-l 

Peter  Paul  Rubens,  painter. 

1624.  New    Am- 

j» 

1624   Ministry 

Iti'ii 

Massinger,  the  dramatist. 

sterdam     set- 

1625.—  C  h  a  r  1  e  s  l.@ 

of   Cardina,' 

lt&6 

Kapler's  "  Ast:  momia   Nova 

•  led  by  the  Dutch. 

R  i  c  h  c 

Celestis." 

Buckingham,  prime 

lieu. 

Torricetli  invents  the  barome- 

minister. 

ter. 

ier 

The  Parian  marbles  brought 

1627.  Boston  found- 

1627. War  with  France,  in  support   :> 

to   England  by  the  earl  of 

ed. 

the   llufue. 

Ar  indei. 

nots. 

Roche  ll« 

1629.  Wouter  Van 

1629.  No  parliament  for 

reduced    by 

1630 

Gazettes   first    published    in 

Twiller,     gover- 

eleven  years. 

famine  —  af- 

Vonics. 

nor  of  New  Am- 

1630. Peace  with  France. 

ter  a  siege  of 

sterdam. 

ten  moa'.hm. 

THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 
1698-1718.— Edict  of  Nantes  to  t/te  death  of  Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden. 


835 


A.D. 

SPAIN 

AND 
FORTU- 

UAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 

EMPIRE. 

THB  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1604.  Sweden  :  Charles  IX.  ^ 

1605.  Leo  XI., 

1605.  Revolt  in 

1605.    India  :  —  Jehangir,   sol 

pope. 

Syria  and 

tan. 

Paul  V., 

Caramania, 

1606.  Truce  of  Co- 

pope. 

under  the 

morra,  for  twenty 

pasha  of 

years,   with   the 

Aleppo. 

Porte. 

1006.   Com- 

mercial 

1608.     Protestant 

treaty  with 

union,  under  Fre- 

France   and 

deric,   the    elector 

Holland. 

1609 

Expul- 
sion  of 

palatine. 
1610.    The    Catholic 
League,  under  the 

1609.Tuscany  : 
—Cosmo  II. 

Tobacco 
first  brought 
to  Turkey. 

1609.  India  :—  Arrival  of  Haw- 
kins,    first    English    envoy 
from  the   East  India  Com- 

the 

duke  of  Bavaria. 

pany. 

Moors. 

1612.  Matthias. 

Sweden  :  —  G  u  s  t  a  v  u  s 

1613 

War    of 

the 

&  

Leghorn, 

.   ,     .     ,           oe* 

Mont- 

the  empori- 

1611.  Sweden:  —  War    with 

ferrat 
succes- 
sion in 
Italy. 

1615.   Truce  of  Co- 
morra  confirmed. 
1618.  The  Thirty 
Years'     War 

um    of    the 
Levant  trade. 

Denmark.  —  Calinar  and  His- 
by  lost.—  Axel   Oxenstiern, 
minister.  —  Russia    devasta- 
ted by  Poles  and  Tartars. 
Russia  :  —  Michael   Ro- 

begins. 
1619.—  Ferdinand 

1617.  —  Musta- 

manoff,  czar. 

J|L 

JL 

1615.  Denmark:  —  First  stand 

1  1  .  i*g  

1618.    Conspj. 

pha  I.  jUs" 

ing  army 

1621 

Dutch 

1620    Victory  of  the 

racy  of  Bed- 
mar,  the 

1618.  —  Osman 

1616.  India  :—  Sir  Thomas  Roc 
ambassador  from  James  I 

war.  — 

White    Mountain. 

Spanish  en- 

ft* 

of  England. 

Spain 
sup- 

near     Prague.  
Massacre    of 

voy,    to    re- 
duce Venice 

Great  Per- 

Sweden predominates  in 
the  north. 

puns 
Austria. 
Philip 

Prague.  —  The  Pro- 
tes'.ant  religion  to- 
tally suppressed. 

under     sub- 
jection   to 
Spain. 

sian  victory 
at  Shibli. 
1620  War  with 

1618.   The  Synod  of  Dort- 
Arminius  condemned. 
Settlement  of  Tanquebar, 

J^i 

Poland,  and 

in  Coromandel. 

1  V  ;.*i^ 

1621.  Gregory 

unsuccess- 

t62t 

(Jefeat 
ol  Span- 
fleet  off' 

1626.  Victory  of  Til- 
ly over  Christian 
IV.,   of  Denmark, 

XV.,  pope. 
Tuscany  :  — 
Ferdinand  II. 
1623.   The    fa- 

ful invasion 
of  Poland. 

1623.    Murad 

1621.  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany incorporated. 
1622.  Persia  :  —  Ormuz  gained 
from  the  Portuguese  by  hn 

Lima, 
by  the 

at  Lutter. 
1628.Wallenstein 

mous  library 
of  the  Pala- 

help of  the  English. 
1625.     Netherlands  :  —  He-,ry 

162D 

Dutch. 
Naval 
war 

recovers     all     the 
shores  of  the  Bal- 
tic,  except    Stral- 

tine  at  Hei- 
delberg, sent 
to  Rome. 

restores  tran- 
quillity. 

Frederic.  —  Breda,  taken  bj 
Spinola. 

1630 

wiih 
Eng- 
land. 
Peace 

sund. 
1629.  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  lands  in  Ger- 
many. —  Diet     of 

1628.    General 
Italian    war 
on  the  death 
of  the  duke 

1625    Truce 
with  the  em- 
pire  renew- 
ed. 

1627.  Persia  :—  Shah  Soon  L 
1629.  Peace  of  Lubeck. 

with 

Ratisbon.  —  Wal- 

of  Mantua. 

Eng- 

lenstein dismissed, 

land. 

succeeded  by  Til- 

836 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  IX.— 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

ENGLAND. 

FRANCS. 

1630 

Lotteries  for  money  first  men 
tioned. 

The  Dutch  sol 
masters  of  Bra 

1630.  Wentworth,  earl  o 
Strafford,  minister. 

1631 

Calico  first  imported  into  Eng 
laud. 

zil. 
1632.    Maryland 

Laud,  archbishop  o 
Canterbury. 

1631.    Treaty 
with     fe'wo 

settled  by  a  colo 

1633.    The     king     visits 

den  and  :hs 

ny   under    Lord 
Baltimore. 

Scotland  —  is  crowne( 
at  Edinburgh. 

popular  pi  in- 
ces    against 

the    emper 

or. 

1635.    Connection. 

1635.  Alliance 

settled.  —  Guada- 

with  Holland 

loupe  and  Mar- 

against Spain, 

tinique,   by    the 

for  the  par- 

French. 

tition  of  the 

Edward  Co*e,  the  great  ju- 

Austrian Ne- 

rist. 

therlands. 

1.636 

Pedro  Calderon  de  la  Barca, 
Spanish  dramatist. 
Flourishing  period  of  flower 
trade  in  "the  Dutch  cities. 

637.    Maine    and 
New  Hampshire 
colonized. 
Harvard  Col- 
lege founded. 

1637.   Tret  ties  in   Scot- 
land, caused  by  Char- 
les's plan  to  overthrow 
the  Scotch  presbyterian 
church,     and    enforce 

1636.   Alliance 
withSweder- 
against  Aus- 
tria. 
Invasion  of 
Gascony   by 

Rembrandt,  Van  Dyke,  pain- 
ters. 

episcopacy. 
639.  War  with  Scotland. 

the    Span- 
iards, and  of 

1640.  Parliament  assem- 

Picardy,  by 

bled  —  dissolved    with- 

the    Impe- 

out effecting  any  thing. 
The    Scotch    invade 

rialists,  who 
threaten  Pa- 

1638 

The  Jansenists,  founded  by 

England—  take  posses- 
sion of  Newcastle. 

ris. 
638.  Invasion 

1639 
1640 

Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ypres. 
Printing  in  America. 

First  Swedish  manufactories. 
Persin,  Caspar,  Daghet,  and 
Claude   Lorraine,    French 

639.  First  print- 
ing office  in  Ame- 
rica,   at     Cam- 
bridge, by  Sam. 
Green. 

The   Long  Parlia- 
ment, Nov.  3. 
Impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford and  Laud. 

of  Spain, 
siege  ol  Fon- 
tarabKi. 

640.  Turin  ta- 
ken  by   the 

painters. 

640.  Whole  num- 
ber of  emigrants 

French. 
The    first 

to  New  England 

Louis  d'ors 

1641- 

Coffee  brought  to  England  by 

Nat.  Conopius. 

previous  to  this, 
21,000. 

641.  Strafford  beheaded. 
—Courts  of  Star  Cham- 

struck. 
641    Alliance 
with    Portu- 

ber and  High  Commis- 
sion abolished.—  Rebel- 

gal    against 
Spain.  —  Ca- 

lion of  Roger  Moore  in 
Ireland.  —  Massacre  of 

talonia    and 
Rousillon  re- 

Protestants by  Irish  Ca- 

volt,  and  sub- 
nit  to  France. 

642.  Ci'vil  Wai  and 
Revolution  .  

642.  Cinq 
Mars  and  de 

Rise    of   Roundheads 

Thou    be- 

and Cavaliers,  toth  of 

headed. 

the    popular    party.— 

1643.  Louis 

Battle  of  Edgehill,  inde- 
cisive. 

XIV.W-. 

1543 

Condd  and  Turenne,  the  great- 
es.  generals  of  the  age. 

643.      Confedera- 
tion of  the  colo- 
nies   of    New 

643.  Royalists  victorious 
at  Carlsgrane  —  defeated 
at  Newbury.—  Solemn 

(the  Great.) 
Anne,    of 
Austria,  re- 

England,   for 
mutual  defence. 

leazue  and  covenant  be- 
tween  the  Scotch  and 
English  parliaments. 

gent. 
Victory  of 
Roscroi  ovei 
the   Span- 

iards,  by 

Conde. 

Ministry  o 

Cardinal  Ma 

zarine. 

1598-1718.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


837 


4.D. 

SPAIN 

AND 

PORTU- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1631.  Sack  of  Mag- 

1631. Peace  of 

deburg,  by  Tilly. 

Chierasco.  — 

—  Gustavus   Adol- 

The      influ- 

phus  takes   May- 

ence  of  France 

1632.    Sweden  :  —  Christian 

ence. 

increases. 

.tf^Bl 

1632.   Defeat  and 
death  of  Tilly,  at 

1634.Murad  ir. 

queen.  ^8j  
1632.  Sweden:  —  Oxenstiena, 

Lech.  —  Gustavus 

vades     Pei- 

regent. 

takes    Munich.  — 

sia  —  takes 

Russia:—  War  with    Po- 

Wallenstein again 

Falreeze. 

land  ;    two   years'  siege  ol 

in  command.  —  Bat- 

Smolensko. --Russian  ariuy 

tle    of     Lutzen.  — 

capitulates,  and  the  Polish 

Victory  and  death 

king  advances  to  Moscow. 

of  Gustavus  Adol- 

1634.  Peace  of  Wiasma,  disad- 

phus. 
1635.  Peace  of  Prague 

vantageous  to  Russia. 

with  Saxony. 
1636.   Swedes  victo- 

1636.   Peace 
with  Poland 

rious  at  Wittstock. 

renewed. 

1637.—  F  erdinand 

1637.  Troubles 

tSia 

on  the  Tar- 

II I.  gg  

tar  frontier; 

Galas  successful 
against  the  Swedes. 

Azoph  taken 
by   the  Cos- 

638.     Bernhard.    of 

Backs. 

Saxe  Weimar,  de- 

Bagdad ta- 

feats' the  Imperial- 

ken   by   the 

ists  at  Bheinrield  — 

Turks. 

1639 

Loss  of 
the     Ja- 
panese 

takes  Brisac. 
1639.  Battles  of  Ol- 
nitz  and  Brandiez, 
gained  by  the  Swe- 

All the  con- 
quests of  Ab- 
bas recover- 
ed. 

1639.   Holland.  —Great  na  lal 
victory  by  Van  Tromp,  ever 
the    Spanish    fleet   ID    th« 
Downs. 

trade. 

dish  general,  Bau- 

ner. 

1640 

Portu- 

1640. Prussia-—  Fre- 

1640. Ibrahim. 

1640.  India  :—  Madrai  fo.auled 

gal    re- 
gain 

deric  William. 

els  

by  the  English. 

her     in- 

depen- 

dence, 

under 

John  IV. 

duke    of 

Bragan- 

za  |if 

1642.  The  Swedes  de- 
feat the.  Austrians 
at  Leipsic. 

1642.     Recap- 
ture of  Azoph 
from  the  Cos- 

sacks. 

1643.  —invade  Hoi- 

stein,  and  compel 

the  Dares  to  desert 

Austria. 

'838 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Peiiod  IX. — 120  ycats. — 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

FltANUB. 

Des  Cartes,  French  philoso- 

1644.   Battle   of  Maraton 

pher. 

Moor  —  royalists  defeat- 

* 

ed. 

1645.  Battle  of  Naseby. 

1645.  :  —  Mar 

1646 

Air  guns  invented. 

1646.     Thomas 
May  hew,  preach- 
er to  the  Indians, 

1646.  The  king  seeks  re- 
fuge in    the     Scottish 
camp. 

shalTureniM 
takes  TrevM. 

shipwrecked. 

1647.   Peter   Stuy- 

1647.  —  is  delivered  up  to 

•vesant,  governor 

parliament  for  £400,000. 

of  New  Amster- 

dam. 

1648 

Engraving  inmezzctinto,  im- 
proved by  Prince  Rupert. 

1645.   Cambridge 
platform    adopt- 

1648. Cromwell  routs  the 
Scotch,    under   Harnil- 

1648.  Faction! 
of  the  Fron 

ed. 

ton.  The    presbyie- 

de  ;     dissen- 

rians    expelled     from 

sions  foment- 

parliament, which    re- 

ed by  Cardi- 

ceives the  name  of  "  the 

nal  d  e  R  e  t  z  . 

Rump." 

1649.  J.  Winthrop, 

1649.  Trial  ant!  execution 

1649.  Court  re- 

governor of  Con- 

of the  king. 

moves  lo  S'.. 

necticut. 

Uerniiiins." 

THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

Siege  of  Pa- 

ris. 

1650 

Railroads  with  wccden  rails, 
near  Newcastle. 

1650.  Settlement  of 
North  Carolina. 

1650.  Cromwell  subdues 
Ireland. 

1650.  C  o  n  d  e  , 
C  o  n  t  i  ,  and 

The  Scots   proclaim 

L  o  n  g  u  e  - 

Charles  II.    He 

v  i  1  1  e  .   im- 

1651. enters  England  —  is 

prisoned.  — 

defeated  at  Worcester, 

Turenne 

Jeremy   Taylor,  Alger.  Sid- 
ney, English  writers. 

1652.  John  Cotton 

and  escapes  to  France. 
1652.    Naval    war    with 

flees  to    the 
Spaniards. 
165^.  Maza- 

died. 

Holland.  Blake, 

rine  retires 

A  s  c  o  u  g  h  ,    and 

to  Sedan. 

P  e  n  a  ,    English    ad- 

Conde    flies 

Le  Seur  and  Le  Brun,  French 

mirals. 

to  Spain. 

painters. 

1653.    Long    parliament 

1653.  Mazarine 

dissolved      by     Crom- 

enters  Paria 

well.  —  "  Barebone's  par- 

in triumph. 

liament"  summoned. 

OLIVER    CROM- 

WELL, Lord  Pro- 

tector. 

Milton,  private  secre- 

tary to  Cromwell. 

1654 

Air  pumps  invented. 

1654.  Peace  of  Westmin- 
ster.    Alliance    with 

Holland. 

lf%5 

About  this  time  flourish  Mo- 
Here,    La    Fontaine,   Cor- 
neitte,  Madame    de  Sevig- 

1655.  E.  Winslow 
died. 

1655.  War  with  Spain.— 
Jamaica  conquered  by 
Penn. 

ne,  Rochefoucault,  Racine, 
Boileau,    and    Pascal,   in 
France. 

1658.  Death  of  Cromwell. 
—  R  ichard    Crom- 
well, Protector. 

1659.  Peace  cf 
the   Pyre- 
nees.— Mar- 

Velasquez and  Muri'lo,  Spa  i- 
i»h  painters. 

riage  of  Lou- 
is   XIV.    to 
Maria    The- 

resa, of  Spain. 

1508  -1718.1 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


839 


A.D 

SPAIN 

AND 
POKTU- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  \\  ORLD,  elsewhere. 

1C44.      Invasion     of 

1644.  Innocent 

1644.    Naval  victory    of    lh« 

Hungary,   by  Ra- 

X.,  pope. 

Swedes    over    the    Danish 

coezi  —  the   empe- 

fleet. 

ror  forced  to  yield 

1645.  War  with 

1645.  Sweden:  —  Peace  of 

to  the  demands  of 

Venice. 

Bromsebro  with  Denmark. 

the  protestants. 

Candia,   the 

1646.  Revolt  of 

theatre  of 

Naples,   un- 

war. 

der     M  a  s  - 

1647.  Netherlands:—  William 

saniello. 

II. 

China  :  —  The  Tartans 

place  a  prince  of  their  own 

on   the   throne  —  the  first  o( 

the  present  dynasty  ol'Tsing. 

1648.  PEACE    OF 

1648.  Moham- 

1648.   Poland  :—  The   Ukraine 

WESTPHA- 

med IV. 

Cossacks  revolt,  anil  cut  the 

LIA,    signed    at 

Polish  army  to  pieces. 

Munster,   between 

JS 

France,    the     em- 

— John  Cassimir.fjjg  — 

pire,  and  Sweden. 

—  The  principle  of 
a  balance  of  pow- 

er in  Europe  first 

recognized. 

1650.   Moham- 

med Riopri- 

li,  grand  vi- 

zier. 

1653.Naval  de- 

1653. Holland  :  —  J  o  h  n    d  • 

feat  by    the 
Venetians  in 
the  Archipe- 

Witt, Grand  Pensionary  ; 
De    Ruytei,    admiral. 

lago. 

1654.    Defeat    and    death    ol 

1654 

Brazil 

Tromp. 

recover- 

Sweden: —  Christina  re« 

ed   froin 

signs.—  Charles   X.,   1st   oi 

the 

JLi 

1665 

Dutch. 
War 
with 
Eng- 

1657. —Leopold 

1655.    Alexan- 
der VII., 
pope. 

1657.  War  with 
Racoezi,  lor 

the  House  of  Deux  Ponts.fjg 
Poland:—  War  with  Rus- 
sia. 
1657.  Denmark  :—  War  againsr 

land. 

'  I  JK 

aiding  Swe- 

the   Swedes,  who    overrur 

HB 

den    against 

Denmark,  and  menace  Cc- 

Poland. 

penhasen. 

1658.  Denmark  :  —  Naval  vie 

tory  over  the  Swedes. 
Denmark  :  —  Peace  of  Roa 

kilde. 

840 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  IX. — 120  ij(.u,rs.— 


4.D. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

ENGLAND. 

FRANCE. 

1659.   Richard  resigns.  — 

1661.  Death  o! 

Hump  parliament  call- 

Mazarine. 

ed,  but  soon  expelled. 

Colbert, 

Restoration    of 

comptroller- 

the    Stuarts. 

general    of 

Jk 

finance. 

1660  —  Charles  II.  §S? 

Lvonct, 

Hyde,     earl     >>i 

Le  Te'llier. 

Clarendon,    chancellor 

1662.  Disputet 

and  prime  minister. 

with  the  pope 

1661.  New  parliament.  — 

—  6000  troops 

Alliance  with  Portuga  . 

sent  against 

1662 

Logwood  first  cut  in  the  bay 
of  Honduras. 

1662.  Marriage  with  Ca- 
therine, ol  Portugal. 

the  Turks  in 
Hungary. 

1663.  Canada  made 

Act  ol  Uniformity. 

1664.    French 

Salvalor     Rosa,      landscape 

a  royal  colony. 

Dunkirk  sold  to 
France. 

East  India 
Company. 

1666.      Acade- 

painter. 

1663.    Elliot's   In- 

1664. War  with  Holland. 

mie  des  Sci 

Huygens,  Dutch  astronomer. 

dian  Bible  prin- 
ted. 
1664.  New  York 

1663.  Naval  victory  by  the 
duke  of  York. 
Great    Plague    in 

ences  Louvois 
1667.  War  with 
Spain.  Lou- 

1665 

Persecution  of  Jansenists  in 

occupied  by   the 
English. 

London. 

is  claims 
Spanish  Ne- 

1666 

Chain  shot  invented  by  De 
Witt. 

1666.  Great  Fire  in  Lon- 
don. 

therlands  lor 
his  wile—  in- 

1666 

Canal  of  Languedoc,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Atlan- 

vades    Bel- 
gium. 

tic. 

1668.  Peace  o 

Aix  la  Cha 

pelle    with 

Spain. 

166? 

Gobelin  tapestry  manufactory 
in  Paris. 

1667.  —  ceded    to 

1667.  Peace  of  Breda.— 

1672.  War  with 
Holland. 

them    by    the 
peace  ol  Breda 

New    York    ceded    to 
England. 

1673.    French 
ambassador 

Banishment  of  the 

at  Ispahan. 

earl  of  Clarendon. 

1674.  The 

1668  Triple  league—  Eng- 

Dutch   de- 

land, Sweden,  and  Hol- 

feated at  the 

i670 

Bayonets    invented   at    Bay- 

I67i').  Conclusion  of 

land,  against  France. 
1670.   The     Cabal    min- 

battles of 
Sinsheitu 

m 

onne. 
Orrery  invented. 
Foundation  of  the  Academy 
of    Architecture,    and    the 
Hotel  des  Invalides,  at  Pa- 

the '  American 
treat)  '    between 
England   and 
Spain. 

istry.—  Secret    treaty 
with  France. 

and  ,M  ii  1  hau- 
sen.  —  Tu- 
renne    rava- 
ges the  Pala 
tinate. 

ris. 

675.  Death  ol 

Casaini,    Italian    astronomer 
and  mathematician. 

1672.  War  with  Holland 
in  conjunction   with 
France. 

Turenne    at 
SasUach. 
Influenca 

J.)  Herbelot,    Pascal,    Bour- 
daloue,  La  Bruynre,  Mai- 
branc/te,  French  writers. 

1673.   Ministry  of  Danby. 
Test  Act  passed. 
1674.  Peace  with  Holland. 

of    Pere    la 
Chaise,    the 
king's    con- 
lessor. 

1676 

Christopher  Wren,  architect, 
commences  St.  Paul's. 
Ruysdael,  celebrated    Dutch 

1675.  King  Phi 
lip's  War   in 
New  England. 

1677.   Victory 
over  the 
Prince    of 
Orange  at 

painter. 
William  Temple,  historian. 
Butler,   Waller,  and  Dryden, 
English      poets  ;        Henry 

More,    Leighton,    Baxter, 
B     i  '          °         * 

1677.  Maine  pur- 
chased by  Massa- 
chusetts. 

1678.  The  Popish  Plot. 

M  out-  Cassel. 
1678.    Peace 
of   Ni  me- 
g  u  e  n   with 
Holland  and 

oyle. 
Mannar  t,  architect  ;  Giradon, 
•culptor,  of  France. 

Spain  —  re- 
stores   tiai» 
quillity  to 

Europe. 

1598-1718.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


841 


A..D 

SPAIN 

AND 

PORTU- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 

EMi-IRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1661 

Invasion 

of  Por- 

1660.  Demark  :—  Peace  of  Co 

tugual. 

1661.  War 

penhagen.  —  The    Swede! 

with   Aus- 

restore Bornholm,  and  Dron 

tria. 

theim. 

Revolution  in  Denmark. 

Sweden  .-—Charles    XI.  ^Sf 

Peace  of  Oliva. 

Prussia  acknowledged  ir  • 

dependent. 

1660.  Poland  .-—Great  victory 

1662.  Invasion 

of   Marshal    John     So 

of  Hungary. 

b  i  e  s  k  i  over  the  Tartars 

l663 

Victory 
of  the 

1663.  The  Diet  per- 
manent  at   Ratis- 

Portu- 

bon. 

guese 

1664.   Montecuculi 

over  the 

victorious  over  the 

Span- 

Turks at  St.    Go- 

iards    at 

thard. 

Estre- 

mas. 

660 

Spain  :  - 
Charles 

1665.  The  Tyrol  uni- 
ted to  Austria. 

1667.  Holland  :—  Peace  of  Bre- 

1067 

Portu- 
gal:— 

llevolu- 
ion  at 

1667.   Clement 
IX.,  pope. 
1669.     Candia 

taken  from  Ve- 
nice by  Kio- 

da  :   loss   of  New    Nether- 
lands. 
668.    First    embassies    from 
Russia  to  France  and  Spain. 
India  :  —  Rise  of  the  Mah- 

Lisbon, 
ting  de- 
Dosed. 

Peace  with 

prili. 
the  Porte. 

ratta  power.—  Sevajee  takea 
and  sacks  Surat. 

—  Pedro 

1670.  Cosmo 

670.  Den.  :—  Christian  V.gf 

I  Hit? 

III.,  grand 

•  ESS 

duke  of  Tus- 

1668 
1669 

Peace  of 
Lisbon 
with 
Spain. 
Nitard, 
the  Je- 

cany. —  War 
between  Ge- 
noa and  Sa- 
voy. 
Clement  X., 
pope. 

1672.  The  Sul- 
tan invades 
Poland. 
1673.  —defeat, 
ed    by    Zo- 

672.    Sea  fight  between   the 
Dutch  fleet,  under  De  Witt 
and    De    Ruyter,    and    tho 
English  and  French  fleets- 
Dutch  defeated. 

suit,  dri- 
ven 

673.  War  of  Austria 

674.  Kevoltof 
Medina  in 

briski,    at 
Choezim. 

Den.  :—  William  III.® 

from 
Spain. 

nnd  France. 
1675.  Turenne    and 

favor  of 
France. 

674.    Poland  :—  Johr    Sobies- 

1673 

War 

Montecuculi    op- 

676.   Messina 

1676.  Peace  of 

J;L 

with 

posed  on   the 

blockaded  by 

Zurawno 

ki.^gf  

France 
to  pro- 
tect Hol- 
land. 

Rhine.  —  Victory 
of   Consarbruck 
over  the    French, 
under    Crequi.  — 
Treves  taken. 

the   Dutch 
and  Spanish 
fleets. 
Death  of  De 
Ruyter. 

with  PoJand. 
1678.  First  war 

675.     The    Swedes     invad» 
Brandenl>ur2. 
677.    Battle  of  the  J.nnd,  V 
tween  the  Swedes  an/1  Pane* 

1676.  General  revolt 

Innocent  XI. 

with  Russia, 

of  Hungarians  un- 

Sipe. 

on  account 

der  Emeric. 

eath  of  the 

of  the   Cos- 

atheist,  Spi- 

sacks. 

noza, 

36 


842 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGR.ESS. 


[Period  IX— 120  years.— 


AD. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

FRANCE. 

Bernini,  Italian  sculptor. 

Rise  of  the  names  of 

France,    the 

1S61 

Museum  tor  Natural  History, 
at  London. 

Whigs  and  Tories. 

most   formi- 
dable powel 

Jardin  des  Plantes,  at  Paris. 

in  Europe. 

«3 

Pcvmy  pust  established  in  Lon- 
ilim. 

1683.  "Ryehouse  Plot." 
Execution  of   Lord 

1683.  Invasi  m 
of  the  Span- 

I Kempfer's  travels  in  Japan. 
John     Banyan,     •'  Pilgrim's 
Progress." 

Russel    and     Algernon 
Sydney.    • 
In  this  reign  the  Roy- 

ish   Nether- 
lands. 
1684.  Truce  ol 

1 

al   Society  of   London 

Katisbon  fur 

was  instituted  by  Wil- 

twenty  years 

kins,  bishop  of  Chester. 

with  Spain. 

—  Bombay      ceded     to 

1686.  Sir  Edmund 

England. 

Andros,  governor 

of  New  England. 

1685.    Revo- 

1688   General  sup- 

cation   of 

pression  of  char- 

Rebellion of    Mon- 

the   Edict 

ter  governments. 

mouth.  in  England,  and 

of  Nantes. 

1689.   Montreal  de- 

Argyle,    in     Sco  land, 

stroyed    by     the 

both  defeateil  and  exe- 

1696 

Otto     Von    Guericks,   inven- 
tor of    the    air-pump    anil 
electrical  machine,  died. 

Five  nations 
Leisler  usurps  the 
government      of 

cuted. 
Judse  Jeffries. 

1680.  The  king  favors  the 

16S7 

Telegraphs  invented. 
Newton's  Principia,  publish- 

New  York. 
1G9J.  The  English 
settlements    of 

Catholics. 
1687.  —  re-establishes  the 
Court  of   High    Com- 

1690 

G.    Batt.    Lully,   fiom    Flo- 
rence,   founder    of   French 
opera  music. 
Arc/i.  Corelli,  celebrated  vio- 
linist arid  composer  at  Rome. 
White   paper  first  made,    in 

So.henectady,   N. 
York,  Ca.-co,  Me. 
and  Salmon  Falls, 
N.  H.,  destroyed 
by    a    party    of 
French. 
Port  Royal,  No- 

mission. 
1688.  "REVOLUTION 
o  v  1688."  —  The  Whigs 
and  Tories  unite  in  ap- 
plying to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  who   lands   in 
England    with     15,000 

1638.   War   ot 
Spain  —  the 
Empire,  Hol- 
land, Savoy, 
and  England 
against 

Leibnitz,     German     philoso- 
pher, founds  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  a.  lierlin. 

va  Scotia,  redu- 
ced by  Sir  Wil- 
liam    Phipps.  — 

men—  the  king  flees  to 
France. 
Iu39.-William    III. 

France. 
1089.  Grand  al- 
liance against 

1692 
16M3 

it>92 

First  opera  in  London. 
Purcell,  English  musician. 
'Bank  of  England. 
Telescopes,  first     reflecting 
one  made  on  the  principles 
of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

Expedition  against 
Canada,     unsuc- 
cessful. 
1691.   Sch  uy  ler 
defeats  the  French 
at  La  Prairie. 

and  Mary  II  .^g  — 
War  wiili  France. 
James    11.    lands    in 
Ireland—  besieges  Lon- 
donderry. 
1690.  William  in  Ireland. 

France,  head- 
ed by    Wil- 
liam III. 
1690    Naval 
victory  ovei 
the    Dutch 
and  English 

1692 

Witchcraft    superstition    in  New-  England. 

—Battle  of  the  Boyne. 

off  Dieppe. 

James  defeated,  returns 

Victory    of 

1692.  New  Hamp- 

to France. 

Luxemburg. 

John  Locke    and    Sir    Isaac 

shire    purchased 

1691.  Limerick  taken,  and 

at  Fleurus. 

Newton  in  England. 

by  Allen. 

William  acknowledged. 

169i!.    Marshal 

Boileau,  Fenelon,  and  Bayle, 

N.  York:   Leis- 

1692.   Invasion    of   Eng- 

Lux em- 

in  France. 

ler  executed. 

land  undertaken  by  the 

burg    de- 

1693 

Bank  'if  England. 

1693.   N.    York  :— 

French     in     favor    of 

feats  William 

Episcopacy     in- 

James.— Naval  viciory 

at  Steenkirk, 

troduced. 

by  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 

and 

William    and 

lish. 

1693.  —at  Ne- 

Mary's     College 

1693.  Bank  of  England  in- 

uvinden. 

founded. 

corporated. 

Institution  of 

1697.    Kidd's  pira- 

1694.    Death    of    queen 

the  order  of 

cies. 

Mary. 

St.  I.ouis. 

1697.    General    peace 

o  f  R  y  s  w  i  c  k 

1698.  First  partition  treaiy, 

—  between 

between   France,   Erig 

France    ao« 

1696 

Phct-jhorua  discovered. 

1699.   French  colo- 
ny in  Louisiana. 

land,  and  the  Empire  to 
dispose  of  the  crown  of 

the  allies. 

—  Gold  mines  in 

Spain. 

Brazil. 

1699.   Visit  of  Peter  the 

Great. 

598-1718.J 


THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


843 


- 

SFA.'.N 

AND 

Poari'- 

<JAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1680.   Great  part  of 

1680.  Sweden  :—  Diet  of  Slock 

Alsace    seized  by 

1682.  War  with 

holm. 

France. 

Austria. 

1682.   Russia  :  —  Ivan  and  Pe 

1683.  Turkish   war, 

1683.  Total 

ter,f§f  their  sister,  So 

siege  of  Vienna  by 
the  Turks  —  victor 

rout    be  for 
Vienna. 

1  hia.  reeen'. 
1683.  Denmark  :—  The  Code  c 

of    tho    German 
and  Poles,    unde 

1684.  Alliance 

of  Venice  wit 

king  Christian  published 

Charles,    of    Lor 

Poland,  and  the     Empire 

raine,     and    John 
Sobieski. 

against    the  Porte. 

Treaty     of    the 

Hague,    against 

France. 

1686.     League     of 
Augsburg  against 
France. 

1686.   Russia 
declares  war 
1637.    Revc.lu 
tion  in  Con 

1686.  India  :—  The  Dertkin  con 
quered. 
Golconda  and  Besapore. 

1680.  Buda  taken  af- 
ter being  held  by 

siantinople, 
Mohammed 

1687.  —The  English  factories 

the      Turks      145 
years. 
1687.  Decisive  victo- 

dethroned. 
Sulyman 

in  Bengal  suppressed—  after- 
wards restored. 
1688.  Prussia  :—  Frederic  III 

ry  of  Mohaez  : 

IT  ^£» 

Croatia  and  Tran- 

^B 

^Hk 

sylvania  subdued. 
Joseph  I.  crown- 
ed  king   of   Hun- 

Russia :  —  Ivan    resigns— 
Sophia  is  confined  in  a  con- 
vent : 

1689 

Revolt 

gary. 
1689.  Grand  alliance 

1689.    Alexan- 

1689.  Defeat  at 

Nioi 

1689.  PETER     THE 

of  Cata- 
lonia in 
favor  of 
France. 

ratified  at  Vienna. 
The  Palatinate 
desolated    by    the 
French. 

der  V1I1., 
pope. 

isa. 
1690.   Musta- 
pha  Kiopri- 
li  drives  the 
Austrians 

GREAT  .f|f  
1692.    Russia:  —  First    trade 
with  China. 
India  :—  Height  of  the  Mo- 

across the 

gul  power,  annual  revenue 

Danube  —  re- 

JE32.()00,000. 

1691 

Incur- 
sion of 
the 

1690  Joseph  I.  elect- 
ed king  of  the  Ro- 
mans by  the  Diet 
of   Augsburg.  — 
Victories  ovei  the 
Turks. 

1691.  Innocent 
XII.,  pope. 

covers    Bel- 
grade. 
1691.     Ahmud 

Defeat  and 
death  ofKio- 

China:—  Great    influence 
of  Jesuits. 
1693.  Sweden  :—  The  king  de- 
clared absolute. 
1695.    Holland  :  Bombard- 
ment of    Brussels    by    the 
French,  under  Vilieio). 

French 
into 
Aragon. 

1693.  Batile  of 

prili. 
1694.  Chio  ta- 
ken  by    the 
Venetians. 

696.  Poland  :-Dealh  ol   So- 
bieski —  succeeded  by 
697.  —  Frederic  Augustus  I. 
Sweden  :—  C  H  A  u  L  E  9 

Marsa  ^lia  

1695.    Musta- 

J!jt 

the  allies  in 

*-&«. 

XII  ,fHf  —  (15  years  old.) 

Italy  defeat- 

pha Il.llf  — 

ed    by     the 

696.  —  leads 

Russia  :—  Ir.trodiirtion  oi 

his  own   ar- 

various   manufactures  — 

IC97 

Peace  of   Ryswick. 

In- 

tinat. 

my.  —  Victo- 
ry of  Olach. 

equipment  of  a  fleet,  etc. 

tiigues 
for  the 
succes- 
sion. 

1697.    Victory    over 
the  Sultan  Musta- 
pha  at  Zenia,  by 
the  Prince  Eugene. 

1699.  Peace  of 
Carlowitz. 
The  Otto- 
man   power 
broken. 

699.  Den.  :—  Frederic  IV  yjj 

Alliance  of  Denmark,  Rus- 
sia,    and     Poland,    against 
Charles  XII.  ol'  Sweden. 

844 


THE  WORLD'S   PROUKLSS. 


[Period  IX— 120  years.- 


4.0. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

FRA.NOE. 

1700 

First  manufactories  in  Russia 

1700.  A  British  fleet  sent 

and  Denmark 

to  assist  Charles  XII., 

of  Sweden. 

Fenelon,  Bossuet,  MaaiUon, 

Foundation  of    the 

in  France. 

national  debt    iu    this 

reign. 

National   Debt    of    England 

1701.  Yale  College 

1701.  War  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

commenced. 

founded. 

1702.  The  French  invade  Holland,      jji 

1702.     Rice   intro- 

derBoufflers— repuloed  by     Marl 

Godfrey     Knelltr      English 

duced  into  Caro- 

borough. 

painter. 

lina  from  Mada- 

£ 

1703 

First  Russian  newspaper.  — 

1703.      Apalachian 

1703.   Melhuen   treaty   o 

1/02.  Revolt  oi 
the    Hugue- 

St. Petersburgh  founded. 

Indians  subdued. 

commerce  with  Portu- 

nots suppress- 

Maine ravaged 

gal. 

ed  by   Mar- 

by   French    and 

shal  Villars. 

Indians. 

1704.  Marlborough  enters  Germany, 

1704.    Captain 

gains     the     battle     of  Blenheim. 

Church's    expe- 

Gibraltar taken   by 

dition  against  the 

Rooice. 

Flourishing  period  of  French 
literature.  —  Great  splendor 
in  the  French  court. 

Indians. 
Boston  News 
Letter,  first  Ame- 

1706. T  reatvofunion 
with    Scotland. 
Battle  of  Raimllies, 

Villeroi    de- 

5704 

A  newspaper  in  America. 

rican  periodical. 
1706.   Carolina   in- 

feated. 
1707.  Victory  ol  Almanza  over  the  Eng- 

vaded    by      the 

lish  and  Portuguese. 

French  and  Span- 

The first  United 

ish. 

Parliament     of 

Great      Britain 

meets. 

1707.  Unsuccessful 

1708.  Battle  ofOudenarde, 

—  French    de- 

expedition  against 

feated. 

Port  Royair 

1708.The  Saybrook 

Sardinia  and  Minor 
the  English. 

ca  captured  by 

1708 

Incorporation  of  the    United 

platform,    form- 

Unsuccessful attempt 

British  East  India    Com- 

ed. 

of  the  Pretender  to  land 

pany. 

1709.    First  paper 

in  Scotland. 

1709 

Prussic  acid  discovered    by 

money  in   New- 

1710.  Victory  of  Vendome 

atVillavicios» 

Diesbach. 

Jersey. 

Dr.  Sacheverell's  trial. 

1710 

A  post-office  in  America. 

1710.     First   post- 

—Collision   of     Whig 

office     at     New 

and  Tory  principles. 

York. 

1713.   Peace     of    Utrecht. 

Fruitless  expe- 
dition against  Ca- 
nada. 

Perpetual  separation   of  the  crown» 
of  France  arid  Spain  —  England      ac 
quires    Newfoundland,  Acatfta,   and 

1713 

The  famous  bull  "  Unigeni- 

1713.    "Queen 

Hudson's  Bay,  also  Mi  norca  and  Gi 

1714 

tus  "  against  the  French  Jan- 
senists. 
Rise  of  commerce  in  Austria  ; 

Anne's   War  " 
closed   by   the 
treaty  of  Utrecht. 

braltar.    The  Rhine  is 
between  Germany  and 
1714.  Factions  at  court  — 

the    boundary 
France. 
1714.  Peace  » 

first  manufactories. 

disgrace    of   Hariey, 

Radstadt  :  tin 

chancellor  of  the  exche- 

Emperor ac 

quer. 

knowledges 

Laic's  bank  at  Paris. 

Death  of  the  queen. 

Philip  on 

—  H  o  u  s  e  o  f  H  a  H  o  • 

the  cession 

ver:— 

of   Lomba»"- 

^1 

dy,    Naples 

George    I  .!»  — 

ai.d  Sardinia. 

Robert  VValpole,  pre- 

1715. Louis 

mier. 

3i 

1715 

The  monastery  of  Mafra,  '  the 
wonder  of  Portugal,'  built. 
Prior,  Steele,  De  Foe,  Addi- 
son,  11  iurish  in  England. 

1715.  Indian  war  in 
South  Carolina. 
1717.  New-  Orleans 
settled    by     the 

1715.  Insurrection  of  Ja- 
cobites. —  Battles  of  She- 
riffmuir  and  Preston. 
War  against  Sweden. 

DuKe   ol 
Orleans    re- 
gent. —  Du 

1716 

First  standing  army  in  Eng- 

French. 

bois,    minis- 

1/18 

land. 
The  coffee  tree  brought  from 
•lava  to  Surinam. 

ier. 

L71&  Quadruple   al   liance:   thi 
Emperor,  England,  Ho  Hand,  and 
France  against  the  desi  gns  of  Spain. 

1598-1718.J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


845 


A  D. 

SPAIN 

AND 
PORTC- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

ITALY. 

OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1700 

Death  of 

1700.  Russia  :—  Peter  the  GreaJ 

the  king, 

invades  Ingria—  defeated  hj 

who 

Charles  XII.,  at  Narva. 

names 

War    of     the    Northern 

the  duke 

Powers. 

of  Anjou 

as  his 

1701.  Grand  alliance 

of  the  Hague, 

1701.  PRUSSIA  erected  into  a 

success- 

between  England,  Holland,    "and 

kingdom  under 

or. 

the  Empire,  to  pre  vent  the  union 

* 

1701 

Philip 

of  France  and  Sna  in. 

Frederic   l.^ff— 

^n 

1702.  Battles  of  Stol- 

1702.    Victory 

vn 

The 
arch- 

hafen,   Hochstedt. 
and  Spires,  gained 
by  the  French. 

of    Luzzace 
gained  by  the 
Fiench  over 

1703.     Ahmed 
111. 

Charles  XII.  invades  Po- 
land —  is  victorious  at  Riga. 
1702.  —  enters  Warsaw  —  takes 

duke 

the       Impe- 

Cracow. 

Charles 

rialists. 

1703.    Victory  of   Pultusk  — 

lands  at 

Poland  :—  The  throne  ds- 

Lisbon, 

clared  vacant,  and 

and    en- 

1704.     Stanislas      Leetzinski 

ters 

& 

Spain. 

elected  king.  fig  

1705 

Barcelo- 

1705. —Joseph 

na  taken 

1706.  The  Swedes  victorious 

t>y  the 

|  >BB  

" 

1706.     French 

over  the  Saxons  and  Rus- 

allies. 

driven  from 

sians  at  Traverstadl. 

1706 

Port.  :  — 
John  V. 

Italy    by 

prince     Eu- 

A- 

gene. 
1707.    All    the 

1707.  Russia  :—  Revolt  of  the 
Cossack  Mazeppa. 

binglish 

Spanish  pos- 

1708. Charles  invades  Russia, 

and  Por- 

sessions    in 

crosses  the  Dnieper,  and  is 

tuguese 
enter 
Madrid. 

1710.  Treaty  of  the 

Italy     aban- 
doned to  the 
allies. 

1709.    Charles 
XII.   takes 
refuge  at 

1709.  defeated  at  Pultowa. 
Sweden  at  war  with  Den- 
mark. 

Hague    between 
England.  Holland, 
and  the  Empire. 

Bender  — 
hence    war 
with  Russia. 

Poland  :—  Frederic  Augus- 
tus re-ascends  the  throne. 
1712.  Victory  of  the  Swedes  at 

1*  I  1 

Charles 

1711.  —  Charles 

Gadebusche. 

/il 

leaves 

,-ii.. 

1713.  Prussia  :—  Frederic  Wil 

SpainoT 
becom 

Ministry  of  Count 

Ham  I  A  

ing  Em- 

Linzendorf. 

peror. 

1713.   Pragmatic 

sanction.,    vesting 

the  succession    to 

Austria   in    the 

daughters  of  Char- 

1714 

Barcelo- 
na taken 
by    Ber- 
wick. 

les. 
1714.  Peace  of  Ras- 
tii.lt     and     Baden 
with  France. 

1714.     War  of 
the  Porte. 

Venice    with 

1714.  Russia  :—  Naval  victory 
over  the  Swedes.  —  Aland  and 
Finland  conquered. 

Albero- 
ni, 
prime 

1715.    Corinth 
Turks  —  the 

taken    by    the 
Emperor  joins 

1715.   Netherlands  Barrier 
treaty  ol  Antwerp  with  Aus 
tria. 

minis- 
ter of 

Venice  —  sie  ge  of   Corfu 
raised  on  the  news  of  their 

Sweden:—  Return  of  Char- 
les— Prussia    and    England 

Spain. 

171b.  cleleat  at 
the  battle  of 

join  the  alliance  against  him. 

Peterwar- 

den. 

1718.     Charles    XII.    invadei 

1717.  Defeat  of 
C'rusca  —  loss 

Norway  ;    is  killed  at    th« 
siege  of  Fredericshall. 

of  Belgrade. 

Sweden:—  Ulrica   Eleo 

1718.     Quadru- 

1718. Peace  of  Passarowitz, 

ple     alliaice 

between  the  Porte,  Venice, 

nora  W? 

against  Spain. 

and    Hunga  ry. 

846 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PERIOD  X.— 97  ytars.— 


H.D.     PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


ENGLAND. 


1724 


725 


1728 


1729 


1733 
1740 


Cotton  Mather.  "  Magnolia," 
and  Increase  Mather,  Hist, 
of  War  with  Indians. 


Inoculation  introduced  by 
Lady  Montague.  The  same 
year  introduced  into  Boston 
by  Dr.  Boylston. 


Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paters- 
burg. 


The  "  Appellants,"  in  France, 
headed  by  the  Cardinal  de 
Noailles,  appeal  from  the 
bull  '•  Unigenitus,"  to  a  ge- 
neril  council ;  but  without 
effect. 


Behring's  Strait  discovered. 


Balloons  invented  by  G  usmac. 

In  England :    In  France : 
Pope,     Swift,  J.     B.    Rous- 
Young,  seau,    Le 

Thompson,  Sage,  Rollin, 
Walls.  Lord  Montesquieu. 
Butin,  '-<ruke, 
Doddridge, 
Chesterfield. 

ffalley,  astronomer. 

First  Lodge  of  Freemasons  in 

Irish  linen  manufactories, 
and  English  steel  and  cutlery 
flourish. 


J>.    Holberg,   Danish  drama- 
tist. 


1719.  First  Philadelphia  news 
paper. 


1721.   First  New-York  news 
paper. 


1723.  Vermont  settled. 

Increase  Mather,  died. 


1724.  Trenton,  N.  J.,  founded. 


1727.     Great    earthquake    in 
New-England. 


1728.  Cotton  Mather,  died. 

Discovery  of    diamond 
mines  in  Brazil. 


1729.  The  Carolinas  separated. 


1732.  Birth  of  Washington. 

1733.  Savannah  founded. 


America,  at  Boston. 

1740.  Tennessee  first  explored. 


1742  Invasion  of  Florida  by 
Indians  and  Spaniards — re- 
pulsed. 


17!9.  Unsuccessful  attempt  to 
invade  Scotland  by  the  Span- 
iards. 
"The  South  Sea  Scheme." 

1720.  '•  Bursting  of  the  South 
Sea  bubble." 

1721.  Sir     Robert   Walpole'f 
ministry  continues. 


1725.  Leaj:  e  ofHerrenhauser., 

1727.  George  I.  dies  at  Osna- 
burg. 

George    1 1  .flB^— 


1728.    Pe»se   of  Pardo  witn 
Spain 


1729.    Treaty    of  Seville,  bt 


1731.   Treaty  of  Vienna  with 
Holland  and  the  Empire. 


173V.  War  with  Spain, 

1740  Porto  Bello  taken  by  Ad- 
miral  Vernon  — Anson's  troy- 
age  round  the  world,  and 
capture  of  the  Manilla  J«J 
leon. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


847 


1718--1815.—  Death  of  Charles  XII.  to  Battle  of  Waterloo. 


A.D. 

FRANCE. 

SPAIN 

AND 

PORTU- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1719.     Italy  :—  Sicily    invaded    by     the 

Spanish. 

1720.  Peace  of  Stockholm.—  Tranquillity 

restored  in  the  r..  rth 

Sweden  :  —  Thb  queen  abdicates  in 

favor  of  her  husband. 

1721.  Italy  :—  Innocent  XIII.,  pope. 

Frederic,  fg  

Peace  of  Nystadt  wiih  Russia 

Russia:—  Pe'.er    assumes    the  title 

l7>* 

The  king  assumes 

"Emperor  of  all  the  Russias." 

the  government. 

1721.  Turkey  :—  Mahommed  Effendi,  am- 

Dul'e de  Bourbon, 

bassador  to  Paris. 

rakisier. 

1723.  China:—  Christians  expelled. 

1723   Italy  :—  John   Gaston,  (de  Medici), 

grand  duke  of  Tuscany. 

1723.  Turkey  :—  The  Turks  and  Russians 

attempt  to  dismember  Persia. 

1724.  Italy  :—  Benedict  XIII.,  pope. 

1724 

Conrrets  of  Cam- 

1725.    Russia:—  Catharine   I.,   widow   of 

bray 
between    F-ngland, 
Francs,  Prussia, 
ami  Hc.!l£.nd. 

1725.  :- 
Alliance 
1734.  :— 

of    Vienna,    Spam, 
iind  Austria. 

Peter  j§f  
1725.  Turkey  :—  Partition  treaty  for  sci7 
ing  the  north  and   west  provinces  A 

1726 

Ministry  (,(  Cardi- 

Con- 

Persia. 

nal     F  I  e  u  r  y  . 

quest  of 

1726.    Russia  :—  Alliance    with    Austria. 

and  Sic<- 

1726.     Turkey  :—  First     printing     press 
brought  from  Paris  to  Turkey. 

Iv  by 
Don 

1727.  Russia  :—  Treaty  with  China 

Oat  lew. 

Prtrr  II  ^Ss? 

1727.  Turkey  :—  Peace  of  Bagdad. 

1728.   Denmark:—  Fire  at    Copenhagen, 

tm 

Congress   of  So.s- 
so.as      dissolved, 

destroys  the  public  library. 
—  colony  of  Danes  in  Greenland. 

without  effecting 

jjk 

any  thing. 

1730.  Denmark:  —  Christian  Vl.fjpf  

tween    England, 
France,  and  Hol- 

1733. War  of  the  Po- 
lish succession  ; 
Austria.    Russia, 

1730.  Italy  —  Clement  XII.,  pope. 
Russia  :  —  Anne  jig  

land. 

and  Denmark. 
1735.    Preliminaries 
of  Viennarnot  con- 
cluded till  1733 

1733.  Poland  :—  Frederic  Augustus  11  *jg 
The  diet  elect  Stanislaus,  but  are 
compelled  by  the  Russian  army  to  elec'. 

1740.  War  of  the  Aus- 

Frederic. 
1734.  Stanislaus  besieged  in  Dantztc,  es- 

733 

.734 
1710 

1741: 

War  of  the  Polish 
succession  : 
France.      Spain, 
and  Safdi  ua. 
Conquest  of    Lor- 
raine. 
War  of   the    Aus- 
trian  succession 
—Marshals  Belle 
isle  and  Broglio  : 

—  defeated  by   the 

1739.  :— 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land, for 
infrac- 
tions of 
the   Asi- 

trian  succession. 
Maria    The- 
resa succeeds  to 
the    hereditary 
States. 
1741.    The     French. 
Saxons,  and  Bava- 
rians, overrun  Aus- 
tria, take  Prague, 
and  crown  Charles 

VI.    emperor,  ^g 
Treaty  of  Bres- 
lau  wiih  Austria. 
1743.     The     French 

capes  to  Koningsbers. 
1734.  Turkey  :—  Turks  driven  from  Per- 
sia by  Nadir  Shah. 
1736.  —war  with  Russia  and  Austria. 
1737.  Italy  :  —  Francis,  of  Lorraine,  gram 
duke  of  Tuscany. 
1739.  India  :—  Invaded  by    Nadir  Shafc 
who  takes  and  plunders  Delhi. 
1739.    Turkey  :—  Turks     defeated    nea 
Choezim. 
1740.  Italy  :—  Benedict  XIV.,  pone 
Turkey  :—  The  Turks  invade  Persi 
—  are  repulsed  by  Ashraf. 
-peace  of  Belgrade. 

allies  at   Dettin- 

ento 

driven  across  the 

gen. 

treaty 

Rhine. 

848 


THE  WORLD'S 


[Period  X. — 97  y<-ars. 


A.O. 

PROORESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

AMERICA. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Frederic     the     Great    makes 

1744.  Naval   victory  over  the 

great  improvements  in  mili- 
tary tactics  —  imroduces./Zy- 
ing  horse  artillery. 
Durante  and  Leo.  celebrated 

1745.    Louisburg    and     Cape 
Breton  taken   from   France 

French  and  Spanish  fleets  in 
the  bay  ol  Hieres. 
1745.  Scotch  rebellion—  Char- 
les Edward   lands  in  Scot 

musicians. 

by  the  English. 

land. 

Handel,  and  Seb.  Bach,  musi- 

1746   he  is  defeated  at  Cul- 

cal  composers. 

loden. 

1747 

•Indigo  first  produced  in  Caro- 

1747. David    Bramerd    and 

1747.  Victories  over  the  French 

lina. 

Benjamin  Coleman,  died. 

off     Belle-isle     and     Cape 

Finisterre. 

1748 

Mosheim,  ecclesiastical  histo- 

1748. Peace    of  A  i  x   la 

rian. 

1749.    English   settlement   in 

mutual  restitution  of  con 

'750 

Dr.  Franklin's  discoveries  in 

Nova  Scotia. 

electricity. 

1752 

England  iniroduces  the  "New 

1752.    The   new    style    intro- 

1753 

Style  "  Calendar. 
British  Museum  founded. 

duced  ;   the  year   hereafter 
commences  Jan.  1. 

1752.  Hostilities  be'ween  Eng  land  and  France  on  the  boun 

1754.  Washington's  mission  to 

the  French. 

1755.  Defeat  of  Braddock. 

British. 

1756.  Oswego  and  Ft.  Granbv 

A  Ian      Ram-  Helvetius,  Fr. 
say,                Racine.  Fr. 

taken  by  the  French. 

1756     "Seven     Years' 
Subsidiary  alliance  with 

Shenslone,        GeUert,  Ger. 
Gray,                  Winckle- 
Collins,                mann,  Ger. 
A  'eenside, 
(Jtiurcfiill. 

1757.  Fort  Wm.  Henry  cap- 
tured. 

Prussia. 
Ministry  of  W  i  1  1  i  a  m 
Pitt,  the  elder. 
1757.   Victory  of  Plassey,  ir. 
India. 

1758.  Repulse  of  Abercrombie 

at  Ticomleroga. 

Fort  Du  Quesne  taken. 

1759.   Invasion   of    Canada  — 

1759.  Naval  victories  over  the 

death  of    Wolfe  —  Quebec 

Lagros,  and  off  Brest. 

taken. 

Surat.    in    India,    taken 

Capture     of    Niagara, 

from  the  Dutch. 

Crown  Point,  and  Ticomle- 

j& 

roga. 

1760.—  G  eoT°e  III  .  f|f  — 

John  Ryabrach,  sculptor. 
Hogarth,    Wilson,  Sf  Joshua 

1761.  Earl  of  Bute,  premier. 
1762.  War  with  Spain. 

17GJ 

Reynolds,  painters. 
Potatoes       first     planted     in 

Conquest   of    Havana, 
Trinidad,  and  Manilla. 

France,  by  Turgot. 

1763.  End  of  the  "  Old  French 

1763.   Peace    of   Parii 

Nietmhr'a  travels  in  Arabia. 

War." 

1765.  "  American  Stamp  Act  " 

Wesley  Sf  Whi/efield  preach. 

resisted     in    Massachusetts 

1761 

Philadelphia  Medical  School, 

and  Virginia. 

1765.  Bengal  ceded  to  the  Eas" 

1766 

first  in  America. 
Wai  Us  and  Carteret's  voyage 

First  Colonial  Congress  at 
New-York. 

India     Company     by     th« 
treaty  of  Allahab*!. 

of  discovery  in  the  South 

1     Seas. 

1718-1815.J 


THB  WORLDS  PROGRESS. 


849 


A.D. 

FRANCE. 

SPAIN 

AND 

PORTU- 
GAL. 

GERMANY. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewiere. 

1744 

War     declared 

. 

against  England 

1740.  Prussia  :—  F  RBDERIC  II  .f§ 

and  Austria. 

(the  Great.)  Prussia  increase*  in  in> 

1745 

Battle  of  Fontenoy, 

17-1").  Charles  dies  at 

portance.—  War  with  Austria. 

allies  defeated. 

Munich. 

Russia  :  —  Ivan  V. 

'.746 

The  French  victo- 

1746. :— 

House     o  1 

1741.  Sweden  :—  War  with  Russia. 

rious     by    land, 

Ferdi- 

Lorraine: 

Swedes  driven  out  of  Finland. 

but  unsuccessful 

nand  VI. 

jft 

*s 

by  sea. 

tib 

—Francis  l.jf 

Russia  :  —  Elizabeth.  Wf  

1747 

War  with  Holland. 

fegg  

husband  of  Maria 

1743.  —Peace  of  Abo  with  Sweden. 

Theresa. 

1743.  Turkey  :—  War  wilh  Persia. 

—  Defeat  near  Erivan. 

1744.  India  :  —  Hostilities  between  Frenck, 

and  English. 

1744.  Italy  :—  Savoy  occupied  by  Frencl 

and     Spaniards,  who  take 

1745.  —  Parma,  Milan,  and  Placentia. 

—  Genoa  bombarded  by  the  English. 

1746.  —French  and  Spaniards  driven  frona 

Lombardy. 

1746.  Denmark  .-—Frederic  V.HIf  

1747.  Netherlands  :—  William  IV. 

Persia:  —  Revolution:  Nadir. 

Shah  murdered. 

1751.  Holland:—  William  V.  stadtholdei 

Denmark:  —  Ministry  of  Count  Bert* 

C,  h  n  n  fi  11  *>  — 

1748  Peace  of  Aix  la  Cha- 

storff. 

muuffia 

pel  le;   Spain,  and   Prussia 

Sweden  :—  House    of   Holstein   Got- 

the  on  ly    gainers  by     the 

torp  :— 

war. 

.jJL. 

1756.   Seven    Years' 

Adolphus  Frederic.  £gj  

War    of     Austria 

1754.  Italy  :  —  The  Corsicans,  under  Paoli, 

and  Prussia. 

revolt  against  Genoa. 

daries  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia. 

Invasion     and 
conquest  of  Saxo- 

1754. Turkey  :—  Othman  HI. 
1755.  First  Prussian  embassy  to  Constan- 

1:53 

Influence    of    Ma- 
dame de  Pompa- 
dour. 

ny,  by  Frederic  II. 
Alliance    with 
France. 

tinople. 
1756.  India:—  Calcutta  taken  by  the  Na- 
bob of  Bengal. 

War!" 
Capture  of  Minor- 
ca from  the  Eng- 
lish. 

1757.  Prussians  vic- 
torious at  Prague, 
Rossbach,     Lessa, 
and  Breslau. 

.757.  Turkey  :—  Mustapha  III. 
757.  Prussia  :  —  Russian  invasion. 
758.  —  victory  of  Londorf. 
1758.  Italy  :—  Clement  XIII.,  pope. 

The  French  take 

1759.    Prussia  :—  The   king    defeated    al 

1757 

Invasion  of  Hano- 

Verdun and    Bre- 

Kunnersdorf. 

ver. 

men. 

760.  —  Battle  of  Liegnitz.  —  Berlin  taken. 

1758 

Defeat  at  Crefeldt. 
on  the  Rhine. 

175S.French  defeated 
at  Crefeldt, 
1759.  and  at  Miurien 

India:—  Shah  Alim  II. 
Siege   and   capture  of  Pondicherry, 
by  the  English. 

French    off    Cape 
Attempt  to  invade 
Ireland. 

1759  :  — 
Charles 
HI  JL 

Victory  at  Max- 
en  over  the  Prus- 
sians. —  Dresden  re- 

Kingdom   of   Mysore    founded    by 
H  y  d  e  r    A  1  i  . 

1760 

Loss  of  all  Canada. 

taken. 

762.   Russia  :  Peter    IIL^Is  (si* 

I7C-T 

The    Bourbon  Fa- 

176U.  Great  victory 

months). 

mily  Compact. 
Siege  and  capture 
of   Belleisle,    by 

at  Torgan,  by  Fre- 
deric. 
1762.  Prussians  victo- 

  C  atharine  11  .^g,  
764.  Poland  :—  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 

the  English. 

rious  at  Freiburg. 
1763.   Peace  of  Hu- 

765.  India  ,—  Treaty  of  Allahabad. 
—  Establishment  of  a  British  empire 

between      France, 
Spain  and  Eng- 

bertstrug. 
1765.  Joseph    II. 

765.  Italy  :—  Peter  Leopold,  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany.                                  JL 

land. 

sJL 

766.  Denmark  :—  Christian  VII.  W?  

1764 

Expulsion  of   the 

CB  

766.  Power  of  the  Mamelukes  inEgyfX 

Jesuits. 

revived  under  Rodvan  and  Ali  Bejr. 

36* 


850 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


'Period  X.—  97  years.— 


l.D. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

1766.  American  Stamp 

Act    repealed  —  New 

ministry    under    the 

Earl  of  Chatham. 

i767 

first  spinning  machine  in  England. 

1767.  First   war    with 
Hyder   Ali   in    My- 

sore. 

1768  Cook's  first  voyage  of  discovery. 

1768.   Boston  occupied 

Bruce  discovers  the  source  of  the  Nile. 

by  the  British  troops. 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in  England  ;  Joshua 

Reynolds,  first  president. 

1769 

Letters  of  Junius. 

1769.  Daniel  Boone  ex- 

1570 

Whitefield  dies  at  Newburyport. 

plores  Kentucky. 

1770.  Lord    N  >  r  t  b  , 

prime  minister. 
1771.     The      Falkland 

1772.  Hancock,  S. 

Islands     ceded      by 

Adams,  and    P  a  • 

Spain  to  Great  Bri- 

trick     Henry, 

tain. 

promote  the  revolu- 

tion. 

1773.  Tea  destroyed  at 

Boston. 

.774 

Captain  Cook  discovers  New  California. 

1774.  Continental  Con- 

1774. The  Boston  Port 

1774 

The  SPINNING-  JENNY,  invented  by  Robert 

gress  at  Philadelphia. 

Bill  passed. 
1774.  Warren  Hastings, 

Arkwright. 

governor  general  ot 
India. 

!774 

The   Improved  STEAM   ENGINE,  by    Watt 

and  Bolton. 

1775.       AMERICAN     REVOLUTIONARY 

WAR: 

April   19,  Skirmish   at 

1775.      Lord      North's 

Lexinsum. 

"  conciliatory     mea- 

June 17,"B;utle  of  Bun- 

sures "    rejected    by 

ker's  Hill 

the  colonies. 

Fresco  tt,  Put- 

nam,<fcWarren. 

WASHINGTON, 

In  England. 
Goldsmith, 
Warburton, 

Jolmsnn, 
Littleton, 
Lowth, 

France. 

Voltaire, 
Rousseau, 
Diderot, 
Cond  iliac, 
Jussien, 

Ger.    Mosh- 
eim, 
Zimmerman, 
Kant, 
Klopstock, 

com  mande  r-  in-  ch  ief. 
Montgomery 
Montreal,  and  falls  at 
1776.  The  British  troops 
evacuate  Boston. 

takes    St.    Johns     and 
Quebec. 
1776.  The  city  of  Lon- 
don    remonstrates 
against  "he  American 

Garrick, 
Hume, 
Robertson, 
Blackstone. 
Adam  Smith, 
Home  Tooke, 
Priestley, 
Horsley, 
Burke, 

Lavoisier, 
La  Harpe, 
Barth'leny, 
Buffo  . 

Lessing, 
Wieland, 
Herder, 
Goethe, 
Schiller, 
Sw.  Linnaeus, 
ft.  Metastasio. 
Rtis.    Kheras- 
kov 

M  o  u  1  1  r  i  e    de 
Sullivan's  Island. 
DECLARA- 
TION   OF    IN- 
DEPENDENCE, 
July  4. 
Americans  (Sulli- 
van)    defeated     at 

wiir. 
feats    the    English    at 

The  British  army 
takes    possession    of 
New-York. 
Hessians  hired  for 
service  in  America. 

Pitt 

Flatbush.  Aug. 

Fox', 

Deerhavin, 

Battle  of  White 

Cooper, 
Sheridan, 

Bogdanovich, 
Khemnitzee. 

Plains. 
Battle  of  Trenton, 

Dot*    Ofi  7 

McPherson, 
Burns. 

ec.  tffj—t  . 
1777.  Arrival  of  Lafay- 

Kaimes. 
Reid. 

ette. 
Capture  of  Ticon  deroga  by  the  British 

July  5. 

1718-1815.J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


M* 

FRANCS. 

GERMANY. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

Discipline  of  the  Ottoman  troops  ln» 
proved  by  Baron  de  Tott. 

1767.  Spain  :  —  Jesuits  expelled. 

India:—  Hyder    Ali    resists   the    Eng- 

lish. 

1763 

Genoa  cedes  Corsica  to  France. 

1768.  War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottomau 

Empire. 

1769 

Ministry  of  Due  d'Aiquillon. 

1769.  Pope  Clement  XIV. 
The   Russian  army  occupies  Wa.lachia 

770 

Marriage  of  the  dauphin  with 
Marie  Antoinette. 

and  Moldavia. 

1771.  Sweden  :—  Gustavus  III-iS  

1772.     Joseph 

1772.  First  PartitionofPolani. 

II.  with  the 

Emperors  of 

Russia    and 

1773 

Madame  du   Barri   rules  the 
king. 

Prussia,  dis- 
member Po- 
land,   divid- 

1773.  Ottoman  Empire:—  The  Russians  cross- 
ing the  Danube,  are    repulsed  by  Ghazi 

jSt 

in<*     it     hp 

Hassan. 

1774 

Louis   X  V  I  .fjjf  

tween  them- 

Pope   Clement  abolishes  the  order   of 

Marie    Antoinette,   queen  :  — 
Maurepas,  prim?  minister. 

selves. 

Jesuits. 
1774.  India  —  Warren  Hastings,  first  British 
governor-general. 
Russia  :—  Revolt  of  the  Cossack  Puga^ 

scheff,  calling  himself  Czar  Peter. 

Ottoman  Empire  :—  Abdul  Hamid.fjg  — 

1775.  Pope  Pius  VI. 
Spain  :—  Able  ministry  of  Florida  Blan- 

ca. 

1770 

N  e  c  k  e  r  ,  comptroller-gene- 

1776. Bassora  surrendered  to  the  Persians. 

ral. 

East  Indies  :—  Lord  Pigot,  governor-!* 

Franklin  in  Paris. 

neral,  imprisoned  by  his  own  council. 

1777.  Portugal  :—  Maria,  qt  ML 

852 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  X. — 97  years.- 


.D.    PROQRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc.  UNITED  STATES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1731 


1792 
1783 


1784 


1785 

1780 
1787 


Herschefs   discovery  of  the 
freorgium  Sidus. 


Prussic  acid  obtained  in  a  se- 
parate state,  by  Scheele. 

Air  balloon  of  Montgolfier. 


First    American     vessel      in 

China.    - 
Institution  for  the  deaf  and 

dumb  at  Paris,  by  the  Abbe 

de  I'Epee. 
Sunday  schools  established  in 

England,  by  Robert  Raikes. 
Herscbel's  Telescopes. 


Stenography,  by  Taylor. 

Panoramas  in  London. 
First   spinning   machine    in 
France. 


Talma,  the  celet  rated  trage- 
dian. 


1778.  Capture  of  Pondicherrjr, 
in  India. 


Battles   of    Bennington,  Aug.  16;   Brandy  wine,  Sept 
11,  and  Siill  water. 

Philadelphia    taken   by  the  English,  under  Cornwal 

lis. Battle    of     German  town,   Oct.    4.— Gates    re 

ceives  Burgoyne'ssurrender,    Oct.  17. 

Articles  of  confederation, 
adopted  Nov.  15. 
177S.  Alliance  with  France. 

Battle  of  Monmouth, 
Washington  victorious,  June 
28. 

Arrival    of  the    French 
fleet  under  D'Estaing. 
Massacre  of  Wyoming. 
Savannah  taken   by  the 
English. 

1779.  Wayne     recovers 
Stoney  Point. 

Paul  Jones's  Victory  off  Scotland. 

1780.  Battle    near    Caraden :  1780.  War  with  Hyder  All  in 


India, 

War  with  Holland. 


D  e     K  a  I  b    killed. 
Treason  of  Arnold. 

1781.  Battle  of  Co  wpens,  gain- 
ed by    Morgan. 

Surrender    of    Cornwallis     at      York- 
town,    Oct.  17. 

1781.  Victory  off  the  Doggei- 
bank. 

1782.  Treaty  with  Holland,  by 
J.   Adams,  Jay,   Frank 

1  i  n  ,    and  Laurens. 

1783.  PEACE    OF    VERSA  ILLES: 

INDEPENDENCE    of  the    UNITED   STATES   ac 

knowledged   by   Great  Bri- 
tain. 


1784.  New- York  Chamber  rf 
Commerce  founded. 


1785.  John    Adams,  1st 

States  of  America  to  Great 

Britain. 
[786.   Shay's  insurrection    in 

Massachusetts. 
[787.  General   Convention  at 

Philadelphia. 

FEDERAL  CON- 
STITUTION of  the 

United  Slates,  adopted. 
1783.  Cotton  planted  in  Geor- 

1789.  GEOROB  WASH- 
INGTON, first  Presi- 
dent: 

J  e  f  f  e  r  s  o  n  ,  Ha- 
milton, Kn  ox,  Ran- 
dolph, and  Jay,  form 
the  cabinet. 

1791.  First  United  States  Bank. 
|792.  Kentucky  admitted 

to  the  Union. 

Un  .ted  States  Mini  esta- 

bliahe-i. 


1784.    Pitt,    the    younger, 
premier. 

Peace  with  Tippoo  Saib. 


anb.issador  from  the  United 
1786.  Pitt's  Sinking  Fund. 


1788.  The  king  insane.--Deatn 
of  Charles  Edward,  the  Jaat 
preienjct. 


Trial  of   Warren  Hast- 
ings. 


1792.  Provision  for  the  f  n<!u» 
abolition  of  the  .ilM  «    f  '• 


1718-1815.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


853 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1778 


Alliance  with  America. 


1779  Scheme    to    invade    England 
from  Normandy. 

I78C  ,R  °  c  h  a  m  b  e  a  u     sent    io 
aid  the  Americans. 


1781 
1782 

J783 


Necker  resigns. 

Defeat  of  De  Grasse  in  the 
West  Indies,  by  Rodney. 

Peace     of     Versail- 
les. 


1787 


179. 
1722 


La  Perouse's  voyage  of  disco- 
very. 

Financial  difficulties  —  New 
taxation :  Colonne,  Bner.rie, 
and  Necker,  ministers  suc- 
cessively. 

FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

begins. — Bastile  taken  and 
razed,  July  14. — I.  a  f  a  y  - 
e  1 1  e  ,  commander  of  the 
national  guards. —  M  i  r  a  • 
beau,  leading  orator. 


1778.  War  of  the  Bavarian 
succession. — Bavaiia  seized 
by  Germany. 


1779.  Congress  and  Peace  of 
Teschen. 


1782.    Punishment   of    death 
abolished. 

The  Pope  visits  the  em- 
peror, to  dissuade  him  from 
hostilities  against  the  church. 


1780.  Declaration  of  the  artnea 
neutrality — to  protect  neu- 
tral flags  from  the  right  ol 
search  claimed  by  Britain. 


1782.  Italy :— Pontinemanhes 
drained. 

India: — Rise  of  Sindia — 
T  i  p  p  o  o i ,    Sultan. 

1783.  — alliance    with    th« 
French. 


1785.   2,000    religious   houses 
suppressed  by  the  emperor. 


1788.  The   emperor  attempts 
to  control  the  Universities. 


1790.  Leopold    1 1  .^jjj— 
Congress  of  Reichenbach. 


Flight  of  the  king  to  Varen-  1791.  Conference  of  Pilnitz. 
nes. — Lafayette  resigns. 

1792.— Francis  ll.f|f— 

War  with    Germany : — The  French    take    Spires,  Mentz, 
and  Longwy — Lafay&tte  im- 
France     declared     a      prisoned  at  Olmutz. 

republic. 
Girondists  and  Mountainists. 


1786.  Prussia  — Frederic  Wil- 
liam II. 

1787.  Russia:— War  wi*  th« 
Porte. 

1788.  Spain :— Charles  IV. 

1789.  Ottoman  Empire;— Se- 
Inn  II. 

1790.  Tuscany : — Ferdinand 
IIL 


1792.  Sweden  :— Gusta«u  IV 


854 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  X. — 97  years.-- 


PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATBS. 


GI-.SAT  BRITAIN. 


Tom  Paine, 
Fisher  Ames. 

HannahMore, 

Gainsboro', 

Moreland. 

Bognslawski, 
Krasiki,     Po- 
lish poets. 


Alfieri,  Italian 
poet. 

Gluck, 
Haydn, 
Mozart, 
Albrechtsber- 

gen, 
Beethoven. 


1799 


Id02 


Pestalozzi,  system  of  elemen- 
tary education. 

Mungo  Park's  travels  in 
Africa,  published. 


Iron  railways  in  England. 
Polytechnic  school  in  Paris. 


First  book-fair  in  New-  fork. 


1793.  Washington  re-elected. 

Neutrality  in    regard   to 
France. 


1793.  First  coalition  again* 
France,  directed  by  Eng- 
land — all  Europe,  cxcepl 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Tur- 
key. 


1904 


First  Locomotive  Steam  En- 
gine used  on  the  Merthyn 
Tydvil  road  in  Wales. 


1791.  Commercial  treaty  with  England. 


Commence  men 
of  the  n  a  v  y— 6  fr  i 
gates  built. 


1796.  Washington  resigns. 


1797.  John    Adams,   2d 
president. 


Difficulties  with  France 

1798.  Regular  army  organized, 
Washington  commander-iri- 
chief. 

1799.  Death  of  Washington. 
Tennessee    becomes 

a  Slate. 


1800.     Seat 
transferred 
D.  C. 


of    government 
to  Washington, 


1801.  Thomas   Jeffer- 
son,  3d  President. 

Exports  of  United  States, 
$93,000,000. 

802.  Ohio  joins  the  Union  ; 
it  has  76,OOU  inhabitants. 


803.  Purchase  of   Louisi- 
ana,   for  $15,000,000. 

U.  States  frigate  Philadel- 
phia, taken  by  the  Tripoli- 
tans. 

804.  D  e  c  a  t  u  r    recaptures 
the  Philadelphia. 

P  r  e  b  1  e  bombards  Tri- 
poli. 

Burr  kills  Hamilton. 

805.  Jefferson  re-elected  Pre- 
sident :  G  e  o  r  g  e   Clin- 
ton,   of  Jfeio-Yorlc,  Vice- 
President. 


Biuish    army   defeated 
near  Dunkirk. 


1795.  War  with  Holland. 


1798.  Second  coalition  against 
France. — Irish  rebellion.  — 
Nelson's  victory  at 
the  Battle  of  the 
Nile. 

Wilberforce's  motion  to 
abolish  the  slave  trade,  lost. 
87  to  83. 


1800.  Union    of    Eng- 
land   and    Ireland. 
— Malta  taken. 

1801.  Battle  of  Alexandria.— 
Pitt  resigns,  succeeded  by 
Addington. 

1802.  Peace  of  Amiens. 


1803.  Successful  war  in  ludia. 


1801.  Pitt  again  premier. 


1805.  Nelson  defeats  the 
French  and  S[.\inish  flees* 
off  Trafalgar. 


1718-1815.J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


855 


GERMANY. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1793.  First  Coalition 
against    France. 


The  king  and  queen  beheaded. 
Reign    of    Terror. 

Marat  assassinated  by  Char- 
lotte Corday. 

Victories    of    P  i  c  h  e  g  r  u    and    J  o  u  r  d  a  n  —the  allies 
every  where  driven  back. 

Revolution  of  the  9thThermi- 
dor. 

Robes  piere   guillotined. 

NAPOLEON  BONA- 
PARTE, commander  of 
the  army  ;  quells  an  insur- 
rection in  Paris. 

War  in  Italy. 

Haule  of  Lodi. 

Bonaparte's  Austri  an  Campaig  n — H  o  c  h  e 
and  M  o  r  e  a  u  '  s  cele- 
brated passage  of  the  Rhine 

Peace    of     Campo    Formio. 


Bonaparte's  expedition  to 
Egypt  is  defeated  by  Nelson 
at  Aboukir,  Aug.  1. 

The  French  enter  Switzerland 
under  Bernadotte  and 
Jourdan. — Return  of  Bona- 
parte.— R  evolution  of 
the  18th  Brumaire 
— B  on  apart  e,  first 
consul. 

Battle    of  Marengo. 


1798.  Second  Coalition  against 
France. 


— M  o  r  e  a  u  '  s     victory    of 
Ho  hen  linden. 


l-«ace  of  Lunevile. 


Bonaparte  elected  president  of 

the  Itaiian  republic. 
Peace    of    Amiens. 
Legion  nf  Honor  instituted. 

War  with  Epf'wid. 
Bank  of  France. 


Duke  D'Enghien  shot. 
Bonaparte  crowned  as    NA- 

POI.EON   I.,  Emperor   of 

the  French. 
Marshals   Soult,    Murat, 

N  e  y  ,   <fcc. 
Austrian  Campaign, 


Peace  of 
Napoleon    Protector  of    the 


1804.  The  emperor  of  Ger- 
many assumes  the  title  of 
emperor  of  AUSTRIA. 


Batttle    of     Auater- 
lilz. 

Presburg. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 


1793.  Second  Partition  of  Po- 
land by  Russia  and  Prussia. 

H  a  y  t  i  independent  re- 
public, under  T  o  u  s  s  a  i  n  t 
L'Ouverture. 

1794.  Poland :— Revolt  at  Cra- 
cow.— K  o  s  c  i  u  s  k  o  ,  go- 
neral-in-chief.— Russians  de- 
feated at  Warsaw. 


1795.  Final    partition 
of  Poland  —  extinction 
of  the  kingdom. 

Batavian  Republic  : — Shi- 
melpennink. 

1796.  Russia  :— Paul  I. 

1797.  Switzerland:— General 
Revolution  — The     French 
invade     Berne  —  Helvetian 
Republic. 

Prussia  : — Frederic  Wil 

liam  HI.iJK — — 

1798.  India: -Marquis Welles- 
ley,  governor-general. 

1799.  Russians,   under    S  u  - 
w  a  r  r  o  w  ,    defeated  neac 
Milan. 


1800.  Armed  neutrality  of  the 
north. 

Pope  Pius  VII. 
Ionian  Republic  founded. 

1801.  Russia  :  Alexander.  g5f 

1802.  Italian  Republic — Bonn- 
pane  president. 


1803.  India  :— Great  Mahratu 
War. 


1804.  Russia :— War  with  ?•* 

sia. 


856 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  X. — 97  years.— 


A.D. 

Pfi.oan.Ess  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GUEAT  BRITAIN. 

'806 

Planet  Juno  discovered. 

1806.  Fourth  Coalition  again*! 

Lewis  4-   Clmk's  expedition 

France. 

to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

5307 

FULTON'S    FIRST     SUCCESS- 

1807.   Embargo    on    all    the 

1807.  Bill  for  the  aoolition  at 

FUL     TRIAL     OP     STEAM- 

ports of  the  United  States. 

the  slave  trade,  passed. 

BOATS. 

Trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for 

treason. 

1808 

General  University  established 

Slave  trade  abolished. 

1808.    The     English,     under 

by  Napoleon,  to  superintend 

W  e  1  1  e  s  1  e  y  ,  enter  Spain 

national  education. 

as  aliies. 

Lithography  invented. 

1809.  J  a  m  e  s   Madison, 

1809.  Fifth  Coalition. 

In  England  : 

France  : 

4th  President. 

Walcheren  expediting 

Flaxman, 
Wesl.macott, 
Chantrey, 

La  Grange, 
Mange, 
Hauy, 

Embargo  repealed  ;   the 
non-intercourse  act  passed. 

sculptors. 

Biot. 

B.  St.  Pierre, 

poet. 

1810 

First  steamboat  built  in  Eu- 

1810. War  with  Sweden. 

rope. 

1811.     Engagement     between 

1811  George,  Prince  of  Wales, 

the    '  President  '     and    the 

Prince  Regent,  (the  king  be- 

' Little  Belt.' 

ing  insane). 

Indians  on  the  Wabash, 

Population  of  Great  Bri- 

defeated by  Gov.  Harrison. 

tain,  12,552,144. 

Population  of  the  United 

States,  7,239,903. 

1812 

American    Board    of    Com- 

1812.       WAR  WITH  GRBAT  BRITAIN. 

missioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, founded. 

Invasion  of  Canada  under  Gen.  Hull. 

Gen.  Hull  surrenders  Detroit  to  the  Brithh. 

1514 

Steam  carriages  in  England. 
Gas    used    for    lighting    the 

The    Constitution 
r  i  e  r  e  : 

captures    the    Guer 

streets  of  London. 

(First  check  of  British 

Lord    L  '  /  e  r  p  o  o  1 

naval  supremacy.) 

premier. 

tlo 

Safety  lamp  invented  by  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy. 

Wool    victorious   at  Queenstovvn,  O,t.  12. 
Captain  Jones,  in  the  Wasp,  captures  the  Fro!  .4 
Oct.  18. 

In  England  : 

H.  K.  White, 
Keats, 
Reg.  Heber. 

Shelley, 

Bilderdyk, 
Dutch. 

German  : 

The    "United    States," 
The  Constitution,  Captain 
Louisiana  admitted  into 

Captain  Decatur,  captures  the 
British  frigate  Macedonian. 
Bainbridge.  captures  the  Bri 
tish  frigate  Java. 

Crabbe, 
Sir  W.  Scott, 
Byron, 
Coleridge, 

W.  Schlegel, 
F  Schlegel, 
Richter, 
Koizebue: 

the  Union. 
1813.  Perry's   victory 
on    Lake    Erie. 
Battle  of  the  Thames: 

1813.  Sixth   Coalition  against 
France  —  Prussia,     Russia, 
Sweden,  Great  Britain,  and 

Lamb, 
Montgomery, 

Weber    and 
Spohr,  musi- 

Tecumseh killed. 
1814.     City    of     Washington 

Austria. 
1814.  Treaty  of  Chaumoc.t  be- 

*"W' 

cal     compo- 

burnt by  the  Btf^sh. 

tween  Austria,  Prussia,  Rus- 

France : 

sers. 

sia,  and  Great  It  ri  ii  1  1. 

Mad.  de  Stael, 

Russia: 

Peace  of  Ghent,  signed  Dec.  3. 

Mad  deGenlis, 

K<u'(imsin, 

Chateaubriand 

Somorokor, 

1815.  Battle  of  New-Orleans: 

Cuvier. 

Dmitriev, 
Kjriloy. 

British  defeated  by  General 
Jackson,  Jan.  8. 

1815.  Candy  and  Alm;>ra  cap- 
tured. 

Meletulez  Val- 

Wellington    vie 

dez,  Spanish 

War  against  Algiers  de- 

torious at  Waterloo,  June  18 

poet. 

clared. 

I718-1815.J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


857 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


Victory  of   Jena    over  the  Prussians. 
Berlin    decree. 


War  with  Russia. 

Battlu  of  Friedland.—  P  e  a  c  e 
of  Tilsit. 

Invasion  of  Portu- 
gal. 

French  ir»  Spain  defeated  at 
Vienna,  by  Sir  Arthur  Wei- 
lesley. 


Battle    of  VVagra  m— 


Napoleon  inarries  Maria  Lou- 
ise.—Continental  peace  ex- 
cept with  Spain. 

Birth  of  the  emperor's  son; 
created  king  of  Rome. 

Soult  victorious  in  Spain — 
takes  Badajos ;  is  defeated 
by  the  English  at  Albuesa. 


RUSSIAN    CAMPAIGN. 

Battles  of'Smolensko  and  Bo- 
rodino. * 

Moscow  entered  by  Napoleon's 
army— and  bun  >d  by  the 
Russians. 


Victories  of  I,  u  t  z  e  n  , 
Bautzen,  and  Dres- 
den, over  the  allies. 

Battle  of    Leipsic  — 

The  allies  enter  Paris. 

\apoleon  abdicates, 
and  retires  to  Elba. 

H  r.  use  of  Bourbon 
restored: 

Louis     XVIII. 

Bonaparte  returns  from  Elba. 

The     hundred    days. 

Napoleon  victorious  at  Ligny. 

BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO. 

The  allies  enter  Paris. 

Bonaparte  banish- 
ed to  St  Helena. 


Peace  of  Vienna. 

Metternich,    minis- 
ter. 


1812.  Austria  in  alliance  with 
France  against  Russia. 


1813.   War  of  German  inde- 
pendence. 

Austria  joins  the  Coali- 
tion. 

Bonaparte      driven      to      the 
Rhine,  loses  his  whole  army. 


1815.  German  League. 

Congress  of  V  i  en 
na. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1806.  Holland  :— Louis  Napo- 

leon,  king. 
Prussia  at  war  with  Franc* 

in  alliance  with  Russia. 
1807. Ottoman  Empire  : — Mus 

tapha  IV. 


1808.  Spain  :— Ferdinand  VII. 

"     Joseph  Napoleon. 
Naples : — Murat. 
Denmark  :— Frederic  VI. 
Ottoman  Empire :— Mali 
moud  II. 

1809.  Sweden  :— Charles  XIU 


1810.  South  America:— VE- 
NEZUELA  declared  inde- 
pendent. 

1811.  NEW  GRENADA   d» 
clared  independent. 


1£12.    INVASION   OP  RUSSIA 

by   Napoleon.— BURNING 
OF  MOSCOW. 

K  u  l  o  s  o  f  f     pursues 
the  retreating  French. 

Poland:— Diet  of  War- 
saw :  the  Poles  declared  a 
nation  by  Napoleon. 


1813.  South  America  :— B  o 
1  i  v  a  r  drives  the  Span 
iards  from  Caraccas 


1814.  Union  of  Holland    antf 
Belgium. — Peace  of   Kiel 
Swe'ilen,  and  England. 

Union  of  Sweden  ar.a 
Norway  as  two  kingdoms 
under  one  monarch. 

1815.  Netherlands:— William 

The  "Holy  Al- 
liance' '—Russia,  Prus- 
sia, and  Austria. 


858 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

PERIOD  XI.— 50  years.- 


PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1815 


1816 
1817 

1818 
1819 

1821 
1822 

1823 
1824 
1820 


New  corn  law  in  England. 

Polytechnic  institution  at  Vi- 
enna. 

Man u factories  introduced  into 
Poland. 

The  family  of  Rothschilds 
conies  into  notice  at  Frank- 
fort. 

Aboliiion  of  the  slave  trade  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna. 

Second  United  States  Bank 
chartered  for  20  years,  capi- 
tal $35,000,000. 

Public     schools     established 

throughout  Russia. 
Belzoni  penetrates  the  second 

pyramid  of  Gheza. 

Abolition  of  predial  bondage 
in  Bavaria  and  Wirteinberg. 


1816.  United  States  Bank  in- 
corporated. 

Indiana    admitted. 

1817.  .Tames    Monroe, 
5th  President. 

Mississippi     ad- 
mitted. 

1818    Illinois    admitted. 
War  with  the  Seminoles. 


1816.  Bombardment  of  Algiers 
—The    Dey    compelled    v 
make    peace    and    abolish 
slavery. 

1817.  Lord  Exmouth's  expe- 
dition to  Algiers 


first  passage  of  the  Atlantic  by  steam,  by  the  Savannah — 
New- York  to  Liverpool. 


Rise  of  mechanic  institutions 
in  England. 

Hieroglyphics  deciphered : — 
ChampoUion. — Sir  William 
Herschel  died. 

Huskisson'g  /ree  trade  system 

in  England. 
First  manufactory  in  Egypt, 

established  by  Mehemet  Ali. 

Inland  navigation  of  the 
United  States :  the  great 
Erie  Canal  opened. 


Mail-posts      in     Prussia. — 

Steam   navigation  on  the 

Rhine. 
General    financial  panic   in 

England. 

Vast    increase    of   periodical 
literature  in  England,  France, 

Germany,  America,  &c. 


Alexander  Volta   dies,  disco- 
verer of  the  Voltaic  battery. 


1820.  Maine    admitted. 

1821.  Monroe  re-elected. 
Missouri    admitted 
Slavery  compromise. 


1824.  Lafayette's  visit. 
Erie  canal  opened. 
Protective  tariff. 


1825.    J.  Q.  Adams,    6th 
President. 


1820.-  Seorge    I  V  . W— 


1823.   Canning    ministry. 
The  Ashantees  in  Afiio* 
defeated. 


1825.  Commercial  treaty  with 
Prussia. 


1827.    Treaty  of  London    kr 
favor  of  Greece. 


1828.    Wellington  ministry,— 
Disturbances  in  Ireland 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


859 


1815-1865 


FRANCB. 


1.16 


1821 


182? 


Congress  of  Aix  la  Chapelle. 
—France  joins  the   "  Holy 


Alliance.' 


Death  of  Napoleon  at  St.  He- 
lena. 


-Charles    X.I 


West  sent  to  Algiers. 


AUSTRIA,  &c. 


1821.  Congress  of  monarchs 
at  Laybach. — Insurrection 
in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 
— Alexander  Ypsilanti  de- 
feated and  carried  prisoner 
to  Austria. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewnere. 


1316.  Portugal    -John  VI.  ^ 

in  Brazi. 

Union  of  Naples  and 
Sicily. 

1817.  Republic  of  the  Ionian 
Islands. 

India :— The  cholera  com- 
mences its  ravages. 

1818.  Sweden  :— Charles  XIV. 
(Bernadotte.) 

India:— The  Mahratta 
power  completely  over- 
thrown, and  the  British  sue 
ceeds. 

1819.  South    America:—  Re- 
ublic    of   COLOMBIA :- 
I  o  1  i  v  a  r  ,    President. 

1821.  Hayti :— B  o  y  e  r  ,   em- 
peror. 

South  America:— PERU 
and  GUATEMALA  inda- 
pemlent. 

1822.  BRAZIL  declared  inde. 
pendent. 

Mexico : — Iturbide,  em- 
peror. 

Greek  Revolu- 
tion. 

Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. 

Massacre  of  Scio. 

1823.  Italy  :— Leo  XII.,  pope, 

1824.  Death  of  Lord  Byron  at 
Missolonghi. 

1825.  Russia  :— N  i  c  h  o  1  a  * 


1826.  —War  with  Persia. 
Greece  :  —  Missolonghi 

taken  by  the  Turks. 

1827.  Treaty  between  Rus.-v.-j 
and    the    Porte    respecting 
Greece. 

Greece  :—  B  a  1  1  1  e    of 
N  a  v  a  r  i  n  o  . 

Portugal  :—  Maria  de  Glo- 


— Rebellion  in  favor  of 
Don  Miguel  as  regent. 
328.    War    between    RussU 
and  the  Porte. 


860 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  A'/.— 50  yean,.— 


* 
AC 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

In  ENGLAND  : 

FRANCS  : 

Jeremy    Ben- 

Cuvier. 

t/uiin. 

Talma,  trage- 

Tho'nas Chal- 

dian. 

mers, 
Thomas  Dick. 

Segur, 
La  Place, 

1827.    Treaty  of   London  u 
favor  of  Greece. 

W.  Kirby, 

Beranger, 

Hallam, 

Lamartine. 

Lingarrl, 

Wordsworth. 

GERMANY: 

1828.  The  Wellington  minis- 

Southey, 

try.—  Disturbances   in    Ire- 

Campbell, 

nf 

Mayerbenr, 

land. 

Moore, 
Leigh  Hunt, 

Kotzebu&, 
Gall, 

Mrs.  Humans, 
Bulwer, 

Sptirzheim. 

1829.    General     Jack- 

1829. Catholic  emancipation. 

'•  Barry  Corn- 
wall." 

SWEDEN  : 

son,    7th  President  of  the 
United  States. 

Cap:ain  Ross'  voyage  to 
discover  a  North  West  pas- 

Tegner, 

sage. 

RUSSIA  : 

Daldyren. 

Kuramsin, 

ITALY  : 

Somorokov, 

Dmietriev, 

Rossini, 

Krilov. 

Paganini. 

U.   S.  A. 

1830.     Treaty     between     the 

1830.  —William  IV.^g 

2V.   Webster, 

Wheaton. 

United  States  and  the  Porte. 

Earl  Grey,    minister. 

Irving, 

Kent, 

Difficulties  with  China. 

Conper, 

Story, 

1831.  Lord   John    Rus- 

Flint, 

Galtatin, 

s  e  1  '  s    Reform  Bill  intro- 

Win, 

Livingston, 

duced. 

Marshall, 

Channing. 

Cholera  first  appears  in 

England. 

630 

Liverpool    am, 

Manchester 

Railroad  opened. 

.831.  The  king  of  the  Nether    ands  makes  his  award  on  the 

w 

The  two  Landers  succeed  in 
tracing  the  Niger  from  Lake 
Tchad  to  the  ocean. 
The  first  newspaper  in  Con- 
stantinople. —The   Factory 

North  Eastern  Boundary,  be 

1832.  War  with  the  Winneba- 
goes  and  other  Indian  tribes. 
—Cholera  in  New-  York.  — 

tween  the  United  States  and 
the  British  provinces. 
1832.  Reform  Bill  passed. 

Bill  in  Engla 

»d,  limiting  the 

Nullification  in  South  Caro- 

hours oi  la  bo 

r  for  children. 

lina.—  General  Jackson's  ce- 

6.U 

Reform  Bill  in  England:— 
fSttension  of  Suffrage. 
Trade    unions    in    England, 
France.  Germany,  Switzer- 

lebrated proclamation. 
833.  General  Jackson  re-elect- 
ed to  the  Presidency. 
Removal  of  the    Depo- 

1833.    Captain    Ross    returns 
from  his  voyage  of  disco- 
very. 

land.  &c. 

sites  of  the  United    States 

LdiJ 

Giraid    Colleg 

s.  at   Philadel- 

from  the  U.  S  Bank. 

»3i 

phia,  and  the  University  o! 
New-  York,  commenced. 
De    Tocqueville's  History  of 
Democracy  in  America. 

834.  The  President  censured 
by  the  Senate  for  removing 
the  Deposites. 

1834.  Sir   Robert   Peel 
Premier.  —  Difficulties   il 
Canada. 

Iwiitisition      abolished      in 
Spain. 

835.  Great  Fire  in  New-  York. 

B3G 

Slavery     aboli 

ihed    in     the 

British  colon 

its. 

Boston  and  Lowell  Railroad 

£36.  The  national  debt  of  the 

ISJii 

completed. 
James  Smithson,  of  London, 

United  States  being  paid,  the 
surplus  revenue  is  divided 

bei)  ueal  lies  £ 

100,000  to   the 

among  the  States. 

United   Stale 

i   lor  the  esta- 

blishment  of  an  Institution 
"for  the  increase  and  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge  among 

Treaty  with  Morocco. 
337.    The    independence    of 
Texas    acknowledged. 

1837.  —Victoria  ®-~ 

men." 

ISiti 

The  Luxor  obelisk  erected  at 

Martin  Van  Buren, 

Paris. 

3th  President. 

1815-1865.J 


THE  WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


861 


A  D. 

FRANCE. 

AUSTRIA,  &c. 

THE  WOULD,  elsewhere. 

1827 

A  French  fleet  sent  to  Algiers. 

. 

1829 

Algiers  taken. 

1829.  Italy  :-Pius  VIII.,  pope. 
Algiers  taken  by  the  French. 

VENEZUELA    independent,    General 

P  a  e  z  ,    President. 

1830 

Three    Days'   Revo- 
lution,  July  27,  28,  and 
29. 
Lafayette,  commander  of  the 
National  Guard. 

1S30.  BELGIUM   revolts  from  Holland,  ainl 
is  declared  independent  in  August. 
1830.  Polish  struggle    fo  r  nation- 
al i  t  y  ,  begins  November  19. 

Charles  X  abdicates. 
—  L  ouis   Philippe   I. 

Brazil  :  —  Revolution  ;  Don  Pedro  II.  si? 

JjL 

1831.    Belgium  :—L  e  o  p  o  1  d    I  .@  

(House  of  Orleans.  )yjg  

The  Poles  victorious  at  Prayo. 

Italy:  —  Gregory  XVI.,  pope. 

Poland:  —  Warsaw  capitulates  to  Rus- 

sia. 

1832 

Ministry  of  Marshal  S  o  u  1  1  . 

1832.  The  kingdom  of  GREECE  founded  : 

,                T      SffiS 

Poland:—  The    Insurrection     crushed; 

5000  families  sent  to  Siberia. 

—University  of  Warsaw  abolished. 

1833.  The  Em- 

1833 Spain  -—Isabella  ^  

peror  of  Rus- 

— Don  Carlos  claims  the  throne. 

sia  visits  the 
Emperor     of 
Austria. 

Portugal  :—  A  constitutional  monarchy. 
Egypt  :—  Mehemei  Ali  acknowledged  by 
the  Sultan. 

Mexico  :  —  Santa  Anna,  President. 

MB5 

Death  of  Lafayette. 

1834.  Quadruple  alliance—  England,  France. 
Spain,  and   Portugal,  against  Don  Miguel 
and  Don  Carlos. 
1835.  The  Plague  in  Egypt. 

1836 

Insurrection     attempted     by 
Louis    Napoleon  at    Stras- 

1836   Spain  :—  The  Queen  Regent  adopts  the 
constitution. 

burg. 

Texas  :—  Battle  of  San  Jacinto,  SanU 

Ferdi- 

Anna taken  prisoner. 

nand  l.ffe 

China:—  A  decree  to  expel  all  liritidi 

ard  other  barbarian  merchants. 

8.32 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  XL —  50  years.— 


A.D. 

PROOUESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITA.N. 

1837 

S.    F.    B.    M  o  B  3  B   takes 

out  a  patent  for  his  Elec- 

1838. The  Exploring  Expedi- 

tro-magnetic   Tele- 

tion  sails. 

g  r  a  p  h,  (Invented  1332  ) 

Suspension  of  specie  payments 
by  the  Banks  in  the  United 

I83y.     Disturbances    on    the 
•'  disputed    territory,"     be- 

1839. The  Biitish  take  posse* 
sion  of  Ghuzne. 

States,  in  May. 

tween    Maine     and     New- 

Brunswick. 

l339|The     Daguerreotype 

invented  in  Paris. 

Improvement  of  the  condition 

of  the  Jews  in  Russia. 

An  Antarctic  Continent  disco  vered  by  the    United    States 

1840.    The    uniform    Penny 

Exploring  Expedition. 

Postage  system  esta.jlishel 

1810 

Penny  postage  system  in  Eng- 

Marriage .  f  Queen  Vic- 

land. 

toria    to  Prince    Albert   o< 

Saxe  Cobourg. 

Persecution  of  the   Jews    at 

War  with  Chi;  a,  to  en- 

Damascus. 

force  the  opium  trade. 

War  in    Syria  :  —  Great 

Wheatstone's  Electric  Tele- 

Britain   taking    part    with 
Austria  and  Turkey.     Lord 

graph  patented  in  England. 

Palmerston's  foreign 

policy  excites  the  ill-will  01 
France. 

1841.  W.    H.    Harrison, 

1841.    The  war    with    China 

9th  President. 

ended  :   $6,000,000  received 

He  dies  April  4,  j  ust  one 

as  a  ransom  for  Canton 

month  alter   his  inaugura- 

tion. 

John    Tyler,  sue. 

ceedshim,as  10th  President. 

Congress  meets  in  extra 

session,  May  31. 

Sub-Treasury    Act    re- 

pealed, Aug.  9. 

Bankrupt    Act    passed, 

August  18. 

1842 

The  Crct  m  Aqueduct  in  New- 

1842.  The  Dorr   Insurrection 

York  completed. 

in  Rhode  Island. 

Treaty  between  the  Uni  ted  States  and  England,  settling 

the  north-eastern  boundary. 

Treaty  of  peace    witb 

Bain'.-t  electro-magnetic  Tele- 
graph patented  in  London. 

China. 

1843.    Great     "Repeal" 

agitation  in  Ireland. 

The  Bri'ish  gain  posses- 

sion of  Scinde. 

1844 

"  Anti-renlism  n  o.viached  in 
the  State  of  New-  York. 

184*.    Texas    annexed    to 
the  United  States. 
Anti-rent  riots  in  New- 

1844.  Daniel  O'Connell's  trial 
and  imprisonment  —  the  sen- 
tence reversed  by  the  He  USA 

York. 

of  Lords. 

.•946 

A  srreat  defection  from  the  Ro- 
mish    church,     under    the 

1845.  Treaty  with  China. 
James    K.    PoVk, 

1845.  Sir  John  Franklin  sett* 
in  search  of  the  north  WMI 

preaching  ot  Range,  in  Ger- 

llth President. 

passage. 

many. 
Lord  Itosse'f  Telescope 

1816.  War   with  Mexi- 
co : 

Gutta  Percha  in  use. 

Hostilities  commence  on 

1646 

Completion    of  the    Thames 

the  Rio  Grande,  April  24. 

Tunne1.  March  25. 

Battle     of    Palo    AIM, 

Mi 

The    Planet    Neptune,    pre- 

May8. 

dicted  by  Le   Verrier,  dis- 

Battle of  Resaca  de  k 

covered    by   Dr.   Galle,    of 

Palma,  May  9. 

Berlin,  Sept.  23. 

1815-1865.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


863 


4.D. 

FRANCE. 

AUSTRIA,  <fec 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

.838 

Talleyrand  dies. 

1838.     New 

1838.    Mexico  :—  The    Castle    of  San    Juan 

Difficulty  with  Mexico:  cap 

Treaty  of 

d'Ulloa  taken  by  the  French. 

tare  ol  San  Juan  d'Ulloa. 

commerce 

with  Eng- 

1839. Peace  between  France  and  Mexico. 

land,  July  3. 

China  :  —  The  Opium  trade  forbidden. 

Ferdinand 

Turkey  at  war  with  Egvpt. 

crowned  at 

Milan,    Sep- 

India :—  Ghuzne  taken  by  u  e  British. 

tember  6. 

i»to 

Plince    Louis    Napoleon    at- 
tempts a  hostile  descent  on 

1840.  China  :  —  Canton  blockaded  by  the  Eng. 
lish,  to  compel  the  renewal  of  the  opium 

the  coast  of   France,  near 

trade. 

Boulogne  —  is  taken  prisoner, 
and  imprisoned  at  Ham. 

Holland  :  —  William  I.  abdicates  : 

Syria:  —  St.  Jean   d'Acre  taker,  by  the 

O  u  i  z  e  t  ,    minister  for  fo- 

English, Austrians,  and  Turks 

reign  affairs. 

The    remains    of    Napoleon 

removed  from  St.   Helena, 

and    deposited    with    great 
honors  at  the  Invalides,  in 

1841.  China:—  Canion  capitulates,  $6,000,000 
paid  in  one  week,  as  a  ransom  for  the  city. 

Paris. 

Mexico  :  —  Santa  Anna  enters  the  capi- 

tal, and  places  himself  at  the  head  of  lh« 

government. 

1842 

The  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  to 

1842.  India  .-—Insurrection  in  Afghanistan. 

the  throne,  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  carriage. 

1843   Temporary  surrender  of  the  Sandwich 

Islands  to  Great  Britain,  compelled  by  Lord 

Geo.  Paulel. 

1844 

The    Duke  de    Nemours  ap- 

Greece:— King  Otho  compelled  to  ac- 

pointed Regent,  in  the  event 

cept  a  constitution,  Sept.  15.    v 

of  the  king's  death. 

The  Society  Islands  seized  by  a  French 
squadron  —  restored  by  the  government. 

India  :  —  Scinde  annexed  to  the  Britiah 

empire. 

IWe 

Louis  Napoleon  escapes  fnm 

846.  Poland  :  —  A  powerful,  but  unsuccessful 

Ham,  May  26. 

insurrection  at  Cracow,  Feb.  23. 

Rome:—  Pius  IX.,  pope  ;  elected  Ju:  te  6, 

Poland  :  —  Cracow  deprived  of  its  ra  1» 

pendcnce,  Nov.  16. 

8G4 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


[Period  XL — 50  yr.ari.~ 


PROORBSS  JF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


The  cultivatioi  of  the    Tea 
commenced    by    J.    Smith, 


Suspension  Bridge  at   Nia- 
gara Falls,  opened  July  29. 


UNITED  STATES. 


1846.  The  Ore  go  n    Trea 
iling  the  North-  Western  bo 

Commodore  Sloat  takes 
possession  of  California, 
July  6. 

New  Tariff  bill  passed, 
establishing  ad  valorem  du- 
ties. 

Battle  of  Monterey,  Sep- 
tember 23. 

Tampico  occupied,  No- 
vember 14. 

1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista. 
Feb.  22. 

Battle  of  Sacramento, 
Feb.  26. 

Vera  Cruz  surrenders, 
March  29. 

Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
April  18. 

Battle  of  Contreras,  Au- 
gust 20. 

Armistice,  Aug.  24. 
Hostilities  renewed,  Sep- 
tember 7. 

Battle  of  Molino  del  Key, 
Sept.  8. 

Battle  of  Chepultepec, 
Sep,  12. 

Mexico  surren- 
ders, Sept.  14. 

1848.  Treaty  of   Peace  with 
Mexico,    signed    at  Guada- 
loupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  22. 

plant    in  the  United  States, 
near  Greenfield,  South  Caro- 
lina. 

Postal  convention  betw 


First  deposit  of  Califor- 
nia gold  in  the  mint,  Dec.  8. 


GREAT  BIUTAIN. 


t  y    with  Great   Britain,  set 
undary,    signed    at    London, 
June  18. 


1847.  Severe  famine  in  Ire. 
land.  Large  supplies  ol 
food  sent  from  the  United 
States. 

The  Bogue  forts  in  China 
taken  and  destroyed,  April 
26. 


Emisration  from    Europe   to  America    during   >his    year, 
300,000. 


1848.  Civil  war  in  Ireland. 

John  Mitchell,  tried  and 
condemned  to  transporta- 
tion, May  26. 

eon    the    United    States    and 
Great  Britain. 


Habeas  Corpus  Act  su» 
pended  in  Ireland,  July  25. 


Smith  O'Brien  arre««< 
and  condemned,  Aug.  5. 


Return  of  KOM'I  axpi 
dition,  NOT. 


1515-1865.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


865 


FRANCE. 


AUSTRIA,  &c. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


burg,  Chartres,  &c. 


Michelet's  Lectures  interrupt- 
ed by  the  ministers,  Dec. 

Abd-el-Kader  captured,  Dec. 
22. 

Debate  on  the  Reform  Bill, 
Feb.  8. 

Proposed  Banquet  at  Paris, 
abandoned,  Feb.  'il. 

REVOLUTION  COM- 
MENCED, Feo.  22. 

Barricades  erected,  Feb.  23. 

Louis  Philippe  abdicates  and 
flies,  Feb  24. 

Provisional  government  esta- 
blished. 

Lamartine,  Provisional 
President,  Feb.  24. 

French  Republic  proclaimed, 
Feb.  26. 

Meeting  of  the  National  As- 
sembly, May  4. 

Bloody  Insurrection  in  Paris, 
June  23-25. 

Cavaignac,  military  dictator, 
June  24. 

Paris  in  a  state  of  siege. 

New  Constitution  adopted. 
Nov.  4. 


Louis  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte, elected  Pre- 
eiitnt,  Dec.  10. 


1847.  Austria 
takes  posses- 
sion of  Cra- 
cow. 


against   the 


1847.    Prussia :— Frederic  William  granU  I 
constitution,  Feb.  8. 

Hayti : — Soulouque,  President,  March  2, 


Algiera  — Abd-el-Kadei  made  a  prisonet 
to  France,  Dec.  22. 

1848.    Sardinia : — Charles     Albert     protests 
encroachment  of  Austria,  and  calls  out  aa 
army  of  25,000  men,  Jan  10. 
'     Naples  : — Rebellion  at  Palermo,  Jan.  12. 
Sardinia: — Charles  Albert  proclaims* 
constitution,  Feb.  8. 

Bavaria  .-—Disturbances  on  account  ot 
Lola  Monies— the  king  abdicates  in  favor  of 
his  son, 


-Maximilian  II. ' 


March  22. 


Charles  Albert 


The  Ban  Jella- 
chich    ap- 
pointed gov- 
ernor   of 
Hungary, 
Oct.  3 

Insurrection  at 
Vienna,  Oct. 
6. 

1848.  The  Em- 
peror leaves 
the  city.  The 
Hungarian 
army  advan- 
ces within  6 
miles  of  Vi- 
enna, Oct.  11. 

Wind*sch- 
gratz  ap- 
pointed com- 
mander of 
the  imperial 
army. 


enters  Milan,  March  23. 

Denmark  : — Revolt  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  March  26. 

Sicily  declared  independent,  April  3. 
Hoi  land  receives  a  constitution,  April  17. 

Poland  : — Unsuccessful  revolt  at  Cra- 
cow, April  25. 

Sicily:— The  Duke  of  Genoa  elected 
king,  July  10. 

India": — Insurrection  in  Ceylon,  Aug.  16 

Armistice  signed  between  Denmark 
Prussia  and  Sweden,  Aug.  26. 

India : — The  British  make  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  on  Moultan. 

Sicily  : — Messina  bombarded  and  taken. 
Sept.  2. 

Hungary :— K  o  s  s  u  t  h  appointed  Pre 
sident  of  the  Defence  Committee,  an  i  Diet* 
tor,  Oct. 


37 


866 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


{Period  XL— 50  years  — 


A.D.     PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


1849 


1S50 


A  new  planet  discovered  by 
Gasparis,  at  Naples. 

Magnetic  Telegraph  lines  in 


Tubular  Bridge  in  Anglesea, 
England. 


Magnetic  Clock,  invented  by 
Dr.  Luc/ce,  at  Cincinnati. 


UNITED  STATES. 


1849.  Zachary    Taylor, 
12th  President. 

use  in  the  United    States    in 

1849,    10,000  miles. 
Rail  Roads  6,000    " 


Emigration  from  Europe   to  America,  during  this  year,  at 
the  rate  of  1000  a  day. 


Great  agitation  on  the  Slavery 
Question  in  the  United 
States  Congress. 

The  Pekin  Monitor,  a  new 
paper,  printed  in  China 

The  Sultan  of  Turkey,  grants 
permission  to  the  Jews  to 
build  a  temple  on  Mount 
Zion. 

A  University  founded  at  Syd- 
ney, New  South  Wales. 


Deaths  in  1850 : 

U.    8.   A.          I         EUROPE. 

A.  Jitdson,      'Wordsworth, 
8.  M.  Fuller,  Jeffrey, 
M  L.  Davis.    Neander, 
Zschokke, 
Berzelius, 
Balzac. 


1850.  John  C.  Calhoun  died  at 
Washington. 

Attempted  invasion  of 
Cuba: — 600 adventurers  un- 
der Lopez,  repulsed  at  Car- 
denas, May. 

Death  of  Gen.  Taylor, 
July  9. 

Millard  Fillmore, 
13th  President. 

Cali  fornia     ad- 
mitted, 31st  State. 

Texas  boundary  settled, 
by  the  payment  of  10,000,000 
dollars  to  Texas. 

New-Mexico  and  Utah 
admitted  as  Territories. 

Bill  for    the    arrest   of 
fugitive  slaves  passed  by  Con- 
gress. 

Slave  trade  in  (he  District  of 
Columbia  abolished. 


GHEAT  BRITAIN. 


1849.  Mi-ultan.  in  India,  takisa 
Jan.  3. 


1850.  The  war  jri  Lahore  fitt 
ished,  anil  th-.  Punjaub  an- 
nexed to  the  British  crown. 


A  British  fleet  block adet 
the  ports  of  Greece,  tc  en- 
force the  alleged  claims  o( 
British  subjects. 

Sir  Robert  Peel  die* 
July  2. 

Haynau.  "the  Austria* 
butcher,"  chastised  by  tb« 
draymen  in  London,  Sjipt. 


1815-1865.J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


SG7 


..p. 

FRANCE. 

AuSTStA,  &C 

THB  WOULD,  elsewhere. 

The  Emperor 

issues  a  pro- 

clamation 

against    the 

city. 

Kossuth    with  -draws  his  army  from  Vienna,  Oct.  27. 

Rome  :—  M  a  z  z  i  n  i  '  s  proclamation, 

The  Imperial- 

Oct. 29. 

ists  take  pos- 

Prussia: —  The  king  prorogues  the  As- 

session oi  Vi- 

sembly, Nov.  9. 

enna,    Nov. 

—  The  Burgher  Guard  of  3flin»  refuse  to 

2. 

give  up  their  arms.    The  city  in  a  state  oi 
siege,  Nov.  12.                                        .    , 

Rome  :  —  Count  Rossi,  the  Pope's  prime- 

minister,  assassinated,  Nov.  16. 

India:—  Great  battle  near  Ramnuggur, 

Ferdinand  ab- 

Nov. 22. 

dicates,  Dec. 

Rome  :—  The  Pope  escapes  in  disguise, 

8. 

Nov.  24. 

—  Francis 

Hungary  declared  independent,  Dec. 
1849.  India:—  Moultan  taken  by  the  British, 

Joseph  1gg 

Jan.  3. 

Italy:—  The   Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 
flies.    Provisional  Government  proclaimed, 

Feb.  9. 

1849.    A    new 

Rome  :—  Republic  proclaimed,  Feb.  9. 

Constitution 

Sicily:—  A  new  Constitution  conceded 

promulgated 
March  4. 

by  Naples,  March  6. 
Sardinia  :—  Charles  Albert  defeated  by 

Brescia   taken 

Radetsky,  March  21—  again  totally  defeated 

by  Haynau, 

at  Novarra,   March  23,  he  abdicates    the 

March  30. 

throne  in  favor  of  his  son, 

India  :—  The  Punjaub  annexed   to  tne 
British  Empire,  March  29. 

Italy  :—  Insurrection  in  Genoa,  April  1, 

Russia  comes 

to  the  aid  of  Austria  against  Hungary,  April 

26. 

Rome  :  —  The  French  army  arrives  un- 

der the  walls  of  Rome,  April  29. 

Haynau  takes 

command  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Hungary, 

June. 

Rome  surrenders^  the  French,  July  2. 

Garibaldi  leaves  the  city,  July  3. 

Rome  :  —  The  government  placed  in  the 

hands  of  the  Pope:s  commissioners,  Aug.  3. 

Gorgey  traitor 

ously  surrenders  to  the  Russians,  Aug.  11. 

Kossuth  escapes  into  Turkey. 

I860 

Louis  Philippe  dies  in  Eng- 
land. 

Venice  capitulates  to  Radetsky,  Aug.  22. 
1850.  Rome:—  The  Pope  returns,  April 

Greece  disputes  the  claims  of    Great 

Britain   for  losses  of  British  subjects:   n 

forced  to  submit.                            v 

China  :—  The     Emperor    Tau-Kwang, 

dies: 

Sze-hing  f§|?  s.icceeds. 

THE  wpRLD's  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL-  50  yean    • 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1850 


)n  the  subject  of  the  Mobbing 
of  Marshal  Ha/nau  during 
a  visit  to  a  London  brewery, 
notes  pass  between  Austria 
and  Great  Britain,  termi- 
nating in  a  threat  of  retalia- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
Sept. — Nov. 


A  Memorial  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  Canada  to  the  U.  8. 
received  in  five  hours  tho 
signatures  of  300  merchants, 
landowners,  and  profes- 
sional men,  in  Montreal, 
Oct.  10. 


Woman's  Rights  Con- 
vention, held  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Oct  23. 


Worth-  West  Passage  discov- 
ered by  Capt.  McClure  (Br. 
Navy)  in  the  Investigator, 
Oct.  26. 


The  British  Consul  at  Charles- 
ton calls  the  attention  of 
the  Governor  of  South  Ca- 
rolina to  a  law  of  that  State, 
under  which  British  sea- 
men (colored)  are  impris- 
oned when  they  enter  her 
ports  for  trade  or  In  dis- 
tress, Dec. 


Deaths  in  1850: 

U.  *.  A. 

J.  C.  Oalhoun,  Senator,  U.  8. 

8am.  Miller,  D.D. 

Z  Taylor,  President,  U.  8.  A. 


1850.  CALIFORNIA  admitted  as 
a  State,  Sept 


Fugitive    Slave     Sill 
passed,  Sept. 


DisunionMeetings  held  at 
Natchez  (many  present  op- 
posed to  disunion);  at  Yazoo 
City  (resolutions  proposed 
voted  down),  Oct.  7;  at 
Nashville  (this  convention 
passed  resolutions  recom- 
mending a  congress  of 
slavehoiding  States),  Nov. 
19. 


Union  Meetings  held  at 
Mobile,  Dayton,  and  New 
York,  in  Oct. ;  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  Manchester,  N. 
H.,  in  Nov.;  and  at  Bath, 
Me.,  in  Dec. 


The  Advance  and  Rescue. 
American  vessels  in  search 
of  Sir  J.  Franklin,  com- 
pletely fastened  in  the  ice, 
Sept  13.  In  their  northerly 
drift  reach  lat  75°  23',  Oct  1. 


Conventions  held  to 
amend  the  Constitutions  of 
theStatesof  Indiana  (Oct.  7), 
Virginia  (Oct  14).  Maryland 
(Nov.  4),  New  Hampshire 
(Nov.  6). 


Lopez  and  others  tried  at 
New  Orleans  for  engaging 
In  an  expedition  against 
Cuba,  Dec.  17. 


Webster  replies  to  Hiilse- 
mann  on  the  rights  of  neu- 
tral nntiona,  Dec.  21. 


1850.  Great  excitement  and 
agitation  in  England  respect 
ing  a  dispute  on  doctrine  be 
tween  the  Bishop  of  Exeter 
and  the  Uev.  Dr.  Gorhain. 
one  of  his  clergy.  The  Privy 
Council's  decision  in  favor 
of  the  latter  afterwards  rati- 
fied by  the  Courts. 


Searches  for  Sir  J.  Frank- 
lin— the  North  Star  returns 
to  Spithead  unsuccessful, 
Sept  28.  The  Prince  Albert 
arrives  at  Aberdeen  with  tli  i 
intelligence  that  traces  \i 
his  party  had  been  found  at 
Cape  Reilly  and  Beechy 
Island,  at  the  entrance  lo 
Wellington  Channel,  Oct.  I. 


Appointment  by  tli« 
Pope  of  several  Roman  Cn- 
tholic  bishops  and  arcl- 
bishops  in  England,  causes 
great  excitement,  and  ai 
indignant  letter  from  Lord 
J.  Russell,  the  premier, 
Nov. 


English  forces  defeat*! 
by  the  Caffres  in  South 
Africa,  with  considerabU 
loss,  and  obliged  to  retreat 
to  their  fort,  Dec.  29. 


1S16-1865.J 


THE    WOKi^D  S   PROGRESS. 


809 


KBANCB. 


!850  President  creates    his    uncle 
i    Jerome  a  Marshal  of  France, 
Jan.  1. 


800  Soldiers  drowned  at  An- 
;iers  by  fall  of  a  bridge, 
Ipr.  15. 

French  Ambassador  recalled 
from  London,  in  conse- 
quence .f  a  difficulty  con- 
nected with  an  English 
claim  on  Greece,  May  16. 

New  Electoral  Law,  restrict- 
ing the  right  of  suffrage, 
passed,  May  81. 

Arrangement  with  England 
on  the  Greek  dispute,  June 
81 

Dotation  Bill,  giving  the  Pre- 
sident 2,160,000  francs 
($405,000)  per  annum, 
passed,  June  24. 


AUSTRIA,  etc. 


1S50.  Prussia:— The  King  takes 
the  oath  required  by  the  Con- 
stitution, Feb.  6.  Attempt  to 
assassinate  him,  May  22. 

Treaty  signed  at  Munich 
between  Austria,  Bavaria,  Sax- 
ony, and  Wurtemburg.  to  main- 
tain the  German  Union,  Feb.  27. 

Wurtemburg  denounces  the 
insidious  ambition  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  and  announces  a 
league  between  Wurtemburg, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony,  under  the 
sanction  ot  Austria,  March  15. 

Hesse-Darmstadt  withdraws 
from  the  Prussian  league,  June 
80. 
Treaty  of  Peace  between  Prussia  and  Denmark,  July  2. 

A  Congress  of  Deputies  from  I 
the  States  included  in  the  Prus- 


TIIE  WORLD,  elsewhw*. 


sian  Zollverein  opened  at  Cas- 
sel,  July  12. 

Prussia  refuses  to  join  the 
restricted  Diet  of  Frankfort, 
Aug.  25. 


Difficulties  occurring 
Hesse-Cassel,  between  the  Elec- 
tor and  his  people,  in  regard  to 
the  mode  of  taxation,  Austria 
and  Prussia  respectively  send 
armies  to  the  Electorate,  to  take 
opposite  parts  in  the  struggle, 
Sept. — Nov. 

Austrian  ultimatum  deliv- 
ered at  Berlin,  directing  that 
Prussia  evacuate  Hesse  in  eight 
days,  dissolve  the  ErfurtLeague, 
and  recognize  the  Diet,  etc.,  re- 
plied to  by  the  Prussian  King's 
signing  the  order  calling  out  the 
whole  military  force  of  the  mo- 
narchy, Nov.  6. 

The  Russian  Ambassador  at 
Vienna  announces  that  the  Czar 
"  would  consider  the  continu- 
ance of  the  Prussian  policy  in 
the  Electorate  as  a  casus  belli" 
Nov.  11. 

Treaty  of  Amnesty  an- 
nounced at  Berlin.  Dec.  3. 

France  protests,  and  Great 
Britain  remonstrates,  at  Vienna, 
against  the  proposed  extension 
of  the  Germanic  Confederation 
beyond  the  Alps,  Deo. 


1S50.  Denmark:  Bloody 
but  indecisive  battle  of 
Idstedt,  between  the 
Danes  and  Schlesvvig 
Holsteiners,  July  25 


Yucatan :  —  Battle, 
near  close  of  the  year, 
between  the  White* 
and  Indians;  latter  vic- 
torious; 800  Whitet 
killed. 


870 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL— 50  years.— 


L  D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

85! 

Jas.  Richardson,  the  African 

1851.    General    Quitman    of 

1S51.  A  strong  force  of  Caffres 

traveller,  dies  at  the  village 

Mississippi  arrested  for  al- 

attacks Fort  White,  Cape  of 

of  Unqurta,  six  days  distant 

leged  violation  of  the  neu- 

Good   Hope—  repulsed,  loss 

from  Kouka,  the  capital  of 

trality  law  of  1818,  by  set- 

20 killed.    The  Caffre  chief. 

Bornou,  March  4 

ting  on  foot  a  military  ex- 

Hermanns, with  a  body  of 

pedition  against  Cuba.     He 

Caffres  and   Hottentots,  at- 

resigns his  office  of  Gover- 

tacks Fort  Beaufort,  but  is 

nor.  Feb.  3. 

repulsed,   he    and    his   son 

Erie  Canal  Enlargement 

killed,  his  band  completely 

A  Company  of  Gipsies  from 

Bill   defeated  in  the  N.  Y. 

routed.    3,000  Caffres  attack 

England    arrive    in     Cecil 

Senate  by  the  withdrawal  or 

the  Colonists  and  their  allies 

county,    Maryland,   U.   8., 

resignation  of  12  democratic 

near    Fort    Hare  ;     driven 

bringing  with  them  all  their 

members,    Apr.    16  ;     but 

back  with   the  loss  of  100 

wandering  habits  and  pecu- 

afterwards passed  by  a  new 

killed,  Jan.      .    Col.  Somer- 

liarities, March. 

Legislature. 

set  captures  and  burns  Fort 

Minot's     Ledge     Light- 

Armstrong, 9J  Caffres  killed, 

house.  Boston   Harbor,  car- 

230  taken    prisoners,    Feb. 

ried  away.    It  was  last  seen 

2S.    The  Hottentots  of  th« 

standing  about    3    o'clock. 

Theopolis   Mission    Station 

P.M.,  April  16. 

in   Lower   Albany,  join   in 

Arrest    of   a    notorious 

the    insurrection,   M.ny   3.1. 

band  of  desperadoes  in  Mi- 

They are  defeated  in  actions 

chigan,  Apr.  21. 

with  the  English  troops  on 

Initial  point  of  the  Boun- 

the 3d  and  5th  of  June. 

dary  between    the    United 

The  Russell  Ministry  re- 

States and  Mexico  establish- 

sign,   Feb.    22:    but  after- 

ed on  the  right  bank  of  the 

wards    resume    office,    the 

According  to  the  evidence 
of  Mr.  Bainos  before  a  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, there  were  in  Great 
Britain  13,193  places  of  wor- 
ship   dissenting    from    the 
tenets    of   the    Established 
Church,  to  which   may  be 
added  Roman  Catholic  Cha- 
pels, 597,   minor  sects  and 
Jews.    550;    total    noncon- 
formist churches,  14,840. 
Exhibition  of  the  Works 
of  Industry  of  all  Nations 

Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  in  32 
22  north  latitude,  and  219.4 
meters  from  the   center  ol 
the  bed  of  the  river,  by  the 
American      and      Mexican 
Commissioners,  and  a  mon- 
ument   erected     recording 
the  same.  April  24. 
President  issues  a  procla- 
mation, warninsall  persons 
within   the   jurisdiction   ol 
the  United  States  not  to  aid 
or  engage  in  any  expedition 
against  the  Island  of  Cuba, 

Earl  of  Derby  not   having 
succeeded     in    forming     a 
Cabinet. 
The  Prohibited  Affinity 
Marriage   Bill    lost    in   tlia 
House  of  Lords,  F'sb.    2,1; 
Lord  Campboll  and  the  F«- 
clesiastical    Bench     vcting 
against  it. 

inaugurated  by  Que«n  Vic- 
toria, May  1. 

Apr.  25. 
Convention  of  Delegates 

Wyld's   monster    globe 
erected    in    London  ;    em- 

from tho  Southern    Rights 
Associations  of  South  Caro- 

ployed 800  men   nearly  80 
days  in  fitting  up  the  inte- 
rior. 

lina    meets    at  Charleston, 
May  5;    and  adjourns  after 
resolving    that.    '•  with    or 

without  cooperation,   they 

are  for  a  dissolution  of  the 

Union,"  May  8. 

Erie      railroad     opened 

Daguerre,  the  discoverer   of 
the  Dttyuerrean  or  Photo- 
graphic Art,  dies,  aged  61, 
July  10. 

from    New    York    city    to 
Dunkirk,    469     miles,    by 
President  Fillmore,  Daniel 
Webster,  etc.,  May  15. 

Riot,    with   loss  of  life, 

at  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  between 

The  Oath  of  Abjuration  (Jew) 
Bill     passes     the     British 

Germans  and  "  short-boy" 
rowdies  from   New   York, 

House  of  Commons,  with 

May  26. 

only   verbal    protests  from 

Serious  conflagrations  in 

the  objecting  minority,  July 
8;  but  is  refused  a  second 

California.      San  Francisco 
alone  suffers  by    them    in 

reading    in    the   House  of 

Mav  and  Ju  ne  to  t  ne  amount 

Lords,  July  17. 

of  $12,000,000. 

1816-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  8    PROGRESS. 


871 


A.D. 

FRANCO. 

AUSTRIA,  etc. 

THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1851 

Ministry  lesign,  Jan,  8. 

1S51.     Denmark:  —  The  Government  oi 

Presidential     Dotation    Bill, 

Schleswig-Holstein  yields  to  the  Com 

proposing     an     additional 

missioners  of  the  Germanic  Confedera 

grant    of    1,800,000    francs, 

tiom  Jan.  10. 

rejected  in  the  Assembly, 

The  Austriane  complete  their  mili- 

Feb. 18. 

tary  possession  of   Hamburg   Jan.  81, 

and  the  new  government  issues  its  pro- 

clamation, declaring  its  resumption  ol 

the  seisnorial  rule  of  the  King'  of  Den- 

mark, Feb.  2. 

• 

Danish  mining  operations  in  Green- 

land produce  large  quantities  of  copper 

ore.  yielding  about  60  per  cent. 

The  Austrian  Government  and  the  Ottoman  Porte  come  to 

the  following  settlement  respecting  the  Hungarian  Refu- 

gees: Full  and  entire  amnesty  conditioned  on  their  not 

attempting  to  enter  Hungary.    Eight  excepted,  amona 

them  Kossuth 

md  Bathyany,  Feb.  17. 

Charles   L. 

Brace,  an  Am- 

Australia: —  Discovery  of  largo  gold 

erican,  arrested 

fields  near  Bathurst,  Feb. 

and  imprisoned 

East  Indies  :  —  Fort  of  the  celebrated. 

in  Hungary,  on 

E  irate  Sultan  of  Soloo  destroyed  by  tho 

a     charge     oi 

panish   Government  of  Manilla,  Feh. 

"being  a  mem- 

20 
o. 

ber  of  the  de- 

mocratic corn- 

Hawaii  :  —  The    difficulties  betweeiv 

mi  1  1  e  e,     an 

the  Hawaiian  and  French  Governments 

agent    of    Uj- 

are  arranged  according  to  the  terms  of  a 

hazy  and  Cretz, 

"mutual  declaration,"  published  at  Ho- 

and  of  travel- 

nolulu, signed  by  the  minister  of  foreign 

ing  with  revo- 

relations and   M.    Perrin,   the    French 

lutionary  writ- 

commissioner, March  25. 

ings,  tc  spread 

revolutionary 

movements," 

May  23. 

The  Sub-Committee   of  the 

Assembly  appointed  by  the 
Committee  of  Revision  to 
authenticate    petitions,   re- 
ports, that  up  to  July  1,  the 
petitions   had  been   signed 

Inauguration 
of  Rauch's  co- 
lossal statue  of 
Frederick    the 

New  Granada  :—  Congress  adjourns. 
It  passed   a  law  abolishing  slavery   in 
the  republic,  to  take  effect  January  1, 
1852.    May  29. 

by   1,123,165  persons,   thus 

Great  at    Ber 

classified  :     For     revision. 

lin,  May  81. 

741,011  ;    for   revision    and 

prolongation     of     powers, 

870,51  1  ;  for  prolongation  of 
powers,  12,lu3  —  July  5. 

The    Ger- 
manic Diet,  in 

Italy  :  —  An  earthquake  destroys  Mel 
fl,  a  city  of  10,000  inhabitants,  about.  100 

answer  to  Lord 

miles  8".  E.  of  Naples,  and  other  towns 

Palmerston's 

in  its  vicinity.     Seven  shocks  occurred 

protest  against 

within  24  hours.     Melfl  was  separated 

annexing  the 

by  a  ravine  from  Mount  Volture,  upon 

non-Germanic 

which  are  many  extinct  craters.     Not 

provinces  of 

less  than  8,000  persons  are  said  to  hav« 

Austria  to  the 

perished.    July  14. 

Germanic  Fe- 

deration, says, 

The  question  of  revision  of 

"  That  no  fo- 

the Constitution  again   ta- 

reign interfe- 

ken in  the  Assembly,  when 

rence  should  be 

Ecuador  :  —  Gen.  Diego  Novoa.  I*resi- 

a  minority  was  declared  97 

allowed  in  a 

dent  of  the  Republic,  seized   and   put 

less  than  tho  three-fourths 

purely  German 

on  board  a  government  vessel  by  Gen, 

required   by  the  Constitu- 

question ."July 

Urblna.  who  assumes  the  admin  etrs 

tion,  July  19. 

17. 

tion  of  the  Government.    J-jly  17. 

872 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.          [Period  XI.-~ 50  y<w«.— 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1851 


The  lord  mayor  of  London 
with  several  of  the  alder- 
men and  common  counci 
men,  the  royal  commission- 
ers of  the  Exposition  of  In- 
dustry, etc.,  and  the  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  roya 
commissioners,  leave  Eng- 
land for  France,  by  invita- 
tion of  the  prefect  of  the 
Seine.  They  are  entertained 
with  dinners,  balls,  sham 
fights,  and  reviews  of  troops 
—Aug.  1. 


The  inauguration  of  the  rail- 
way between  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Moscow,  in  Rus- 
sia, takes  place  Sept  1. 


1851..  "  Vigilance  committee 
at  San    Francisco    hang   _ 
man  for  stealing,  June  10, 
and  another,  July  11. 

Gov.  McDougal  of  Cali- 
fornia issues  liis  proclama- 
tion, warning  the  citizens  ol 
the  State  against  "  vigi- 
lance committees,"  and 
calls  upon  all  persons  to  aid 
in  sustaining  the  law,  July 
21. 

Nicaragua  route,  be- 
tween New  York  and  San 
Francisco,  opened,  Aug.  12. 

The  people  of  Litchfteld 
county,  Connecticut,  cele- 
brate the  200th  anniversary 
of  its  settlement,  Aug.  13 
and  14. 

Great  riot  in  New  Or- 
leans, growing  out  of  the 
Cuban  expedition.  Houses 
of  Spanish  residents  at- 
tacked. The  Spanish  con- 
sul is  obliged  to  ask  protec- 
tion, and  is  placed  in  the 
city  prison  for  safety,  Aug. 
21. 

Riot,  with  loss  of  life,  at 
Christiana,  Pa.,  upon  an  at- 
tempt to  arrest  a  fugitive 
slave,  Sept.  11. 

U.  S.  brig  Dolphin  sails 
on  an  expedition  to  run  a 
line  of  soundings  for  tele- 
graphic purposes  across  the 
Atlantic,  Oct. 

Cotton-planters'  conven- 
tion (300  members)  meets 
at  Macon,  Ga.  Its  object 
being  to  prevent  fluctua- 
tions in  the  price  of  cotton. 
Little  harmony  of  views  or 
concord  of  action  manifest- 
ed. Oct 

U.  S.  steam  frigate  Mis- 
sissippi sent  to  Turkey  for 
Kossuth,  receives  him  on 
board  in  the  Dardanelles. 
The  French  government  re- 
fuses to  allow  Kossuth  to 
pass  through  France.  The 
Mississippi  proceeds  on  her 
voyage  with  Kossuth's  com- 
panions, reaching  New 
York  Nov.  10. 

Kossuth  arrives  at  New 
York  in  December.  Ova- 
tions are  offered  him  in  the 
principal  cities  of  the  Union. 
He  has  an  interview  with 
the  President,  Sept  to  Dec, 


1851.  "  The  great  aggregate 
meeting"  of  Eoman  Catho- 
lics, from  all  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  for  the 
inauguration  of  the  Catho- 
lic defense  association,  ia 
held  at  Dublin,  Aug.  19. 


The  American  yacht 
"  America,"  at  the  regatta 
at  Cowes,  wins  "  The  cup  of 
all  nations,"  Aug.  22. 


Kossuth  arrives  by  Eng 
lish  steamer  from  Gibraltar, 
at  Southampton,  Eng.  Ova- 
tions are  offered  him  in  va. 
rious  parts  of  the  country 
He  leaves  for  the  United 
States,  Nov. 


The  submarine  tele- 
graph between  Dover  and 
Calais  completed,  Oct.  17. 
Opened  for  public  use  NOT 
18. 


A  fourth  presidency 
contemplated  for  British 
India,  and  a  proposal  mad« 
to  remove  the  seat  of  go- 
vernment from  Calcutta 
to  Lahore,  Nov. 


1815-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  8    PROGRESS. 


873 


A.D. 

FRANCE. 

AUSTBIA,  etc. 

THE  WOBLB,  elsewhere. 

1S51 

1851.  Marshal  Ra- 
detzky,  by  pro- 

1S51. Russia:  —  Her  troops  repeatedly  <}• 
feated  by  the  Circassians.  June. 

clamation  from 

Monga  declares 

the  Lombardo- 

Venetian  king- 

dom to  be  in  a 

state  of  siege, 

July  19. 

By   cabinet 

letters,the  Em- 
peror ofAnstria 
declares  that 

Nicaragua:—  Gen.  Munoa,  ex-minis- 
ter of  war,  deposes  President  Pineda, 
and  sends  him  and  most  of  his  cabinet 

his  ministers 

prisoners  to  Tigre  Islands  and  electa 

"  are  responsi- 

Albaunaz President  The  Senate  assem- 

ble to  no  other 
political  au- 
thority than 

bles  at  Grenada,  and  elects  Montenegro 
President  Aug.  4 

the  throne," 

that   "the 

West    Indies  :—  Volcanic    eruptions 

Reichstadtisto 
be  considered 
as  the  council 

from  eight  craters  in  the  mountains  of 
Martinique,  Aug.  5. 

of  the  throne,'1 

and  the  minis- 
ter president  is 
to  take  "  into 
ripe  and  seri- 

Cuba :  —  Expedition  against  Cuba  un- 
der General  Lopez,  500  strong,  sails  from 
New  Orleans  Aug.  3,  and  Key  West 
10th  ;  effects  a  landing  at  Cubanos,  llth  ; 

ous  considera- 

is routed  on  the  20th.  Lopez  is  taken, 

REVOLUTION:  L.  N.  Bonaparte 
by  a  coup  d'etat  seizes  the 
reins  of  government;  dis- 
solves the  national  assem- 
bly; declares  a  state  of 

tion  the  possi- 
bility of  carry- 
ing out  the 
Constitution 
of  March  4, 

29th,  and  publicly  garoted,  Sep.  1.  His 
followers  shot  or  condemned  to  ten 
years'  labor  in  Spain.  The  funernl  obse- 
quies of  the  Spaniards  and  Cubans  who 
fell  in  the  contest  with  Lopez,  are  cele- 

siege ;  arrests  the  principal 
red-republicans  and  social- 
ists; constitutes  an  entire 

1849."  Aug.  20. 
Louis  Kos- 
suth  and  85  of 

brated  with  great  pomp  at  the  Cathedral 
in  Havana.  $70,000  are  subscribed  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Havana,  for  the  bene- 

new ministry.  The  Presi- 
dent orders  an  instant 

his  country- 
men sentenced 

fit  of  their  widows  and  children,  Sept.  9 

restoration  of  universal  suf- 

to death  in 

frage;  an  immediate  elec- 

contumaeiam, 

Mexico  :  —  General   Mariana   Arista 

tion  by  people  and  army  of 
a  President  to  hold  office 
for  ten  years,  to  be  sup- 

at Pesth,  for 
not  appearing 
nfter  citation, 

inaugurated  President,  Jan.  15  ;  Canales, 
Carvajal,  and  others,  issue  prommda- 
mentos  against  the  general  govern- 

ported by  a  Council  of  State 
and  two  houses  of  Legisla- 
ture. The  revolution  cre- 

Sept* 22. 
The  ques- 
tion of  the  ad- 

ment. Some  fighting  follows,  with 
varied  success,  Sept  —  Oct.  —  Nov. 

ates  an  intense  excitement. 
The  vote  of  the  army  shows 
a  large  majority  for  L.  N. 
Bonaparte.  Resistance  to 
the  usurpation  is  shown  in 
various  parts  of  France,  but 
the  overwhelming  power  of 
the  army,  and  a  "  state  of 
siege"  in  33  departments. 

mission  of 
Jews  to  judi- 
cial office  in 
Prussia, 
brought  to  a 
partial  termi- 
nation by  their 
permission  to 
study  law.  Oct. 

Greece  :  —  Lord  Palmerston's  note  to 
the  Greek  government  produces  a  great 
sensation  at  Athens.  Nov. 

Chili  :—  Earthquake  at  Valparaiso— 
tbe  most  violent  since  that  of  18'22,  few 
lives  lost  but  great  destruction  of  pro- 

crushes all  opposition.  The 
election,  under  various  con- 

perty, April  2.  Insurrection  at  Santiago, 
suppressed  after  two  hours1  street-fight 

trolling  influences,  results 
in  the  confirmation  of  L.  N. 

ing,  April  20.  Rebels  under  Cruz  de- 
feated by  Bulnes  at  Longomilia,  Dec.  8. 

Bonaparte  as  President  for 

ten  years,  by  a  vote  of  about 

seven  out  of  eight  millions. 

Doc.  1-20. 

37* 


874 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  XL — 50  year* 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIKTT,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BUITAIN. 

1851 

The  town  of  Lagos,  on  the 

1351.  Principal   room  of  the 

coast   of  Africa,   destroyed 

library  of  Congress  destroy- 

by an  Englis  i  force,  with  a 

ed   by   fire,    together   with 

loss  of  thirty  killed,  and  69 

paintings,  statuary,  models, 

won  in  led.  because   the  na- 

and about   35,000  volumes 

tive  chief  refused  to  sign  a 

of  books,  Dec  24. 

•  treaty  for  tliu  effectual  sup- 
Cression  of  tlie  slave  trade 
i  his  dominions.   The  chief 
is  deposed,  and  another  sub- 
stituted in   his  place    Dec. 
26-27. 

By  joint  resolution,  the 
Governor    of    Georgia     is 
authorised  and  requested  to 
withdraw  the  block  of  mar- 
ble contributed  to  theVVash- 

ington    monument  by  the 

resolution   of   the   General 

Deaths  in  1851. 

Assembly  of  Febr'y,  1350, 

U.  8.               EUROPE. 

witli  the  inscription,  "The 
Constitution  as  it  is;   the 

J.    J.    Audit-  3.  Pye  Smith, 

Union  as  it  was,"  and   to 

ban,                Bexley, 
&  Olin,             JoannaBaillie, 

cause   another  to    be    pro- 
pared   of   Georgia    marble, 

J.  F.  Cooper,    Codrington, 

with  the  State  arms  thereon, 

T.  11.  Oallau-  Shcil, 

and  to  be  sent  to  the  monu- 

(let,                Lingard, 

ment,  Dec.  81. 

&  Gf.  Morton.  Duuerre, 

So  u  It, 

Immigration,    June     1, 

Oersted, 

185'),     to    Dec.    81,     1851, 

Jacobi. 

558,000. 

1852 

Immigration   into  California. 

1S52.  Deputations    from    the 

1852.  Lord  Granville,  by  his 

U.  S.,  from  Asia  is  1*0  large 

various  Stat.-s,  in  behalf  of 

note  to  the  American  mi- 

as t'»  require  special  Legis- 

the Irish  exiles,  wait  upon 

nister,  in   relation    to    the 

lation—April. 

President  Filmore  —  Jan.  23. 

firing    into    the    American 

The  Ohio   State    House 

steamer  Prometheus  by  the 

entirely  consumed  by  flre. 

British      man-of-war     Ex- 

Some of  the  papers  saved, 

press,   states  to   Mr.  Law- 

but a  larae  mass  of  docu- 

rence, for  the  information 

ments  destroyed  —  Feb.  1. 

of   his    government,    that 

Senior      Laborde,       the 
Spanish    Cong:;l     at     New 

her  majesty's    government 
entirely   disavow   the    act, 
and    has   no   hesitation    in 

Orleans  at  the  time  of  the 
Cuban  riots,  and   who   fled 

offering  ample  apology  for 
that   which   they  consider 

lence,  arrives  at   New  Or- 
leans,   is   sal  ited,    and   re- 

to have  been  an  infraction 
of  treaty  engagements.  Jan. 
10. 

sumes  his  duties  as  consul  — 

Feb.  9. 

Gold    Medal    piosented 
to  Henry  Clav  by  citizens  of 

Dr.  Rao  returns  unsuc- 
cessful from  his  search  for 

New  York.    'Feb.  10. 

Sir  John    Franklin,    down 

Memorial    presented    to 
House    of    Representatives 
of  California,  from  1.2  18  cit- 
izens of  South  Carolina  and 
Florida,  asking  permission 
"to  colonize  a  rural  district 

the    McKenzie    river,   and 
from   its   mouth   eastward, 
500  miles.     Hewassentout 
in  the  sp:  Ing  of  1851  by  t:'« 
Hudson's    Bay    CompsLy, 
Feb. 

with   a   population   of  not 

less  than  2,000  slaves  "  Feb. 

10. 

Extensive  fires  in  the  Antilles, 

Hojtioeopathic      College 

March  2;   California,  U.  8., 

at  Cleveland.  Ohio,  mobbed 

June  IT  ami  Nov.  2  (nearly 

and   Interior  destroyed,  in 

destroying     two      cities  ;) 

consequence  of  remains  of 

Canada,  (at  Montreal)  July 

a 

subjects,    taken     from    the 
burial-ground,    being     dis- 

covered near  the  College. 

Feb.  16. 

1815-1865.J 


THE    WORLD  8    PROGRESS. 


A.D. 

FRANCE. 

Ai7STKiA,  etc. 

THE  WOULD,  elsewhere. 

ISM 

1851.  China  :—  Imperial  court    seriously 

alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  disturb- 

ance in  the  Southern  provinces.    June. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Cliinesn  part  ol 

Hong  Kong  destroyed  by  i!ve  :  from  47ft 

. 

to  500  houses  destroyed,  including  all 

the  printing  mtives  and  the  finest  edi- 

fices and  public  buildings.    Many  lives 

lost.    Dec.  26--2S. 

1852.  Argentine  Confederation  :—  General 

Urquiza,  Commander  of  the  liberating 

army,    completes    the   passage    of    the 

Parana  with  28,000  men,  50,000  horse, 

and  50  pieces  of  artillery,  and  prepares 

to  approach  Buenos  Ayres,  Jan.  8.    Bat- 

tle of  Santos   Lugares,  (10  miles  from 

Buenos  Ayres,)  between  Urquiza  with 

80,000  men  and  50  cannon,  and  the  troop* 

of  Rosas,  25,000  men  and  90  cannon;  re- 

sults in  the  total  defeat  of  Rosas  and  his 

flight  to  England.    During  the  night,  th« 

city  is  saved  from  pillage   by   detach- 

>v«s5&jnj   BarLijKuie   01  ters 
lesns  juvpbity,  Jan.  J2. 

1852.  The  Empe- 
ror of  Russia 
visits  the  Em- 
peror of  Aus- 
tria at  Vienna, 
May  8. 

ments  from  the  various  ships  of  war  of 
all  nations  in  the  harbor,  Feb.  3.    The 
allied  army  enters  Buenos  Ayres  Feb.  18. 
—Urquiza,  Director  of  the  Argentine 
Confederation,  deposed,  ^-ept.  10. 
—  The   Chamber  of  Representatives 

of   Buenos   Ayres    declares  the     rivei 

Parana  open  to  the  navigation  of  all  na- 

tions, Oct.  13. 

Belgium:  —  Formation  of  a  new  mi- 

nistry at  Brussels,  of  the  moderate  party 

under  M.  de  Brouckcre,  Nov.  1.    The 

law  against  the  liberty  of  the  press  is 

adopted  in  the  Chamber  of  Representa- 

tives, Dec.  1. 

Cuba:  —  The  police  of  Havana  disco- 

ver and  capture  the  press  of  the  paper, 

M  The   Voice  of  the  People,"  with   the 

materials  and  forms  for  the  fourth  num- 

ber.   The  proprietors  and  employes  are 

arrested,  Aug.  23.    The  barque  Cornelia, 

having  cleared  at  Havana,  is  brought  to 

and  boarded  at  the  month  of  the  harbor. 

and  the  mail-bags  rifled,  Sept.  23.    A  few 

days  after,  the  United  States  mail  steam- 
ship Crescent  City  is  refused  permission 
to  land  her  passengers  and  mails  at  Ha- 

vana, and   ordered  to  quit   the  port  — 

Captain  -General  Canedo  objecting  to  the 

purser  of  the  vessel,  Mr   Smith,  alleged 

to  be  the  reporter  of  false  news  to  the 

New  York  papers.    On  Oct.  14,  the  Cres- 

cent City  again  enters  Havana  harbor, 

with  Mr.  Smith  as  purser.    Gov.  Caiicd* 

refuses  to  allow  passensers  or  mails  to  be 

landed,  and  forbids  all  intercourse  be- 

tween the  ship  and  shore.    The  Captain 

protests  to  the  American  Consul,  antf 

leaves  the  harbor. 

876 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL — 50  years.- 


4.D. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GUEAT  BRITAIN. 

\ 

1368 

1852.  Southern  Eights  conven- 

tion at  Montgomery,  Ala., 

passes    resolutions    against 

Great   floods  in  the  United 

making   resistance  to    the 

States,  Marc 

i,  April,  Sept, 

compromise    measures    an 

and  Dec.  ;  in  England,  Nov. 

issue   of  their  party,  and 

and    Dec.  ; 

an    the    conti- 

against  intervention,  March 

nent  of  Europe,  Sept 

5. 

Riot  during  election  at 

St.  Louis,  April  5. 

1852.  Submarine      telegraph 

Telegrrrphu  across  the  Eng- 

First national  agricultu- 

wires   coated    with    gutta 

lish  Channel 

ral  convention  assembles  at 

percha,    laid     across      St. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  consist- 

George's Channel  from  Ho- 

ing of  151  members,  repre- 

ly head,  a  distance  of  eighty 

Earthquakes  in  Cuba  August 

senting  22  States,  and  the 

miles,  completing  the  com- 

2 and  Nov.  5 

6;  in   Manilla 

District  of  Columbia,  orga- 

munication between  Lon- 

and adjacent 

:tarts,  Sept.  16, 

nised    by    the    choice     of 

don  and  Dublin.    June  1. 

Oct.  18;  at  Acapulco,  Dec. 

Marshal  P.  Wilder,  of  Mass., 

4;  in  the  Ea. 

>tern  Archipe- 

president.    June  24, 

l«L-o,  Nov.  27  and  Dec.  21. 

Convention  for  revising 

Queen    Victoria   issues 

At  Stafford  House,  in  London, 

the  Constitution  of  Louisi- 

her   proclamation    against 

some  English  ladies,  headed 

ana,  July  5. 

"  Roman  Catholic  ecclesias- 

by the  Duch 

ess  of  Suther- 

Kossuth  continues  to  be 

tics'  wearing  the  habit  of 

land,  adopt 

an   address  to 

feted  in  different  cities,  and 

their  order,  exercising  the 

the  women 

if  America  on 

finally  quits  the    country 

rites  and  ceremonies  of  tne 

the  subject  of  negro  slavery. 

under  the  name  of  Alexan- 

lion i;ui  Catholic  religion  in 

It    subsequently    receives 

der  Smith,  July  16. 

highways    and     places    ol 

576,000    sign 

iitures.      Nov. 

Henry  Clay  dies,  June 

public  resort"    June  15. 

26. 

29.      Obsequies   celebrated 

at  New  York  with  great 

pomp    and     magnificence, 

Punishment   of  Death    re- 

July 20. 

stored  in  Tus 

cany. 

Great  Britain  insists  upon  the  convention  of  1818,  re- 

specting North  American  fisheries,  being  carried  out  by 

the  United  States,  and  sends  armed  vessels  to  the  coast 

Fall  in  England  of  the  protec- 

of New  Brunswick,  etc.    The  United  States  government 

tionist    mini 

5try    ot    Lord 

dispatches  the  war  steamer  Mississippi,  with  Commodore 

Derby   and 

Mr.   D'Israeli. 

Perry  on  b"ard,  to  the  disputed  fishing  grounds;  some 

after  an  existence  of  nine 

sixty  fishing  vessels  are  boarded,  and  furnished  with  in- 

months —  Dec.  20. 

formation  and  advice.    July  —  Aug. 

Commodore  McCauley. 

commander  of  the  United 

States  naval  forces  in  the 

Pacific,    by    proclamation, 
withdraws    his    protection 
from  American  vessels  pro- 
ceeding to   the    Lobos   Is- 

Duke of  Wellington  dlo^ 
Sept.  14.    His  funeral  obse- 
quies take  place  in  London 

Deaths  in  1852. 

lands  for  guano,    Oct.  18. 
This    difficulty  with    Peru 

with  great  pomp,  Nov.  18. 

U.S. 

EUROPE. 

settled  by  the  withdrawal 

H.  Clay, 

Thos.  Moore, 

of   American    pretensions, 
Nov.  15. 

8.  Nott, 

Schwartzen- 

M.  Stwtrt, 
D.  Drake, 
J.  II.  1'aine, 
H.Gi-eenough, 
Amos      Law- 

berg, 
Pradier, 
Wellington, 
Dr.  Mantell, 
D'Orsay, 

Daniel     Webster     dies, 
Oct  24.     Funeral  solemni- 
ties celebrated    at    Boston 
with  much  state,  Nov.  15. 

Fall  of  the  Protectionist 
ministry  of  Lord  Derby  and 
Mr;  D'Israeli,  after  an  exist- 
ence of  nine  months,  Dec. 

rence, 

Lee. 

The  United  States  de- 

20. 

Milledoler, 
J.  Vnnderli/n, 
D.   Welmter, 
J.L.  Kinfjaley, 
J.  P.  Norton. 

• 

clines  the   tri-partite  con- 
vention   respecting     Cuba 
proposed  by  England  and 
France,  Dec.  1. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Go- 
vernor Ueneral  of  British 
India,  tbt)  province  of  Pe 

git  is  an  n  •>•">>!  to  the  British 

Immigration,  375,000. 

dominions,  Pec.  20. 

1815-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


877 


FEANOE. 


AUBTKIA,  etc. 


THE  WOKLI>,  elsewhere. 


"resident  Bonaparte  com- 
mences his  tour  through 
Southern  France,  Sept,  16. 
Visits  the  Chateau  D'Am- 
boise,  and  releases  Abd-el- 
Kader,  who  had  been  a 
prisoner  for  five  years,  Oct. 
10.  Returns  to  Paris,  ma- 
king a  pompous  entry  into 
the  city,  Oct.  16. 


decree  of  the  President 
convokes  the  Senate  for 
Nov.  4,  for  the  purpose  of 
deliberating  on  the  restora- 
tion of  the  empire.  Oct.  19. 


he  Senate  decrees  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  em- 
pire, subject  to  the  ratifica- 
tion of  die  people.  Nov.  7. 
The  vote  is  taken  through- 
out France  and  Algeria. 
Nov.  21  and  22;  result— 
7,824.189  in  favor  of  reestab- 
lishing the  empire,  against 
253,145  negative,  and  68,326 
void  ballots. 


The  Senate  goes  in  a  body  to 
St.  Cloud,  to  announce  offi- 
cially the  result  of  the  elec- 
tion to  Louis  Napoleon,  ant 
hall  him  Emperor,  Dec.  1. 


At  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  In  Paris 
Louis  Napoleon  is  publiclj 
proclaimed  EMPEROR  OF 
THK  FEKNCH,  under  the 
name  of  NAPOLEON  III 
Dec.  2. 


1852.  Greece : — Signing  of  a  convention  in 
London  by  the  five  powers,  England, 
France,  Prussia,  Bavaria  and  Greece,  in 
reference  to  the  affairs  of  Greece.  None 
but  a  prince  of  the  Greek  religion  is 
hereafter  to  ascend  the  throne  of  Greece. 
Nov.  18. 

Hawaii: — Eruption  of  Manna  Loo; 
lasts  several  weeks.  Feb. 

India:— The  Burmese  evacuate  and 
burn  Prome,  Sept.  10.  The  British  un- 
der Godwin  take  it  with  a  loss  of  38  men, 
Nov.  21. 

Italy :— The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
refuses  to  give  audience  to  an  English 
Protestant  deputation  in  favor  of  Ross 
and  Francisco  Madiai,  Oct.  25. 

— The  punishment  of  death  Is  rees- 
tablished in  Tuscany,  for  treason,  crimes 
against  religion,  murder,  and  robbery 
with  violence,  Nov.  10. 

— The  Pope  addresses  a  letter  to  thfi 
King  of  Sardinia,  strongly  adverse  ti- 
the bill  under  consideration  in  the  Pied 
montese  parliament,  permitting  mar 
riages  without  religious  ceremonies;  h. 
is  consequently  withdrawn  by  the  mi 
nistry,  Dec.  20. 

— At  Rome,  Bishop  Ives,  of  Nort>« 
Carolina,  U.  8.,  formerly  an  Episcopa 
lian,  is  received  into  the  Catholic 
Church  by  the  Pope,  Dec.  26. 

Liberia  :— President  Roberts  attacks 
and  gains  possession  of  the  native  chief 
Beyer's  principal  town,  Jan  15. 

A  treaty  of  peace  between  the  courts  of  Vienna  and 
Rome  is  ratified,  stipulating  that  the  former  shall  main- 
tain in  the  territories  of  the  Pope,  12,000  infantry  and 
1,400  cavalry,  for  whom  $18,000  monthly  are  to  be  paid 
by  the  Papal  government.  Nov.  10. 

Mexico: — Carvajal  attacks  Camargo 
and  is  defeated,  Feb.  21. 

The  French  Count  Boulban  de  Ra 
ousset,  who  led  an  enterprise  upon  So- 
nora,  is  defeated  at  Hermosillo,  and  his 
expedition  completely  overthrown,  Nov. 
1. 

Spain: — A  priest,  aged  63,  attacks 
with  a  dagger,  and  wounds  the  Queen 
of  Spain,  on  her  return  from  celebrating 
at  the  cathedral  a  Te  Deuin  for  the 
birth  of  her  child,  Feb.  2.  He  is  tried, 
convicted,  degraded  from  his  priestly 
office,  and  suffers  death  from  the  gai  te, 
7th. 

— Ninety-five  Americans  belonging 
to  the  Lopez  expedition,  who  had  been 
sent  to  Spain,  arrive  at  New  York, 
March  13,  having  been  liberated  by  the 
Queen. 

—The  Cortes  dissolved  by  royal  de- 
cree, for  having  elected  De  la  Rosa,  tin 
anti-ministerial  candidate  their  presi- 
dent, Dec.  2. 


1852.  TheEmpe 
ror  of  Austria 
visits  the  King 
of  Prussia  at 
Berlin,  Dec.  17. 


Prussia:— 
The  bill  for  bi 
ennial     parlia- 
ments becomes 
a  law,  Dec.  23. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL— 50  years.— 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATES. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1853 


firmans  accorded  to  all  sub- 
jects of  tho  Porte  (not  Mus- 
sulmans) confirming  their 
religious  rights,  June  22. 


The  first  Norwegian  railway 
openev  July  4. 


The  American  expedition  un- 
der Com.  Perry  arrives  al 
Japan,  July  8.  On  the  14th 
he  lands  and  delivers  to  the 
Imperial  commissioners  the 
letter  from  the  American 
President ;  a  few  days  after 
leaves  the  island,  to  return 
in  the  spring. 


Over  60,000  pilgrims  enter 
Atx-la-Chapelle,  to  visit  the 
exhibition  of  the  relics,  Ju 
lylT. 


853.  Caloric  ship  Ericsson 
makes  her  trial  trip  to  the 
Potomac,  Jan.  11. 


Adverse  decision  of  Na- 
poleon, arbiter  between  the 
United  Slates  and  Portugal, 
in  case  of  the.  General  Arm- 
strong, read  at  Washington. 
Jan.  17. 


Franklin  Pierce  and 
William  B.  King  declared 
duly  elected  President  and 
Vice- President  for  four 
years  from  4th  March  next, 
Feb.  9. 


,  W.  R.  King  sworn  In  as 
Vice- President,  at  Cumbre, 
Island  of  Cuba,  Consul 
Sharkey  administering  the 
oath,  March  24. 


Second  American  Arctic 
expedition  leaves  New 
York,  May  81. 


Important  amendments 
to  the  city  charter  of  Now 
York,  restraining  the  power 
of  municipal  officers  in 
money  matters,  adopted  by 
a  vote  of  36,672  in  favor, 
8,851  against,  June  7. 


Crystal  Palace  at  New 
York  opened  in  presence  ol 
the  President  of  the  United 
States,  etc.,  July  14. 


1853.  Mr.  Ingersol,  American 
envoy,  feted  at  Liverpool 
and  Manchester,  Jan.  4-7. 


Sandilli  and  other  Caffre 
chiefs  send  in  their  submis- 
sion to  General  Cathcart, 
thereby  closing  the  war, 
Feb.  10.  Peace  concluded, 
March  9. 


Doncaster  church,  built 
in  1070,  destroyed  by  fire, 
Feb.  28. 


Warlike  stores,  supposed 
to  be  for  Kossuth,  seized, 
April  14. 


'  Mrs.  H.  B.  Stowe,  au- 
thoress of  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  received  at  Stafford 
House  by  many  of  the  no- 
bility and  statesmen  ol 
England,  May  7. 


Dublin  Industrial  Exhl 
bition  opened,  May  12. 


The  "strike"  at  Stock- 
port  ceases,  and  20,000  men 
resume  labor,  having  ac- 
complished thoir  object,  an 
advance  of  ten  per  cent,  in 
their  wastes,  August  8.  Si- 
milar strikes  occur  at  Leeds, 
Kidderminster,  and  otliei 
cities. 


1815-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


879 


FRANCE. 


The  Pantheon  at  Paris  re- 
oj  ened  as  the  Church  of 
St.  Genevieve,  Jan.  3. 

Jussia,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
at  last  acknowledge  Napo- 
leon III.  Emperor  of  the 
French,  Jan.  11. 

Jarriage  of  the  Emperor  and 
Eugenie  de  Montijo,  Count- 
ess de  Teba,  celebrated  at 
Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
Paris.  Amnesty  granted 
to  4,312  political  prisoners 
and  exiles,  Jan.  30. 

Jeneral  St.  Priest,  and  many 
other  legitimists,  secretly 
arrested  in  1'aris,  on  the 
charge  of  political  commu- 
nication with  the  Count  of 
Chambord,  and  some  of 
having  sent  false  intelli- 
gence to  foreign  journals, 
Feb.  5. 

Application  is  made  by  the 
French  government  to  the 
English  for  Napoleon's 
will,  Feb.  17.  Subsequent- 
ly granted. 


Funeral  of  Mine.  Ravmil  at 
Paris,  the  occasion  of  a 
formidable  socialist  demon- 
stration. 40,01)0  persons 
inarch  in  procession  to  Pcre 
la  Chaise,  March  13. 

Fleet  sent  to  Turkish  waters, 
March  20. 

A  peaco  address,  signed  by 
4,000  English  merchants, 
bankers  and  traders,  is  pre 
sented  to  Napoleon  III.  at 
the  Tuilieries,  by  English- 
men, March  28. 


A  bill  restoring  capital  pun- 
ishment for  attempts  on  the 
life  of  the  Emperor,  or  to 
subvert  the  Imperial  go- 
vernment, is  passed,  May 
*& 


AUSTRIA,  etc. 


1S53.  Austria  of- 
fers herself  as 
a  mediator  be- 
tween   the 
Turks  and 
Montenegrins, 
Feb.  1. 


Attempt  on 
the  life  of  Em- 
peror of  Aus- 
tria at  the  ram- 
parts of  Vien- 
na, Feb.  18. 


Baden: — 
Prof.  Gervinus 
tried  for  high 
treason, in  pub- 
lishing his  "In- 
troduction to 
the  History  of 
19th  century." 
Sentence,  ten 
months'  im- 
prisonment, 
and  book  to  be 
destroyed, 
March  5. 


Prussia : — 
Democratic 
conspiracy  dis- 
covered at  Ber- 
lin, March  29. 


Austria  re- 
cals  her  minis- 
ter from  Berne, 
May  20. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1852.  Switzerland  :— The  Canton  of  Ticino 
suppresses  the  order  of  Capuchin  monks, 
and  expels  all  of  that  order  under  65 
years  of  age,  Nov.  25. 

Turkey  : — War  breaks  out  between 
the  Turks  and  Montenegrins,  Dec.  15. 

1853.  Belgium:— A  maritime  congress  as- 
sembles at  Brussels,  Aug.  23. 

— Marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Brabant, 
heir-apparent  of  the  throne,  and  th< 
Arch-Duchess  Maria,  Aug.  23. 

Canada  and  New  Brunswick: — Ga- 
vazzi  lectures  at  Quebec  and  Montreal ; 
riots  ensue:  military  called  out;  June 
6-9. 

— The  first  sod  of  the  European  and 
North  American  Railroad  turned  at  St. 
Johns,  by  Lady  Head,  assisted  by  the 
Lieutenant-Governor,  in  presence  of 
25,000  persons,  Sept.  14. 

China :— Nankin  taken  by  the  rebels ; 
Tartar  garrison  (20,000)  massacred : 
March  19.  Amoy  captured,  May  19. 

Denmark:  —Parliament  prorogued, 
and  a  "'fundamental"  law  issued,  by 
which  the  government  becomes  hereaf- 
ter an  absolute  one,  July  19. 

Hawaii:— Small-pox  rages,  having 
carried  off  since  May  1,805  out  of  a  po- 
pulation of  60,0) )0  persons,  Aug.  81. 

Holland  : — The  first  chamber  adopts 
the  much-disputed  law  on  religious  li- 
berty, Sept.  S. 

India: — Battle  of  Donabew,  in  Bur- 
mah :  Sir  J.  Cheape  defeats  Mea  Toon, 
March  19. 

Italy  :— An  insurrection  breaks  out 
at  Milan,  but  is  vigorously  suppressed 
by  Radetsky,  Feb.  6.  The  property  of 
the  Lombardo- Venetian  refugees  seques- 
tered till  they  can  prove  they  are  not 
implicated  in  this  outbreak,  and  10,000 
Ticinese  expelled  from  Austrian  Italy, 
Feb.  26.  Protracted  diplomatic  contro- 
versies between  Austria  and  both  Sar- 
dinia and  Switzerland,  follow— Sardinia 
solemnly  protesting  April  10.  , 

— The  i'ope  prohibits  the  circulation  [     .s^~ 
of  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  in  his  domini-  \S 
ons,  May  10. 

Guerazzi  tried  at  Florence  for  high 
treason,  and  found  guilty,  June  11. 

—Conspiracy  in  liome,  146  arrests, 
Aug.  15. 

— Order  signed  for  immediate  release 
of  Miss  Cunningham  at  Lucca,  Oct.  9. 

—New  church,  built  for  the  Wal- 
denses,  opened  and  consecrated  at  Turin, 
Dec.  15. 

Mexico: — Now  revolution;  Arista 
resigns  the  presidency,  Jan.  5. 

— Santa  Anna  iiaving  been  elected 
President,  is  received  in  Mexico  with 
great  enthusiasm,  April  17. 


SSO 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL— 50  years.— 


A.D 

PROORKSS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATUS. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1853.  Great  heat  throughout 

1853.  Naval  Review  at  Spit- 

the  country  —  thermometei 

head,  in    presence  of  the 

every    where     100°    Fan. 

Queen,  Aug.  11. 

Deaths    from    it    in    New 

York  city  in  four  days,  400, 

Aug.  11-14. 

Queen    Victoria    risiU 

Ireland,  Aug.  29. 

Remaining    portion    oi 

"Table  Rock,"  at  the  Falls 

of  Niagara,  breaks  off,  Sept 
9. 

Deputation    from     the 
Protestant  Alliance,  headed 

(853 

A  great  national  horse-show 
mt  Springfield,  Mass,  U.  S. 

by  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury, 
waits  upon  Lord  Clarendon. 

Oct.  19-21. 

"Great  Republic,"  ves- 

to state   the  case  of  Miss 

sel    of  4,000    tuns,  largest 

Cunningham,    arrested    at 

merchantman  In  the  world, 

Lucca  for  distributing  Ita- 

launched at  East  Boston, 

lian  Bibles,    etc.,    and    to 

Mass.,  Oct  4. 

urge    the    government    to 

procure  her  immediate   li- 

beration, Sept  28.    A  depu 

The  first  Presbyterian  Ciilnese 

tation    of    clergymen    anc- 

church    organized    at    San 

Captain  Gunnison   am 

others,  headed  by  Sir  Cul 

Francisco,  U.  8.,  Nov.  6. 

party    massacred     by    th 
Indians  in  Utah,  Oct.  26. 

ling    Eardley,    wait    upo) 
Lord  Clarendon  and  thanK 

him  acd   the    government 

for  the  exertions  which  ha 

been  made,  Oct.  27. 

Inauguration     of     the 

Washington   aqueduct 

Duel     between     8oul6     anc 

President  Pierce  turns  the 

De   Turgot,  American  and 

first  turf,  Nov.  9. 

Bronze  statue  of  Sir  R  .- 

French  ministers  to  Spain, 

bert  Peel  erected  in  fro  *< 

Dec.  18. 

of  the  Royal  Infirmary  << 

Manchester,  Oct.  3. 

A  mob  of  men  and  wo- 

men demolish  the  railroac 

track  near  Erie,  Penn.,  Dec. 

9,  and  repeat  the  outrage, 

Captain  Inglefleld,  of  the 

Cholera  prevails  In  Europe. 

Dec.  27. 

Phoenix,   arrives  from   the 

Arctic   regions,    with    the 

news  of  the  discovery   ol 

the  North-west  Passage,  on 

Yellow  fever  epidemic 

Oct.   26,   1850,   by  Captain 

In  the  States  bordering  on 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  carries  of 

MeClure  of  the  Investiga- 
tor, Oct.  7. 

Several  new  asteroids  discov- 

from 12,000  to  15,000  per- 

ered, raising  the  number  to 

sons. 

27,    between    the    planets 

Mars  aad  Jupiter. 

The  first  stone  of  a  Ro- 

Bedini, the  Papal  Nun- 

man     Catholic     cathedral 

D«athsinl85S: 

cio,  tries  to  influence  the 
Roman  Catholic  laity  to  give 
up  their  church  property  to 
the   Bishops,  but  does  not 

laid    at     Shrewsbury,    by 
Bishop  Brown—  the  young 
Eiirl  of  Shrewsbury  giving 
£15,000  towards  its  erection 

U.  8.             EUROPE. 

succeed.        He    quits    the 

—Deo.  12. 

O.  B.  Adams,  Arago, 

country  ignoininiously. 

JitnitViSmith,  Von  Buch, 

W.  R.  King,    Dacres, 

The  Dublin  Exhibition 

S.  Sates,         Mre.  Ople, 
Sim.  Oreen 
leaf.             Wardlaw. 

Immigration,  868,000. 

building  is  formally  opened 
as  a  winter  garden,  by  the 
Lord  Lieutenant   and   the 

Countess     St      Germain* 

Dec.  15. 

1815-1866.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


881 


1868 


FRANCE. 


Plot  to  assassinate  the  Empe- 
ror, while  on  his  way  to  the 
Opera  Comique,  discovered 
at  Park,  July  7. 


A  Roman  cfrcns  of  great  size 
discovered  at  Tours,  Aug. 
81. 


The  Duke  de  Nemours,  on 
behalf  of  the  entire  Orleans 
House,  effects  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  Count  de 
Chambord,  NOT.  17. 


Inauguration  of  the  statue  of 
Marshal  Ney,  on  the  spot 
where  he  was  shot,  and  the 
anniversary  of  his  execu- 
tion, Dec.  7. 


AUSTRIA,  etc. 


1858,  AnAnstrian 
war  vessel    ir 
the  port  of 
Smyrna,  seizes 
and  attempts 
to  carry  off 
Martin  Koszta, 
a  Hungarian 
refugee,  travel- 
ing under  an 
American  pass- 
port, who 
claims  protec- 
tion of  Ameri- 
can flag.    An 
American  fri- 
gate places  ttw 
Austrian  un- 
der her  guns, 
and  Koszta's 
release  is  impe- 
ratively de- 
manded, June 
21. 

Austrian  go- 
Tern  men  t  pro 
tests  against 
proceedings  of 
Captain  Ingra- 
ham  at  Smyr- 
na, in  a  circu 
lar  addressed 
to  the  Europe- 


an  courts,  Aug. 
ugh 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1868.  Persia: — Earthquakes  destroy  8bi- 
raz,  (12,000  lives  lost,)  May  9 ;  and  Tehe- 
ran, July  11. 


Peru  .-—Difficulty  at  Chincha  Island* 
between  Peruvian  commandant  and 
American  shipmasters,  Aug.  17. 


10. 


Portugal :— Maria  (Queen)  dies,  NOT, 


Spain:  —  New  and  stringent  law 
against  liberty  of  the  press  published, 
Jan.  2.  Queen  Isabella,  in  commemo- 
ration of  her  birth-day,  orders  three 
screw-frigates  to  be  constructed,  to  be 
called  after  the  three  queens  from  whom 
she  derives  the  crowns  of  Castile,  Arra- 
gon,  and  Navarre,  Oct.  10. 


Venezuela: — Earthquake  at  Cumana; 
600  persons  killed,  July  15. 


Switzerland: — Insurrection  in  Fri- 
burg  by  the  Jesuit  party  speedily  sup- 
pressed, April  22. 

1,  and  through 
Its  envoy   ad- 
dresses a  note 
to  the  Ameri- 
can govern- 
ment on  the 
same  subject, 
Aug.  29. 

EASTERN  AFFAIRS. — WAB  BKTWEKN  TTEKF.T  AND 
RUSSIA. — Prince  Menschikoff  sent  by  the  Emperor  of  Rus- 
sia with  demands  which  are  rejected  by  the  Porte,  May  21, 
June  15.  The  Russians  cross  the  Pruth,  120,000  strong, 
June  21-28. — The  Porte  addresses  a  protest  to  the  Russian 
cabinet  against  the  occupation  of  the  Principalities,  July 
14.  The  Conference  of  Vienna  draw  up  the  celebrated 
"  Vienna  note,"  for  the  Joint  acceptance  of  Russia  and 
Turkey,  July  26.  Russia  at  once  accepts;  Turkey  re- 
quires modifications,  Aug.  20;  which  Russia  will  not  ac- 
cede to,  Sept.  14.  Military  congress  at  Olmntz,  Sept.  20. 
The  note  is  dropped,  Sept.  80.  Turkey  declares  war 
against  Russia,  Oct.  8.  Hostilities  commenced  on  the 
Danube,  Oct.  30.  Turks  capture  Fort  St.  Nicholas  in  the 
Black  Sea,  Oct.  81.  Turks  defeat  Russians  at  Oltenitza, 
NOT.  4.  Russia  declares  war  against  Turkey,  Nov.  11. 
The  Anglo-French  fleet  enters  the  Dardanelles,  Oct.  4, 
and  the  Bosphorus,  Nov.  15.  Turks  beaten  and  massa- 
cred at  Sinope  by  Russians,  Nov.  80.  The  Vienna  Con- 
ference continues  its  efforts  to  effect  an  arrangement  be- 
tween the  belligerents,  Dec.  Decided  manifestation  of 
the  people  of  Constantinople  in  favor  of  war,  Deo.  21. 
Russians  uniformly  victorious  in  Asia.  The  religions  fana- 
ticism of  both  parties  is  aroused. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.  [Period  XL— 50  years, 


1854 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


Deputation  of  "  Friends"  pre- 
sents to  the  Emperor  o 
Russia  a  peace  memorial, 
Feb.  10. 


Complete  equality  before  the 
law  secured  to  all  subjects 
of  the  Porte,  without  dis- 
tinction of  creed,  by  treaty, 
March  12. 


Commercial  treaty  concluded 
between  the  United  States 
and  Japan,  March  28. 


In  Turkey,  the  possessions  of 
the  Mosques  to  be  declared 
the  property  of  the  State 
from  March  27. 


The  first  rattwoM  is  opened 
in  Brazil,  the  Emperor  and 
Empress  being  present  at 
the  inauguration,  April  80. 


The  changes  introduced  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Allied  Pow- 
ers, amount  to  a  revolution 
in  its  social  condition. 


Marked  Increase  in  the  num- 
bers and  prosperity  of 
Christians  in  Turkey  ;  Mo- 
hammedan population,  ex- 
cept in  Bosnia,  rapidly  dy- 
ing out. 


Cross  raised  in  •  Catholic 
burying  ground  belonging 
to  the  French,  in  Turkey. 


UNITED  STATES. 


1854.  The  steamer  San  Fran 
cisco  founders  at  sea;  240 
U.  S.  troops  washed  over 
board;  the  rest  of  700  res- 
cued by  the  Three  Bells 
Kilby,  and  Antarctic,  Jan 
5. 


Astor  Library  openec 
foruse  of  the  public,  inNew 
York  city,  Jan.  9. 

Outrages  on  the  railroad 
near  Erie,  Pa,,  renewed  by 
mobs  of  women,  Jan.  17, 81. 


Skirmishes  between  U. 
S.  troops  and  Apache  and 
Utah  Indians,  March  5,  SO. 


Certain  sections  of  the 
"  Maine  Liquor  Law"  deci- 
ded to  be  unconstitutional 
iu  Massachusetts,  March  13. 


Miss  Dir's  bill  for  ame- 
liorating the  condition  of 
the  indigent  insane,  vetoed, 
April  20. 


Great  flood  in  the  Con- 
necticut river,  hundreds 
driven  from  their  dwel- 
lings, May  1. 


Mass  meetings  at  Bos- 
ton, Feb.  23 ;  New  Market, 
N.  H.,  Feb.  27;  New  York, 
May  13,  against  the  Ne- 
braska bill,  which,  bow- 
ever,  becomes  a  law,  May 
80. 


Riots  in  Michigan,  April 
17;  at  Boston,  (attempt  to 
rescue  a  fugitive  slave,) 
May  26 ;  at  New  York  and 
Brooklyn,  (papist  interfe- 
rence with  street-preach- 
ing,) May  28,  June  4,  11. 


Ban  Jnan,  Nicaragua, 
bombarded  and  burnt  by 
the  U.  B.  sloop-of-war,  Cy- 
wio,  July  18. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1854.  Parliament  opened  by 
Queen,  who  expresses  a  de- 
sire that  exertions  for  an 
amicable  settlement  of  the 
Eastern  difficulties  should 
be  persevered  in,  Jan.  81. 


The  Queen  reviews  th« 
fleet  on  its  departure  for 
the  Baltic,  March  11. 


A  day  of  humiliation 
and  prayer  observed,  April 
26. 


Launch  of  the  "Royal 
Albert,"  the  Queen  chris- 
tening the  vessel,  May  18. 


Crystal  Palace  at 
dcnham  opened  by 
Queon,  June  10. 


By- 


1815-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


8  S3 


4.D. 

FRANCB. 

AUSTRIA,  etc. 

THK  WORLD,  elsewhere. 

1854.  Brazil  :—  San  Salvador  destroyed  Iff 

nn  earthquake,   causing  n  loss,  in   les» 

than    one    minute,    of  200    lives,    and 

fci,000,000  of  property,  April  16. 

1854.    Alliance, 

Canada:—  Parliament  House  at  Que- 

offensive   and 
defensive,    be- 

bec burnt,  including  government  library 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  Feb.  1. 

tween  Austria 

and      Prussia, 

India:—  The  Ganges  Canal,  f.  work 

signed      April 

of  vast  magnitude  opened,  April  8. 

20. 

—Day  of  humiliation  and  prayer  for 
success  of  the  British  arms,  observed  at 

Bombay  and  all  over  India,  by  the  na- 

tives, as  well  as  the  Europeans,  July  .16. 

Italy  :  —  Shocks  of  earthquake  in  the 

country  between  Florence  and  Koine, 

May. 

1864 

The  Emperor  and   Empress 
attend  the  first  agricultural 
exhibition  ever  held  in  Pa- 

— Railway  from  Lusa  to  Turin  inau- 
gurated in  presence  of  King  and  Queen 
of  Sardinia,  etc.,  May  22. 

ris,  Jane  9. 

Mexico  :  —  Battle    of  Guyamas,   be 

tween  some  Frenchmen   under  Count 

. 

Raousset  de  Boulbon  and  the  Mexicans, 

July  13.    The  Count  is  defeated,  taken 

prisoner,  and,  Aug.  12,  shot. 

Russia:  —  An  imperial  ukase  calls  out 

nine  men  in  1,000  souls  in  eastern  por 

tion  of  the  Empire,  May  9. 

Spain  :  —  Earthquake  at  Fiana,  crum- 

bling down  the  greatest  part  of  the  Al- 

cazaba,  an  ancient  castle  of  the  Moors. 

and  causing  large  chasms  in  nearly  all 

the  streets,  Jan.  13. 

—  Strike  at  Barcelona;   15,000   arti- 

sans demand  of  the  municipal  authorities 

that  the  price  of  provisions  be  reduced, 

and  wages  increased,  March  31. 

—The    insurrection    of  the   people 

at  Madrid  (July  17)  triumphs,  and  the 

Rivas  ministry  resign,  July  19.    Espar- 

tero  enters  the  city,  and   is    received 

with  great  enthusiasm,  July  29.    3,00( 

defenders  of  the  barricades  defile  before 

the  Queen's  palace,  her  Majesty  present- 

ing herself  on  the  balcony,  July  81. 

—  Dona  Maria  Christina,  the  Qneen 

Mother,  leaves  Madrid  for  Portugal,  un- 

der escort  of  troops,  but  against  the  will 

of  the  people.    She  was  indebted  to  the 

State  71,000,000  reals,  Aug.  28. 

Turkey:  —  Fire   at    Constantinople, 

400  houses  destroyed,  Jan.  1. 

—Fire  at  Salonica,  destroys  600  build- 

ings, April  & 

The  Emperor  reviews  a  dl- 

—  Banquet  given  by  the  Sultan  to 

vision  of  troops  about  to 
proceed  to  the  Baltic,  -Inly 
IS. 

Prince  Napoleon,  May  8. 
—  Fire  at  Varna,  destroys  180  house* 
and  vast  quantities  3f  militarv  stores, 

Aug.  10. 

884 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.          [Period  XL — 50  yean — 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OP  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GKBAT  BEIT  AIM. 

1854 

The  Sultan  issues  a  firman  foi 

1854.  Grisi  and  Mario,  the  two 

the  construction  of  a  church 

most    renowned    lyric    ar 

at  Scutari,  8< 

>pt. 

tists  of  the  old  world,  arri  v 

At  New  York,  Aug.  19. 

Deatht  in  1864. 

'        U.S. 

EUKOPE. 

N.  B.  Blunt, 

Anglesea, 

*  :  •  ••;  t. 

Jacob  Bur- 

Bodisco, 

nett, 
John  Davis, 

Cockburn, 

Forbes, 

Extensive  drought  pre- 
vails several  weeks. 

Com.  Downes, 

Jameson, 

J.  Harring- 

Maitland, 

ton,  lust  sur- 

Mellout, 

vivor  of  bat- 

Montgomery, 

tle   of  Lex- 

Paixhans, 

ington. 
Mrs.  E.  Jud- 
son. 

Pelllco, 
Plunkett, 
Rubini, 

Cholera  prevails,  June- 
Nov.  ;  yellow  fcrer  prevails, 

Bin/wn  Wain- 
wrtffht. 

flchelling, 
Mme.  Sontag 

Aug.-Nov. 

Mrs.  C.  South 

Hi 

Talfourd, 

Immigration,  about  600,000 

Wilson, 

3t.  Arnaud, 

Oenman, 

"Ostend  Conference"  be 

Lockhart. 

tweeu    Buchanan,    Mason 

"Immacidatt  Conception  o 
the  Virgin"  proclaimed  as  a 
dogma  by  the  pope,  Dec.  8. 

Soule,  Oct  10,  11. 

Law  passed  for  the  en- 
listment of  foreigners  in  the 
British  service,  Deo.  22. 

1866 

1855.    Panama  railroad  com- 
pleted, first  train  on  It  Jan. 

1856.    Southern    Commercia 
Convention  at  New  Orleans, 

1865.    Tislt  of  the  Emperor 
and   Empress   of    France. 

28. 

Jan.  8. 

April  16. 

Financial  panic  in  California, 

8oul6   quits  Madrid  Jan. 

Death  of  Lord  Raglan, 

Feb. 

81. 

Commander-in-chief  at  Se- 

Suspension  Bridge  tA  Niaga- 

U. 8.  8.  Waterwitch  fired 

bastopol,  June  23. 

ra  flrst  crossed,  March  14. 

on,  on  the  Paraguay,  Feb.  1. 

The  Queen   and  Prince 

Albert  visit  the  Emperor 

Difficulty     In    Phila.    abont 
slaves  of  J.  II.  Wheeler  o: 
N.  Carolina,  July  18. 

U.  8.  Dist.  Court  in  Wis- 
consin pronounces  the  Fu- 
gitive Slave  Law  unconsti- 

Louis Napoleon  at  Paris. 
Aug.  18. 

tutional,  Feb.  8. 

Election    riot  at   Lonlsvllle, 

Ky.,    between    Americans 
and  foreigners,  Aug.  6. 

Convention  at  Lawrence, 
Kansas,  Aug.  14. 

Walker  (filibuster)  takes 

Possession  of  Granada,  Oct 
6. 

Kansas  :    Convention    at 

Topeka,  Oct  28. 

Passmore     Wl 

liamson     re- 

leased  from  jail  (where  he 

hud  been  thr 

i-e  months  In 

the    Wheeler 

S!»TO  COM), 

NOT.  a 

1815-1865.] 


THE    WORLD  8    PROGRESS. 


885 


FBAMOB. 


AUSTRIA,  etc. 


THE  WOBLD,  elsewhere. 


1854.  Saxony:— 


1854.  Venezuela: — Slaves     emancipated, 
April  25. 


The    King 
thrown  from 
his  carriage  at 
Innspruck,  and 
killed,  Aug.  10. 

EASTKRN  AFFAIRS. — The  Anglo-French  fleet  enters 
the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  4.  Turks  defeat  Russians  at  Citate, 
Jan.  6.  Negotiations  for  peace  continue  through  the  Vi- 
enna Conference,  Jan.  Russian  ambassadors  quit  Lon- 
don. Feb.  6,  Paris,  Feb.  7.  English  and  French  ambassa- 
dors dismissed  St.  Petersburg;,  Feb.  16.  England  and 
France  resolve  tt7»nmmon  Russia  to  evacuate  the  Prin- 
cipalities by  the  80th  A  pril;  Feb.  28.  Russians  cross  the 
Danube,  March.  Treaty  of  alliance  concluded  between 
England,  France,  and  the  Porte,  March  12.  Anglo- French 
ultimatum  forwarded  to  St.  Petersburg.  Russia  refuses 
a  reply.  England  and  France  declare  war  against  Russia, 
March  28.  Counter  declaration  of  war  by  Russia  against 
England  and  France,  April  12.  Convention  between 
England  and  France,  April  18.  Odessa  bombarded,  April 
22.  Anglo-French  fleet  scours  the  Baltic,  May,  June. 
Austro-Turkish  Convention,  June  4.  Russians  raise  the 
siege  of  Silistria,  June  28,  and  re-cross  the  Danube,  July 
7.  Russians  defeated  by  Turks  at  Rutschuk,  July  12  and 
\8.  Are  compelled  to  evacuate  the  Principalities  and  re- 
cross  the  Pruth,  Aug.  16.  Bomarsund  capitulates  to  th» 
Allied  fleet  and  French  army,  Aug.  16.  Austrian  armies 
enter  the  Principalities,  Aug.  20.  Allies  land  in  the  Cri- 
mea, Sept.  14.  Defeat  the  Russians  at  the  Alma,  Sept 
20.  Commence  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  Sept.  28.  Fire 
opened,  Oct.  17.  Battle  of  Balaklava,  Russians  repulsed, 
Oct.  25.  Battle  of  Inkermann,  Russians  again  repulsed, 
Nov.  5.  Siege  of  Sebastopol  progresses,  Dec.  31. 

1855.    Subscriptions  to   the  1855.  Russia :  Death  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.,  March  3. 
French  loan  of  500  millions 
of  francs  amount  to  2,000 
millions  of  francs,  offered 
by  177,000  persons. 


— The  allies  take  possession  of  Kertch  and  the  Sea  ot 
Azoph,  May  24. 


Death  of  Don  Carlos, 
claimant  of  the  Spanish 
throne,  March  10. 

Indust'l  Exhibition  open- 
ed at  Paris,  May  15. 


—  The  allies  repulsed  In  an  assault  on  the  outposts  of 
Sebastopol,  June  18. 

—  Kars  invested  by  the  Russians,  June  28. 


FALL  OF  SEBASTOPOL— 
The  Malakhoff  carried  by  the 
French,  Sep.  8. 

Terrific  attack  of  the  Rus- 
sians on  Kars  repulsed,  Sep.  99. 


Mexico:  Santa  Anna 
abdicates.  Aug  9.  Car- 
rara chosen  tc  succeed 
him. 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.      [Period  XL—  50  years.— 


A.D, 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GBBA.T  BRITAIN-. 

>*>5 

Deaths 

1855.     Proclamation  against  Jtlibus 

1S55.    Visit    of   the 

teri«m  by  President    Pierce.  Dec 

Kins;  of  Sardinia  to 

U.  8. 

EUROPE. 

8. 

England.  Nov.  3(1. 

S.  H.  Cone, 

Sir  H.  Bishop, 

British    Arctic    vessel    Resolute 

Captain  McClure 
receives    the     re- 

Abbott   Law- 
rence, 

Silk  Bucking- 
bam, 

found  and  brought  to  New  London 
by  an  American  whaler,  Dec.  23. 

ward  of  £5,000  for 
discovery  of  "  tht 

Jjtm  C.  Spen- 

Jos. Hume, 

N.    W.   passage* 

• 

cer, 
T.  R.  Beck. 

Miss  Mitford, 
Nicholas  I, 

and     is    knighted 
NOT 

"Currer  Bell." 

Sir  W.  E.  Par- 

ry. 

Lord  Raglan, 

! 

SamL  Rogers, 

1 

Ans.     Roths- 

child, 

Lord  Truro. 

Launch  of  the 

stm.  Adriatic 

(the  largest  yet  afloat)  at 
N.  Y.,  April  f. 

Y 

1 

IS6 

1856.  N.  P.  Banks,  jr.,  of  Mass.,  elect- 

ed Speaker  of  House  of  Represent. 

I 

of  UT  S.,  after  a  contest  of  9  weeks, 

by  plurality  of  3  votes,  Feb.  2. 

Gubernatorial  contest  in  Wiscon- 

1 

I 

sin,  Jan.  —  Fob. 

Mr.  Fillmore  nominated  for  Pres't 

by  Amer.  Con.  at  Phila.,  Feb.  22. 

Personal  Assa 

lit  on  Senator 

Free    State    Legisl.  at   Topeka, 

Sun  me  i-  of  Ma-s..  in  the  U. 

Kansas,  elect  Reeder  and  Lane  as 

S.  Senate  by 

Brooks  of  S. 

delegates  to  Congress,  Feb.  8. 

Ca.,  May  22. 

Kansas  Investigation  Committee 

appointed,  March  19. 

Padre  Vigil  recognised  as  Minist. 

from  Nicaragua,  May  14. 
President's  message  announcing 

Submarine  Telegraph  cable 

difficulty  with  Brit.  Gov.  on  enlist- 

laid from   Ca 

I>e  Breton  to 

ments  in  the  U.  S.,  May  29. 

Newfoundland,  July  12. 

Buchanan   nominated  for  Pres't 
by  Dem.  Con.  at  Cincinati,  June  7. 

BurHnghame's  acceptance  of 
Brooks's    challenge,   July 

Brooks  and  Keitt  re-eleeted 

Fremont  nominated  for  Pres't  by 
Repub.  Conven.  a*  Phila^  June  IT. 
H.  Repres.  U.  S.  pass  a  bill  ad- 
mitting Kansas  under  Topeka  Con., 
July  8. 

to  Congress  from  S.  C.,  July 

Topeka  legislature  dispersed  by 

28. 

U.  S.  troops  under  Col.  Sumner, 

iudley  Observatory    Imiujr. 

July  4. 

at  Albany.  Ai 

IK.  28. 

John  W.  Geary  confirmed  as  Gov. 

'reston  S.    Brooks,  the    as- 

of Kansas,  July  81. 

saulter  of  Sun 

aner,  publicly 

Whitefleld  and  Reeder  both  re- 

welcomed   and   presented 

jected  by  H.  Repres.  as  delegates 

with  a  cane, 

at  Columbia, 

from  Kansas,  Aug.  1. 

8.  C.,  Aug.  29. 

Extra  session    of   Congress   ad- 

Brit, fleet  lioin 

Charles  Sumne 

r  received  in 

journed  Aug.  80. 

bard  and  partiall) 

Boston   with 

public  hon- 

Municipal  electiot  riot  at  Balti- 

destroy     Canton 

or*.  Nov.  8. 

more,  9  *.,  Oct  8. 

China.  Oct  23. 

N.    Y.  and   JV 

'ewfoundland 

U.  8.  troops  in  Ka  isas  arrest  and 

Telegraph  Kn,«,"1715  miles, 

disarm  parties  of  emigrants  from  N. 

opened  to  St. 

John's,  Nov. 

E..  Oct.  10. 

10 

Buchanan  elected  Pres.  Nov.  4 

1816-1865.1 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


8S7 


A.  1 1. 

1865 


FBANCI. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewher*. 


1866.  Omar  Pasha  defeats 
the  Russians  at  the  Ingour 
Nov.  5. 

Explosion  of  100,000  Ibs 
of  powder  at  Sebastopol, 
Nov.  15. 

Surrender  of  Kars  to  the 
Russians  after  a  famous  de- 
fence by  Gen.  Williams. 
Nov.  25. 


1S55.  Meocico : — Alvarez  re- 
signs the  presidency,  and  it 
succeeded  by  Comonfort, 
Deo. 


1856  Peace    Conference   at   Paris 

opened  Feb.  25. 
Birth  of  an  heir  to  the  throne, 

March  16. 

Treaty  of  Peace,  with  Ritstia 
signed  at  Paris,  Much  30. 


856.  Preliminaries  of  Peace 
signed  at  Vienna,  Feb.  1. 


1856.  Costa  Rica :— Sehlessin- 
ger  and  Walker's  invasion 
defeated,  Marjh  20. 

—  Walker  defeats  3,000 
Costa  Bicans  at  Rivas,  Ap. 

Panama: — Riot  on  the 
Panama  R.R.,  30  passengers 
killed,  April  15. 


Destructive  floods  near  Ly- 
ons, Ac.,  whole  villages  de- 
stroyed, June. 


The  Crimea  wholly  eva- 
cnated  by  the  Allies,  July 
12. 


Russia  : — Alexander  II. 
crowned  emperor,  Sept.  7. 

—  Railways  of  2600 
miles  contracted  for  by 
Government  Capital,  1000 
millions  of  francs,  Oct.  28. 


Naplet  :  —  French    and 
English    ministers    leave, 

Octas. 


Gunpowder  explosion  at 
Salonica,  Turkey,  700  t 
and  10.,  July  17. 


Earthquake,  in  Egypt 
Syria,  ana  isles  if  Med 
About  1200  lives  lost,  and 
many  thousand  building! 
destroyed,  Oct.  12. 


Granada,  city  of,  de 
stroyed  by  Walker,  NOT 
20-35. 


888 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.      [Period  XL—  50  years.— 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

BRITISH  EMPIRK. 

1866 

Revival  of  the  African  Slave 

856.  Barrier  Forts,  near  Can- 

Trade   recommended   by 

ton,  China,   destroyed    by 

Gov.  Adams 

In  S.  Ca. 

U.  S.  squadron,  for  an  at- 

Arctic discovery  ship  Reso- 

tack on  an  American  boat, 

lute    present 

ed   to   Queen 

Dec.  6. 

Victoria   by 

Lieut.    Hart- 

Resolution    against   the 

stene  for  the  U.  8.  Govern- 

Slave Trade  passed  by  H. 

ment,  Dec.  30. 

of  Reps.  U.  S.,  Dec.  16. 

Dtatli*  in  1856  : 

U.S. 

ECKOPB. 

J.  M.  Berrien. 

Jno.  Braham, 

Ogden      Hoff- 

vocalist. 

man. 

Sir  W.  Hamil- 

Com  Morris. 

ton,     meta- 

J.G.Perceval. 

physician. 

Jno.   C.   War- 

Von Biela.  as- 

ren. 

tronomer. 

, 

J.  M.  Clayton, 

L'd  Hardinge 

U.  S.  S. 

Father    Mat- 

Georste Steers, 

thew. 

naval   archi- 

Hugh Miller. 

tect. 

Sir  Jno.  Ross. 

T.     Crawford, 

Westinacott. 

sculptor. 

Yarrell. 

Louis  M'Lane.iPl.  Delaroche. 

1657 

Geo.  Peabody  gives  $300.noO 
to  establish  a  free  Literary 

1857.  Four   members  of  H. 
of  Representatives  of  U.  S. 

1867.    Treaty  of  Peace  with 
Persia  signed  March  6. 

atid  Scientific  Institute  at 
Baltimore,  Feb.  12. 

from  N.   Y.  and  Conn,  ex- 
pelled for  corrupt  conduct, 
Feb.  19. 

Palmcrston  Ministry  out- 
voted on  the  Chinese  ques- 

Buchanan     inaugurated 

tion,  March  5. 

The  Chief-Justice  of  the  U. 

President,  March  4. 

8.  proclaims  that  negroes 
have  no  rights  which  white 

Lord   Napier  recognised 
as  British  minister,  March 

New   septennial    Parlia- 
ment meets,  April  80. 

men  are  boi 

md  to  respect, 

16. 

March  6. 

The   DRED    SCOT   DECI- 

The Manchester  Art  Ex- 

SION   delivered   by  Chief- 

hibition  opened,  May  6. 

*  Dred   Scot  decision,'1''  de- 
nounced by  the  Legislature 

Justice  Taney,  March  6. 
11.  J  Walker  accepts  ap- 

Rebellion in  India  begins 

of  N.  Hampshire,  June  25. 

pointment  as  Governor  ol 
Kantas.  Mnroh  26. 

May  9  ;  King  of  Delhi  pro- 
claimed sovereign  of  India. 

The  Atlantic  Telegraph  Ca- 
ble first  joined  at  sen  by 

Attempt  to  arrest  Mayor 
Wood  in  N.  Y.  for  an  as- 

II AV  BLOCK  defeat*  th«  re- 

the Niagara  and  Agamem- 
non,  Aug.   6,   but   breaks 

sault  on   the  Street  Com- 
missioner, June  16. 

bels  under  Nena  Sahib,  and 
recaptures  Cawnpore,  July 

Aug.  11. 

General  financial  Pa- 

18. 

nic  begins  with  suspension 

Loss  of  thp  Central  America 

ot  Ohio  Life  and  Trust  Co., 

The  Emp.  and  Empreai 

and  450  lives,  Sept.  8. 

Aug.  24 

toria,  Aug.  6. 

Lecmnnton  Convention. 

Mass  meeting*  of  unemployed      Kansas,  meets  Sept.  7. 
workmen  in  N.  Y_  Nov.  2        Suspension    of     Philad. 

Sir  COLIN  CAMPBELL,  tb« 
new  com.  -In-chief,  arrive! 

and  10. 

banks,  Sept.  25  and  26,  fol- 

at Calcutta,  Aug.  14. 

Stm.  Adriatic 

starts  on  first 

lowed  by  general  snspen.  ol 
banks  in  I'a.,  Md.,  D.  C., 

De'hi  taken  after  an  a» 

voyage  to  Liverpool,  Nov. 
88. 

K.  I 

Suspension  of  N.  Y.  city 

sault  of  6  days.  Sept  14. 

banks,  Oct.  14-14,  and  Mas- 

sachusetts banks  same  day. 

/ 

Payments  resumed,  Deo. 

12. 

I 

1815-1865.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


889 


FBANCX. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


WORLD,  elsewher*. 


186T.    Austria:— Amnesty  to  186T. 
poHtical  offenders  in  Lom- 
bardy,  <fcc^  Jan.  25. 


Mexico:  New  constitu- 
tion promulgated,  March  11. 


Costa  Rica : — "Walker  sur- 
renders Kivas,  and  agrees  te 
leave  Nicaragua,  May  1. 


jf  the  French  viait  Queen  Vio- 


Sweden  and  Norway: — 
Charles  Louis,  Prince- 
Royal,  made  Regent  Sep. 


Emperors  of  France  and  Russia  meet  at    Stuttgart, 
Sept.  36. 


38 


Nicaragua  :  —  Walke. 
and  his  men  surrender  tc 
U.  8.  ship  Wabosh,  Com. 
Paulding,  Dec.  a 


890 


THE  WOELD'S  PBOGEESS.      [Period  IX.— 50  years.— 


A.  II 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

'.857 

Death*  in  1857. 

1857.    "  Lecompton  Constitu 

tion"  adopted  by  Conven 

U.S. 

EUROPE. 

tion,  Nov.  9. 

C.  Colton. 

Beranger. 

Walker   resigns    as  Go 

1857.     English   and   French 

E.  K.  Kane. 

C.  Bonaparte 

vernor  of  Kansas,  Dec.  15. 

ture  the  city,  Dec.  28-80. 

W.  L.  Marcy. 

J.  W.  Croker 

Thos.  J.  Kusk. 

Thos.  Dick. 

W.  Walker  reaches  N.  Y 

Kli  Smith. 

Marshall  Hall 

"on   parole,"  and    surren 

\ 

Earl  of  Elles 

ders  to  U.  S.  marshal,  Dec. 

mere. 

28. 

Douglas   Jer 

rold. 

W.  Scoresby. 

Eugene  Sue. 

And.  Ure. 

Cavaignac. 

Aug.  Compte 

Havfllock. 

Chris.  Ranch 

sculptor. 

1858 

Commercial  failures  in  one 

1858.    Mr.  Buchanan's  u  Kan- 

1858.   French    and    English 

year,  ending 

Dec.  25,  1857 

sas  Message"  to  II.  lieps., 

the  Governor,  Yeh,  Jan.  5. 

amount  to  5,1 

23  :  liabilities 

with  Lecompton  Constitu- 

The   Prineess-Iioyal     01 

$291,750,000. 

tion,  Feb.  2. 

England     married    to    the 

Launch  of  the  monster  steam- 

" An  ti-  Lecompton     De- 

Prince of  Prussia.  Jan.  25. 

er  Great  Eu 

stern  at  Lon- 

mocratic  "     meetings     in 

Steamer    Great    Eastern 

don,  Jan.  81. 

Phila.,  N.  T.,  &c.,  Feb.  and 

first  floated,  Jan.  31. 

Crawford's     M 

ronument     to 

March. 

Resignation    of    Palmer- 

Washington, 

at  Richmond, 

Bill  to  admit  Kansas  as  a 

ston's  Ministry,  and  acces- 

Inaugurated, Feb.  22. 
Extensive  and  remarkable  re- 

State,   under     Lecompton 
Const.,  passes  the  Senate, 

sion  of  Lord  Derby,  Feb.  20. 

ligions  "reviwil"  through- 

March 23. 

out  the  U.  S. 

in  February, 

The  House  passes  another 

March,  &c. 

bill. 

Gold    mine    excitement  in 

New  Free  State  Conven- 

Washington 

and   Oregon 

tion  of  Kansas,  at  Leaven- 

• 

territory. 

worth,  March  25. 

New  "  Divorce 

Courf  open- 

The     u  English     Kansas 

ed  in  London 

,  May  10. 

bill"  passed  botli  Houses  of 

Donati's  Comet 

seen  in  June 

Congress,  April  8u. 

and  July. 

Minnesota  State  Govern- 

'Vigilance   Committee"    In 

ment  organized  at  St.  Paul, 

N.  Orleans,  J 

une  2. 

May  23. 

tfew     Prohibitory    Liquor 
Law  voted  in  Maine,  Jane 

Atlantic  Telegraph  fleet 
land,  June  10. 

sails    from  Plymouth,  Eng- 

7. 

The    President   sends   a 

Eng.  steam.  Cyclops  bom- 

Turkish Admiral,  Mehemet 

message  announcing  peace- 

bards Jedclab.  July  25-26. 

Pacha,  and  su 

He  leave  Bos- 

able  settlement  of  trouble 

Baron    Rothschild    takes 

ton,  after  an  extended  visit 

in  Utah,  June  10. 

his  seat  in  H.  of  Common* 

In  the  U.  States,  July  14. 

Treaty  of  Peace  and  Ami- 

July 26. 

A  Jew  in  Brit. 

Parliament, 

ty  with   China,  signed   at 

Queen  Victoria  and  Pr. 

July  26. 

Tien-Tsin,  June  18. 

bourg,  Aug.  4. 

ATLANTIC  TELI 

EOKAPH. 

News    of  the  completion   of  Atlantic   Telegraph   re- 

National    Teachers'   Associa- 

teived with  joyful  demonstrations,  Aug.  5. 

tion  —  1st  An 

i.  Convention 

Magnificent    celebration 

at  Cincinnati.  Aug.  11. 

at  New  York,  Sept  1. 

The   English    bill   voted 

on  by  the  people  of  Kan- 

sas   and  rejected,   August! 

Jueen  Victoria's  message  to 
Slaver  Echo  captured  and  c 

resident  Buchanan  sent  and  received,  August  1ft. 
larrried  to   Charleston,  Au-l 

gust  87. 

.       '           , 

1815-1865.] 


THE   WORLD  S    PKOGKESS. 


89l 


Eunoi-B,  elsewhere. 


TOE  WOBLD,  tlaewher*. 


185T.  Na<plM :  Terrible  earth 
quake,14,000  persons  killed. 


fleets  bombard  Canton,  and  cap 


tit  ops  enter  Canton  and  capture 

Attempt  by  Orsinl  anc 
others  to  assassinate  the 
Emperor  with  a  hand  gre- 
nade :  8  persons  k.  and  15< 
wounded,  Jan.  14. 


1868.  Mexico:— Revolution, 
Comonfort  gives  up  the  Go- 
vernment to -Juarez;  Zulo- 
aga  proclaimed  president  by 
a  II.  of  Representatives. 


Turkey :  —  Massacre    o< 

Christians    at    Jeddah— i5 
killed,  June  15. 


Albert  visit  the  Bn/peror  at  Cher- 


892 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.     [Ptriod  IX. — 50  years.— 


A.I). 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  &c. 

UNITKD  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1858 

The  N.  Y.  State  quarantine 

1858.     The  East  India  Com- 

buildings at 

Staten  Island 

pany  ceases  to  exist,  and 

destroyed  by  the  citizens 

its   vast    possessions    pass 

as  a  nuisance 

,  Sept  1. 

Into  the  hands  of  the  Brit. 

First  overland  mail  for  Ca- 

Government, Sept  1. 

lifornia  lea 

ves  St.  Louis, 

Sept.  16. 

Boston  Public  (Free)  Library 

opened,    costing    $450,000, 

Sept.  17. 

The  •'  General  Admiral"  stm. 

1858.    U.    St.    stm.  Niagara 

frlsate,   built    for    Russian 

sails  from   Charleston  for 

government, 

launched   at 

Liberia,  with  rescued  slaves 

N.  Y.,  Sept.  21. 

of  the  "  Echo,"  Sept.  20. 

f 

Crystal  Palace,  N.  Y.,  burnt, 
Oct  5. 

The  yacht  Wanderer  lands  800  Africans  near  Brunswick, 

Ga..  Nov.  28. 

The  Grand  Ju 

ry  at  Columbia,  8.  C.,  refuse  to  Indict  the 

slaver  "  Ech< 

>,"  Nov.  30. 

First  railroad  in  Egypt. 

Deaths  in  1858. 

U.S. 

EUKOPB. 

T.  H.  Benton. 

R.  Brown,  bo- 

Rob. Hare. 

tanist. 

H.W.  Herbert. 

Geo.  Combe. 

Freem'nHnnt 

"  Rachel." 

Coin.  Perry. 

Marshall  HalL 

Gen.  Quitinan 

Duchess    of 

Gen.     P.      F. 

Orleans. 

Smith. 

Re.-chid     Pa- 

N. W.  Tavlor. 

cha. 

B.  F.  Butler. 

liadetsky. 

Parker  Cleve- 

Ary Scheffer. 

land. 

Kobt.  Owen. 

Win.  Jay. 

Sir  W.  Reid, 

Foresti. 

1859 

U.  8.  Agricultural  Conven- 

1859.   New  Hall  of  the  U.  8. 

1859.    D'lsraeli  introduces  • 

tion  at  Washington,  D.  C., 

Senate  first  occupied,  Jan. 

new  Reform  Bill,  Feb.  28. 

Jan.  3. 

4. 

Lord  Lyons,  new  British 

Siidell's  bill,  giving  $30,000,000  to  facilitate  the  acquisition 
of  Cuba,  introduced  Jan.  10. 

minister  at  Washington,  re- 
ceived, April  12. 

Sickles  kills  Key  at  Washing- 

Mr.  McLane  recognises  the 

England  protests  against 

ton,   for  seduction  of    his 

Juarez  government  In  Mex- 

Austrian menaces  of  Sardi- 

wife, Feb.  2 

f;  he  is  tried 

ico,  April  4 

nia,  April  21. 

and  acquitted,  April  26. 
Southern  Convention  at  Vick 
of  the  Slave  Trade.  May  11 

sburgh  discusses  the  opening 

English  court  in  mourn- 
ing for  the  tyrant  king  of 
Naples  (May). 

Great  fire  at  \ 

Cey  West.  110 

New  Parliament   meets 

housot;      loss"  $2,150,000, 

May  80.    J.   E.    BenuiscD 

May  1ft 

elected  speaker. 

TeUgranut—  India  to  Eng- 
land. 

Telegrams  to  India  acce- 

Several *l<iror*  captured  by 
U.  S.  vessels. 

lerated  peven  days  by  cabl< 
on  the  Red  Sea,  June  8 

1815-1865.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


893 


A.T). 

1858 


FRANCE. 


1859  The  Emperor's  Hew- Year's 
speech  to  Hubner,  Austrian 
minister,  causes  a  war  sen- 
sation, Jan.  1. 

Prince  Napoleon  marries 
the  Princess  Clothilde,  Jan. 
29. 

French  troops  reach  Turin  and  Genoa,  April  26-30. 


EUROPK,  elsewhere. 


1859.    Austria  demands  that  1859, 
Sardinia      shall     disarm, 
Ap.  28.    England  protests 
against  this  menace. 

Sardinian  army  on  a  war 
footing. 


War  declared,  in  alliance 
with  Sardinia,  against  Aus- 
tria, May  8, 

Subscriptions  for  loan  of 
500  million  francs  exceed 
four  times  that  sum,  from 
525.000  persons. 


Tuscany :— Grand  Dnke 
abdicates;  his  troops  fra- 
ternize with  revolutionists, 
April  27. 

Austria  declare*  "WAR 
AGAINST  SARDINIA, 
and  her  troops  cross  the 
Ticino,  April  89. 

The  Emporor  L.  Napoleon  arrives  at  Genoa,  May  19. 
Empress  made  Repent     | 
Buttle  of  Montebello:  Austrlans  defeated,  May  20. 

Garibaldi  enters   Como, 
,     May  27. 

Battle  of  Palestro  :  Anstrians  defeated,  May  80. 
Battle  of  Magenta  :  Allies  victorious,  June  4;  and  enter 
M  ilan,  June  8. 


THE  WOBLD,  elsewhere. 


1858.  Egypt:  — First  train 
on  the  Sui'Z  Railroad  crosses 
the  isthmus  in  eleven  hours, 
from  Suez  to  Alexandria, 
Dec.  5. 

Hayti :  —  Revolution  — 
Faustin  banished — General 
Jeffrard  proclaimed  Presi- 
dent, Dec.  21. 


Mexico. — Miramon  ap- 
pears before  Vera  Cruz, 
March  18-27. 

Peru : — Earthquake  de- 
stroys part  of  Quito,  March 
29. 


Naples :— Death  of  Ferdi- 
nand II.,  And  accession  of 
Francis  II ,  May  22. 


894 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.      [.Period  XI. — 50  years.-" 


t.r 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 

UNITED  STATES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

185? 

Remarkable  religious  revi 

val  in  Ireland,  June,  July 

etc. 

French   and   English   in 

Excessive  heat  In  California 

the  forts  of  the  Peiho,  Jun« 

and  in  Europe,  June-July. 

Com.  Tatnall. 

1859.     Gen.  Harney  takes  possession  of  the  island  of  San 

Wise  travels  1200  miles  In  a 

Juan  (now  Vancouver's  isl 
Kansas   Const.    Conven 

ind)  July  9. 
Builders'  strike  begins  in 

balloon  from  St.  Louis  to  N 

tlon    meets  at  Wyandote, 

London,  July  25. 

York  state,  July  1. 

July  5. 

Gen.    Harney  proclaim 

Eossession  of  the  island  o 

Gold  images  found  in  Indian 

an  Juan  for  the  U.  States 

graves  at  Chlriqui,  July. 

July  27. 

Cosmopolitan  celebration  o: 

Mr.  Ward,  U.  S.  minis 
ter,  reaches  Pekln,  July  80 
Treaty  with  China  rat! 

100th  birthday  of  Schiller 

fled,  Aug.  16. 

Captain    McClintock  re- 

Nov. 10. 

J.  Y.  Mason,  U.  S.  mi 

turns,    bringing    relics     of 

nlster  to   France,  dies  at 

Franklin's  expedition,  Sep. 

Paris,  Oct.  8. 

21. 

Brilliant  meteor  seen  in  N.  Y. 

John  Brown's  Raid  for 

Steamer   Royal    Charter 

and  N.  England,  Nov.  15. 

the  liberation  of  slaves,  a' 

wrecked  in   British  Chan- 

Harper's Ferry,   Va.,  Oct 

nel  ;  445  persons  lost,  and 

17.    12  of  his  men  and  1 

£1,000,000  In  gold, 

marine  killed.  2  of  his  men 

Deaths  in  1859: 

hung,  Dec.  16:  and  2  more 

March  16,  1860. 

U.S. 

EUROPE. 

J.  W.  Alexan- 

Dr. Abbott 

der. 

T.  K.  Hervey. 

W.  C.  Bond. 

HUMBOLDT 

Rufus  Choate. 

Leigh  Hunt 

Bp.  Doane. 
HOR.  MANN. 

Jejeebhoy. 
D.  Lardner. 

Den.  Olinsted. 

C.  R.  Leslie. 

W.    H.  PRES- 

Lady  Morgan. 

fcOTT. 

Jos.  Sturge. 

Rich.  Rush. 

De     Tocque- 

) 

Goo.  Bush 

ville. 

J.  Y.  Mason. 

Metternich. 

Tbeo.     Sedge- 

De  Quincey. 

wick. 

J.  A.  James. 

Linn  Boyd. 

J.  P.  Nichol. 

WASHINGTON 

Thos.  Ntittall. 

IEVIKG. 

I.  K.  Brunei 

Carl  Ritter. 

Louis  Spohr. 

SirJ.Stephen. 

MACACLAY. 

Robert      Ste- 

Congress  a<«embl«s,  Dec. 

Death  of  Lord  Macaulay, 

phenson. 

5. 

Deo.  98. 

IWO 

Law  passed  In  Arkansas,  Jan. 
1,  to  banish  free  negroes 

860.    Pennlngton  of  N.  Jer- 
sey elected  speaker  of  the 

860.    Lord  Clyde  proclaims 
the  rebellion  in  India    as 

from  the  state. 

House  of  Representatives, 

subdued,  Jan.  7. 

after  a  balloting  for  nearly 
two  months,  Feb.  1. 

Commercial  Treaty  with 
den  and  Lord  Cowley  and 

Decree  by  the  Emperor  of 

Austria  in  favor  of  rifhtt 

of  the  Jews,  Jan.  10. 

1815-1865.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


895 


FRANCE. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


TUB  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1859 


I'erusia  sacked  by  papal  troops,  June  20. 


Battle  of  Solferino,  June  24.  Austrians  under  the  Empe- 
ror in  person  defeated  by  the  allies:  great  loss  on  both 
sides. 

China  repulsed  in  an    attack  on 
26     They  are  aided  by  American 

I  Treaty  of  Peace  signed  by  the  Emperors  of  France  and  1859.     Mexico  : 
Austria,  at  Villafranca,  July  11. 


The  Emperor  returns  to  St 

Cioud,  July  27. 
Entrance  of   "the  Army  ol 

Italy"  into  Paris,  Aug.  14. 
Political  amnesty,  Aug.  IT. 


Treaty  -with  Japan,  ratified 
at  Jeddo,  Sept.  22. 


The  Emperor  advises  Victor 
Ernanuel  a  programme  for 
the  Regeneration  of  Italy, 
Oct.  20. 


Exchange  of  ratifications  of 
I     the  Treaty  of  Zurich,  Nov. 

21. 
The  Emperor's  letter  to 

Komagna,  Dec.  81. 


1859.  Tuscany :— Council  of 
State  votes  in  favour  of 
annexation  to  Sardinia, 
July  12. 

Conference  at  Zurich 
opened,  Augusts. 

Sardinia  : — Cavour  dis- 
missed from  the  ministry 
July  13. 

Tuscany :— The  Nation 
Assem.  decrees  the  perma- 
nent exclusion  of  the  Aus- 
trian dynasty,  Aug.  16. 

Mbdena  .•— Farini  dicta- 
tor, opens  the  Nat.  Assem- 
bly, Aug.  16,  and  assumes 
government  of  Parma 
Aug.  18. 

Rome : — Concordat  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  Spain, 
Aug.  26. 

JfiMsia :— Schamyl  taken 
prisoner  in  Caucasia,  Sept. 
6. 

Bologna : — Assemb.  Nat. 
under  pres.  of  Minghetti 
decree  Independence  from 
the  Pope.  Sept.  7. 

Sardinia: — The  king 
receives  deputations  from 
Modena  and  Parma,  ten- 
dering annexation  to  Sar- 
dinia, Sept.  15. 

Romagna  : — Decree  of 
annexation  to  Sardinia, 
Oct.  7. 

Spain  declares  war 
against  Morocco,  Oct.  28. 
O'Donnell  named  com.-in- 
chief  of  Spanish  army. 

Sardinia  /—Prince  Ca- 
risnan  made  regent  of  Ko- 
magna, Parma,  etc.,  Nov.  6, 
but  declines  in  favor  of 
Buoncompagni. 
the  Pope,  advising  cession  of 


uarez    de- 
crees the    confiscation    o, 


I860  Treaty  with  Nicaragua  rati- 
fied, Jan.  11. 

France,  signed  at  Paris  by  R.  Cob- 
She  French  ministers,  Jan.  28. 


1860.     Spain:— The   Moors 
defeated  at  Castellejor,  Jan. 

Rome : — The  Pope  re- 
plies to  the  Kmperor,  refus- 
ing to  cede  the  Legations, 
Jan.  8. 

Sardinia  : — Cavonr  re- 
called to  the  premiership, 
Jan.  15. 


church  property,  July  12. 

Venezuela: — Civil  war; 
downfall  of  Castro,  th<  Pre- 
sident, July. 

Coxta  Rica : — Revc  lution 
—fall  of  Mora,  Ang.  14. 


Bueno*  Ayres  :—  Battlt 
with  the  troops  of  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  Oct.  2& 


896 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.      [Period  IX. — 50  years.— 


PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY,  etc. 


UNITED  STATES. 


I860  First  "  Pony  Express"  reaches  Carson  Valley  in  eight  and 
a  half  days  from  Missouri;  and  news  thence  by  telegraph 
reaches  San  Francisco  in  nine  days  from  New  York. 

1860.  The  "Covode  Com- 
mittee" (House  of  Repre- 
sentatives) appointed  to  ex- 
amine alleged  corruption 
of  the  government,  March 


I  Universal  Suffrage  in  Cen- 
tral Italy. 


Papal  bull  against  agitators 

and  reformers. 
Fight  of  Heenan  and  Bayers 

for  the  championship  of 

England,  April  17. 


5. 


U.  S.  corvette  Saratoga 
captures  Miramon's  vessels 
at  Vera  Cruz,  March  7. 
Tapanese  Embassy  arrives  at  San  Francisco,  March  28 ; 
at  Washington,  May  14;  at  Baltimore,  June  8;  at  Phila- 
delphia, June  9  ;  at  New  York,  June  16.    Sails  for  Ja- 
pan, in  the  U.  8.  frigate  Niagara,  June  80. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1860.  French  treaty  ratified 
by  116  majority  in  the  Com- 
mons, Feb.  24. 


Lord  J.  Russell  proposes  a 
new  Reform  Bill,  March  2, 
but  abandons  it,  June  11. 


Ministers  defeated  on  • 
bill  for  repeal  of  paper  duty 
— passed  by  the  Commons 
but  rejected  (89  majority) 
by  the  Lords,  May  21. 


Democratic  Convention 
at  Charleston,  April  23. 

Mr.  McLane's  treaty  with 
Mexico  (Juarrez)  rejected 
by  the  Senate,  May  81. 

National  Repub.  Conven- 
tion at  Chicago  meets  May 
16,  and  nominates  Abraham 
Lincoln  for  President,  and 
Hannibal  Hamlin  for  Vice- 
President  of  U.  8. 

Law  of  Maryland  prohibiting  the  manumission  of  slaves 
takes  effect,  June  1. 

Tornado  in  Iowa  and  Il- 
linois destroys  whole  vil- 
lages, June  8. 

Nat.  Democratic  Conven- 
tion (adjourned)  at  Balti- 
more, June  18,  nominates; 

Douglas   and  Fitzpatrick:!        Review  of  18,000  volnn- 
a  seceding  Convention  no-|    teers  by  the  Queen  in  Hyde 
minute   Breckenridge   and      Park,  June  23. 
Lane,  respectively  for  Pre-! 
sldent  and  V.  Pres.  of  U.  8.1 
The  Great  Eastern  arrives  at  New  York,  from  Southampton,  June  28. 
Dr.  Hayes's  Arctic  Expedition  from  Boston,  sails  .July  7.     | 
Remarkable  meteor  in  various  northern  states,  July  20. 

Visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  British  North  Ame- 
rloa  and  the  United  States.     He  lai  ds  at  St.  John's,  July 
24;    arrives  *at    Quebec,  August  18;    Montreal,  24th, 
Ottawa,  August  81;    Niagara,  September  14;    Detroit, 
Sept.  20 ;  Washington,  Oct. 
8;    Philadelphia,    Oct.    9; 
New  York,  Oct.  11;   Bos- 
ton, 17th;  Portland,  2nth; 
Plymouth,  England,  Nov. 
Deaths  in  1860.  15. 

Lincoln      and     Hamlin 

U.  8.  EUROPE.          elected  Pres.  and  V.-Pres. 

of  the  U.  8.  by  the  votes  of 
J.  A.  Alexan-  Sir  C.  Barry.       all  the  northern  states  ex- 
der.  Lady      Noel       cept    New  Jersey,   which 

W.  E.  Burton.     Byron.  chose  4 elect >rs  for  Douglas 

G.P.  U.James.      and  8  for  Lincoln,  Nov.  6. 
Anna     Jarne-         This  election  Is  made  the 
pretext    for  rebellion   and 
Jullien.  "secession"  of  the  cotton 

StrW.  Nuptar.      states— S.  Carolina  leading, 
Bailen     i  ow       »n<l  adopting  in  Convention 
an  ordinance  of   secession 
W  C  Preston.  II.  H  Witaon      from  the  U.  S.,  Dec.  20. 


C.  A.  Good- 
rich. 

8.  G.  Good- 
rich. 

Theo.  Parker. 

J.  K.  Pauld- 
Ing. 


1815-1861.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PKOGUESS. 


897 


FRANCE. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


THE  WORLD,  elsewhere. 


INi)  Thouvenel  foreign  minister, 

•Jan.  24. 

•  V  Unwers,"  ultra-montane 
journal,  suppressed,  Jan.  29. 

Diplomatic  correspondence  of 
Antonelli,  Feb. — March. 

Negotiations  respecting  an- 
nexation of  JVtce  and  Sa- 
voy. Treaty  for  cession  to 
France  signed  at  Turin, 
March  24 ;  but  Switzerland 
protests. 

Nice  votes  for  annexation  to 
France  24,448  for,  and  160 
against. 

Savoy  gives  181,744  for  and 
283  against. 


The  Emperor  refuses  an  ap- 
plication from  Naples  to 
act  as  mediator,  June  7. 


French  troops  sent  to  Syria 
to  punish  the  murderers  of 
Christians,  Aug.  5. 


A  French  fleet  placed  before 
Gaeta;  for  which  Bide  is 
no*  proclaimed. 


38* 


18CO.  Spain  .-—Decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Moors  at  Te- 
touan,  Feb.  4. 

Sardinia  :  —  The  army 
raised  to  50,000,  Feb.  26. 

Thouvenel  with  Cavour  and 

Buoncompagni  resigns  as 
governor  of  Central  Italy, 
March  3. 

Tuscany:  —  Result  of  vot- 
ing on  annexation  to  Sardi- 
nia pub.,  viz  :  for,  866,571  ; 
against,  14,925  (for  sepa- 
rate kingdom) 

Austria  advertises  for 
new  loan,  March  24.  and 
protests  against  Sardinian 
occupation  of  Tuscany,  &c. 

Spain  :  —  Peace  with  Mo- 
rocco ratified,  March  29. 

Borne  :  —  Papal  bull 
asainst  revolutionists,  Mar. 
29. 

Revolution  in  Sicily  be- 
gins at  Palermo,  Messina, 
and  Catania,  April  4. 

Rome:  —  Antonelli  pro- 
tests against  Sardinian  an 
nexation  of  Romagna. 
Sicily:  —  Garibaldi  lamd« 
at  Marsala,  with  2,000 
men,  from  Genoa,  May  10 
Proclaims  himself  dictator 
on  behalf  of  Victor  Etna- 
nuel,  14th. 

Naples:  —  Concessions  pro- 
claimed to  the  people,  May 
19. 

—  Garibaldi   takes  Pa- 
lermo, May  27. 

—  A    liberal     ministry 
formed  at  Naples,  June  28. 
The  King  grants  new  con- 
stitution and  amnesty.  J'ne 
25. 

Garibaldi's  victory  at  Me- 
lazzp,  July  20-21. 

Sicily  (excepting  the  ci- 
tadel of  Messina)  evacuated 
by  the  Neapolitans,  July 


1860.  Argentine  Confed.  DM- 
qui  president,  Feb.  5. 


by 
80. 


Garibaldi's  troops  land  in 
Calabria,  Aug.  8. 

—  Enters  Naples. 

The  King  of  Naples  re- 
tires to  Gaeta,  Sept.  ,  and 
is  besieged  there  by  the 
troops  of  Garibaldi  and 
Victor  Emanuel. 

Garibaldi  resigns  his 
power  to  Victor  Emanuel, 
and  retires  to  Caprera. 


Mexico  : — Miramon  at 
tacks  Vera  Cruz,  March  7- 
18. 

Japan,  :  —  The  Regent 
wounded  In  a  riotous  at- 
tack. 

Mexico  : —  Zuloaga  pro- 
claims himself  president, 
and  denounces  Miramon, 
Mayl. 


Asia,  Minor: — Horr  ble 
massacre  of  the  Christ.ans 
and  Maronites,  May.  3,000 
killed  at  Damascus,  July  9. 

Honduras :  -W.  Walker 
the  "  filibuster,"  taken  pri- 
soner and  shot,  Sept.  12. 

Syria : — Fuad  Pasha  sent 
against  the  Druses,  Ansr.  5 
167  Moslems  implicated  In 
the  massacres  are  executed 
at  Damascus,  Aug.  20. 


808 


THE  WORLD'S  PRCGRSSS.      [Perwd  XI. — 50 years.-- 


PflOGRESS  OF  SOCIETY 


UXITED  STATES. 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


862 


Heresy  of  "  8  E  C  E  8  1861.  This  example  foHowsd  by  Mississippi 
S  I  O  N  "  or  Treason  Jan.  9,  Alabama,  Jan.  11,  .Florida,  Jan.  12 
in  the  United  States  Georgia,  Jan.  19,  Ijoujiana,  Jan.  26. 

Attempt  to  carry  '7irg?nia,  Kentucky,  Ten 
nessee,  N.  HaroJna,  Missouri,  and  Arkan- 

Dcnths  in  1861  :  Prince  sas  for  secession  defeated,  Jan.—  March 
Albert,  Mrs.Brown-  1861.  Texas  carried  for  secession,  but  a 
ing-,  Count  Cavour,  strong  reaction  for  union  follows.  Gen 
Czai'toryski,  Dr.  J.  Twiggs  surrenders  the  U.  S  forces  in  Tex- 
W.  fraud*,  Geof.  as,  and  the  military  stores,  to  the  state, 
Bt.HiJaire,  Pr.  Gort-  Feb. 

ehakotf,    Nathaniel  INAUGURATION  OF  LINCOLN,  (Repub.)  Presi- 
Lyon,  Eug'e  Scribe,     dent  U.  S.,  March  4. 

WAR  of  REBELS  against  U.  8. 

April  13.  Fort  Sumter  surrenders  to  rebels. 

April  15.  75,000  men  called  for  by  proclama- 

tion. 
April  15.  Great  meeting  in  New  York  to 

support  the  Government. 
April  19.  Attack   on  Massachusetts   troops 

in  Baltimore. 
April  21.  Harper's  Ferry  arsenal  burned  by 

its  garrison. 

April  25.  Virginia  secedes. 
May  6.  Arkansas  secedes. 

May  20.  North  Carolina  secedes.  May  13.    Queen's 

May  21.  Tennessee  secedes.  pi'oclamation 

June  8.  The  Savannah  privateer  captured.         "  neutrality  "    in 
June  10.  Big  Bethel  defeat.  the  American  coa- 

July  4.  Congress  meets.  flict. 

July  1  1  .  Rich  Mountain  victory. 
July  21.  Bull  Run  defeat. 
Aug.  29.  Fort  Hatteras  taken. 
Oct.  21.  Ball's  Bluff  disaster. 
Nov.  1.  McClellan  Commander-in-Chief. 
Nov.  7.  Port  Royal  forts  taken. 

Nov.  8.  Wilkes  seizes  Slidell  and  Mason.        Nov.  8.  Excitement 
Nov.  30.  Jetf.  Davis  elected  President  of  the     about    seizure   of 
Confederate  States.  Mason  and  Slidell 

Dec.  2.  Union  armies  have  660,971  men.  in  British  steamer 

862.  Trent. 

Jan.  1.  Mason  and  Slidell  released.  Dec.  23.  DEATH   o» 

fan.  19.  Mill  Springs  defeat.  PRINCE  AL.BEBT. 

?eb.  6.  Fort  Henry  taken. 
?eb.  7.  Roanoke  taken  by  Burnside. 
?eb.  16.  Fort  Donelson  taken. 
•'eb.  23.  Nashville  taken. 
March  9.  The  Cumberland  and  Congress  lost 

at  Hampton  Roads. 
March  10.  Manassaa   found    evacuated    by 

Rebels  and  is  occupied  by  Union  troops. 
March  11.  McClellan    takes    command    ot 
Army  of  Potomac. 

larch  14.  Ncwbern  taken  by  Burnside. 
Ipril  1.  Beaufort  taken  by  Burnside. 
ipril  4.  Slavery  abolished  in  D.  Columbia. 
April  5.  McClellan    "  besieges  "    Yorktown. 


July—  First  War  Loan 
of  the  United  States 
Government,  $250- 
000,000. 

Oct.  1.  Commercial 
treaty  bet'n  France, 
England  and  Bel- 
gium  in  force. 

Nov.  1.  Telegraph  be- 
tween  Malta  and 
Alexandria  opened 


May  1.    International 


Shiloh  defeat — A.  S.  Johnson  killed. 
Lpril  11.  Fort  Pulaski  taken. 
Lpril  96.  New  Orleans  taken. 
May5.  Yorktown  occupiK1  by  McClellan— 
tVction  at  Williamsb.ug1';. 


Exhibition  at  LOE-|^HV  10-  Nor  f  o  1  k  tiken— the  Merrimac 

don.  I    burnt — FABRAGUV  as  ends  the  Mississippi 

I    —Little  Rock  takt^. 


April  7.  Treaty  with 
U.  8.  to  suppress 
slave  trade. 

May  1.  Internation- 
al Exhibition 
opened  at  Lon- 
don. 


1815-1865.] 


THE  WOBLD'S  PKOGKESS. 


899 


FRANCE. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


WORIJ),  elsewhere. 


1861 


L862 


June  10.  "  Neutrality  "  in 
American  conflict  pro- 
claimed by  the  Emperor. 


Oct.  31.  Convention  -with 
England  and  Spain  for  in- 
tervention in  Mexico. 


Jan.  7.  French  army  lands 
at  Vera  Cruz. 


March  28.  French  victories 
in  Cochin  China— six  pro- 
vinces ceded  to  France. 


April  16.  War  against  Mexi- 
co declared. 


1861.  Gaeta  surrenders  to 
Victor  Emanuel's  troops 
Feb.  13— The  King  of  Na- 
ples escapes  on  board  a 
French  frigate. 

END  OF  BOURBON  BUM 
in  Italy. 

The  Italian  Parliamenl 
declares  VICTOR  EMANUEL 
KING  OF  ITALY,  Feb, 
1861. 

"  Italy  "  recognized  by  Eng- 
land, March  31,  and  by 
France,  June  24 


Oct.  18.  "William  I.  crowned  Oct. 
King  of  Prussia. 


3  .  Canton  restored  t« 
the  Chinese  by  the  French 
and  English. 


Feb.  13.  Military  revolt  in 
Greece. 


900 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.      [Period  XT. — 50  years.— 


A.D.'PROGRFSS  OF  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


BRITISH  EMPIKK. 


1BU2 


Deaths  in  1862 :  Brodie 
(surgeon),  M.  Van 
Buren,  T.  Hartwel 
Home,  Sam.  Hous- 
ton, T.  J.  Jackson, 
A.  Sid.  Johnson, 
Phil.  Kearney,  Du- 
chess of  Kent,  J 
Sher.  Knowles,  Sii 
James  Boss,  Joseph 
Wolff. 


September  —  Internal 
Revenue  Tax  en- 
forced in  the  U.  S. 


'862!  jan.  2.  ABOLITION  OF 
SLAVERY  in  the  II. 
8.,  by  proclamation 
of  the  Commander- 
in-Chief. 

Feb.  9.  The  Geo.  Gris- 
«wM,with  food  given 
'  by  New  Yorkers  for 
Lancashire  opera- 
tives, arrives  at  Li- 
•  erpool. 

Alar.  4.  Nat.  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences 
founded  by  Congress 

June— G  rant  and 
Speke  arrive  in  Eng- 
land from  Source  of 
the  Nile.. 

Jr.'y  13-16.  Irish  anti- 
nearo  and  anti-draff 
riots  at  New  York. 

0  -alhs  in  1863  :  R.Hil- 
dreth,  Mar.  Lans- 
downe,  Mulready, 
Mrs.Trollope,  Arch- 
bishop Whateley. 

Sept. — Russian  squad- 
ron entertained    at 
New  York, 
ec.  24.  Thackeray 
dies. 


May  27.  Hanover  C.  H.,  Va.,  taken. 

Ala.y  31.  Fair  Oaks  battle— indecisive.      Co- 
nnth  taken. 

June  6.  Memphis  taken. 

June  27.  Pope  takes  command  of  U.S.  forces 
in  N.  Virginia. 

June  25-30.  McClellan's  skirmishes  on  Pen- 
insula. 

Jvne  26-Jtily  1.  Seven  days'  battles  on  the 
Jhickahominy. 

July— Tariff  duties  raised— 300,000  more 
volunteers  called  for. 
ily  17.  Emancipation  and  Confiscation  Act 
cigned  by  the  President. 

July  26.  Halleck    Commander-in-Chief. 
U.  S.  debt  $1,222,000,000. 

Aug.  9.  Banks  defeated  at  Ced*.r  Mountain. 

Aug.  16.  McClellan  retreats  frcjn  Harrison'1 
Landing. 

Aug.  30.  Second  defeat  at  Bun  3un. 

Sept.  5.  McClellan    agai:     Cc.mmander-in- 
Chiel. 

Sept.  17.  Antietam  victory. 

Sept.  18.  Harper's  Ferry  lost. 

Sept.  22.  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclama- 
tion issued. 

Sept.  25.  Habeas  Corpus  suspended. 

Oct. — Premium  on  gold,  29. 

Oct. — Piracies  of  the  Alabama. 

Nov.  4.  Democratic    victory  in  New   York 
elections. 

Nov.  7.  Burnside  supersedes  McClellan. 

Dec.  10-13.  Defeat  at  Fredericksburgh. 

1863. 

Jan.  1.  Murfreesboro'   victory    (Bosecrantz 
over  Bragg). 

Jan.  2.  Proclamation   of  Emancipation  is- 
sued. 

Jan.  26.  Hooker  supersedes  Burnside. 

April  7.  Monitors  repulsed  at  Charleston— 
the  Keokuk  lost. 

May  2-4.  Chancellorsville     defeat— Jackson 
killed. 

May  18.  Vicksburgh  invested  by  GRANT. 

June  14.  Maryland  and    Pennsylvania    in- 
vaded by  Lee. 

June  27.  Meade  supersedes  Hooker. 

July  1-3.  GET  rYKi\UR<5H  victory. 

July  4.  VICKSBURGH  occupied. 

July  8.  Port  Hudson  taken. 

July  13-16.  Kiots  at  New  York. 

Aug.  7.  Sioux  war  ended  by  Gen.  Pope. 

Aug.  20.  Chickamauga  defeat. 

Aug.  21.  Fort  Sumter  bombarded. 

3ct.  19.  GRANT,  THOMAS  and  SHERMAN  su- 
persede Bosecrantz  in  Tennessee. 

Oct.  17.  President    calls     for    300,000   more 
volunteers. 

Nov.  23.  Chattanooga  victory  by  Sherman 
and  Thomas. 

1864. 

Feb.  1.  Draft  for  500  000  men  ordered. 

b'eb.  20.  Olustee  (Fla.)  defeat. 

Feb.  27-March  1.  Kilpatrick  and  Dalghren's 
raid  on  Richmond. 


Mar.  10.  Marriage  ol 
Prince  of  Wales 
to  Alexandra  of 
Denmark. 


Oct.  31.  Steam  ram? 
built  by  Laird  toi 
U.  S.  Rebels  seized 
by  Government. 

Oct.— British  Cvn- 
suls  dismissed 
from  Rebel  State* 
of  U.  8. 


18 15-1865.  J 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


901 


FRANCE. 


ETJBOPE,  elsewhere. 


WOULD,  elsewhere. 


1862 


June  7.    Greece :    Insurrec- 
tion spreads. 


1863 


Oct.  15.  Drouyn  de  L'huys, 
Foreign  Minister. 

Oct.  30.  Mediation  proposed 
in  Amer.  conflict  declined 
by  Eussia  and  Gt.  Britain. 

Jan.  9.  Mediation  of  France 
again  offered  to  TJ.  S. 


Aug.  19.  Garibaldi  in  Sicily,, 
proclaims  a  Provision* 
Government. 

Aug.  29.  He  is  wounded  anc 
taken  prisoner  by  the 
king's  troops. 

Sept.  30.  BISMAKCK,  Premier 
of  Prussia. 

Oct.  5.  Garibaldi  and  his  fol- 
lowers released  under 
general  amnesty,  and  the 
state  of  siege  in  Sicily 
abolished. 


Jan.  18.  Egypt :  Ismail, 
Viceroy ;  succeeds  SaiO 
Pasha. 


March  30.  Greece .  George  I 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  pro- 
claimed King— England 
agreeing  to  give  up  Ionian 
Isles  to  Greece. 


July--Income-Tax  Bill 
passed  in  Italy. 

Aug.  16.  Congress  of  Ger- 
man Sovereigns  at  Frank- 
fort— "  One  Federal  State" 
proposed— Eussia  dissents. 


Nov.  15.  Denmark:  Chris- 
tian IX.  succeeds  Freder- 
ick VII. 


1864. 

Jan.  21.  "War  qt  Austria  and 
Prussia  against  Denmark 
about  Schleswig-Holstein 
— German  troops  enter 
Holstein. 


002 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.       [Period  XL — 50  years.- 


A    ' 

PBOGHESB  OF  SOCIETY. 

UNITED  STATES. 

BBITISH  EMPIIU.. 

1864 

Feb.  29.  Peabody  fund 

March  2.  GRANT  succeeds  Halleck  as  Com- 

—  Dwellings  fnr    the 

mander-in  -Chief  . 

poor     in    London  — 

May  5-6.  Battle  of  the  Wilderness. 

April  24.    Euiopean 

First  block  opened. 
April   3.      Garibaldi's 

May  11-12.  Battle  of  Spottsyivaiia. 
June  15.  Grant  bef'ir    Pet<i.     rgh. 

conference  at  Lon- 
don on  Schleswig- 

visit  to  England. 

June  19.  Kearsage  sinks  t>  e  Alabama. 

Holstein  question. 

May   16.     Convention 

July  1-13.  Maryland    again    invaded    by  a 

July  10.  Palmerston 

between   France, 

Rebel  raid. 

sustained    ir.    the 

Brazil,  Italy,  Portu- 

July 20-28.  Sherman's  victories  at  Atlanta, 

general  elect  r.  n. 

gal,  and  Spain,   fcr 

G'a. 

telegraph  to  America  July  33.  Chambersburgh,  Pa.,  burnt  by  Be- 

June—  Oct.—  Catt  1  -•-•    bels. 

plague  in  England.   J  oly  30.  Grant's  mine  at  Petenturgh,  Va., 

exploded. 

,  July  80.  Secretary  Chase  resigns—  Pessenden 

Aug.  —  Abd-el-Kader'e 
visit  to  England. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
.i'lg.  8.  Farragut's  victory  ic  Mobile  Bay. 
Sepu  -McClellan  nominated  lor  President. 

Aug.  15.   English 
fleet  visits   Cher- 

Deaths in  1864:  Frank. 
Bache.Josh'a  Bates, 

by  .Democratic  Convention  at  <-*hieago. 
F-pt.  2.  Atlfiita  raptured  by  Sherman, 
b-pt.  19.  Sheridan's  vict'ry  at  Winchester. 

bourg. 
Aug.  30.  French  fleet 
visits  Portsmouth. 

W.  J.  Fox,    T.  C. 

Oct.  19.  Cedar  Creek  defeat  made  a  victory 

Grattan,  Nathaniel 

by  Sheridan. 

Oct.   18.     Death    cf 

Hawthorne,      Edw. 

Ot.  2t.  Bebel  raid  at  St.  Albans,  Vt. 

Lord  Palmerston. 

Hitchcock,  Leonard 

N  T.  8.  Lincoln   re-elected    President  —  Mc- 

Homer,  Archbishop 

Cleliaa  resigns  his  command  in  army. 

Hughes,    Jasmin 

Nov.  30.  Thomas  repulses   Hood  at  Nash- 

(poet),C.M.Kirkland,l    villc. 

W.  Savage  Land:r  Dec.  '.5-16.  And  again  totally  defeats  him 

John  Leech,   J.  B. 

thf.'i. 

Macculloch,  Meyer- 

Dx. 13.  Fort  McAllister  stormed,  and 

beer,      W.     Curtis 
Noyes,  Pellisier,  Jo- 

Dec.  21.  Savannah  occupied  by  Sherman. 
Dec.  24-5.  Butler   and   Sorter  repulsed   at 

siah  Quincy,    Edw. 

Wilmington. 

Robinson,      H.    B. 

18to. 

Schoolcraft,    R.    B. 

Feb.  1.  Congress  abolishes    slavery   iy   «i 

Taney,  J.  G.  Totten. 

amendment  to  the  Constitution. 

Feb.  3.  Lincoln  and  Se  ward's  interview  with 

1365 

SLAVEKT    ABOLISHED 

llebels  at  Fort  Monroe. 

in  the  U.  States. 

Feb.  Its.  Lee  takes  command  Bebel  armies, 

and  urs".?  arming  i>f  negroes. 

Feb.  22.  Wilmington  captured  by  Schofleld. 

Feb.  22.  CharlestoL  <  vacuatcd  by  Rebels. 

April  1.  New  and   higher   taritf   comes  in 

force. 

April  2.  Richmond  and  Petersboi-gh  occupied 

Feb.  22.   Rebel  Con- 

by U.  S.  forces,  after  three  days'  fighting. 

gress  decrees  the 
aiming  of  slaves. 

April  6.  Grant's  victory  at  Farmville. 
April  9.  SUBBENDEB  OF  LEE  with  his  whole 

March—  Fenian  out- 
breaks in  Ireland. 

April  2.  Death  of  Rich- 

army. 

ard  Cobden. 

April  12.  Mobile  taken. 

April  14.  Fort  Sumter  occupied. 

April  14.    Assassination  of  President  Lin- 

coln and  attack  on  Seward. 

April  15.    ANDKEW  JOHNSON   sworn   in  as 

President. 

Death!  in  1865  :  Bishop 

April  18.  Sherman's  convention  with  John- 

Brownell, Adm.  Du- 

ston. 

pont,     Val.     Mott, 

April  25.  Johnston's  surrender. 

Edw.  Everett,  Mrs. 

April  26.  Booth,  the  assassin,  shot. 

Gaskell,  8ir  W.  J. 

May  4.  Gen.  Dick  Taylor  surrenders. 

May  6.     Reform 

Hooker,     Kiss 

May  10.  Jetf.  Davis  captured. 

League     meeting 

(sculpt.),  Leopold  I., 

May  26.  Kirby  Smith  surrenders  in  Texas. 

in  Hyde  Park  in 

Ab.     Lincoln,     Or. 

de  nance    of    Go- 

Lindley. 

END  OF  THE  BEBELLION. 

vernment. 

1815  -1865.] 


THE  WORLD  8  PROGRESS. 


903 


1804 


FRANCE. 


May  22.  Death  of  Marshal 

Pellisier. 
May  20.  Convention  between 

France  and  Japan  signed. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


1864. 

March  10.   Louis  II.,  King 

of  Bavaria. 
April  18.  Duppel  taken  by 

Prussians. 


June  1.  Ionian  Isles  made 

over  to  Greece. 
July  8.  Prussians  take   Al- 


Sept.15.  Franco-Italian  Con- 
vention signed  —  French 
troops  to  quit  Rome  in 
two  years. 

Florence  made  the  capital 
of  Italy— Riots  at  Turin 
in  consequence,  Sept.  21- 
22. 

Oct.  30.  Peace  between  Den- 
mark and  the  Allies,  to 
whom  Schleswig  and  Hoi- 
stem  are  surrendered, 
Prussia  retaining  posses- 
sion of  them. 


WORLD,  elsewhere. 


July  18.  China :  Nankin  taken 

("  a  heap  of  ruins  ")  l>y  Gor- 
don for  the  Imperialists. 


March  31.     Valparaiso  bom- 
barded by  Spanish  fleet. 


Famine  in  Bengal  and  Madras. 


1865. 

May  7.  JJayti:    Military   <D 
surrection  against  dfiBxnn) 


904 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


A.D.  PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


QBE  AT  BBITAIN. 


Aug. — Treaty  of  Com- 
merce, between  Italy 
and  Japan. 

Sept. — Several  South- 
ern States  pass  ordi- 
nances annulling  Se- 
cession,      abolishi 
slavery,  &c. 

Rind?,r-pest  or  cattle- 
plague  in  England, 
July,  1865,  to  Feb., 
1866. 

Cholira  prevails  in 
France,  Spain,  and 
Naples. 

i860  Jan.  27.  Death  of  Gib- 
son, Eng.  sculptor. 

July  28.  ATLANTIC 
TELEGRAPH  success- 
fully completed  ; 
cable  landed  at  New- 
foundland and  re- 
portsPEACE  between 
Prussia  andAustria. 

Deaths  in  1866:  Mar- 
quis D'Azeglio, 
Jared  Sparks,  Wm. 
Whewell. 


1867. 

April  1.    Opening 
the  Great  Exposition 
of   Industry    of    all 
nations  at  Paris. 


July  1.  Awards  of  the 
juries  in  the  Greal 
Exposition. 


July— 1800th  anniver- 
sary of  St.  Peter's 
martyrdom  cele- 
brated at  Rome. 


May  22.  Proclamation  opening  Southern  British  and  French 
ports  and  exceptional  amnesty.  Governments  re« 

June  1.  National  Fast.  scind  their  recog- 

June  29.  Trial  of  assassins  ended.  nition  of  American 

July  7.  They  are  hung.  "Confederates." 

July  29.  Prisoners  of  war  released  on  oath  of 

allegiance.  October  18.  Death  oi 

ng  July  31.  U.  8.  debt  $2,757,253,000.  Lord  Palmerston.i 

August — Rebel  privateer  Shenandoah  de-  Oct. — Movements  ol" 
stroyed  about  thirty  vessels.  Fenians  at  New 

S"ov.  2.  National  thanksgiving.  York,  Phila.,  &c. 

Nov.  9.  Shenandoah  at  Liverpool — crew  re-  October  7.  Riots  in 
leased.  Jamaica ;  Gordon, 

Nov.  10.  "Wirz  executed  for  cruelty  to  U.  S.  a  Baptist  minis- 
prisoners,  ter,  hanged  by 

1866.  Governor  Eyre  aa 

May  3.  Colorado  bill  vetoed.  a  rioter. 

May  29.  Death  of  Winfield  Scott.  November  27.   Trial 

c  June — Resignation    of    Speed,  Att.  Gen.;     of  Fenians  at  Dub- 
Dennison,  P.  M.  Gen. ;    and  Harlan,  Sec.      lin. 
Int.  1866. 

July  28.  Congress  adjourns,  having  passed  Jan.  6.  Gov.  Eyre 
Freedmen's  Bureau  (continuation)  bill ;  in  Jamaica  super- 
Civil  Rights  bill ;  Pacific  Railway  (supp.)  seded  by  Storks  ; 
bill ;  Army  bill,  and  other  important  hot  discussions  in 
measures.  England  as  to  hia 

July— GRANT  appointed  General-in-Chief;      conduct    in     the 
Sherman,  Lieut.-General ;   Farragut,  Ad-     riot, 
miral ;  Porter,  Vice- Admiral. 

Aug.  14.  "  National  Union  Convention  "  at 
Philadelphia. 

Sept.  3.  Southern  Loyalist  Convention  at 
Philadelphia. 

Sept.  6.  Corner  stone  of  Douglas  Monument 
laid  at  Chicago  by  President  Johnson. 

Oct.  6.  Elections  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, and  Iowa  result  in  increased  Re- 
publican majorities. 

Nov. — Republicans  also  victorious  in  Mass., 
N.  H.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Mich.,  Minn.,  Nevada, 
and  Mo.  In  Delaw.  and  Md.  the  Demo- 
crats are  successful. 

Dec.  13.  Suffrage  given  to  colored  men  in 
Dist.  Columbia,  by  act  of  Congress. 

1867. 

Feb.  9.  Nebraska  admitted  into  the  Union 

as  a  State. 
,f  March  2.  "  Tenure  of  Office  "  bill  passed. 

March  2.  Mili'ary  government  for  the  South — 
bill  passed  over  the  President's  veto  by  135  1867. 
to  48  in  the  House,  and  38  to  10  in  the  May  9.    Conference 
Senate.  at  London  on  the 

March  4.  40th  Congress  meets.  question  of  Lux- 

March  23.  Supplementary  Bill  on  Military  EMBUBG.  Treaty 
Government  of  the  South,  passed  over  signed  making  the 
President's  veto — Senate,  40  to  7  ;  House,  Duchy  neutral 
114  to  25.  territory— fortress 

Southern  States  divided  into  five  military     to  be  razed, 
districts,  under 

Gen.  Schofleld,  at  Richmond;    Sickles,  at 
Columbia,  &c. ;    Pope,   at  Montgomery ; 
Ord,  at  Vicksburgh  ;    Sheridan,  at  New  July— The    Viceroy 
Orleans.  of  Egypt  and  I  he 

April  10.  Treaty  for  purchase  of  Russian  Sultan  of  Turkey 
America  approved  by  the  Senate.  visit  London. 


1865-1867.] 


905 


FBANCE 


Ecuoi'E,  elsewhere. 


1865 


867 


Serrt.  7.   Death  of  Lamori- 
ciere. 


January — Railway  between 
Boulogne  and  Calais 
opened. 

Jan.  19.  Emperor  decrees 
greater  freedom  of  discus- 
sion in  Legislature  and  the 
Press. 


1866. 

Jan.  15.     Death  of  D'Azeglio,  the 

patriot. 
June  18.  Prussia  and  Italy  declare 

WAR  against  AUSTRIA. 
June  24.  Italians  defeated  at  Cus- 

tozza. 
June  27-29.   Austrians  defeated  by 

Prussians  in  three  battles  won  by 

needle  guns. 
July  3.  Great  Battle  of  SADOWA ; 

250,000    on  each  side.     Prussians 

victorious  ;   Austrians  lose  44,000  Sept 

K.  and  W.,  and  100  guns. 
Austria  cedes  Venetia  to  France, 
July  11.  Prussians  defeat  Bavarians 

at  Kissengen. 

July  14.    Prussians  occupy  Frank- 
fort. 
July  18.    Italian  fleet  defeated  off 

Lizza. 
July  26.  Preliminary  treaty  of  peace. 

Prussia  requires  Hanover,  Hesse, 

Nassau  and  Frankfort. 
October  3.  Treaty  of  Peace  between 

Austria    and     Italy,    signed    at 

Vienna. 
Nov.  5.    Venetia  proclaimed  to  be 

part  of  Kingdom  of  Italy. 
Nov.  7.  K.  Victor  Emanuei's  public  1867, 

entry  into  Venice. 
Feb.    18.     Hungarian   Constitution 

restored  by  Austrian  Emperor. 
Feb.  24.    First    parliament  of    the 

German  Confederation  opened  by  M 

K.  of  Prussia. 
War    in     Crete    continued     with 

various  fortunes. 
April  4.  New  ministry  in  Italy. 


j  April  1.     Great  Exposition 

'  opened  by  the  Emperor. 
Waleswski  resigns  as  Pres. 
of  Corps  Legis. 

May.  18.  Emperor  signs 
Luxemburg  treaty. 

June  6.  Attempt  on  life  of  the  Czar,  while  riding  with  the  Em- 
peror, in  Paris. 

The  Sultan,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  King  of  Prussia,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  other  notables,  also  visit  the  Great  Exposition  in  Paris  in 
June  and  July. 


WORLD,  elsewhere. 


.  18.  Brazil :  TJru- 

guayano  surrenders 

to  the  allies. 
Sept.— Greeks  in  Crete 

rise  in  revolt  against 

the  Turks. 
Oct.  7.  Jamaica  riots. 


Feb.  5.  Mexico:  The 
City  ot  Mexico 
evacuated  by  the 
French  troops. 
!ay  15.  Mexico. 
Maximilian  and  his 
generals  captured  at 
Queretaro. 

Egypt  declared  by  the 
Sultan  to  be  a  se- 
parate sovereignty 
after  June  11,  1807. 

July  1.  Execution  of 
Maximilian  in 
Mexico. 

July  1.  Cuba:  Decree 
of  the  Queen  ol 
Spain  freeing  all 
children  of  slave 
parents  born  artel 
this  date. 


906 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY. 

UNITED  STATES. 

BRITISH  EMPIRB. 

1867 

1867 

1867 

1867 

July  —  England  visited 

May  13.  Jeff.  Davis  released  on  bail. 

July  15.    Passage  of 

by  the  Sultan  ;  first 

July  1.     Congress  meets  in  extra  special  ses- 

New    REFORM 

time  in  history. 

sion,  and  enacts,   over  President's  veto,  a 

BILL,  nominally 

Reform  in  England. 

bill  to  confirm  and  strengthen  the  Military 

D'Israeli's,     really 

Dmtlut  in  ]8«7:    Vic- 

Government, passed  in  March. 

Gladstone's  ? 

tor  Cousin,    Charle- 

Aug.  10.     Jury  on  trial  of  Surratt  (assassina- 

Sept.   24-27.      Pan- 

Aiithon. 

tion   of  Lincoln)   disagrees.      Surratt   dis- 

Anglican synod  at 

charged,  Nov.  6,  1£68. 

Lambeth. 

Aug.    12     Sec'y  of   War    Stanton    removed, 

after  refusing  to  resign.    Replaced,  by  Sen- 

ate, Jan.  14-15,  1808. 

Sept.    9.     Pres.   Johnson  proclaims  general 

amnesty. 

Sept.  17.     Antietam  cemetery  dedicated. 

Dec.    Treaty  for  purchase  of  Danish  islands, 

St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  for  $7,500,000, 

signed. 

j- 

1868 

1S68 

1868 

1868 

Jan.  15.  Education  con- 

Jan.  21.     Senate  transfers  jurisdiction  over 

Jan.  28.   113,674  spe- 

fei BUCK  opens  at  Man- 

the Southern  States  from  Johnson  to  Gen. 

cial  constables 

chester,  England. 

Grant. 

sworn    in     in    the 

Feb.  6.     A   horse-flesh 

Fel).  24.    House  votes  to  impeach  Pres.  John- 

United   Kingdom, 

dinner  at  the  Lang- 

son. 

from  apprehension 

ham  hotel,  London. 

March  6.     Impeachment  trial. 

of  Fenians. 

June  25.  Luther  mon- 

May 21.     Republican  Convention   nominates 

Feb.  25.     Derby  min- 

ument    inaugurated 

Grant  and  Colfax. 

istry  resigns  ;  D'ls- 

at  Worms. 

May  2H.  Senate   adjourns,    after  refusing  to 

raeli,  premier  29th. 

Sept.   9.     Brunei's  In- 

impeach Pres.  Johnson. 

Sept.  30.    Nearly  21.- 

ternational  Congress 

June  5.    Chinese  embassy  received  at  Wash- 

000    extra    deaths 

of  Workmen  resolve 

ington. 

from  the  hot  sum- 

that   arbitration    is 

July  7.    Democratic   Convention    nominates 

mer. 

better  than  strikes. 

Seymour  and  Blair. 

Dec.  2.  D'Israeli  min- 

Oct. 5.     Papal  emissa- 

July 22.  Wyom.ng  territory  organized. 

istry    out  ;     Glad- 

ries and   Greek    Pa- 

Nov.  3.  Grant  and  Colfax  elected. 

stone's      succeeds, 

.  triarch  of    Constan- 

Dec. 14.  House  of  Representatives  denounces 

9th. 

tinople  disagree  as  to 

repudiation  of  national  debt. 

general  counoil. 

Deaths,  1SG8  :  Ex-pres. 

Buchanan  ;    T  h  a  d  . 

Stevens;  ex-sec'y 

Bates. 

1869 

186!) 

1869 

1869 

Jan.  24.     First  Protes- 

Jan. 14.  Clarendon  and  Johnson  convention 

July  26.  Irish  Church 

tant  meeting  £01  pub 

on  Alabama  claims  signed. 

disestablish!      .t 

lie  worship  in  Madrid 

Feb.    6.    Nolle    prosequi    ends    prosecution 

bill  passed. 

Apr.   8.    Bibles  in  for- 

against Jeff.  Davis. 

eign    languages    ad- 

Feb.   21,    Fifteenth  amendment  (negro  suf- 

m'tted into  Spain. 

frage)  passed. 

May  10.     Railway  con 

March  3  and  15.  Schenck  bill  passes,  declaring 

ne-'tion  completed  in 

that  all  national  obligations  will  be  paid  in 

U.  S.  between  Atlan- 

coin. 

tic  and  Pacific. 

Apr.  J.  L.  Motley  appointed  Minister  at  Lon- 

July   14.     French  At- 

don. 

lantic  telegraphic 

Apr.    15.    Naturalization  treaty  with    Great 

cable  completed. 

Britain  ratified. 

Deaths,   1869  :     W.  P. 

June  15.  Peace  Jubilee  at  Boston. 

Fessunden  ;  Admiral 

Stewart  (•'  Old  Iron- 

side") ;  G.  Peabody  ; 

Ex-pres.    P  i  e  r  o  o  ; 

Gen.  Wool  ;  Ex-aec'y 

Stanton. 

1867-1877.] 


THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


907 


FRANCE. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


WOULD,  elsewhere. 


1867  1867 


1867 


1867 


July  1.     The  Emperor  dis-;  July.    Great  excitement    in    Europe  Oct.   29.     Destructiva 


tributes    medals  of    honor 
at  the  Great  Exposition. 


Rome. 


respecting  the  death  of  Maximilian 
in  Mexico. 


hurricane  in  W  e  s  t 
Indies. 


Oct.  30.   French  troops  enter  Russian  America  sold  to  the  United  Nov.    1.     Furious  cy- 


States. 


Sfov.   18.     Pacific  speech   of  July  1.  Great  assemblage  of  Prelates 


clone  in  Bengal. 


Emperor  on  opening  Cham- 
bers. 
Dec.  5.  Rouher  declares  (for 


government)  that  Italy  Sept.  8.  International  Peace  Congress 
shall  never  seize  upon  at  Geneva ;  broke  up  12th,  from 
Rome.  furious  quarrelling  of  members. 

Sept.   24.     Garibaldi    arrested  while 
preparing  to  invade  Papal  States, 
and  sent  to  Caprera. 
Oct.  13.     Garibaldi  escapes  from  Ca- 
prera ;   26,  defeats  Pope's  troops  at 
Monte  Rotondo ;  27,  King  of  Greece 
marries  Grand  Duchess  Olga ;  3U, 
French  troops  enter  Rome. 
Nov.  4.  Garibaldi  beaten  and  taken 

at  Mentana. 
1868 1868  1868 


Jan.  1.    Army  bill,  amounts 

to  furnishing  an  army   of 

1,200,000. 
June  1.  New  press  law,  less 

stringent. 
Aug.  1.  Rochef ort's  Lanterne 

suppressed  ;   lie  escapes  to 

Belgium. 


1889  1SC9 


June  9.  Violent  election  riots 

at  Paris. 
June  26.    Great  increase  of 

opposition  in  Assembly. 
July  13.    Ministerial   respon- 
sibility introduced  by  the 

Emperor. 
Aug.  15.    Centenary  of  birth 

of  Napoleon  I. ;  pensions, 

amnesty,  etc. 
Sept.    10.    New  constitution 

promulgated. 


of  R.  C.  Church  at  Rome. 
Aug.  6.  Violent  outbreak  of  cholera 
at  Albano,  Italy. 


1868 


March  21.  Defeat  of  papal  party  at  Feb.     19.      Brazilians 


Vienna  on  civil  marriage  bill. 

Sept.  29.  Queen  of  Spain  flees  into 
France ;  provisional  government  set 
np 

Nov.  24.  Croatian  deputies  sit  togeth- 
er with  Hungarian,  met  for  first 
time. 

Dec.  30.  Final  surrender  of  revolu- 
tionary Cretan  government  an- 
nounced at  Constantinople. 


force  the  pass  of 
Humaita  against 
Paraguayan  batte- 
ries. 

Apr.  13.  Capture  of 
Magdala,  Abyssinia, 
by  British  ;  death  of 
King  Theodore. 

May  22.  Russians  oc- 
cupy Samarcand. 

June  26.  Paraguayans 
evacuate  Humaita, 
after  over  2  years' 
siege. 

Nov.  17.  Suez  canal 
formally  opened. 


1869 

May  20.    Spanish  Cortes  votes  214  to 

71  for  monarchical  government. 
June  16.    Serrano  chosen  regent  of 

Spain. 
Dec.  8.    Vatican  Council  opened  at 

Rome. 


908 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


A.D.  PROGRESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


BBITISH  EMPIRE, 


1870  1870 


1870 


iin  .1 


Ayr.  2.     Railway  fro: 
Calcutta  to  Bombay 
opened. 

Apr.  10.  KeshubChun- 
der  Sen  conducts  re- 
ligious services 
London. 

May  19.  English  House 
of  Lords  rejects  bill 
permitting  to  marry 
deceased  wife's  sis- 
ter, 77  to  73. 

May  25.  Organization 
of  English  commit- 
tee to  revise  author- 
ized version  of  Bible. 

Dec.  25.  Mount  Cenis 
tunnel  completed. 

Deaths,  1870:  Admi- 
rals Dahlgren  and 
Farragut ;  Gen.  Lee. 


an.   2fi.    Darien  canal  scheme  approve 

Congress. 
March.   Mr.  Revels,  first  colored  member  of 

House  (from  Mississippi),   takes  his    seat; 

Ibth,  his  first  speech,  for  universal  amnesty 

and  suffrage. 
April.  Fifteenth  amendment  ratified. 
July.  New  tariff  adopted,  to  take  effect  Jan. 

1,  1871. 

July.  Mr.  Motley  recalled. 
Oct.   1.    Internal  taxation  begins  to  be  re- 
duced. 
Nov.  Republican  majority  in  Congress  greatly 

reduced  by  the  fall  elections. 
Dec.   5.    President  Grant's  message   regrets 

failure  of  proposal  to  annex  St.  Domingo. 
Dec.  21.  General  Schenck  Minister  to  London. 
Dec.    Census  makes  value  of  U.  S.   $31,000,- 

000,000. 


1870 
d  by  July   19.    Neutrality 

in  Franco-Prussian 

war  proclaimed. 
Aug. -Nov.    Foot  and 

mouth    disease    in 

cattle. 


1867-1877.]                 THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS.                                909 

A.D. 

FRANCE. 

EUROPE,  elsewhere. 

WOBLD,  elsewhere. 

1870 

1870 

1870 

1870 

Jan.  3.  Liberal  (Ollivier)  min- 

Jan. 12.    Pope's  decree  condemning 

Jan.    15.    Salnave  phot 

istry  formed. 

the  Fenians. 

in  Hayti  ;  Saget  pres- 

Jan 10.  Victor  Noir  murdered 

Mav  17.  Espartero  declines  the  crown 

ident. 

by  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte. 

of  Spain. 

March  1.     Defeat  and 

Jan.  22.    Roc-hef  ort  fined  and 

June  25.  Queen  Isabella  of  Spaiii  abdi- 

death   of  the    Para- 

imprisoned for  libel. 

cates  iu  favor  of  her  son  Allonso. 

guayan  leader  Lopez. 

May  8.    Plebiscite  on  govern- 

July. Vatican  Council  votes  the  Pope's 

May   25.     Fenian   raid 

ment  amendments  to  con- 

infallibility. 

into  Canada  repulsed 

stitution,  adopted  by  5  to  1. 

July  30.    Austrian  government   dis- 

by volunteers. 

May  14.  Riots  and  barricades 

solves  the  concordat  with  Rome. 

June  21.    Mob  at  Tien- 

in Paris. 

Sept.  20.  Italian  troops  occupy  Rome. 

tsin  in  China;  French 

July  2.     Orleans  family   de- 

Oct. 2.  Vote  of  people  of  Papal  States 

consul  and  residents 

mand  to  return  to  France  ; 

for    annexation    to    Italy,    133,681 

murdered. 

refused  by  Assembly.  173  to 

yeas  to  1.507  nays. 

81. 

Nov.   16.    Prince    Amadeo  of    Italy 

July.  Prince  Leopold  declines 

elected  king  of  Spain  by  the  Cortes  ; 

candidacy  for  Spanish 

accepts,  Dec.  6. 

throne  ;      Prussia    refuses 

Nov.    23.    Pope  excommunicates  all 

guaranties  ;    17th,    France 

concerned    in    annexing  Rome  'to 

declares  war. 

Italy. 

July    23.     Empress    regent  ; 

Dec.    10.     German  empire  voted   at 

Emperor  joins  army  ;  2(ith, 

Berlin    by    the   Reichstag  ;   crown 

first    skirmish    at   Nieder- 

presented  to  King  Wilhelm  of  Prus- 

bronn ;    30th,    French    re- 

sia at  Versailles,  18th. 

pulsed  at  Saarbruck. 

Dec.  27.    High  and  damaging  flood  in 

Aug.   2.    French   take   Saar- 

the Tiber  at  Rome. 

bruck  ;     4,     Germans     de- 

Dec. 28.  Marshal  Prim  assassinated  at 

feat    French    at    Wipsem- 

Madrid. 

bourg    and    Geisberg  ;    6, 

Dec.  31.    King  Victor  Emmanuel  ar- 

severe defeat  of  French  at 

rives  at  Rome. 

Woerth  ;  7,   state  of  siege 

feated     at      Forbach; 

1 

Bazaine  in  command  at  Metz  ;  10,  new  war  ministry  ;  decree  for 

great  increase  of   army  ;  Strasburg  invested  by  Germans  ;  12, 

Germans  pass  the  Vosges  ;  14,  Germans  gain  battle  of  Courcelles  ; 

16.  of   Vionville  ;  18,  of  Gravelotte  and  Rezonville  ;  Trochu  gov 

ernor  of  Paris  ;    22,  Bazaine  isolated  at  Metz  ;  25,  Germans  oc- 

cupy  Chalons  ;  30,  several  engagements   lost   by  parts  of   Mac- 

Mahon's  army  retreating  north  ;  31,  they  retreat  to  Sedan  ;  Aug. 

81  and  Sept.  1,  Bazaine  repulsed  and  driven  into  Metz. 

Sept.  1-2.     Battle  of  Sedan  ;  surrender  of  MacMahon's  army  and 

Napoleon   111.  ;  Sept.  4,  revolution  at  Paris  ;  republic  declared. 

and  government  of  defence,  Trochu  president  ;  Empress  and  min- 

isters flee  to  Belgium  ;   5.  Germans  occupy  Rtieims.   and  7,  St. 

1 

Dizier  ;  9,    Germans  advancing  on   Paris  ;   15,  siege  of    Paris 

formed  ;  Sept.  17,  important  circular  of  Favre,  confessing  that 

France  is  in  the  wrong,  and  asking  that  the  war  stop  ;  lt>.  Bis- 

marck's circular  asserting  necessity  of  material  guaranties  from 

France  ;  19,  Paris  completely  invested  ;  21,  Versailles  surrenders  ; 

Favre  reports  failure  to  agree  with  Bismarck  ;  23,  Durnouf  gets 

out  of  Paris  with  mails  by  balloon;  levee  en  manse  in  French  de- 

partments ordered  ;    28,  Strasburg  capitulates  ;    red  republican 

rising  put  down  at  Lyons. 

Oct.  7.  Gambetta  escapes  from  Paris  by  balloon  ;  9,  organizes  a 

government  at  Tours  ;  7,  great  sortie  from  Metz  repulsed  ;  10, 

11,  red  republican  attempt  to  establish  the  commune  at  Paris  de- 

feated ;  11,  Germans  take  Orleans  ;  16,  take  Soissons  ;  21,  French 

sortie  from  Mont  Valerien  (Paris)  repulsed  ;  27,  Metz  and  army 

surrendered  by  Bazaine  ;   29,  Germans  take  Dijon  ;  31,  riots  in 

Paris  ;  commune  established  for  a  moment,  but  dislodged. 

Nov.  4.  Germans  have  taken  11   towns,  3,653  guns.  155  mitrail- 

leuses, nearly  600,000  chassepots,  90  eagles,  about  $20.000,000  in 

money  ;  hostilities  continue  in  various  parts  of  France  :  24,  Ger- 

•   ' 

mans  take  Thionville  ;  27,  take  La  Fere  ;  28,  occupy  Amiens  ; 

30,  great  sortie  of  120,000  men  from  Paris  ;  they  retreat,  Dec.  2. 

910 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PBOGBESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


BRITISH  EMFIBB. 


1870  1870 


187 


1871 

Sspt.  22.  Old  Catholic 
meeting  at  Bonn,  a 
gainst  new  dogma  o 
infallibility. 

Dec.  28.  Gradual  slave- 
emancipation  law 
passed  in  Brazil 

Deaths,  1871 :  G.  Tick- 
ner ;  Alice  andPhcebe 
Gary;  Gen.  R.  An- 
derson ;  R.  Cham- 
bers; Schamyl,  the 
Circassian  chief; 
Omer  Pasha;  Thai- 
berg  ;  Herschel ;  Au- 
ber ;  G.  Grote ;  Prin- 
cess Belgiojoso ;  Paul 
de  Kock;  R.  Bent- 
ley  ;  C.  Babbage ;  Sir 
R.  Murchison ;  Mar- 
shal Benedek ;  G. 
Hudson  ("railway 
king"). 


1870 


1871 


Jan.  12.  Great  meeting  in  New  York  for  Ital- 
ian unity. 
f  Apr.  6.  Report  of  commissioners  to  St.  Dom 

ingo,  in  Senate. 

May  26.  Treaty  for  Alabama  claims  commis- 
sion, etc.,  ratified. 
June  4.    U.   S.   army  on  peace    footing 

36,284  men. 
be  June  10.  Statue  of  S.  P.  B.  Horse  unveiled  in 

N.  Y. 

June  29.    Polaris  expedition  sails  for  North 

Pole. 
July  12.  Riot  in  New  York,  Romanists  against 

Orangemen:  62  killed,  117  wounded. 
July  16.    First  exposure  of  Tammany  Ring  in 

N.  Y.  Times. 
1  Oct.  Great  fires  in  Minn.,  Wise.,  and  Mich. 

forests. 
Oct.  8-9.  Great  fire  at  Chicago ;  18,000  build 

ings  destroyed ;  $200,000,000  lost 
Nov.    Russian    Minister  Catacazy  dismissed 

for  discourtesy  to  U.  S.  authorities. 


1870 


1871 

Apr.  3.  8th  census 
taken. 

July  20.  Purchase  of 
army  commissions 
stopped  by  royal 
warrant. 

of  Sept  30.  South  Ken- 
sington Exhibition 
closed  (open  since 
May  1). 


1867-1877.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


911 


FBASCE. 


EUBOPE,  elsewhere. 


WOBLD.  elsewhere. 


1870  1870  1870 

Dec.  Obstinate  fighting  by  the  army  of  the  Loire  ;  other  hostilities ; 
Germans  mainly  successful ;  11,  Gambetta's  government  moves 
to  Bordeaux. 

1871  1871  1871 

Jan.  1-10.   Bombardment  of  Jan.  2.  King  Amadeo  arrives  at  Ma- 
drid. 


Paris  ;  hostilities  in  other 
parts  of  France  continu- 
ing ;  mostly  German  suc- 


cesses;  19,   great  sortie  of  June  16.   25th  anniversary  of  pope- 


100,000  men  from  Paris 
repulsed :  23,  Trochu  re- 
signs ;  24,  Vinoy  governor 
of  Paris ;  28,  Paris  capit- 
ulates :  30,  Bourbaki's 
army  of  80,000  driven  into 
Switzerland  and  "in- 
terned ;  "  treaty  of  peace, 
ceding  Alsace  and  part  of 
Lorraine,  and  to  pay  Ger- 
many $1,000.000,1)00;  pre- 
liminaries signed  Feb.  26. 

Feb.  18.  Thiers  becomes  exe- 
cutive. 

March  1-3.  German  troops 
enter  Paris,  and  remain  48 
hours.  Treaty  concluded 
May  10,  ratified  by  French 
Assembly,  May  18. 

March  18.  Insurrection  at 
Paris,  and  commune  estab 
lished  there ;  20,  regular 
government  at  Versailles ; 
28,  government  of  the  com- 
mune proclaimed  at  Paris. 

April  2.  Military  operations 
begin  between  government 
tind  commune ;  4,  com- 
munist insurrection  sup- 
pressed at  Marseilles. 

May  14.  House  of  M.  Thiers 
destroyed  by  commune ; 
16,  column  Vendome  pulled 
down;  21,  government 
troops  enter  Paris  and  oc- 
cupy part :  23-24,  Tuileries, 
Hotel  de  Ville.  etc.,  burned 
by  communists ;  28,  fight- 
ing ends  and  communists 
suppressed ;  about  one- 
fourth  of  Paris  burned, 
and  loss  of  property 
through  commune,  $160,- 
000,000  ;  29,  decree  disarm- 
ing Paris. 

Sept.  1.  Thiers  made  Presi- 
dent for  3  years ;  20,  Ger- 
mans evacuating  forts 
around  Paris. 

Nov.  28.  Communist  leaders 
shot. 

Dec.  Said  to  be  sixteen  poli- 
tical parties ;  19,  Due  d  'Au- 
male  and  Prince  de  Joinville 
take  seats  in  the  Assembly. 


Feb.  8.  Complete  amnesty  for  politi- 
cal offences  in  Austria. 


dom  of  Pius  IX.  celebrated  at  Rome. 
Nov.   18.     Uniform  coinage  law  en- 
acted in  Germany. 


1870 


1871 

June  11.  TJ.  S.  and 
French  storm  Corean 
strongholds  and  pun- 
ish Coreuns  for  in- 

HlltS. 

Oct.  1.  Military  revolt 
in  city  of  Mexico ; 
suppressed  with 
much  bloodshed. 


912 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PROGRESS  or  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


BBITISH  EMFIBB. 


1872 1872  1872 

Aug.  6.  Spain  prepares  Jan.  16.  General  amnesty  bill  passed, 
to  free  slaves  in  June  17.  Boston  peace  jubilee  opens. 
Porto  Rico  and  July  10.   Dem-ocrats  and  Liberals  join  to  nom- 
Cuba.  mate  Greeley  for  president. 

Aug.  22.  International  Aug.    19.    Judge  Barnard  removed  and  dis- 
statistical      congress      qualified,  for  corruption  in  office, 
at  St.  Petersburg.        Sept.    Geneva  award  (Alabama  claims)  an- 
;pt.  8.  Australia  con-      nounced.  • 

nected  by  submarine  Oct.  23.  Island  of  San  Juan  awarded  to  U.  S. 
telegraph    with    the  Nov.  5.  Grant  re-chosen  president. 
Indo-European   tele- 
graph system. 

Oct.  16.  Railway  op- 
ened from  Yokoha- 
ma to  Yeddo,  in  Ja- 
pan. 

Deaths,  1872:  J.  Gil- 
lott;  Due  de  Per- 
aigny ;  Abp.  Spal- 
diug;  John  Poole ; 
J.  Mazzini ;  Rev.  F. 
D.  Maurice ;  Lord 
Dalling;  C.  Lever; 
J.  G.  Bennett;  Rev. 
N.  McLeod ;  L.  Feu- 
erbach ;  Charles  XV. 
of  Sweden;  Mrs. 
Parton  (''Fanny 
Fern");  T.  Gautier-. 
Sir  J.  Bowring; 
Gen.  Halleck ;  \V. 
H.  Seward ;  H.  Gree- 
ley. 


1873  1873 


Jan.  1.  European  cal- 
endar introduced  in- 
to Japan. 


1872 

Feb.  29.  Arthur  O'- 
Connor presents  an 
empty  pistol  at  the 
Queen. 

March.  Agricultural 
laborers'  strike  in 
Warwickshire. 

June.  Strikes  in  va- 
rious trades. 

Sept.  14.  Final  Ala- 
bama award. 

Nov.  5.  New  com 
mercial  treaty 
signed  with  France. 

Nov.  24.  Serious  ill- 
ness of  Prince  of 
Wales ;  begins  to 
recover  Dec.  14. 


1873 

Jan.  Modoc  war  begins. 

Feb.  Fighting  and  disturbances  in  New  Or- 


leans. 

May  5.  Treaty  of  Great  March.  Credit  Mobilier  scandal  in  Congress. 
Britain    with   Zanzi-  Apr.  11.  Gen.  Canby  and  others  murdered  by 


1874 


bar  to  suppress  slave 
trade. 

Deaths,  1873;  Napule- 
on  III.  ;  M.  F.  Mau- 
ry  ;  Rev.  T.  Gutli- 
rie  ;  C.  Knight ;  Ba- 
ron Liebig ;  W.  C. 
Macready ;  Dr.  Liv- 
ingstone ;  A.  Man- 
zoni ;  F.  von  Ram- 
mer ;  H.  Powers  ;  M. 
Odillon-Barrot;  Duko 
of  Brunswick ;  Mrs. 
Mundt;  Sir  E.  Land- 
seer;  Sir  H.  Hol- 
land ;  U.  Ratazzi ;  S. 
P.  Chase. 


1874 

June  22.  Telegraph  op- 
ened between  Great 
Britain  and  Brazil. 


Modocs. 

June.  Modocs  surrender. 
Nov.  Excitement  over  execution  by  Spaniards 

of  Americans  from  steamer  Virginius. 


1873 

Jan.  Strikes  of  col- 
liers ;  coal  very 
scarce. 

June—July.  Shah  of 
Persia  visits  Eng- 
land. 


1874 


to  J 


Feb    Women'?  whiskey-war ;  women  try 
stjp  liquor-selling,  by  prayer,  etc.,  in  Ohio 
and  N.  ¥. 


1874 

an.  23.  Duke  of 
Edinburgh  marries 
Grand  Duchoas 
Marie  of  Russia. 


1867-1877.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


913 


FRANCE. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


WOULD,  elsewhere. 


1872 


1872 

April  23.  Law  against  the 
"  International  "  society. 

Sept.  Government  is  estab- 
lished at  Paris. 

Oct.  6.  Pilgrim  ages  o: 
some  20,000  persons  to 
Lourdes. 

ov.  5.  New  commercial 
treaty  signed  with  Great 
Britain. 


1872 

Jan.    Insurrectionary  movements  be- 
gin in  north  of  Spain. 

Apr.  1.   Tercentenary  of  Dutch  inde- 
pendence observed. 

f  May  1.     University  of  Strasbnrg  re- 
opened (closed  by  French,  1792). 

llay  2.    Don  Carlos  enters  Spain ;  6, 

flees  back  to  France, 
t  June  12.     Jesuits  expelled  from  Ger- 
many. 

July  18.  1000th  anniversary  of  King- 
dom of  Norway  celebrated. 

July  31.    Extradition  treaty  signed, 
Belgium  and  Great  Britain. 

Sept.  30.  Revolt  in  Montenegro. 

Dec.  18.    Coinage  made  uniform  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  nnd  Norway. 

Dec.  31 .  Diplomatic  relations  broken 
off  between  the  Pope  and  Germany. 


872 

ilarch  1.  War  between 
Honduras  and  San 
Salvador. 

itarch  26.  Attempt  to 
assassinate  the  Mika- 
do of  Japan. 

July  22.  Military  re- 
volt at  Lima ;  Presi- 
dent Balta  killed. 

Aug.  17.  Japanese  em- 
bassy in  England. 


1873  1873 
Feb. 


Letter   of    Comte    de 


Chambord.   destroying    aU 
hope  of  Bourbonist  fusion. 

March  15.  Convention  for 
complete  evacuation  by 
Germans  on  payment  ol 
whole  indemnity. 

May  24.  Thiers  and  his  min- 
istry resign ;  26,  MacMahon 
chosen  president  by  the 
assembly. 

Aug.  2.  Germans  have  left 
France,  except  Verdun ;  6, 
the  Orleanists  recognize 
Comte  de  Chambord  as 
chief. 

Sept.  5.    Last  instalmont  o1 
German  indemniu    paid ; 
13,  Germans  leave  Verdun 
16,     last     Germans    leave 
France. 

Nov.  20.  MacMahon's  term 
made  7  years. 

'Dec.  12.  Bazainc  condemned 
to  death  for  surrender  o: 
Metz ;     commuted    to    20 
years'  imprisonment. 
1874  1874 

March  16.  Imperialist  dem 
onstraiion  at  Chiselhurst 


1873 

Feb.  9.  Extradition  treaty  signed, 
Italy  and  Great  Britain. 

Feb.  11.  King  Amadeo  of  Spain  ab- 
dicates. 

May  1.  International  exhibition  at 
Vienna  opened. 

Oct.  21.  Jesuits  expelled  from  their 
convents  and  colleges  at  Rome. 


1873 

Feb.  23.   Emperor 

Toung-Chi  of  China 

assumes  government. 
March  25.  Netherlands 

declare  war  against 

Atchinese. 


1874 


1874 


Apr.  18.  Revised  constitution  adopt-  Feb.   5.     British  force 


ed  in  Switzerland. 

at   majority   (18  years)  of  i  July  23.    Extradition  treaty  ratified, 
prince  imperial.  I     Netherlands  and  Great  Britain. 

39 


under  Sir  Ci.  Wolsc- 
ley  occupies  Ooomas- 
sie. 


9U 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


A.D. 

PROGRESS  OF  SOCTETT. 

UNITED  STATES. 

BRITISH  EMPIBE. 

1874 

1874 

1874 

1874 

Aug.     International 

Apr.  22.  President  Grant  vetoes  bill  for  in- 

Feb.  21.      Gladstone 

congress  at  Brussels 

convertible  paper  money. 

ministry  out  ;  D'  Is- 

on laws  of  war. 

July.  Beecher  scandal  breaks  out. 

raeli  succeeds  him. 

Sept.  15.     Internation- 

Aug. 17.  Riots  at  Austin.,  Miss.,  negroes  and 

May  13-21.    Visit  of 

al  postal  congress  at 

whites  ;  so-called  negro  insurrection  also  in 

Czar  of  Russia. 

Berne  ;  adopts  &  sys- 

Aug., at  Trenton,  Tenn. 

tem  Oct.  7. 

Sept.  Centennial  of  meeting  of  colonial  dele- 

Deaths, 1874  :  Ex-pres. 

gates  at  Philadelphia. 

Fillmore  ;    C.    Sum- 

Sept.  18.   Gov.   Kellogg  of  La.  deposed  by  a 

ner  ;      F.      Guizot  ; 

rising  of  whites  ;  restored  by  U.  S.  forces. 

A.  von    Rothschild; 

Oct.  27.  Triennial  Episcopalian  convention  : 

Chang  and  E  n  g 

canon  against  ritualism. 

(Siamese  twins)  ; 

Dec.  Senate  passes  bill  to  resume  specie  pay- 

Dr.  D.   E.   Strauss; 

ment  Jan.  1,  1879. 

J.  Michelet. 

1876 

1875 

1875 

1875 

Jan.   Civil  registration 

Feb.  4.  Senate  rejects  new  reciprocity  treaty 

March  9.  Moody  and 

and    civil    marriage 

with  Canada. 

Sankey,  the  reviv- 

adopted   by  law    in 

Feb.  Civil  rights  bill  (for  negroes)  passed. 

alists,  arrive  in 

Germany. 

Apr.  19.  Centenary  of  Lexington. 

London  ;    sail  (on 

May  20.     International  June  17.  Centenary  of  Bunker  Hill. 

return)  Aug.  4. 

convention  at   Paris  July  2.  Beecher  trial  ends.     Jury  disagrees  (9 

Sept.  27.  Railway  ju- 

for adopting  metric 

to  3  for  Beecher). 

bilee  at  Darlington. 

system.      13  nations 

Sept.  30.  First  American  Cardinal  (McClos- 

Sov.  25.  Government 

represented. 

key)  received  at  Rome. 

purchase    of    Suez 

May  23.    P  e  o  p  1  e  of 

Oct.  Inflationist  defeats  in  Ohio  and  Iowa. 

canal    shares    an- 

Switzerland   adopt 

nounced. 

civil  marriage  by 

vote. 

Nov.  28.    Italian  gov- 

ernment buys  the 

Northern  Italian 

railroads. 

Deaths,  1875  :  Ex-pres. 

Johnson  ;  A.  Helps  ; 

\ 

E.   Pereire;  E.  Qui- 

net  ;  Toung-Chi,  em- 

peror of  China. 

1879 

1878 

1876 

1876 

Feb.  1.     International 

Jan.  1.  Centennial  year,  great  demonstrations 

May  1.     Queen    pro- 

courts in  Egypt  be- 

in Philadelphia. 

claimed     Empresi 

gin  to  sit. 

March.    Minister  Schenck  resigns    in    con- 

of India. 

Feb.  6.    Turkey  replies 

sequence  of  Emma  Mine  scandal. 

to  Andrassy  note, 

April.  Senate  rejects  R.  H.  Dana's  nomina- 

promising    reforms, 

tion  as  minister  to  England. 

which    are    decreed 

Apr.  14.    Lincoln   monument,  erected  by  ne- 

14th. 

groes,  unveiled  at  Washington. 

March  9.   Egyptian  in- 

May 10.  International  exhib.  opened  at  Phila. 

vading  force  beaten 

June  16.    Hayes  and  Wheeler  nominated  at 

by  Abyssinians. 

Cincinnati. 

Oct.  27.    Capt.  Nares's 

June.  Winslow  released  at  London  ;  extradi- 

Arctic expedition  re- 

tion treaty  thus  ended. 

turns  ;   reports  that 

June  25.  Custer  and  his  command  ambushed 

North    Pole    cannot 

and  destroyed  by  Sioux. 

be  reached. 

June  29.  Tilden  and  Hendricks  nominated  at 

Dec.   21.      New  penal 

St.  Louis. 

code    adopted    for 

July  9.  Hamburg  (S.  O.)  massacre  of  negro 

German  Empire. 

militiamen  by  Butler  and  others. 

Deaths,    1876  :      Vice- 

Aug.  1.   Gen.   Belknap,  ex-secretary  of  war, 

pres.   H.  Wilson  ;  F. 

impeached  for  corruption,  but  acquitted  by 

Deak;  Reverdy  John- 

35 to  25  in   Senate  (two-thirds  must  con- 

son ;  Abdul-  Ariz,  ex- 

vict). 

sullan    of    Turkey  ; 

Aug.  2.  Colorado  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Gen.    Santa    Anna  ; 

Oct.    17.     President    Grant's    proclamation 

C.  Perier;  Cardinal 

against  unlawful  combinations  to  affect  elec- 

Antoaelll. 

tions  in  South. 

1867-1877.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


915 


1874 


1875 


FBANCE. 


1874 

Aug.  31.    Vendome  column 
restored. 


1875 

Feb.-March.  Constitutional 
changes  in  a  republican 
direction. 

June  23.  Destructive  floods 
at  Toulouse. 

Dec.  Reports  on  trial  of  com 
munists  shows  9,596  con- 
victions and  110  death 
sentences. 


18761876 

Jan.  French  revenue  for  1875 
$500,000,000,    said    to    be 
the  largest  ever   receiv< 
by  any  government. 

Feb.-March.  Republican  ma- 
jority elected  to  Chambers. 

Nov.  3.  France  announces 
her  neutrality  in  the  Rosso- 
Turkish  war. 

Dec.  12.  New  ministry  under 
Jules  Simon. 


EUROPE,  elsewhere. 


1874 

Dec.  31.  Alfonso,  son  of  Queen  Isa 
bella,  proclaimed  King  of  Spain 
enters  Madrid  and  assumes  govern 
ment,  Jan.  14,  1875. 


1875 

Oct.  6.  Turkey  announces  suspension 

of  payment  on  half  the  interest  o 

her  public  debt 


1876 

Jan.  31.  Andrassy  note  presented  to 
Turkey,  suggesting  reforms, 
arch  20.    Triumphal  entry  of  Al- 
fonso into  Madrid,  the  Carlist  in 
surrection  being  suppressed. 

iay  6.  Assassination  of  French  and 
German  consuls  at  Salonica  in  Tur- 
key. 

Jay.  Risings  in  Bulgaria,  cruelly 
put  down  by  Turks. 

Jay  SO.  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz  deposed  ; 
Murad  V.  succeeds. 

Tuly9.    Turkey  repudiates  payments 

on  public  debt  until  better  times. 
Aug.  31.  Sultan  Murad  deposed ;  Ab- 
dul Hamid  II.  succeeds. 

Jov.  1 .  Six  weeks'  armistice  between 
Turkey  and  Servia. 


WOKU),  elsewhere. 


1874 

Feb.  13,  King  of  Ash- 
antee  makes  peace. 

Feb.  22.  Bishop  of  Per- 
nambuco  condemned 
to  4  years'  imprison- 
ment for  disobedi- 
ence to  law. 

Feb.  26.  Insurrection 
at  Nagasaki,  Japan. 


1875 

Apr.  5.  Island  of  Sag- 
halien  ceded  by  Ja- 
pan to  Russia. 

May  18.  Seven  Chilian 
towns  of  30,000  popu- 
lation, destroyed  by 
an  earthquake. 


876 

Feb.  20.  Khokand  an- 
nexed to  Russia,  aa 
Ferghana. 

July  17.  Gen.  Canal 
president  of  Hayti. 

Oct.  31.  Terrible  cy- 
clone in  Bengal ;  im- 
mense loss  of  prop- 
erty and  life. 

Dec.  10.  Baez,  Presi- 
dent of  St.  Domingo. 


916 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


PBOOBESS  OF  SOCIETY. 


UNITED  STATES. 


BBITISH  EMPIEE. 


1876  1876 


18771877 


1876 

Nov.  7.    Presidential   election  ;   Hayes  and 

Wheeler  chosen  by  185.   to  184  for  Tilden 

and  Hendricks. 

1877 


Deaths,  1877:  Tayler 
Lewis;  J,  L.  Mot- 
ley ;  (jen.  Changar- 
nier ;  Dr.  Muhlen- 
berg. 


1876 


1877. 


Jan.   U.   S.  Government  commission  report  Jnly2-9.  Pan-Presby- 


Darien  canal  practicable. 

Jan.  Extradition  treaty  signed  with  Spain. 

Jan.  8.  Two  governors  (Nicholls  and  Kellogg) 
inaugurated  in  Louisiana;  Kellogg  main- 
tained by  U.  S.  troops. 

Jan.  Fourteen  fishing  schooners,  overdue  at 
Gloucester,  Mass.,  given  up  for  lost  with  all 
on  board. 

Jan.  Moody  and  Sankey  opened  meeting  in 
Boston. 

Apr.  10.  U.  S.  troops  evacuated  South  Caro- 
lina state  house  ;  Gov.  Chamberlain  has  to 
yield  to  Hampton. 

Apr.  24.  U.  S .  troops  evacuate  state  house  at 
New  Orleans ;  Kellogg  government  yields  to 
Nicholls. 

June  6.  Civil  suit  against  P.  B.  Sweeney  com- 
promised for  $400,000. 

June  29.  Pres.  Hayes's  letter  prescribing 
that  national  office-holders  must  not  be 
managing  party  officials,  nor  be  assessed  for 
party  expenses. 

July.  An  Indian  war  under  chief  Joseph  breaks 
out  in  Idaho. 


terian    confereno* 
at  Edinburgh. 


1867-1877.] 


THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 


917 


FBANOK. 


EUEOPE,  elsewhere. 


WORLD,  elsewhere. 


1876 


1877 


1876 


1877 


1876 


1877 


1876 


Jan.  18.  Turkey  rejects  proposals  o: 
the  European  powers. 

Jan.  23.  New  Turkish  constitution 
proclaimed. 

Apr.  24.  Eussia  declares  war  against 
Turkey,  and  enters  Roumar.ia. 

May  21.  Jubilee  at  Rome,  50th  anni- 
versary of  Pope's  episcopate. 

June.  Russians  cross  the  Danube  at 
Galatz  ;  25,  at  Hirsova. 

July  6.  Over  120,000  Russians  have 
crossed  at  Sistova. 

July.  The  German  quarrel  with  Rome 
has  caused  the  deposition  of  4  bish- 
ops and  6  archbishops;  expulsion 
of  600  persons  (120  priests)  from 
Cologne  alone ;  vacancy  of  476 
parishes  in  7  bishoprics  alone. 


.f  F 


1877 

'eb.  Diaz  is  in  posses- 
sion of  power  in 
Mexico ;  ex-president 
Lerdo  escapes  to  Sail 
Francisco. 

May  9.  Great  earth- 
quake and  tidal  wave, 
coast  of  Peru;  loss, 
$20,000,000  and  600 
lives. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

TO 

UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


N.  B.  This  list  of  remarkable  persons,  from  the  earliest  period,  is  not,  of  coarse,  Intended 
to  include  every  name  mentioned  in  history,  bat  merely  the  most  important  in  theiz 
several  departments.  The  names  of  Sovereigns  are  referred  to  occasionally  only,  as  full 
lists  are  given  in  their  proper  place. 

This  list  may  be  useful  In  two  ways,  viz. . 

First,  as  an  Index  to  the  names  mentioned  in  the  Chronological  Tables  in  the  "  World'* 
Progress  ; "  and 

Secondly,  to  indicate,  by  reference  to  those  tables,  the  chief  political  events  and  con- 
temporary public  characters  during  the  life  of  each  person  in  the  list. 

Thus  :  SOCRATES,  the  Greek  philosopher,  was  born  470,  and  died  400  B.  0.  The  tablet 
on  page  20  to  24  show  who  lived,  and  what  happened,  during  the  seventy  years  of  Socrates' 
life. 

MILTON  was  born  A.  D.  1608,  one  year  after  the  first  settlement  at  Jamestown,  Virginia ; 
six  yeara  after  the  East  India  Company  was  founded  ;  five  years  after  James  I.  ascended 
the  throt.c  ;  the  same  year  that  the  Protestant  Union  was  formed  in  Germany  ;  one  year 
before  Gustavus  Adolphus  became  king  of  Sweden;  two  years  before  Louis  XIIL  became 
king  of  France.  He  was  12  years  old  when  the  Puritans  first  landed  at  Plymouth  ;  he 
was  17  when  Charles  L  succeeded  James,  and  he  was  41  years  old  when  Charles  was  be- 
headed. Among  his  contemporaries  were  Lord  Bacon,  Inigo  Jones,  Jeremy  Taylor, 
Algernon  Sydney,  Sir  C.  Wren,  Butler,  Waller,  Dryden,  Henry  More,  Baxter,  and  Boyle,  in 
England  ;  Peter  Stuyvesant,  Winthrop,  Cotton,and  Eliot,  in  America ;  Richelieu,  Mazarine, 
Colbert,  Rubens,  Kepler,  Descartes,  Moliere,  Corneille,  Racine,  Pascal,  on  the  Continent. 
He  died  A.  D.  1671,  nine  years  after  the  great  plague  in  London,  14  years  after  Charles  IL 
was  restored,  and  7  years  after  New  York  was  ceded  to  the  English. 

And  thus,  of  any  person  mentioned  in  the  Index,  a  great  variety  of  particulars  may  be 
found  at  a  glance,  on  referring  to  the  tables. 

ABBREVIATIONS. — See  list  in  the  Introduction.  Bar.  {Barbarian)  includes  several  different 
nations,  some  not  entirely  civilized,  f.  is  used  for  flourished.  The  dates  before  Chritt 
are  indicated  by  B.  o. ;  all  others  are  A.  D.  In  tome  cases  the  dates  are  necessarily  left 
blank. 

NATION.  KAMI    AUD    PBOFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Dan.      Aagesend,  Svind,  historian     .              .              .              .  .    f.  1188 

Jew.      Aaron,  the  first  high-priest              .              .              .              .  B.  c.  1570           1468 

Gr.         Aaron,  of  Alexandria,  physician                 .              .  .    f.    622 

Egypt.  Abbas,  pasha,  viceroy  of  Egypt  (grandson  of  Mehemet-Ali)  1813           1864 

Eng.      Abbot,  George,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  author    .  .       1662           1623 

Amer.  Abbott.  Benjamin,  distinguished  educationist            .              .  1763           1849 

Amer.  Abbott  Jacob,  author  of  biographical  and  religious  works  .  1808 

Amer.  Abbott,  Jno.  8.  C.,  historian  and  biographer      .              .  .       1806 

Arab.    Abd'el  Kader,  distinguished  warrior            .              .              .  1806           1866 

Turk.    Abdul  Medjid,  sultan  of  Turkey          ....       1822 

Eng.      A'Becket,  Gilbert  A.,  comic  writer              .              .             .  1810          1866 

Amer.  Abeel,  David,  missionary  and  author  of  travels               .  .       1804           1849 

Nor.     Abel,  Nicholas  H.,  mathematician                ...  1802 


920  THE  WOELD'S  PROGRESS. 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOBN.  DIED 

Sp.  Abenezra,  an  astronomer,  philosopher,  poet,  philologist,  &O.       .          1119  1174 

Eng.  Aberdeen,  Earl  of,  statesman  and  antiquary              .              .  1784  1860 

Bcot.  Aberc.-ombie,  John,  author  of  IntellectualPowers'       .  .        1781  1844 

Eng.  Abeioromby,  Bir  .Ralph,  dailitary  commander            .               .  1738  1801 

Eng  Abernethy,  John,  eminent  physician  and  medical  writer  .       1764  1831 

FT.  Ablar.court,  N.  P.  D.,  translator  of  the  Classics       .              .  1606  1664 

Fr.  About,  Edmoud,  novelist,  traveller,  &c.  ...       - 

J«w.  Abra.'-im,  the  great  progenitor  of  the  Jewish  nation                .  B.  c.  1995  B.  c.  1821 

Fr.  Abrantes,  duchess  d',  biographer           .         •  :  ,J  ;         .  .       1784  1838 

Dan.  Absalom  (real  name  A  xcel)  archbishop  of  Den.,  Sw.,  and  Nor.  1128  1203 

Ara.  Abubeker,  father-in-law  and  successor  of  Mahomet         .  .         561  324 

Syr.  Abulfcda,  the  geographer               .            >'.•.'    •  «  vi'  >          .  1273  1346 

Rom.  Accius",  or  Attius,  a  tragic  poet  (works  not  extant)        .  B.  c.   171 

ItaL  Accursius,  or  Accorso,  an  eminent  critic       .           .              .  1229 

Ger.  Accum,  Fred.,  operative  chemist  (in  England)  .         .'>i  Xd  «'  .       1769  1838 

Pruss.  Ackerman,  Rudolph,  introduced  gas-lighting  and  lithog.  in  London  1764  1834 

Gr.  Achilles,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Trojan  war  .  £  B.  c.  1100 

Gr.  Achilles  Tatius  (of  Alexandria),  Christian  bishop  and  author  3d  cent. 

ItaL  Achilli,  Giovanni  G.,  protestant  preacher          .               .  .        1803 

Gr.  Acropolita,  of  Constantinople,  statesman  and  historian  1220  1232 

Eng.  Adam.  Alexander,  schoolmaster  and  author                    .  .       1741  jgog 

Eng.  Adim;  Robert,  an  architectural  author        .               .              .  1728  1754 

Amer.  Adams,  John,  patriot  and  statesman,  2d  Pres.  U.  8.        .  .       1735  1S26 

Amer.  -  —  ,  John  Quincy,  diplomatist,  poet,  Pres.  U.  S.                .  1767  1848 

Amer.  --  ,  Samuel,  one  of  the  patriotic  founders  of  the  republic  .       1726  1808 

Eng.  Add'son  Joseph,  one  of  the  ornaments  of  English  literature  1672  1719 

Ger.  Adelung,  John  0.,  philologist  and  lexicographer             .  .       1732  1808 

Eng.  Ado)  i)h  us,  John,  author  of  history  of  England,  &c.  .              .  1766  1845 

Ire.  Adrain,  Robi-rt,  mathematician  (at  Now  York,  &c.)       .  .       1775  ,343 

Rom.  Adrian,  the  15th  emp.  (born  in  Spain)          ...  76  138 

Eng.  .(Elfri:.,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  author  cf  Anglo-Saxon  works        -  10C6 

Gr.  .JSii'in,  the  historian  and  rhetorician        '    v  '           .              .  ieo 

Gr.  ^r^as,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy      .  .  .  t  B.  o.  Ils3 

Gr.    '  ^Sschines,  of  Athens,  philosopher,  disciple  of  Socrates          . 

Gr.  --  ,  orator                .              .              .  B.  o.    393  B.  c.   323 

Gr.  ^Esop,  of  Phrygia,  the  prince  of  fabulists   .  .  .  f.  B.  o.    600 

Rom.  jEtius,  military  commander  (defeated  AttUa)                   .  .  45^ 

Rom.  Africanus,  Julius,  historian           ....  232 

Bp.Moor  -  ,  Leo,  author  of  travels  in  Africa       .              .  .       1437  152? 

Gr.  Agamemnon,  "  the  king  of  kings'*  .  .  .  B.  o.  90i 

Gr.  Agathius,  historian  and  poet                 .              .              .  .    £  ggg 

Swiss.    Agassi/,  Louis,  naturalist                ....  1807 

Gr.  Agesilans  II.,  king  of  Sparta  (defeats  the  Per.,  Egypt,  and  Greeks)  B.  o.  361 

Bcot.  Aginhard  or  Eginhard,  Hist,  of  Charlemagne          .              .  771  §3^ 

Gr.  Agis  IV.,  the  greatest  of  the  Spartan  kings       .              .  .                B.  0.    251 

Bng.  Aglionby,  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible              .              .  jglO 

Rom.  Agrieola,  Cneius  Julius,  military  commander    .              .  .40  98 

Ger.       Agrieola,  John,  a  divine,  founder  of  the  Antinomlanc    .       .  1490  1660 

Rom.  Agrippa,  military  commander,  governor  of  Jade*           .  .40  94 

FT.          -  ,  Cornelius,  philosopher,  &.o.           ...  1486  1535 

E.  Jew  Aguilar,  Grace,  novelist           .            .              ,              .  jgjg  1^47 

Pers.      Abasuerus,  king  of  Persia  (Artaxerxes  Long.)        .              ,  t         B.  o.   456 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  921 

•AT1OK.                                                           MAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Eng.      Aikiii,  John,  M.  D.,  an  elegant  writer,  editor  of  poets,  <fco.  747  ld2S 

Eng.      ,  Lucy,  biographer  and  historian                .              .  • 

Fr.         Aime-Martin,  Louis,  writer  on  education                   .              ,  1841 

Eng.      Ainsworth,  Robert,  grammarian  aud  lexicographer         .  ,       1660  1743 

Eng.       — —           ,  Wm.  Francis,  traveller,  geologist,  &0.     .               .  1S07 

Eng. ,  Wm.  Harrison,  novelist                     .              .  •       1805 

Eng.       Airy,  Geo.  B.,  astronomer-royal     ....  1801 

Tartar.  Akbar,  Mohammed,  a  great  Mogul  sovereign     ...        1555  160k 

Eng.      Akeuside,  Mark,  a  popular  poet       ....  1721  1770 

8we.      Akenblad,  philologist               .....  1819 

Bar.       Alaric  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths       ....  411 

Span.     Alberoni,  Julius,  cardinal  statesman                   ...        1664  176' 

Eng.      Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  heir  to  the  British  throne  .  Io41 

Ger.       Albert,  Prince,  husband  of  the  Queen  of  England          .  .       1819  1861 

Ital.       Albert!,  an  eminent  writer,  painter,  sculptor,  &c.     .              .  1398  1490 

Ger.       AlbertUB-Magnus,  philosophic  writer,  tutor  of  Aquinas  .       1205  1280 

Bar.       Alboin,  the  Lombard  conqueror     ....  574 

itaL       Alboni,  Marietta,  eminent  contralto  singer        «-             .  .       1826 

Port.     Albuquerque  (the  great)  military  commander          .              .  1452  1516 

Gr.        Alcaeus,  of  Lesbos,  a  lyric  poet  .  .  .  f.  B.  o.   606 

Ii&l.       Alciati,  of  Milan,  an  eminent  civilian  and  author      .              .  1492  1550 

Gr.         Alcibiades,  a  famous  Athenian  general  and  statesman  .  B.  0.  450   B.  o.  404 

Gr.        Alciphron,  author  of  Letters,  &o.        .                      .              .  f.  170 

Amer.    Alcott,  A.  Bronson,  philosopher  aud  educationist            .  .       1799 

Amer.    -  < ,  Wm.  A.,  writer  on  education  and  philosopher            .  1798 

^£ng.      Alcuinus,  founder  of  schools  at  Paris,  <fcc.                       .  .         732  804 

Amer.   Alden,  John,  one  of  the  first  Plymouth  Colony       .              .  1598  1687 

Eng.      Aldhelm,  St.,  an  eminent  scholar  and  poet         ...  709 

Aldus,  see  Alanulitta        ..... 

Fr.         Alembert,  John  Le  Rond  d',  math.,  hist.,  and  philosopher  .       1717  1783 

Eng.      Alexander,  A.  H.,  claiming  to  be  Earl  of  Stirling     .              .  1783 

Amer.  ,  Archibald,  theologian  and  author                  .  .       1772  1S61 

Amer. ,  J.  Addison,  theologian  and  commentator             .  1809  v  1860 

Amer.  ,  James  W.,  theologian        ....        1804  1869 

Rom.     • ,  Severus,  emperor          ....  209  235 

Bar. the  Great,  founder  of  the  Macedonian  Empire  B.  0.  356    B.  c.  323 

Rus. ,  Nevskoi,  a  saint  and  hero  ;  def.  of  the  Tartars,  &c.  .        1218  1263 

Hus.      ,  I.,  emperor  (coalition  against  Napoleon)                .  1777  1826 

3,us. ,  II.,  (became  emperor  1855)                .              .  1818 

ST.         Alexius  Commenus,  emperor  of  the  East    .  .           1048  1118 

Ital.       Alfleri,  an  eminent  tragic  poet             ...  1749  1803 

Sng.      Alfred,  justly  called  the  Great,  king                         .              .  849  900 

ItaL       Algarotti,  a  general,  scholar,  and  critic             .              •  .       1712  1769 

Bar.       J  i  Bey,  gov.  of  Egypt,  revolted  against  the  Turks                .  1728  1773 

Bar.        Ali  Tepe'ini,  pasha  of  Jannina              ...  1744  1823 

Scot.      Alison,  Archibald,  rev.,  '  Essays  on  Taste'              .              .  1757  1839 

Scot.      ,  Archibald,  sir,  'History  of  Europe,'  'Essay* »  .  1867 

Amor.    Allen,  Ethan,  an  intrepid  officer  in  the  Revolution  .              .  1737  1789 

Amer.   ,  Wm.,  author  of  Amer.  Biog.  Dictionary               .  .       1784 

Eng.       Alley n,  Edward,  actor  and  manager  (temp.  Shakspeare)        .  1566  1624 

Amer.   Allston,  Washington,  painter  and  poet               .  .       1779  1844 

Bar.       Almamon,  caliph,  patron  of  learning          ...  83t 

39* 


922  THE    WORLD'S  PROGBES3. 

KATIOK.                                                          NAME   AMD   PBOFXSSIO*.  BORN.  DIBD 

Ba*-.  Almansor,  caliph,  patron  of  learning                 .              .              •  712  77S 

Eng.  Almon,  John,  political  writer         .              .              •              •  1728  1804 

Hex.  Almonte,  Juanet,  general  and  statesman        .  .  tK.  180-1 

Span.  Alphongo  X.,  king  of  Castile,  Leon,  and  author         .              .  1203  1284 

Port.  Alphonso  I.,  Henrique*,  founder  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy     .  1094  1185 

Amer.  Alsop,  Richard,  poet  and  linguist                 ...  1761  1815 

Eng.  Althorp,  Viscount,  statesman  and  book  collector             .              .  1758  1834 

Span.  Alva,  duke  of,  celebrated  and  barbarous  military  commander  1508  1582 

Mex.  Alvarez.  Juan,  leader  of  Mexican  Revolution    .              .              .  1790 

Ger.  Amalie.  duchess  of  Saxony,  dramatic  poet                •              .  1794 

few.  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah          .  .  .  »  .  B.  o.  809 

Ital.  Ambrose,  St.,  bishop  of  Milan,  author       .              .              .  340  387 

ItaL  Americus  Vespucius  (of  Florence),  explored  the  8.  American 

coast      .......  1451  1517 

Amer.  Ames,  Fisher,  a  statesman  and  orator        .              .              .  1750  1808 

Amer.  ,  Nathan  P.,  machinist  and  bronze  founder          .              .  1803  1847 

'Eng.  Amherst,  Jeffrey,  lord,  mil.  com.  in  America,  &<x    .              .  1717  1797 

Rom.  AmmianuB,  Marcellinus,  historian       ...»  30 

Ger.  Ammon,  Christ.  F.  von,  Protestant  theologian         •              .  1766  185  / 

Gr.  Ammonius,  a  peripatetic  philosopher  .  .  .  B.  c.    24 

Eng.  Amory,  Thomas,  humorous  writer,  '  Jno.  Bunole'                  .  1719  1789 

Fr.  Ampere,  Jean  J.,  traveller  wid  essayist               .              .•             ,  1800  1864 

Fr.  ,  Jean  Marie,  mathematician  and  nat.  philosopher    .  1775  1836 

Fr.  Amyot,  James,  bishop  of  Auxerre,  translator  of  Plutarch             .  1513  1593 

Bar.  ^.nacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher  and  disciple  of  Solon       .      B.  0.  592 

Gr.  Anacreon,  a  celebrated  poet  .  .  .  .  B.  o.  474 

Gr.  Anastasius  I.,  emperor  of  the  East              ...  518 

Gr.  Anaxagoras,  a  philosopher    .              .              .              .              B.  0.  600  B.  o.  428 

Gr.  An-ixarchus,  a  philosopher,  companion  of  Alexander  the  Great  B.  c.  840 

Gr.  Anaximander,  of  Miletus,  an  Ionic  philosopher       .  .       B.  C.  611   B.C.  547 

Gr.  Anaximenes,  of  Miletus,  an  Ionic  philosopher  •  .  B.  o.  504 

Fr.  Ancelot,  J.  A.  P.  F.,  poet  and  novelist        .              .              .  1794 

Pruss.  Ancillon,  3.  P.  F.,  historian  and  statesman       ...  1767  1837 

Dan.  Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  poet  and  novelist           .              •  1805 

Scotch.  Anderson,  Adam,  commercial  writer                  .              .              .  1692  1765 

Eng.  ,  Sir  Edmund,  a  judge  and  author              .              .  1605 

Swe.  Andersson,  Chas.  John,  explorer  in  Africa      ...  1856 

Fr.  Andral,  G.  A.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  medicine       .              .  1797 

Eng.  Andre,  John,  British  officer  in  American  war   .              .              .  1751  1780 

Eng.  Andrews,  Lancelot,  bishop  of  'Winchester                .              .  1555  16^6 

Gr.  Andronicus,  of  Rhodes,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  .  f.  B.  o.  63 

A;.ier.  Angel!,  Jos.  K.,  author  of  legal  works          .              .              .  1794  1857 

F.r-g.  Anglesey,  Henry  "W.,  marquis  of,  general  at  Waterloo    .              .  1768  1854 

Fr.  Angouleme,  duchess  d1,  daughter  of  Louis  XVT.      .         '  "V  1778  -1851 

Ital.  Anielo,  Thomas  (commonly  called  Masanielo),  •  fisherman  of 

Naples,  who  rose  to  great  power    ....  1623  1R4C 

Gr.  Anna  Commena,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Alexis  L,  historian  1083  1148 

Aust.  Anne  of  Austria,  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France              .              .  1604  1C66 

7?ng.  Anne  Boleyn,  second  wife  of  Henry  VIIL                 .              •  1500  1538 

jfing  Annet,  Peter,  a  deistical  writer             ....  1703  1778 

Car  Annibal,  or  Hannibal,  a  celebrated  Carthaginian  general      .       B.  0.  247   a.  o.  183 

Fr.  Anqnetil  du  Perron,  a  classical  scholar  and  author        .              .  1731  18CI 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX.  923 

KAT1OX.                                                           NAME  AND  PROFESSION.                                                          BORN.  DIED. 

Eng.  Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  learned  divine              .              1033  1199 

Bng.  Anson,  George,  lord,  celebrated  naval  commander          .              .       1697  1762 

Eng.  Anspach,  Elis.,  margravine  of,  author  of  memoirs  .              .              1750  1828 

Irish.  AiJBter,  Jno.,  translator  of '  Faust '       .  .  .  .       1793 

Amer.  Antbon,  Charles,  classical  scholar  and  author           .               .               1797  1867 

Egypt.  Anthony,  St.,  the  founder  of  monastic  institutions    .      .              .         251  356 

Ital. ,  of  Padua,  a  divine            ....              1125  1231 

Mace.  Antigonus,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great                 .  j».  c.  301 

Mace.  Antipater,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great  .              .  B.  c.  319 

Or.  Antiethenes,  a  philoa.,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Cynics  .       B.  o.  423 

TJaU  Antonelli,  Giacomo,  cardinal,  premier  of  Pius  IX.          .  .       1806 

Bom.  Antoninus  Pius,  emperor                 ....                  86  161 

Rom.  ,  Marcus  Aurelius,  emperor,  snrna;.,ec.  the  philosopher         121  180 

Rom.  Antony,  Mark,  military  commander  and  statesman                .         B.  c.  86  B.  c.  30 

Pers,  An  veri,  a  celebrated  poet                       .              .              .              .  1201 

Fr.  Anville,  Jean  B.  d',  geographer      ....              1697  1782 

Bom.  Apicius,  the  name  of  three  Roman  epicures      ...         A.  D.  1st  cent. 

Egypt.  Apion,  a  grammarian  and  bitter  enemy  of  the  Jews  .  £  80 

Or.  Apollodorus,  the  name  of  several  writers  and  statesmen  B.  0.  5th  to  2d  cent. 

Or.  Apollonius,  surnamed  Khodius,  a  poet  .  .  B.  c.  194 

Or. ,  Pergamensis,  a  geometrician   .  .  .    f.  B.  c.  242 

Or.  • ,  Tyaneus,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher          .              .  91) 

Or.  Appian,  an  historian         .  .  .  .  .  f.  143 

Amer.  Appleton,  Jesse,  president  of  Bowdoin  College  and  theologian   .       1772  1810 

Bom.  Apulcius,  a.  Platonic  philosopher  and  writer            .              .              A.  D.  2d  cent. 

Ital.  Aquinas,  St.  Thomas,  a  celebrated  theologian              .              .       1224  1274 

Fr.  Arago.  Dom.  Fr.  Jean,  astronomer  and  statesman  .              .              1786  1853 

Eng.  Aram,  Eugene,  a  learned  schoolmaster,  executed  for  murder     .       1706  1759 

Or.  Aratus,  of  S  icy  on,  mil.  com.  and  statesman              .              .       B.  c.  273  B.  c.  211 

Scotch.  Arbuthnot,  John,  Dr.,  a  poet .              ....  1735 

Or.  Archelaus,  Ionic  philosopher  .          .  .  .    f.  B.  c.  450 

Or.  Arch i us,  a  poet         .  .  .  .  .  f.  B.  c.  719 

Or.  Archilochus,  a  poet         .  .  .  .  .    f.  B.  c.  685 

Or.  Archidemes,  a  celebrated  mathematician          .              .              B.  c.  287  B.  o.  213 

Or.  Archytas,  a  mathematician           .              .              .              .       B.  o.  408  B.  o.  360 

ItJ.  Aretino,  Guide,  inventor  of  the  gamut  of  music  .  .         995 

Ital. >  Leonard,  an  historian     ....              1369'  i4!4 

Ital. ,  Peter,  a  satirist        .              .              .              .              .       1492  1056 

Eng.  Argall,  Samuel,  early  colonist  and  deputy -governor  of  Virginia         1572  "339 

Pruss.  Argelander,  F.  W.  A.,  astronomer  ...  1779 

Span.  Argensola,  Lupercio,  historian  and  poet           ...       1565  1613 

Spun. ,  Bartholomew,  historian            ...              1566  1631 

Scotch.  Argyle,  duke  of,  chief  of  clan  Campbell,  statesman        .              .       1678  1748 

Ital.  Ariosto,  Lewis,  a  celebrated  poet              ...              1474  1533 

Mex.  Arista,  Mariano,  general  under  Santa  Anna      .              .              .       1802  1855 

Or.  Aristarchus,  of  Samoa,  mathematician  and  philosopher         .  f.  B.  o.  280 

Or.  • •,  grammarian  and  critic     .  .  .  B.  c.  160 

Qr.  Aristides,  an  Athenian  statesman  .  .  .  .  B.  o.    467 

Or.  — ,  -lElius,  an  orator  and  sophist              ...         12U  186 

Or.  ,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  .  .  .  f.  127 

Or.  Arlstippus,  of  Cyrene,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  CyreniacB  f.  &  0.  894 

Or.  Aristcmenes,  a  warrior  and  patriot  .  .  .    f.  B.  o.  662 


THB   "WOBLD'8   PliOGKESS. 


NATIOV.                                                           NAME    AND   PROFESSION. 

BOBN. 

aiu 

Gr.         Aristophanes,  an  Athenian  comic  poet  .                  .              .        B.  o.  389 

Or.        Aristotle,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Peripatetics         .              B.  o.  384 

Gr.        Arius,  of  Alexandria,  the  founder  of  the  Arian  sect              . 

438 

Eug.       Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  inventor  of  spinning  jennies           • 

1732 

1792 

Fr.         Arlinoourt,  Victor,  vicomte  d',  novelist              ... 

1789 

1856 

Ger.        Armiiiius,  the  deliverer  of  Germany           .         ;<;:t*<:>  .         . 

1560 

20 
1610 

Eng.       Artnstrjig,  John,  M  D.,  poet            .... 

1709 

1779 

.                                               Tnrm    r*mml    "tntrrrrmTl    Tlnrt  tiinfnritin 

1  -,-  O 

1843 

Ital.       Arnaud,  Daniel,  troubadour  .         •*.*.-.!    .,  ,-rfuiii         •              . 

1220 

Ifr.         ,  Francis  Baculard,  dramatist  and  poet       .              . 

1718 

1805 

Eng.       Arne,  Thomas  Augustus,  musical  composer     ... 

1710 

1778 

Gr.         Arnobius,  a  defender  of  Christianity          .              •              . 

f.  803 

PniBS.    Arnim,  L.  A.,  poet  and  novelist           .... 

1781 

1831 

Amei.    Arnold,  Benedict,  major-general,  the  traitor  to  his  country  . 

1740 

1801 
1555 

Eng.       ,  Matthew,  poet,  professor  of  poetry,  Oxon.                 . 

1822 
1795 

1842 

Aug.                    i       om  8>     '     •'      e)    gan|.    1B  '  r  *  1*  *"    P     °    g»*     • 

18UO 

1853 

i!*ng.                    ,  Aflomas  xv.,  auiiior  01  classical  LCXL-UUOKB  .               . 

Scot.       Arnott,  i7iei,  popular  scientific  writer  .... 

1788 

Gr.         Arrian,  historian,  disciple  of  Epictetus       .              .              . 

f.    140 

Eng.       Arrowsmith,  Aaron,  constructor  of  maps  and  charts    .              . 

1823 

Bar.        Arsaces  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy  .              .    f.  a 

,  c.  250 

Bar.       Artaxerxes  I.,  king  of  Persia              .... 

B.  o.  426 

TT                                             fYlnnflpr  nf  tVlfl  nnv  T^rpinn  IriTir-rlnTYl 

Flem.     Artevelie,  Philip  van,  revolutionary  popular  leader      .              . 

1832 

Eng.       Arthur,  a  prince  celebrated  in  fable           .              .              . 

472 

642 

Amer     Arthur.  Timothy  8.,  author  of  tales  and  essays              .              . 

1809 

Eng.       Arnndel,  Thos.  H.,  earl  of,  importer  of  tbe  Arundelian  marbles 

1616 

Eng.      Asbnry,  Francis,  first  Methodist  bishop  in  the  United  States      . 

1745 

1816 

Eng.       Aschain,  .icger,  a  learned  writer  .... 

1515 

1568 

Bar:        Asdrubal,  a  Carthaginian  general       .... 

B.  C.  220 

Eng.       Ashburton,  Alex.  Baring,  lord,  statesman    .          .              • 

1774 

1848 

Amer.    Ashvnnn,  John  K.,  jurist,  professor  of  law       .              .              . 

1800 

1833 

Eng.       Askew,  Anne,  protestant,  burned  at  Smithfield       .               . 

154", 

Gr.         Aspasia,  the  accomplished  wife  (?)  of  Pericles  .              *              . 

Eng.       Asse.-,  John,  historian       ..... 

009 

Ger.  •     Ast,  George  A.  F.,  philologist,  'Lexicon  Platonicum*  .              . 

1778 

1*41 

Ger.       Aetor,  John  Jacob,  wealthy  merchant  at  New  York              . 

1763 

1848 

Amer.    A'chison,  David,  t.,  senator,  United  States,  from  Missouri         . 

1807 

Gr.         AtVianar-iuB,  St.,  oie  of  the  fathers  of  the  church      .              . 

296 

371 

Gr.        Athenagoras,  philosopher        ..... 

f.   177 

Gr.         Athenais,  Empress  of  the  West  and  authoress,  called  also  Eu- 

doxia              .              .../-•.              .              .  9  > 

Gr.         Atheneeus,  a  celebrates  grammarian,  the  Greek  Varro  .  .    £    190 

Bar.       Attalus,  founder  of  thi   monarchy  of  Pergamus,  inventor  of 

parchment            .               .               .              .               .  .                   B.  c.  lj* 

:}r.                   -   Bhodius,  mathen-atician  .              .    •          .              .  I  B.  0.  173 

tfpg.       Atterbury,  Francis,  bishop  of  Rochester,  exiled  for  conspiracy  .       1662  1781 

?.ora.      Atticus,  a  knight  and  author  (works  lost)               .              .  B.  o.  109    B.  o.    3J 

y..          Aaber,  D.  F.  Ji.,  famous  musical  composer       .              .  .        1784 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 

925 

RATIO*.                                                          NAME   AND   PROFESSION.                                                         BORN, 

MET. 

Swiss.    Aubignfi  J.  H.  Merle  d',  historian  of  Reformation  .              . 

1794 

Eng.      Auckland,  William,  lord,  statesman                  •              •              . 

1=1) 

Fr.         Audoin,  J.  F.  zoologist           .                      .              •              • 

1797 

loil 

Fr.         Augercau,  Castiglione,  duke  of,  mil.  com          '.              . 

1767 

1816 

G.Jew.  Anerbach,  Berthold,  novelist                      .              .              . 

1112 

Augustine,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  church            . 

354 

480 

,  the  Apostle  of  the  English  —  1st  archbishop  of  Cante  .•'b.Try 

604 

Rom.     Augustulus  Romulus,  the  last  emperor  of  the  West       .              . 

476 

Rom.     Augustus,  Caius  Julius  Csesar  Octavius  —  1st  emperor            .       j".  o.    63 

14 

Aurungzebe,  last  Mogul  emperor  in  India         ... 

1618 

1707 

Bom.    Ausonius,  Decimus  Magnus,  poet         .       .              •              . 

394 

Eng.      Austen,  Jane,  novelist             .                            ... 

1775 

1800 

1817 

Amer.    Austin,  Stephen  F.,  founder  of  first  American  colony  in  Texas  . 

1836 

Fr.         Auvergne,  Theophilus  —  republican  —  military  commander     . 

17,3 

180C 

Ara.       Averroes,  philosopher,  physician,  and  author    ... 

1197 

Ital.       Avezzana,  Joseph,  patriot  soldier,  refugee  in  New  York       • 

1797 

Ara.      Avicenna,  philosopher,  physic  an  and  author    ... 

I/SO 

1037 

Eng.       Ayscough,  Samuel,  compiler  of  Index  to  Shakespeare,  &c.     . 

1804 

Scot.      Aytoun,  Wm.  E.,  professor,  poet,  and  essayist               .              . 

1813 

1865 

Fr.         Azais,  Pierre  H.  philosophic  writer            .              .              . 

1736 

1845 

Ital.       Azeglio,  Massimo  T.  marquis  d',  statesman  and  author            . 

17<^ 

1866 

B 

Eng.      Babbage,  Charles,  mathematician  and  machinist          .             . 

17  iO 

Fr.         Babeuf,  Franc.  N.  agrarian  and  socialist  author      .              . 

1734 

1797 

Port.     Baccellar,  a  civilian,  historian,  and  lyric  poet    .              .         iu«V,"i 

1724 

1806 

Or.        Bacchylldes,  lyric  poet       .              .              .              .                13-C. 

450 

Amer.    Bache,  Alex.  D.  scientific  engineer  and  writer             .              . 

1806 

1867 

Amer.   Bachman,  John,  naturalist  and  theologian                .              . 

1790 

Eng.      Back,  Geo.  Capt.  R.  N.,  Polar  navigator  and  author       .              . 

1796 

-i.nv'r.    Backus,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  historian        .               .              , 

1724 

1806 

Amer.    Bacon,  Delia,  writer  on  Shakespeare    .... 

Amer.   Bacon,  Leonard,  theological  writer  and  preacher 

1802 

Eng.                 ,  Roger,  a  monk  celebrated  for  his  scientific  knowledge     . 

1214 

1292 

man           ....... 

1561 

1626 

Dan.      Baden,  James,  one  of  the  founders  of  Danish  literature       . 

1735 

1804 

Bug.      Baffin,  Wm.,  navigator,  discoverer  of  Baffin's  Bay         .              . 

1584 

1622 

Ger.       Bahr,  John  C.  F.,  classical  philologist                      .              . 

179? 

Amer.  Bailey,  Jacob  W.,  professor  of  chemistry,  botany,  Ac.   .              . 

lc-1 

1857 

y.                              -XT  iu     .         jrrjiTTi  miTiin   ind   li*Yi(*nTn"vnhrT 

1742 

Enc                    Philip  James  poet  nuthor  of  F^stns 

Er.g.      ,  Samuel,  metaphysician  and  political  essayist  .           . 

178'/ 

Fr.         Baillet,  a  learned  theologian,  historian,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

1649 

:i708 

Eng.      Baillie,  Joanna,  poet  and  novelist         .... 

1762 

1361 

Be-'  t.                    M^ittho^"  phyiciftn  und  anatomist 

1761 

i323 

Fr.         Bailly,  John  Silvain,  a  learned  author,  and  a  leader  In  the  revo- 

lution       .              .            .<•.<            .         '•-.  •  fi         • 

1736 

1793 

En?.      Baily,  Francis,  astronomer  and  mathematician       .              . 

1774 

U44 

Amer.    Bainb  ridge,  William  naval  commander       •»-_••;          (Princeton) 

1774 

i33l 

926  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

KA1Y01T.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOBS.  DIED 

Amer.  Balrd,  Robert,  D.  D.,  author  of  travels       .              .              .  1798  1868 

Soot.                ,  Sir  David,  military  commander              •              •  •       1757  1828 

Tark,  Baja'*t,  sultan— conquered  by  Tamerlane    .              .              .  1413 

Amsr.  Baker,  Edward  D.,  U  S.  senator  and  general    .           (Ball's  Bluff)    1811  1861 

lial.  Balbi,  Adrian,  geographer  and  ethnographer           .  ,      1782 

Span.  Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  early  navigator  to  South  America  .  1617 

Fr.  Baldwin,  who  became  emperor  of  the  East              .              .  1206 

Irish.  Balfe,  ">/m.  Michael,  musical  composer            .              .  •       1808 

Scot.  Baliol,  intriguing  rival  of  Robert  Bruce      .               .               .  1259  1314 

Scot.  Ballantyne,  Jas.,  printer,  publisher  for  Sir  Walter  Scott  .  1833 

Amer.  Ballou,  Hosea,  nniversaliat  minister  and  author       .              .  1771  1852 

Eng.  Baltimore,  Qeo.  Calvert,  1st  lord,  founder  of  Maryland  .       1582  1632 

Fr.  Baluc,  Jean  de  la,  cardinal,  premier  of  Louis  XL    .  • 

Fr.  Balzac,  Iloiiore  de,  novelist               .              .              .  1799  1860 

Amer.  Bancroft,  George,  historian  of  the  U.  S.,  secretary  of  navy,  &c.  .       1800 

Swe.  Banier  or  Banner,  a  celebrated  military  commander  .           .  1596  1641 

Irish.  Banlm,  John,  novelist        "'' •»             .         "••'-»  -         .  .       1800  1842 

Amer.  Bangs,  Nathan,  D.  D.,  minister  of  Methodist  church  and  author       1778  1862 

Amer.  Banks,  Nath.  P.,  speaker  of  House  of  Rep.,  U.  S.,  gov.  of  Mass.       1816 

Eng  Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  navigator,  president  Koyal  Society        .  1743  1820 

Fr.  Baraguay  d'  Hilliers,  Achille,  marshal  of  France           .  .1795 

Fr.  Barante,  A.  G.  P.  B.,  baron,  historian      .              .              .  1782 

PruBB.  Baratier,  a  Hebrew  lexicographer  before  ten  years  of  age  •       1721  1740 

Eng.  Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia,  a  popular  miscellaneous  writer       .  1743  1825 

Turk.  Barbarossa,  the  celebrated  corsair,  usurper  of  Algiers     .  •  1518 

Amer.  Barber,  Francis,  officer  in  revolutionary  army         •              •  1751  1788 

Fr.  Barbeyrac,  John,  miscellaneous  writer              .              .  .       1674  1728 

Amer.  Barbour,  James,  statesman  and  diplomatist              .              .  Va.  1775  1842 

Amer.  Barbour,  P.  P.,  statesman  and  judge  of  Supreme  Court  .  Va.  1783  1841 

Eng.  Barclay,  Robert,  the  celebrated  vindicator  of  the  Quakers    .  1648  1690 

Ital.  Baretti,  Joseph,  lexicographer— author  of  Travels,  &c.  .       1716  1789 

Eng.  Bai  ham,  Richard  Henry,  humorist — '  Ingoldsby  Legends '  1788  184J 

Amer.  Barker,  Joseph,  noted  financier  ....       1779 

Amer.  Barlow,  Joel,  a  statesman  and  poet              ...  1756  1812 

Amer.  Barnard,  Henry,  distinguished  educator          .              •  .       1811 

^mer.  Barnes,  Albert,  theologian  and  commentator           ,.              «  1798 

Bng. ,  Joshua,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar       ...       1664  3712 

Amer. ,  Daniel  H.  a  distinguished  conchologist       .              .  1818 

Dutch.  Barneveldt,  John,  statesman,  (beheaded)           .              .  .       1647  1619 

Amer.  Barney,  Joshua,  a  distinguished  naval  commander              .  1759  1818 

Fr.  Ban-as,  Paul,  count  de,  mem.  of  the  direct,  in  the  Revolution  .       1755  1829 

Eng.  Barre,  Isaac,  colonel,  M.  P.,  friend  of  America         .              .  1726  1802 

Irish.  Barrington,  Sir  Jonah,  lawyer  and  author         .              .  .       1767  1834 

Amer.  Barren,  James,  commodore  (in  the  affair  of  the  Chesapeake)  .       1768  1851 

Eng. ,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  mathematician              .              .  1630  1667 

Eng.  ,  Sir  John,  traveller,  author,  secretary  to  Admiralty  .  1764  1848 

Ivish.  Barry,  John,  the  first  American  covnmodore      .              .  .       1745  1803 

Ens.  ,  Sir  Charles,  architect  ot  houses  of  parliament              .  1795  1860 

Amer.  ,  W.  T.,  statesman  and  diplomatist,           .              .  Va,  1785  1834 

Oer.  Barth,  Henry,  traveller  in  Africa                 ...  1821 

Fr.  Barthelemy,  John  James,  author  of '  Anacharals,'  fto.  .  .       1716  1791 

Amer.  Bartlett,  John  R*,  author  of  explorations,  *o           .              .  1805 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  927 

•ATIOK,                                                             NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOBN.  DIED. 

Amer.    Bartlett,  Josiah,  statesman,  gov.  N.  H.,  &c.      .              .  .       1729  1708 

Eng. ,  Wm.  H.,  artist  and  author            .              .              .  1809  1854 

Amor.    Barton,  Benj.  Smith,  M.  D.,  a  learned  physician  and  botanist  .       1769  1815 

Eng.      ,  Bernard,  the  Quaker  poet                .              .              .  17*4  1849 

Amer.   Bartram,  John,  an  eminent  botanist                    .              •  •       1V-1  1777 

Gr.         Basil,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  Greek  church    .              .  326  37P 

Eng.      Baskerville.  John,  eminent  printer  and  publisher          .  .       1706  177£ 

Fr.         Basnage,  de  Beauval,  James,  historian       -              .              .  1653  1721 

Fr.          Bassano,  H.  B.  M.,  duke  of,  political  writer  and  statesman  .       1758  1839 

Fr.         Bastiat,  Frederick,  political  economist       .              .              •  1?C1  18V 

Amer.   Bates,  Edward,  statesman  and  jurist  .              .              .  .       1790 

Amer.  Bates,  Joshua,  banker,  (Baring  Bros.)  in  England,              .  17*8  1864 

Eng.      Bath,  William  Pulteney,  earl  of,  statesman       .              .  .       1662  1764 

Eng.      Bathurst,  earl  of,  statesman,  friend  of  Pope,  &c.        .              .  1684  1776 

Fr.         Batteux,  Charles,  rhetorician  and  miscellaneous  writer  .       1713  1780 

Hang.    Batthyani,  Kasimir,  count,  statesman          .              .              .  1"07  1854 

Hung. • — ,  Lajos,  statesman,  (shot  by  Haynau)                .  .       180:5  1849 

Ger.       Bauer,  Bruno,  an  audacious  opposer  of  Christianity               .  ISt/v 

Ger.       Baur,  Ferd.  Christ.,  professor  of  theology  and  author     .  .       1792 

Eng.       Baxter,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine  and  author        .              .  1615  1691 

Fr.         Bayard,  Peter,  military  commander    ...»       1476  1534 

Amer. ,  James  A.,  a  distinguished  statesman  and  lawyer     .  1767  1815 

Ger.       Bayer,  John,  astronomer        .              .              .              .  .  1627 

Ger.       ,  Theophilus,  chronologist  and  historian         .              .  1694  1738 

Fr.         Bayle,  Peter,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  critic,  ('  Bayle'B  Dic- 
tionary')             .              .               .              .              .  .       1647  1706 

Eng.      Bayly,  Thos.  Haines,  poet              ....  1797  1839 

Eng.      Seattle,  James,  L.L.D.,  poet                 ....       1735  1803 

Fi.         Beauharnais,  Hortense,  ex-queen  of  Holland            .              .  1837 

Fr. ,  Eugene,  son  of  the  Empress  Josephine,  mil.  com., 

viceroy  of  Italy,  &c.           .               .               .               .  -7  0  1824 

Fr.         Beaumarchais,  P.  A.  C.  de,  an  eminent  dramatist    .              .  1733  1799 

Fr.          Beaumont,  EHede,  mineralogist  and  geologist  .               .  .        l'i»S 

Eng. ,  Francis,  dramatic  writer           ...  1«>55  1616 

Fr.         Beauzee,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  grammarian    ...       l'i_4  17s!) 

Ital.       Beccaria,  John  Baptist,  an  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher          .  1716  17<H 

Ital.       ,  Marquis,  professor  of  political  economy  and  author  .       1735  ll'Ji 

Amer.   Beck,  Lewis  C.,  chemist  and  mineralogist                .              .  1800  1858 

Amer. ,  Theo.  Romeyn,  author  of  medical  jurisprudence  .  .       1791  1855 

Eng.      Beeket,  Thomas  a,  celebrated  prelate  and  statesman              .  1119  1170 

Eng.      Beckford,  Wm.,  travellerand  novelist  ('  Vathek')         .  .       1760  1844 

Ger.       Beckmann,  Johann,  '  History  of  Inventions,'  &o.      .              .  1739  1811 

Fr.         Becquerel,  Antoine  Caesar,  natural  philosopher               .  .       1788 

Brit.       Bede,  styled  the  Venerable,  a  learned  Saxon  monk  and  histcrian         672  735 

Amer.   Bedell,  Gregory  T.,  D.  D.,  eloquent  pulpit  orator            .  .       1798  1834 

Eng.      Bedford,  John,  duke  of,  military  commander          .              .  143$ 

Amer.    Beecher,  Edward,  theologian,  (son  of  Lyman)  .              .  • 
Amer.                 ,  Henry  Ward,  theologian  and  politician      .              • 

Amer.                 ,  Lyman,  theologian  and  preacher         .              .  *  1868 

Eng.      Beechey,  Frederick  "W.,  admiral,  Arctic  voyager  .              .  1796  1856 

Pruws     Beer,  Michael,  dramatic  poet,  (brother  of  Meyerbeer)  .       1800  1838 

Oer.       Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  celebrated  musical  composer            .  1770  1821 


928  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATION.                                                          NAME    AND  PROFESSION.  BOHN.  DUD, 

Ger.  Behalm,  or  Behem,  navigator  and  geographer  •              •              .  1459  !60I 

Er.g.  Behn,  Aphra,  dramatic  writer                      .              •  1640  168P 

Rvss.  Behring,  Vitus,  Arctic  navigator          ....  1680  1741 

Gcr.  Bekker,  Emmanuel,  philologist            ....  1785 

Eng.  Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  admiral,  Arctic  navigator       .              .  1799 

Run.  Belisarius,  a  celebrated  general  and  conqueror                .              .  566 

Ital.  Belgtojoso,  Christina,  princess  of,  accomplished  t  philanthropic  1808 

Amer.  Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.  D.,  historian  of  New  Hampshire  .              .  1744  1798 

Scot.  Bell,  Henry,  first  successful  steam  navigator  in  Europe         .  1767  1830 

Amer.  ,  John,  statesman              .....  1797 

boo.,.  ,  John,  surgeon,  anatomist,  and  physiologist      .              .  1763  1825 

boot.  ,  Sir  Charles,  anatomist  and  physiologist    .              .              .1781  1842 

Amer.  Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  a  learned  divine  and  author              .  1719  1790 

Ita.  Bellarmin,  cardinal,  the  champion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  1542  1626 

Fr.  Bellau,  Remi,  poet     .              .              .         -£;••"<•         .              .  1539  1577 

Fr.  Beileisle,  count  de,  military  commander     .              .              .  1684  17  '1 

Eng.  Bellingham,  Richard,  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts  .              .  1624  1"72 

Ital.  Be'lini,  Vincenzo,  musical  composer            .              .              .  1808  1  35 

Amer.  Bel!ows,  Henry  W.,  Unitarian  clergyman  and  author    .              .  1814 

Ens;.  Beloe,  Wm.,  a  divine  and  critic,  translator  of  Herodotus,  &c.,    .  1756  1817 

Fr.  Belcn,  William,  naturalist  and  traveller    .         --:  yi^i         ;  1513  1564 

Eng.  Bel»r..im,  William,  historical,  political  and  miscellaneous  •writer  1752  1827 

Ital.  Bfllzoni,  the  celebrated  traveller  in  Egypt         .              .              .  1778  1823 

Pol.  Bern,  Josef,  general  in  Hungarian  war  against  Austria         .  1795  1->5C 

ItaL  Bern'  o,  cardinal,  one  of  the  restorers  of  literature          .              .  1470  1542 

Eng.  Bemb:  r,  John,  a  gallant  admiral  ....  1650  17^2 

Ital.  Benedict,  St.,  one  of  the  originators  of  monasteries       .              .  480  547 

Ital. ,  XIII.,  pope,  theological  writer  .              .              .  1649  1728 

Ital. ,  XIV.,      "                                 u  1675  1758 

Fr.  Benes.et,  Antony,  philanthropist  and  historian,  (died in  America)  1713  17*4 

Ger.  B«>ng3l,  Johann  A.,  Lutheran  theologian  and  philologist            .  1687  1752 

Eng.  Bengar,  Elizabeth  Ogilvy,  author  of  historical  memoirs       .  1778  1827 

Amer.  Benjamin,  Park,  poet,  lecturer  andjonrnalist  .              .              .  1809  1864 

Sp.  Jew ,  of  Tudela,  rabbi,  traveller  in  the  East     .              .  1173 

Bar.  BenKdad,  king  of  Syria       .  .  .  .  .  B.  c.  895 

Scotch.  Bennett,  James  Gordon,  journalist              ...  1800 

Fr.  Benserade,  Isaac,  a  wit  and  poet           .              .              .              .1612  1601 

Eng.  Bentham,  Jeremy,  a  political  and  philosophical  writer          f  1742  1832 

Eng.  Bentley,  Richard,  an  eminent  critic  and  scholar             .              .  1662  1742 

Amer.  Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  statesman  and  historian       .              .  1782  1858 

Fr.  B6ranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  lyrical  poet              .  '           .              .  178i  1857 

Fr.  Be rc-nger,  A.  M.  M.  F.,  statesman  and  jurist             .              .  Ii85 

Egypt.  Berenice,  the  name  of  seven  different  queens  of  Egypt  and  Syria  B.  c.  1st  to  3d  cent 

Q-ir.  Ferghana,  Henry,  mathematician  and  geographer  .              .  1797 

Bwe  Bergman,  professor  of  chemistry  at  Upsal         ...  1786  17*M 

3el.  Beriot,  Charles  A.  de,  violinist  and  composer          .              .  1802 

Berkley,  George,  bishop,  an  eminent  prelate  and  philosopher  .  .  1684  1753 

,  William,  governor  of  Virginia         ...  1661 

Fr.  Berlioz,  Hector,  musical  composer             ''»   '  '         .              .  I'OS 

Fr.  Bernadotte,  J.  B.  J.,  elected  king  of  Sweden,  as  Charles  XIV.    .  .' :64  1844 

Eng.  Bernard,  Edward,  divine,  astronomer  and  author    .              .  1838  189" 

Amer.  ,  Francis,  governor  of  Massachusetts   .              .              .  1771 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  929 

•ATIOB.                                                            NAME   AND   PROFESSION.                                                           BORN.  DTKD, 

Dutch.    Bernard,  John  Frederick,  bookseller,  editor  and  author       .  1751 

Fr. ,  St.,  preacher  of  Crusades  and  author              .              .  1J91  11"# 

Fr. ,  Simon,  engineer  and  military  commander              .  1779  *  ';J 

Amer.   Berrien,  John  McPherson,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Georgia               .  1781  *  'A 
Fr.         Berruyer,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  a  '  History  of  the  People  of  God,' 

in  11  vols.  4to  .                         .              .              .              .  1681  ^"51 

Fr.         Berry,  Charles  F.,  duke  of,  2d  son  of  Charles  XL,  (assassinated)  1778  1820 

Fr.  '       ,  Duchess  of  (wife  of  the  above),  intriguing  politician  1798 

Amer.   ,  Hiram  George,  general,  war  against  secession  (from  Maine)  1814  186? 

Fr.         Berrycr,  Pierre  A.,  statesman      ....  1790 

Fr.         Berthier,  Alexander,  a  distinguished  military  commander          .  1753  '.'.8J.S 

Fr.         Bertholett,  Claude  Louis,  an  eminent  chemist         .              .  1748  1823 

Fr.         Bertrand,  Henri  G.,  general  in  Napoleon's  army           .              .  1778  1B44 

Eng.      Berwick,  duke  of,  military  commander  (killed  at  Phillipsburg)  1670  1'84 

8we.      Berzelius,  John  James,  chemist     ....  1776 

Ger.       Bessel,  Frederick  William,  astronomer            .              .              .  1784 

Fr.         Bessieres,  duke  of  Istrin,  military  commander,  (killed  at  Lntzen)  176»>  .1813 

Amer.    Bethune,  George  W.,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  poet            .              .  1805  1867 

Eng.      Betterton,  Thomas,  famous  actor    ....  17%  1810 

ItaL       Bettinelli,  Xavier,  an  elegant  miscellaneous  writer              .  l';18  1801 

En'.      Betty,  William  Henry  W.,  actor,  the  'Young  Roscius'         .  1781 

Eng.      Bewick,  Thomas,  naturalist  and  wood  engraver              .              .  1753  1828 

Beza,  Theodore,  an  eminent  reformer          .              .              ,  "51P  1605 

Fr.          Bezout,  mathematician            .....  1730  17S3 

ItaL       Bianchini,  Francis,  mathematician  and  author         .              .  •  1662  1799 
Gr.         Bias,  one  of  the  seven  sages    .               .              .              .           f.  B.  c   606 

Fr.         Bichat,  an  eminent  anatomist  and  physiologist         .              .  1771  ISO" 

IrUh.     Bickerstaft',  Isaac,  dramatist  .               .               .               .               •  1733  1787 

Ens.      Bickersteth,  Edward,  theological  writer     .              .              .  r.786  1?50 

Amer.   Biddle,  James,  a  commodore  in  the  United  States  Navy              .  1783  1*48 

Eng.      ,  John,  an  eminent  Socinian  writer.              .              .  1315  ]<562 

Amer.   ,  Nicholas,  a  captain  in  the  United  States  Navy    .              .  1750  1778 

Amer.   ,         "       ,  financier  and  li.ierateitr  .              .              .  1786  1844 

Biela,  Willinm,  baron  von,  astronomer              •              .              .  1.782  1856 

Am-'.    Bigelow,  John,  medical  writer      ....  ..987 

Fr.         Bignon,  Louis  E.,  historian     .....  »7<1  .;S4l 

Gr.         Bion, pastoral  poet  .  -Tf"         ...  i.  c,  309 

Gr.        ,  of  Borysthenes,  philosopher,  (Cyreniao)    .  .  .  B.  2.  240 

Fr.         Biot,  Jean  B.,  mathematician         ....  1774  186i 

Eng.      Biibeck,  George,  M.  D.,  founder  of  mechanics' institutions           .  1776  1841 

Anr  er.    Bird,  Robert  M.,  M.  D.,  novelist    ....  1803  1854 

Amer.    Bir-3v,  James  G.,  anti-slavery  politician          .              .              .  1792  1,857 

Fr.         Biro:.,  .  ike  of,  military  commander,  (beheaded  for  conspiracy)  1561  1303 

Eng.      Bish  }•,  Sir  Henry  R.,  musical  composer         .              .                 .  1775  r&C-i 

Amer.   Bissell,  "William  H.,  governor  of  Illinois,  volunteer  in  Mexico  181" 

Scot.     Bisset,  Robert,  historian  and  biographer            ...  175P  180> 

Fr.         Bissot,  John,  a  revolutionist  and  author      ...  1767  *.79J 
S^an.     Bivar,  Don  Rodrigo,  known  in  history  and  romance  under  the 

name  of  tho  Cid           .....  1040  iOCJ 

Scot.  Black,  Adam,  publisher  M.  P.   provost  of  Edinburgh        .               .  178J 

In. Am.  BlaeV  Hawk,  Indian  Chief              ....  1768  f         1838 

B-ig.      Black  stone,  !3ir  William,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  author              .  1723  17M 


930  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

WATIOlf.                                                       SAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BORH.  BIKi 

Eng.  Blackwell,  Eliz.,  first  female  M.  D.  in  the  United  States       .  1821 

Scot.  Blair,  Dr.  Hugh,  a  divine  and  rhetorician          .              .              .  1718  1809 

Amer.  ,  FranoiB  P.,  journalist  and  politician .              .              .  1791 

Amer.  ,  Francis  P.,  jr.,  leader  of  Missouri  free-soilers       .              .  1821 

Scot.  ,  Robert,  a  divine  and  poet    ....  1699  1777 

Amer.  Blake,  John  L.  Rev.  author  of  Dictionary,  &o.                .              .  1788  1857 

Eng.  Blake,  Robert,  a  celebrated  admiral             .               ,               .  1599  1651 

Boot.  Blanchard,  Laman,  essayist  and  journalist       •              .              .  1803  1845 

Amer.  Bleecker,  Ann  Eliza,  poet  and  essayist                     .              .  1757  178? 

Irish.  Blessington,  Marguerite,  countess,  novelist  and  litterateur        .  1789  1840 

Eng.  Bloomfleld,  E.V.,  classical  scholar              .              .              .  1788  184P 

,  Robert,  a  poet      .....  1766  1828 

Prus.  Blucher,  a  celebrated  military  commander               «              .  1742  1819 

Ger.  Blum,  Robert  H ,  publicist  and  politician         ...  1807  1848 

Swe.  Blumcnback,  John  Fred.,  naturalist           .              .              .  1752  1840 

Brit  Boadicea,  the  warlike  queen  of  the  Iceni           ...  6* 

Ital.  Boccacio,  one  of  the  great  classic  writers  of  modern  Italy     .  1313  1373 

Ital.  Boccalina,  a  satirist                .....  1556  161? 

Fr.  Bochart,  Samuel,  an  eminent  divine  and  orientalist               .  1509  1567 

Fr.  Bodin,  John,  a  lawyer  and  author       .              .              .              .  1530  1599 

Eng.  Bodley,  Sir  Thos.,  founder  of  library          .                             .  1544  1612 

Ger.  Boehmen,  Jacob,  a  fanatic  and  author               ...  1575  1624 

Ger.  Boekh,  Augustus,  classical  philologist  .  . 

Dutch.  Boerhaave,  oneof  the  most  eminentof  modern  physicians     .  1668  1738 

Rom.  Boethius,  a  statesman  and  philosopher              .              .              .  455  526 

Ger.  Bogatzky,  Ohae.  Henry  theologian,  ('  Golden  Treasury')       .  1690  1744 

Fr.  Bohemond,  a  Norman  adventurer       ....  1111 

Eng.  '  Bohn,  Henry  G.,  publisher  and  editor       .  .  . 

Ital.  Bojardo,  Mathew  M.,  poet,  ('  Orlando  Innamorato')        .               •  1434  1494 

Fr.  Boileau,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  poet            ...  1636  1711 

Fr.  Boisaard,  Jean  J.,  fabulist       .              .              .               .               .  1743  1831 

Fr.  Boissy,  Louis  de,  author  of  comedies           ...  1694  1 758 

Fr.  • ,  d'Anglas,  F.  A.,  count  of,  statesman  and  revolutionist  1756  1826 

Eng.  Boleyn,  Anne,  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,             '••<«•            .              .  1507  15S6 

Eng.  Bolingbroke,  Henry  8t.  John,  poet  and  deistical  writer          •  1678  1751 

Coloni.  Bolivar,  the  heroic  deliverer  of  his  country      .              .              .  1785  1831 

Fr.  Bonaparte,  Jerome,  ex-king  of  Westphalia                .              .  1784  1859 

Fr. ,  Joseph,  ex-king  of  Naples  and  Spain              .              .  1768  1844 

Fr. ,  Louis,  ex-king  of  Holland           .            '•',  ••           .  1778  1846 

Fr. ,  Louis  Napoleon,  1st  president  republic  of  France  and 

emperor                   .....  1808 

Fr.  .       ,  Lucien,  Prince  of  Canino                 .              .              .  1776  1840 

Fr.  ,  Maria  Letitia,  mother  of  Napoleon         .              .  1750  1836 

Fr.  -    i            ,  Napoleon,  emperor  of  France          .              .              .  1769  1821 

Amer.  Bond,  William  0.,  astronomer                                  •              .  1789  1859 

Eng.  Bonner,  bishop,  the  persecutor  of  Protestants                .              •  1569 

Swiss.  Bonnet,  Charles,  a  celebrated  naturalist                 .              .  1720  1793 

Eng.  Bonnycastle,  Charles,  mathematician                •              •              .  1840 

Eng.  • .John,                "                       .              •              .  1821 

Fr.  Bonpland,  Airne,  traveller  and  botanist            .              .              .  1840 

Eng.  Booth,  Ju n ius  Brutue,  tragedian                  .              .              .  1796  1852 

Amer.  Boooc,  Daniel,  the  fl-st  settler  in  Kentucky      ...  1730  1823 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  931 

JC1TIOJC.                                                          NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  EOEIT.  DIBB. 

G-er.  Bopp,  Francis,  Sanscrit  scholar    .              •              •              •  1731 

ItaL  Bregli,  philosopher  and  mathematician            •              •  •       1507 

Ital.  Borghesi,  Bartolomeo,  count,  antiquarian                   .              •  1781 

ItaL  Borgi,  Giovanni,  originator  of  ragged  schools                 .  .       1736  1SOJ 

Ital.  Borgia,  Caesar,  son  of  the  infamous  Pope  Alexander  VI.       .  1608  167fl  f 

ItaL  ,  Lucrezia,  infamous  daughter  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  15th  Cent.       L-**'' 

ItaL  Borromeo,  Cardinal,  theological  writer              .              .  •       1538  1584 

Eng.  Borrow,  George,  author  of «  Gipsies  of  Spain'           •              .  1803 

Fr.  Bosc,  Louis  A.  W.,  naturalist                .              .              •  .       1759  1821 

Eng.  Boscawen,  Edward,  brave  and  skilful  admiral        .              .  1711  1761 

ItaL  Boscovitcb,  mathematical  and  philosophical  writer         .  .       1711  1787 

Fr.  Bossuet,  Marie  Jos.,  marshal  of  France       .             .              .  1810  186- 

Fr.  BoBsuet,  James  B.,  a  divine  and  historian         •              •  .       1627  1704 

Fr.  Bossut,  Charles,  mathematician                   •              •              •  1730  1814 

Scot.  Boston,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  author     .          .              •  .       1676  1733 

Eng.  Boswell,  James,  the  biographer  of  Dr.  Johnson        .              •  1710  1795 

Eng.  Bosworth,  Joseph,  D.  I).,  Anglo-Saxon  lexicographer     .  •       1788 

Ital.  Botta,  Carlo  G.  G.,  historian          ,s  H                       .              .  1766  1837 

Ital.  Bottiger,  archaeologist  and  antiquarian               •              •  •  '835 

.Amer.  Botts,  John  Minor,  politician.          ....  1802 

Gr.  Bozzaris,  Marco,  a  gallant  leader  In  the  new  revolution  .       178C  1823 

Amer.  Boudinot,  Elias,  a  statesman  and  philanthropist           .           .  1740  1S21 

Fr.  Bougainville,  Louis  A.,  military  commander  and  author  .       1729  1811 

Fr.  Boufflers,  Duke  of,  military  commander                    •               •  1344  1711 

Fr.  Boulainvilliers,  Henry,  count  of,  historian        •              •  •       1658  1752' 

Eng.  Boulton,  Matthew,  an  eminent  engineer     .              ,              .  1728  1809 

Fr.  Bourcet,  Peter  J.  de,  an  officer  and  topographer              •  .       1700  1780 

Irish.  Boucicault,  Dion,  dramatist          ....  1822 

Fr.  Bourdaloue,  a  noted  preacher  «...       1632  1 704 

Fr.  Bourdon,  Pierre  L.  M.  mathematician        ...  1799  1854 

Fr.  Bourignon,  Antoinette,  a  fanatical  author         ...       1616  1680 

.?r.  Bourmont,  L.  A.  V.,  count  of,  marshal  of  France                  *  1773  1846 

Fr.  Bourne,  Vincent,  an  elegant  Latin  poet              .              •  .  1747 

Fr.  Bourrienne,  biographer  of  Napoleon  ...  1834 

Fr.  Bousmard,  M.  de,  a  military  engineer  ...  1807 

Fr.  Boussingault,  Jean  B.  V.  D.,  chemist         ...  1802 

Ger.  Bouterwek,  Fred.,  « Hist.  Spanish  Literature'                 .  .       1766  1329 

Amer.  Bouvier,  John,  jurist  and  legal  author         ...  1787  1851 

Amer.  Bowditch,  Nath.,  astronomer,  mathematician,  &o.         .  .       177S  1838 

Eng.  Bowi'ler,  Thomas,  editor  Shakespeare,  &c.                .              .  1754  1825 

Amer.  Bowdoin,  James.  LL.  D.,  philosopher  and  statesman     .  .       1727  1790 

Amer. ,  John,  (son  of  the  last),  ambassador  to  Spain           .  1752  1811 

Amer.  Bowen,  Francis,  biographical  and  metaphysical  author  .       1811 

J3ng.  Bowles,  William  Lisle,  poet           ....  1762  1850 

Eng.  Br-vring,  James,  statesman,  poet  and  linguist                 .  .       1792 

Scot.  Boyd,  Mark  Alexander,  a  poet       .               .               •              •  1562  1601 

Eng.  Boydell,  John,  alderman,  art  publisher              .              .  .       1719  1804 

Fr.  Boyer,  Abel,  lexicographer            .              .         '•  ;'i              .  1667  1729 

Fr.  ,  Jean  Pierre,  president  of  Hayti  (died  at  Parii)   .  .       1776  1850 

Irish.  Boyle,  Robert,  an  eminent  philosopher      .              .              .  1626  1691 

Amer.  Boylston,  Zabdiel,  an  eminent  physician          .              t  .       1680  177fl 

Amer.  Bozinan,  John  Leeds,  historian  and  jurist .              .              .  1757  1821 


932  THE  WORLD'S  PKOGEESS. 


.                       NAME    AND  PROFESSION.  BORS.  DIED 

Amer.  Brace,  Charles  Loring,  philanthropist  and  traveller        .  .       1828 

Amer.  Brtckc-nridge,  Henry  M.,  jurist  and  diplomatist       .              .  1786 

Eng.  Braddock,  Edward,  general,  defeated  and  killed  In  Virginia  .       1715  1758 

Amer.  Bradford,  Alden,  author  of  'History  of  Massachusetts'         .  1715  1753 

Amer.                   ,  Andrew,  printer  and  publisher  of  first  newspaper  in  Phila.  1686  1742 

Amer.  -  ,  William,  attorney-general  of  the  U.  S.      .           c*,v»         1755  1795 

Amer.  -  ,  William,  first  printer  in  Pennsylvania        t  -.»..,  •       1659  1753 

Amer.  -  ,  William,  second  governor  of  Plymouth  eolony       .  1588  1657 

Eng.  Bradley,  Dr.  James,  astronomer  and  mathematician      .  .       1692  1762 

Air.er.  Eradstreet,  Anne,  poetess,  daughter  of  Governor  Dudley     .  1612  1672 

Eng.  Bradwardiue,  mathematician  and  theologian    .              •  •  1349 

Eng.  Brady,  Robert,  physician  and  historian      .              .              .  1709 

Dan.  Brahe,  Tycho,  a  celebrated  astronomer              •               •  •       1546  1661 

Amer.  Brainard,  David,  misionary  to  the  Indians               .              .  1718  1747 

Amer.  -  ,  J.  G.  C.,  a  poet                                    .              ,  .       1697  1826 

N.A.In.Brant,  Joseph  (Thayendanega),  a  Mohawk  chief      .              .  1742  1807 

Fr.  Brautdme,  Pierre  de  B.,  biographer  and  chronicler         .  •       1540  1614 

Mrr.  Bravo,  Leonardo,  a  revolutionary  patriot     .               .               .  1692  1854 

Eng.  Bray,  Ann  Eliza,  novelist               .              .              •              .  (abt.)  1800 

Amer.  Breckinridge,  John,  D.  U.,  theologian         .              .              .  1797  1841 

Amer.  --  ,  John  C.,  Vice-Pi  esident  U,  S.    .            .  .  .       1821 

Amer.  -  ,  Robert  J.,  D.  D.,  Presbyterian  theologian      .  1800 

<?er.  Breitkv.cpf,  John  G.  E_,  an  eminent  printer  and  type-founder    .       1710  1794 

fewe.  Bremsr,  Fredrica,  novelist             ....  1802  1866 

Bar.  Brennus,  the  leader  of  the  Gauls   .              .              •              .  f.  B.  c.  390 

Scot.  Brewster,  Sir  David,  natural  philosopher    ...  1785 

Amer.  -  ,  W'lliam,  elder  of  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims        .  .       1560  1614 

Eng.  Bridgewater,  .".  uke  of,  introducer  of  canals  in  England         .  1736  loCS 

Eng.  -  ,  I'rrancis  H.  E.,  duke  of,  founder  of  'Xreatiser'  .       175-5  1829 

Amer.  Briggs,  Ciarbs  F.,  novelist  and  journalist      .  .  . 

Eng.  --  ,  Eon  y,  mathematician            ....       1536  1630 

Amer.  Brigham,  JL»iariah,  writer  on  insanity  and  philanthropist     .  179o  1849 

Eng.  Bright,  John,  reform  politician  and  M.  P.          .              .  .       1611 

Fr.  BrinviMiers,  Marie,  marchioness  of,  poisoner            .              .  1676 

Fr.  BHs-^n,  Mathurin  James,  naturalist    .              .              .  .       1723  18)6 

Eng.  Brittan,  John,  architectural  and  antiquarian  writer               .  1771  ?.857 

Ger.  Brockhaus,  Fried.  A.,  founder  of  the  publishing  house  .  .       1772  1623 

Amer.  Brodhead,  Johu  E.,  author  of  'History  of  New  York'            .  1814 

Eng.  Brodie,  Sir  Benj.  C.,  F.  R.  S.,  surgeon  and  surgical  author  •       1783  1862 

Fr.  Broglio,  due  de,  statesman      .              .              .              .  .       1785 

Eng.  Bronte,  Anne,  'Acton  Bell.'  novelist          .              .              .  1820  Io49 

Ung.  -  j  Charlotte,  novelist     .              .              •              .  .       1816  1856 

Eng.  -  —  ,  Emily  Jane,  '  Ellis  Bell,1  novelist                 .              ..  1818  1848 

Irish.  Brooke,  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer  .              .           .,  .,  .  .       1706  1733 

Eng.  -  ,  Sir  James,  rajah  of  Sarawak,  and  author     *              .  1803 

Amer.  Brooks,  Charles  T.,  author  of  '  Translations  from  German  '  .       1813 

Amor.  -  ,  Erastus,  journalist  and  politician.  .              .              •  1815 

Amci.  --  ,  James,  journalist  and  politician            .              •  .       1810 

Amer.  -  ,  John.  LL.D.,  governor  of  Massachusetts      .              .  1752  1825 

Amer.  -  ,  Maria,  poet,  («  Maria  del  Oecidente  »)  .              .  .       1796  1848 

Fr.  Brotier,  G.,  a  Jesuit,  editor  of  'Tacitus'      .              ,              .  1723  1780 

Eng.  Brougham,  Heary,  lord,  statesman  and  jurist                  .  .       1779 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  933 

HAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIBIX 

Irish.     Brougham,  John,  actor  and  author  .  •  •  1810 

Fr.         Brougniart,  Alexander,  mineralogist  and  geologist          .  .  1770 

Fr,         ,  Adolpbe  T.,  botanist,        ....  1801 

Fr.         Broussais,  F.  J.  V.,  medical  and  physiological  writer             .  1772  183? 

Ir.Am.  Brown,  Alex.,  father  of  the  eminent  merchants  'Brown  Brothers'  1764 

Amer.  ,  Arthur,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  barrister             .  1801 

Amer.  ,  (Blackwell),  Antoinette  L.,  preacher  and  philanthropist  1825 

Amer.  ,  Charles  Brockden,  a  novelist            .              ,              .  1771  1810 

Amer.  ,  Captain  John,  abolitionist  and  martyr  •              .              .  1800  1858 

Scot.     ,  Dr.  Thomas,  metaphysician  and  poet             .              .  1777  1820 

Amer.   ,  Goold,  grammarian,                   •              •              •              •  1791  1857 

Amer. ,  Henry  Kirk,  sculptor  .  .  ,  «  1814 

Amer.          -  ,  James,  senator,  minister  to  France        •              •              •  1766  1835 

Amer. ,  James,  eminent  publisher  (Boston) .              .              •  1800  1855 

Eng.     ,  John,  D.  D.,  a  miscellaneous  writer         .              .              •  1715  1766 

Eng.     ,  John,  a  divine  and  author    .              .              .              .  1722  1787 

Amer.  ,  Major-General  Jacob,  general  in  war  of  1812         .              •  1828 

Amer.  ,  Nicholas,  principal  patron  Brown  University              •  1769  1?41 

Eng.     ,  Robert,  eminent  botanist           ...»  1781  1858 

Scot. ,  Samuel,  chemist  and  poet         .              .              •              •  1817  .\85ft 

Eng.     ,  Thomas,  satirist,    .....  1663  1704 

Scot. ,  Thomas,  metaphysician             ....  1778  1820 

Irish.    Browne,  George,  count  de,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  service  1698  1792 

Eng.      ,  Sir  Thomas,  a  physician,  and  philosophic  writer             .  1605  1682 

Eng.       ,  "William  George,  a  traveller  in  Africa,  &c.                 .  1814 

Amer.    Brownell,  Thomas  C.,  Prot.  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Connecticut    .  1779  1865 

Eng.       Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  poet,               ...  1809  1860 

Eng.      ,  Robert,  poet,          .....  1812 

Amer.  Brownson,  Orestes  A.,  metaphysical  writer  •  •  1?(3 

Scot.      Bruce,  James,  a  celebrated  traveller     .               .             .              .  1730  179*-' 

Scot.      ,  Robert,  the  deliverer  of  his  country               •              .  1329 

Fr.         Brueys,  Francis  Paul,  admiral              ....  »750  1798 

Eng.      Brummell,  George  Bryan,  « Beau  Brummell'             .              .  1778  1840 

Fr.         Brumoy,  Peter,  a  Jesuit  and  author            ...  168*  1742 

Fr.        Brune,  William  Mary  Ann,  marshal  and  revolutionist                .  176S  1815 

Eng.      Brunei,  Isambard  K.,  engineer  of  Great  Eastern,  &o.           .  180 '  1853 

Fr.         Brunei,  Sir  M.  L,  engineer  of  Thames  tunnel,  &c.           .              .  176£  1845 
Fr.         Brunei,  Jacques  Charles, 'Bibliographer's  Manual'                 . 

Fr.         Bruno,  St.,  founder  of  the  Chartusiau  order     .              .              .  1377  1444 

HUBS.     Brunnow,  Baron,  diplomatist         ....  1797 

Ger.      Brunswick,  Ferdinand,  duke  of,  military  commander    .              .  1721  1793 
Ger.      ,  Luneburg,  Charles  Wm.  Fer.,  dnke  of,military  com- 
mander      ......  1735  1oO? 

Eng.      Brnnton,  Mary  B.,  novelist, 'Discipline, '  &c.            vsf^jji-.-         .  1773  1818 

Rom.     Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  founder  of  the  republican  government                  B.  o.    50f 

Rom. ,  Marcus  Junius,  conspirator  against  Caesar  .              .                     B.  o.      48 

Fr.        Bruyere,  John  de  la,  a  celebrated  writer           .              .              .  1644  139'. 

Dutch.  Bruyn,  Cornelius  de,  traveller        .  .  •  .  1652 

Bryan,  Michael,  '  Dictionary  of  Painters'         .              .              .  1757  '853 

Eng.      Bryant,  Jacob,  a  philologist  and  antiquary                 .              .  1715  1804 

Amer. ,  William  Cullen,  poet,  traveller  ...  1794 

Eng.      Brydges,  Sir  Egerton,  eccentric  litterateur                 .             •  1762  188t 


934  THE  WOBLD'S  PROGRESS. 

If  I1IOX.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOHH.  DIED, 

Fr.         Buat  I^anpay,  Louis  G.,  count  de,  a  learned  writer        .  : 

Fr.         Bucer,  Martin,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Reformation  1191  1551 

Qer.       Buch,  Leopold  von,  geologist                .              .              •  1774  1853 

Soot.      Buchan,  William,  a  physician  and  author .              •  1729  1791 

Sect      Buchf.nan,  Claudius,  a  divine           ,«,            •              •  .       1766  1805 

Sect.      ,  George,  an  eminent  writer       .              .  1508  1582 

Amer. ,  James,  15th  president  of  the  United  States  .  .       1791 

Ung.      Buckingham,  George  Villiors,  duke  of,  statesman    .              .  1592  162? 

jgagf. ,    George  Villiers,  son  of  the  former            .  .       1627  1688 

iing.                           ,  James  Silk,  traveller  and  author          .              .  1784  1856 

Amer. • — ,  Joseph  T.,  journalist  and  author ...       1779 

Eng.      Buckland,  Wm.,  D.  D.,  geologist.                 .              .              .  1784  1856 

Amer.  Buckminster,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  theologian             .              .  .       1751  1812 

Amer.  ,  Joseph  S.,  author  of '  Sermons,'  *o»                  .  1784  1812 

2ng.      Buckstone,  John  B.,  actor  and  playwright       .              .  .       1800 

Ataer.  Buel,  Jesse,  agricultural  writer      ....  1778  1839 

Polish.  Buffier,  Claude,  a  Jesuit  and  miscellaneous  writer         .  .       1661  1737 

ifr.         Butfon,  George  Leclero,  count  of,  celebrated  naturalist          .  1707  1788 

Jtr.        Bugeaud,  T.  B.,  marshal  of  Prance     .              ,    .          .  .       1784  1849 

Ger.      Buhle,  J.  G., '  History  of  Philosophy,'  &c.                .              .  1763 

Eng.      Bull,  Geo.,  Greek  scholar  and  dramatist           .              .  .       1786  1864 

Ecg.      ,  Geo.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  theological  writer              .  1634  1710 

jtxor.      ,  Ole,  famous  violinist     .....       1810 

SwLs.  Bullinger,  reformer  and  author      ....  1504  1575 

Amer.  Bullions,  Peter,  D.  D.,  author  of  educational  works       .  .       1791  1864 
Bug.      Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  L.  diplomatist  and  political  writer             . 

Bug.      ,  (now  Sir  Edward  Lytton),  novelist  and  dramatist  .       1803 

Eng.      ,  Iiady  Bulwer  Lytton,  novelist             .         .              .  1807 

Aust.     Buol-Schauenstein,  K.  F.,  count  of,  statesman.              .  .       1797 

RUSB.     But  on,  C.  C.  J.,  chevalier  de,  diplomatist  and  historian      .  1791  1800 

Eng.      Bunyan,  John,  author  of  '  Pilgrim's  Progress'               .  .       1628  16)!8 

Ger.      Burckhardt,  John  Charles,  mathematician  .              .              .  1778  1815 

Swiss.- ,  John  Louis,  oriental  traveller                      .  .       1784  1815 

Scot.  Am.  Burden,  Henry,  inventor  and  mechanic               .              .  1791 

Eng.      Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  politician        ^  .•              .              .  .       1770  1844 

Ger.       B-iger,  G.  A.,  poet           .....  1748  1794 

Eng.      f  urges,  Geo.,  Greek  scholar  and  dramatist        «           .  .        1786  1864 

Avner.  Burges,  Tristram,  statesman  and  orator            .                      .  1770  1853 

Eng.      Burgess,  Thomas,  Bp.  of  Salisbury,  classical  and  theological  author  1756  183' 

Eng.      Burgh,  James,  author 'Dignity  Human  Nature'     .          t,  ..•  ;         1714  1776 

Eng.      Burgoyne,  John,  military  commander  and  author          .  .  1792 

Irish.     Burke,  Edmund,  a  great  statesman  and  writer        .              .  1T30  1797 

Swiss.    Burlamaqui,  John  James,  writer  on  civil  law  .              .  .       1694  1748 

Eng.      Burlelgh,  William  Cecil,  lord,  eminent  statesman  .              .  1520  1598 

DU*  ^h.  Bunnan,  Peter,  critic  and  editor         , .  -.,         ...       1668  1741 

vh»..      Burmeister,  He: man,  naturalist  .               ...              .  1807 

Amir.  Burnap,  George  W.,  clergyman  and  author      ...       1802  '•SM 

Evot      Burnes,  Sir  Alex., 'Travels  !n  Bokhara,  Cabool,' &o.             .  1S06  1841 

Scot.      Burnet,  Gilbert,  a  divine  and  historian,  Bishop  cf  Salisbury  .       1643  1725 

Amer.    ,  Jacob,  pioneer  of  Cincinnati  and  authoj     .              .  1771  185J 

Eng.                  ,  John,  engraver,  painter,  and  critic       ,              ,  .       1784 

Eng.       Burney,  Charles,  a  doctor  of  rausio             •              .              »  178*  1814 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  935 

I A  TIO*.                                                          HAME   AND   PROFESSSON.  .lORK.  BIRO 

Eng.       Burney,  Frances,  (see  Mme.  d'Arblay),  novelist              •  1752  184C 

Eng.      ,  James,  admiral  and  author            .              .              .  1739  1820 

Scot.      Burns,  a  popular  and  national  poet     ...  1759  1794 

Amer.  Burr,  Col.  Aaron,  vice-president  U.  3.                       .              .  1756  1838 

Amer.  Burritt,  Elihu,  'the  learned  blacksmith  '  and  philanthropist         •  T.811 

Amer.  Burroughs,  Stephen,  notorious  adventurer               .               .  1T65  1840 

£ng.      Burton,  Robert,  author  of  the  'Anatomy  of  Melancholy1           -  1576  1638 

Eng. ,  Win.  E.,  actor  and  author              .              .              .  1 804  I860 

Ger.       BuBching,  Anthon  Frederick,  philosopher  and  geological  writei  1721  1893 

Amer.  Bush,  George,  D.D.,  theological  and  philosophical  writer     .  1796  1859 

Amer.  Bushnell,  Horace,  D.D.,  theological  and  metaphysical  author      .  1802 

Mex.      Bustamente,  Anastasio,  president  of  Mexico            .              .  *782  1851 

Eng.       Bute,  John  Stuart,  earl  of,  statesman,  premier               .              .  '"38  1792 

Irish.    Butler,  Alban,  '  Lives  of  Saints'                   .              .              .  1710  1773 

Amer.   ,  Andrew  P.,  United  States  senator  from  South  Carolina .  1796  1857 

Amer.    ,  Benj.  F.,  statesman  and  jurist,  attorney-general  U.  S.  1S5S 

Amer.   ,  Benj.  F.,  major-general  U.  8.  army  in  w*r  for  Union       . 

Eng.      ,  Charles,  Catholic  historian  and  jurist        -    . ...»         .  1750  1831* 

Eng.      ,  Joseph,  bishop,  an  eminent  prelate  and  author  .              .  1692  176i 

Eng.      ,  Samuel,  bishop  of  Litchfleld,  editor  of  "  ^Bschylus,"  &c.  1774  184. 

Bug.       ,  Samuel,  a  humorous  poet          .               *  >•           .               .  1612  168J 

Amer.   ,  Richard,  colonel,  an  officer  in  the  Revolution             .  1791 

Amer.   ,  "Wm.  Allen,  poet   ...              .              .              .  1825 

Amer.  ,  Wm.  O.,  statesman  and  general       .              •              •  1793 

Ger.       Buttman,  Philip  C.,  philologist             ....  1761  1829 

Eng       Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell,  legisl.  and  philanth.      .              .  1788  1845 

Ger.       Buxtorf,  John,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  lexicographer    .              .  1564  1629 

Ger.       • — ,  John,  (son  of  the  preceding,)  lexicographer              .  1599  1644 

Amor.  Byles,  Mather,  clergyman  and  author                 ...  1706  1788 

Eng.       Byng,  Honorable  John,  admiral      ....  1704  1757 

Eng.      Byron,  George  Gordon,  lord,  a  popular  poet       ...  1788  1828 

Eng.       .Honorable John,  admiral    ....  1723  1786 

Eng.       ,  Lady  Noel,  wife  of  the  poet       ....  1793  1860 

C. 

Fr.         Cabct,  Etienne,  communist     .....  1788  1860 
En?.      Cabot,  John,  navigator  and  discoverer  at  North  America       . 

Eng.       ,  Sebastian  (son  of  John),  navigator                       .              .  1477  1557 

Port.     Cabra),  Pedro  Alvarez,  navigator                ...  1500 

Span.     Cabrera,  Don  Ramon,  military  commander  for  Don  Carlos          .  1810 

Ital.       Cadamosta,  Louis  da,  navigator     .              .              .              .  f.  1456 

Eng.      Cade,  the  noted  rebel, '  Jack  Cade '     .              .              .              .  1450 

Scot      Cadell,  Thomas,  publisher  of  Scott's  works,  Ac.      '.              .  1742  1808 

Fr.          Cadet  de  Grassicourt,  Charles  L.,  chemist  and  philosopher           .  1769  1821 

Cadmon,  Anglo-Saxon  poet             ...  680 

Amei     Cadwallader,  John,  officer  in  the  Revolution     .              .              .  1743  1186 
Rom.     Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  warrior,  statesman,  and  author              .       BO.  100    B.C.    44 

Ital.       Cagliostro,  Alex.,  count,  swindling  adventurer                .              .  1743  1791 

Fr.         Cailliand,  Frederic,  traveller           .              .              .              .  1787 

Fr.         CiilW,  Rene, 'Voyage  a  Timboucto,'**.           .              .              .  1881 


936  THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

•ATIOH                                                             NAME  AND   PROFESSION  BORX.  DIKO 

Ital.  C.ijetan,  ?-:irdinal,  diplomatist  and  author                .              .  1510  1593 

(jr.  Calaber,  ,,-iintus       ...               .               .               •  t,  260 

Erig.  Calainy,  EJ.rrund,  Presbyterian  divine  and  author  .              .  1600  1668 

Span.  Calderonce  la  B;irca,  Don  Pedro,  dramatist      .               .  .        1600  1687 

Amer.  Caldwell,  Charles,  eminent  physician  and  author      .              .  1772  1853 

Amer. (  Rev.  James,  revolutionary  patriot       .              .  .       1734  1781 

Ital.  Calepino,  Ambrose,  author  of  a  lexicon  in  11  language*         .  1435  1511 

Amer.  Calbt  un,  John  C.,  senator  of  the  United  States               .  .       1782  1850 

Rom.  Caligula,  Roman  Emperor          ^    «    .          .              .              .  12  11 

Gr.  CalipptiT,  astronomer  and  mathematician          .              *  f.  B.  c.  330 

3er.  Calixtus,  Geo.,  Lutheran  theologian            .              .              .  1586  1656 

Gr.  CaUinachus,  a  poet                 .     '         .              .              .  £  B.  c.  150 

Gr.  Callnjhenes,  philosopher  and  historian       .  ,  .  B.  o.  328 

Fr.  Cii'n.st,  Augustine,  an  erudite  divine  and  author          •  .       1672  1757 

Ital.  Ct.'ogera,  Angelo,  a  learned  monk  and  author          .              .  1699  1768 

fie.  O.lonne,  Charles  Alexander  de,  minister  of  state           .  .        1734  1802 

"St,  Calvin,  John,  of  the  Apostles  of  the  Reformation     .               .  1509  1623 

Amer.  Calvert,  George  Henry,  belle-lettres  author      ...       1803 

Amer. ,  Leonard,  first  governor  of  Maryland  (see  Baltimore)  1676 

Sfr.  Cambaceres,  John  J.  A.,  distinguished  revolutionist      .  .        1753  1824 

Eng.  Cambridge,  Duke  of,  sixth  son  of  George  III.          .              .  1774  1850 

.Pcrs.  Cambyses,  second  king  of  Persia  ,                 B.  o.  521 

L£ng.  Caniden,  William,  an  eminent  antiquary  and  historian         .  1551  16?3 

Scot.  Cameron,  Richard,  '  Covenanter,1  founder  of  Cameronians  1660 

Scot. ,  Sir  Evan,  lord  of  Lochiel      ....  1719 

lort.  Camoens,  Louis,  the  most  eminent  poet  of  his  country           .  1517  1579 

Fr.  Campan,  Jeani.e  L.  II.  J.,  educationist  aud  author          .  .        1752  1822 

Amer.  Campbell,  Alex.,  founder  of  a  religious  sect              .              .  1792 

Scot. ,  George,  a  divine  and  author              .              .  .       1709  1796 

Scot. ,  John,  a  multifarious  writer,   'Admiral,'  Ac.        .  1708  1775 

Scot. ,  John,  2d  duke  of  Argyle  and  Greenwich       .  .        1678  1743 

Scot.                       ,  John,  lord  chancellor,  jurist,   '  Lives  of  Chancellors '         1778  1861 

Scot.  ,  Sir  Colin,  British  com.  in  India,  &c.,  Lord  Clyde  .       1791  1863 

Scot.  ,  Thomas,  poet,  '  Life  of  Petrarch,'  &c.      .              .  1777  1844 

Ger.  Camper,  Peter,  an  eminent  naturalist  .              ...       1722  178fl 

Fr.  .Campieton,  John  G.  de,  dramatist                .              .              .  1656  1723 

Pr.  Cange,  Charles  Dufresne,  sieur  du,  historian      ...       1610  1688 

Eng.  Canning,  George,  statesman,  orator,  and  poet          .              •  1770  1827 

Fr.  Canrobert,  Franc.  C.,  general  in  Crimea            .              .  .       1809 

Ital.  Cantu,  Cesare,  historian,  poet,  and  philosopher      ..  i...         .  1805 

Dan.  Canute,  King  of  Denmark  and  of  England,  'the  Great'  .         995  1036 

Fr.  Curefigui-,  A.  n.  A.,  historian       .              .             »             .  1799 

Eng.  Capell,  Edward,  editor  of  Shakespeare              .              •  •       1713  1781 

Span.  Capmany,  Don  Antonio,  historian               .               .               .  1754  1810 

Gr.  Capo  d' Istria,  president  of  Greece,  1827-31      .              •  .       1776  1831 

Bom.  C.iracnlla,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  emperor     .              .  188  217 

Ital.  Caraccioli,  Neopolitan  admiral,  hanged  by  Nelson         .  .       1770  1799 

Brit  Caractacue.  prince  of  the  Silures,  a  brave  warrior.                  .  (alt)   100 

Brit.  Camusius,  usurper  of  Empire  in  Britain            .              .  .         250  293 

Ital.  Cardan,  Jerome,  philosopher,  mathematician  and  physician  1501  1570 

Eng.  Cardigan,  J.  P.  B.,  earl  of,  general  of  cavalry  at  Balaklava  .       1797 

Fr.  Cardonne,  Dennis  D.,  an  eminent  orientalist            .             .  1720  1781 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


HATIOH. 

NAME  AND  PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

USD, 

Fr. 

Careme,  Murk  Antony,  famous  cook                  .              . 

.       178^ 

'.& 

Eng. 

Carew,  Bamfylde  Moore,  'king  of  the  beggars'                      • 

MM 

1773 

Eng. 

Carew,  Thomas,  poet               ...» 

.        1589  ? 

1G>9 

Amer. 

Carey,  Alice,  author  of  poems  and  tales       ... 

1822 

•Y:* 

-ff  „    „„_!  „*•»*•„„,«  ^.-.4.1,     tvan    1'itni* 

1598 

if.f  l 

fillg. 

1                y'                       .       ,                   '  .,       * 

mo 

-UvA 

mer. 

'  M^fif     -  '  ^hV  *  th  e°?!!.0  "!  ,.  v        V.               * 

V 

I7fin 

':<•    \O 

1  '  It   r 

'  wniiMt*   i!            ^IVJ^..  1S  6r'                   * 

.             1  JUU 

1761 

1-jOtf 

1  ^PQ 

Ital. 

Carissimi,  James,  musical  composer     ... 

.        1600 

1'.-  A 

Irish. 

Carleton,  Wm.,  novelist                                .              ,              . 

1798 

Irish. 

o-     r1     TT   -«:K*~—  —  _»»«.«  ~n«/9,*.k    on/-l  «An.«»«A»  «f  /~*~- 

Ida       1724 

1803 

Ital. 

Carli,  John  Riaaldo,  count  de,  author         ... 

1720 

17^9 

Eng. 

Carlisle,  G.  W.  F.,  7th  earl  of,  statesman  and  author       . 

1802 

1834 

Eng. 

C,;_      *  _.l  _1  :_;  3    q;  T    „;  4.  „  — 

1768 

1840 

,  >-ir  jiviiiiiOiij  ,  pnysicidn  aud  meuicai  writer                . 

Span. 

Carlos,  Don,  son  of  Philip  IL,  (hero  of  Schiller's  tragedy) 

1545 

1788 

1568 
1856 

Ger. 

Carlotta,  wife  of  Maximilian,  emperor  of  Mexico              . 

18— 

Scot. 

Scot 

Carlyle,  Rev.  Alex,  D.  D.,  '  Memoirs  of  his  Times*  .              . 

1721 

1803 

Or. 

Ctu-neades,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  3d  Academy,             . 

B.  0.     218   B.  0. 

128 

Fr. 

Carnot,  Lazarus  Nicholas,  revolutionist             .              . 

1753 

1823 

Eng. 

Carpenter,  Laut,  Unitarian  minister  and  author       .               . 

1780 

1  Q 

1840 

Fr. 

Carrel,  Armand,  historian  and  metaphysician          .              . 

v          Jo— 

1800 

1836 

Gua. 

Carrera,  Rafael,  ruler  of  Guatemala     .              .              . 

1814 

Amer. 

Carroll,  Chas.,  last  surviving  signer  of  the  Dec.  of  Indep.     . 

1737 

1832 

Eng. 

Carter,  Elizabeth,  a  learned  translator                 .               . 

.       1717 

1806 

Amcr. 
Eng. 

,  Nathaniel  H.,  a  scholar  and  traveller             .               . 
Cartwright,  Thomas,  puritan  divine    .              .              . 

.        1535 

1830 
1608 

Ger. 

Carus,  C.  G.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  physiology       .               . 

1789 

Amer. 

Carver,  John,  1st  gov.  Plymouth  colony            .              . 

1732 

1780 

Amer. 
Eng. 

Gary,  Henry  P.,  poet,  translator  of  '  Dante'     .              . 

1772 

1621 
1840 

Span. 

Casas,  Bartholomew  de  las,  philanthropist  and  historian      . 

1474 

1564 

Amer. 

Cass,  Lewis,  statesman  and  diplomatist  ... 

1782 

1866 

Amer. 

Cassin,  John,  ornithologist             .... 

1813 

Fr. 

Cassini,  John  Dominic,  astronomer      .               .               . 

1625 

1712 

Ital. 

Cassiodorus,  MMHJUS  Aur.  statesman  and  historian                . 

470 

616 

Rom. 

Cassius,  Longinus  Caius,  conspirator  against  Caesar       . 

.                        B.  0. 

42 

Eng. 

Castell,  Edmund,  divine  and  lexicographer                .               . 

1606 

1685 

Ital. 

Castiglione,  Balthasar,  statesman  and  author   .               . 

1468 

1525 

Port. 

Castro,  Inez  de,  wife  of  Pedro,  king  of  Portugal       .              . 

1355 

Ital. 

Catalini,  Madame,  eminent  vocalist     .              .              . 

.        1782 

1849 

Eng. 

Catesby,  Mark,  naturalist                 .... 

1680 

1749 

Rus. 

Catherine  I.,  wife  of  Peter  the  Great                 .              . 

1682 

1727 

Rus. 

II.,  empress  the  "  Great  "  and  the  vicious            . 

1729 

179(5 

Span. 

En  p- 

.       1483 
1638 

1536 
1703 

H6- 

It.  Fr. 

de  Medici,  wife  of  Henry  II.  of  Franc*  .              . 

.        1521 
1619 

1542 
1689 

Eng. 

• 

1548 

Rom. 

Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius,  patrician  conspirator         .              . 

B.  0. 

63 

40 


938  THE   WOEL1»S  PBOGKESS. 

VAIIOK,                                                            NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  D1H». 

Fr.  Caiinat,  Nicholas,  military  commander              .              .  •       1637  1711 

Amer.  Cailin,  George,  artist  and  traveller  among  Indians  .  • 

Rom.  Cuto,  Mar  jus  Portius,  the  censor,  statesman  and  author  B.  0.    232  B.  0.    147 

Bom. ,  Marcus  Porci  us,  of  Utica,  statesman              .              »  B.  o.     95  B.C.     46 

Rom.  Catullus,  Cains  Valerius,  poet              .               .               .  B.  0.     86 

Fr.  Cauchy,  Aug.  Louis,  mathematician         .---i  :?           .               .  1780  1867 

Fr.  Caulaincourt,  A.  A.,  Duke  of  Vicenza,  diplomatist           *  .       177-3  1807 

Fr.  Caussin,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  the 'Holy  Court*         .  1583  1661 

Fr.  Cavaignac,  Louis  E.,  general-in-chief  of  the  republic,  1848  .        1802  1857 

Ital.  E.  Carallo,  Tiberius,  electrician,  author  Natural  Phiios.              .  1749  1809 

Eng.  Cave,  Edward,  printer,  bookseller  and  author    .               .  .        1691  1754 

Eng.  Cavendish,  Sir  William,  courtier  and  writer             .              .  1505  1557 

Eng.  — ,  Thomas,  navigator               ....        1564  1591 

Ital.  Cavour,  Camille  di,  count,  Sardinian  statesman        .              .  1809  1861 

Eng.  Caxton,  William,  the  introducer  of  printing  into  England  .       1410  1492 

Fr.  Caylus,  A.  C.  P.,  count  de,  miscellaneous  writer        .              .  1720  1765 

Fr.  Cazales,  James  A.  M.  de,  au  eloquent  orator      .               .  .        1752  1805 

Eng.  Cecil,  Rev.  R.,  religious  writer       ....  1748  1810 

Eng.  ,  Robt.,  earl  of  Salisbury,  statesman            .               .  (abt.)  1550  1612 

Eng.  ,  Wm.,  Lord  Burleigh,  statesman         .              .              .  1520  1598 

Rom.  Cecilia,  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  patron  of  music         2d  cent. 

Gr.  Cecrops,  1st  king  of  Athens           ....  (abt.)           B.  c.  1500 

Ital.  Cellini,  Benvenuto,  artist,  jeweller,  patron  of  music       •  .       1500  1570 

Bom.  Celsus,  Aurelius  Cornelius,  a  celebrated  physician                  .  f.     30 

Gr.  ,  an  Epicurean  philospher           .         !"-.,'«:-P)         .  .    f.     50 

Ital.  Cenci,  Beatrice,  Roman  maiden,  tragically  famed   .              .  1599 

Rom.  Censoring,  a  critic  and  grammarian     .               .               .  .    f.    240 

Irish.  Centlivre,  Susanna,  a  dramatic  writer         .               .               .  16S7  1723 

Span.  Cervantes-Saavedra,  Michael,  author  of 'Don  Quixote*  .        1547  1610 

ItaL  Cesare,   Giuseppe,   cavaliere  de,  historian               .               .  1783  1856 

Ital  Cesarotte,  Melchior,  a  voluminous  author         .               .  .       1730  1808 

JSng.  Chalmers,  Alex.,  '  General  Biographical  Dictionary,'  Ac.      .  1759  1854 

Scot.  •  ,  George,  miscellaneous  writer    .               .               .  .        1744  1825 

Scot.  ,  Thoma.-:,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  political  economist      .  1770  1846 

Scot  Chambers,  Robert,  publisher  and  author            •              .  *        1802 

Eng.  ,  Sir  William,  an  arehitect             ...  1726  1796 

Scot ,  William,  publisher  and  author         ...       1800 

Fr.  Chambord,  H.,  count  of,  last  scion  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  .  1820 

Ger.  ChamisBo,  A.  von,  author  of '  Peter  Sehlemihl,'   &c.      .  .       1781 

FT.  Champollion,  the  younger,  '  Monuments  de  1'Egypte,'    &c.  1790  1831 

Fr. 1  Figeac,  historian  and  antiquary    .               .  .        1779 

Amer.  Channing,  Edward  T.,  essayist  and  reviewer             .           " ,' •  •         1790  1858 

Amer.  ,  William  Ellery,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  philanthropist       1780  1842 

Amei.  ,  William  Henry,  Unitarian  minister  and  author  .  1810 

Eng.  Chantry,  Sir  Francis,  sculptor              .              *              .  .       1781  1841 

Amer.    Chapin,  Edwin  H.,  eloquent  clergyman  and  orator              .  1814 

Eng.  Chapman,  George,  poetical  translator              .              •  .       1557  1634 

Eng.  Chapone,  Hester,  miscellaneous  writer       ...  1727  1801 

Fr.  Chaptal,  J.  A,  C.,  chemist       .....       1756  1832 

Fr.  Charlemagne,  emperor  of  the  West  and  King  of  France       .  742  814 

Ger,  Charles  V.  the  Great,  Bee  Prescott's  History,  *c.            .  .       1600  1580 

8w«.  Oharlei  XII.,  king,  a  celebrated  warrior   .              .              .  1682  176i 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


939 


KATl>ir.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

En<?.  Charles  Edward,  grandson  of  James  II.  and  Pretender 

Fr ,  J.  A.  0.,  natural  philosopher         .  . 

FT.  Charlevoix,  Peter  F.  X.,  a  Jesuit  historian  . 

Amer.  Chase,  Philander,  bishop  of  Prot.  Epis.  Church,  Ohio    . 

-iiner.  ,  Salmon  P.,  senator  of  United  States  and  governor  of  Ohio 

J?r.  Chasles,  V.  E.  Philarete,  miscellaneous  writer  . 

Dutch.  Chasse,  David  II.,  baron,  military  commander        . 

Fr.  Chastelet,  Gabrielle,  marchioness,  scientific  author 

1'r.  Chasteilux,  F.  J.,  marquis  de,  general  and  author 

Fr.  Chateaubriand,  F.  B.,  vicomte  de,  poet,  statesman  and  traveller 

Fr.  Chatel.  Abbe,  Fer.  F.,  theological  reformer 

Fr.  Chatelei,  1  aul  du  Hay,  lord  of,  (Bertrand  Duguesclin)  . 

Eng.  Chatharr,  Wm.  Pitt,  earl  of,  statesman       .  . 

Eng.  Chatterton,  Thomas,  famed  for  precocious  learning         . 

Eng.  Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  English  poetry        . 

Amer.  Chauntsy,  Charles  D.  D.,  president  of  Harvard  College 

Amer. ,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander     . 

Amer.  Chesebro,  Caroline,  novelist  and  essayist        .  ,  ., 

Amer  Cheever,  Geo.  B.,  congregational  clergyman  and  author 

Eng.  Cheselden,  William,  an  eminent  anatomist       .  . 

Eng.  Chesterfield,  Philip  D.  Stanhope,  earl  of,  statesman  and  writer 

ItaL  Cherubim,  M.  L.  C.,  musical  composer  . 

Fr.  Chevalier,  Michael,  engineer,  traveller  and  statesman 

Fr.  Chevreul,  M.  E.,  chemisi       .  .  .         . 

Acer.  Child,  Lydia  Maria,  author  of  various  works  . 

Eng.  Chilling  worth,  Wm.,  theologian  and  author     .         r--. 

•'  -r.  Chilo,  Euphorus  of  Sparta,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men 

.AOier.  Chipman,  Nathaniel,  jurist  and  statesman       .         •.•.- 

Eng.  Chitty,  Joseph,  author  of  numerous  works  on  law    . 

PoL  Chlopicki,  J.,  military  commander,  dictator  of  Poland 

^Lmer.  Choate,  Rufus,  advocate,  jurist  and  senator 

Fr.  Choiseul-Stainville  C.  A.  G.,  duke  of,  statesman  and  author 

Eng.  Choules,  John  Overtoil,  D.  D.,  Baptist  minister  and  author 

£twe.  Christina,  queen,   (daughter  of  G.  Adolphus)   . 

Afi-.c.  Christophe,  a  slave,  afterwards  King  of  Hayti        . 

'jr.  Chrysiphus,  a  stoic  philosopher  .          '..«•'          . 

Gr.  Chrysostom,  John,  Christian  father  and  orator       . 

Amer.  Church,  Benj.,  military  commander  and  author  . 

Eng.  Churchill,  Charles,  a  satirical  poet  .  . 

Eng.  Cibber,  Colley,  tragic  and  comic  actor  and  poet  . 

Rom.  Cicero,  Marcus  Tullins,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators 

ItaL  Cimarosa,  Dominic,  dramatic  and  music  composer       • 

Gr.  Cimon,  an  Athenian  general          .  .  . 

Rom.  Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quintius,  the  patriot         .  . 

Bom.  Cinna,  Lucius,  Cornelius,  partisan  of  Marius  . 

Ital.  Cirillo,  Dominic,  a  botanist  and  physician          .  . 

Amer.  Clair,  Arthur  St.,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  rc\ol  ition 

Fr.  Clairaut,  Alexis  Claude,  geometrician  .  . 

Amer.    Clap,  Thomas,  president  of  Yale  College  • 

Scot..  Clapperton,  Hugh,  traveller  in  Africa  .  . 

Eng.  Clare,  John,  poet  .          ,     ..:         . 

Bag.  Clarendon,  G.  W.  F.,  Villiers,  earl  of,  statesman  • 


BORN. 

DIED 

• 

1720 

173? 

, 

1746 

1S2J 

. 

1632 

1761 

. 

1715 

LSt" 

Ohio 

1808 

, 

1799 

• 

1765 

1849 

• 

1706 

1749 

. 

1734 

1788 

veller 

1769 

1S4S 

. 

1795 

185; 

. 

1593 

"636 

• 

1708 

1778 

• 

1752 

1770 

• 

1328 

1400 

. 

1671 

• 

1940 

• 
• 

1807 

, 

1688 

1752 

liter 

1694 

1773 

. 

1760 

1840 

. 

1606 

, 

1786 

• 

1802 

. 

1602 

1644 

.  f.  B.  0, 

598 

. 

1752 

1843 

. 

1776 

1841 

• 

1772 

1854 

. 

1799 

1859 

ir   . 

1762 

sr 

iso: 

1856 

. 

1&>,1 

1669 

. 

1761: 

1820 

B.  0. 

280 

207 

. 

0-ti 

407 

. 

ier,s 

1718 

• 

17S1 

1764 

. 

1671 

175T 

.  B.  0. 

105  E 

C.  43 

1754 

1S01 

B. 

o.  J4« 

f.  B.  0. 

466 

f.  B.  0. 

SV 

. 

1734 

1799 

. 

1818 

. 

1713 

176J 

• 

1703 

1767 

• 

178S 

182; 

• 

1703 

:.w 

• 

1800 

940  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NAT1QX.  NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BORN.  MBl- 

Amcr.    Clark,  Louis  Gaylord,  editor  of 'Knickerbocker*    .  •  1800 

An:*-.    ,  Willis  Gay  lord,  poet  and  est-ayist                         .  .       1810  1341 

Arr  tr.    ,  Wra.,  general,  explorer  of  Rocky  Mountains  .  1770  183? 

EjLg.  Clarke,  Dr.  Adam,  a  celebrated  theulogian  and  commentator  .        1760  1833 

Eng. ,  Dr.  Edward  Dauiel,  traveller  and  mineralogist  .  1767  1821 

Amer.    Clarke,  James  Freeman,  clergyman  and  author  .  .        1810 

Eng. ,  Mary  Cowden,  author  of '  Concordance  to  Shakespeare,'  Ac.  1809 

Amer.    ,  McDonald  '  the  crazy  poet,'             .               .               .  1798  1842 

Eng.      ,  Rev.  Samuel,  'Annotations  on  the  Bible'           .  .        1627  1701 

Eng.       ,  Samuel  D.,  '-heologian  and  philosopher       .              .  1675  172>> 

E:i£. ,  Sir  James,  medical  author       .... 

Entf.  Clurkson,  Thomas,  philanthropist              •              •              *  1761  1846 

Ron".  Claudius,  Appius,  decemvir      ...               .  .                   B.C.  450 

Eng.  Claverhouse,  John  Graham  of,  Viscount  Dundee                   .  1627  1701 

Span.  Clavigero,  Francis  X.,  historian  of  Mexico       .              .  .       1720  1793 

Amer.  Ciay,  Cassius  M.,  anti-slavery  politician                    .              .  1810 

Amer.  ,  Clement  C.,  ex-senator  of  U.  8.  from  Alabama       .  .       1789 

Amer.  ,  Henry,  statesman  and  diplomatist      .               .               .  177T  1852 

•Amer.  Clayton,  John,  an  eminent  physician  and  botanist           •  .        1715  1773 

Amer.  Clayton,  John  M.,  senator  and  secretary  of  state       *               .  1796  1K5<* 

Or.  Cleanthes,  a  stoic  philosopher              .              .              .  .    f.  260 

Amer.  Cleaveland,  Parker,  mineralogist  and  chemist          .              .  1780  1>5S 

Amer.  CU-mens,  Jeremiah,U.  S.  senator  from  Alabama              •  .       1814 

Clement,  the  n:itne  of  14  popes  and  3  antipopes 

Gr.  — — ,  of  Alexandria,  a  '  father  of  the  church  *            .  •  220 

Gr.  Clementi,  Muzio,  musical  composer                                .           .  1832 

Gr.  Cleobolus,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men                 .              .  ,     £559 

Ital.  Cleon,  an  Athenian  politician  and  demagogue          .              .                        B.  o  442 

Egypt.  Cleopatra,  a  voluptuous  queen              .              .              .  .                 B.  c.    30 

Swiss.  Clerc,  Jean  le,  theological  writer                  .               .               .  1656  1736 

Fr.  Ait . ,  Laurent,  the  oldest  living  teacher  of  deaf  mutes     .  .       1785 

Amer.  Clinton,  Dewitt,  governor  and  benefactor  of  New  York         .  1769  183 

Amer. ,  James,  general  Amer.  Rev.       ....       1736  181S 

Amer. ,  George,  governor  of  New  York  and  vice-president  of  U.  8.    1739  ''Wt 

Eng.  i, live,  Robert,  lord,  military  commander            .              .  .       1725  177  i 

Fr.  Cloquet,  Hyppolite,  (brother  of  Jules),  anatomist   .               .  1787 

Fr.  Clot,  or  Ulot-Bey,  surgeon  and  medical  writer  in  Egypt  .       1795 

Amer.  Cobb,  Lyman,  lexicographer  and  author    ...  186S 

Eng.  Cobbett,  William,  political  writer                        •              .  .        1762  1835 

Eng.  Cobden,  Richard,  statesman  and  reformer                .               .  1804  1865 

Eng.  Gobham,  Sir  Jno.  Oldcastle,  lord,  martyr          .              •  .       1360  1417 

Eng.  Cochrane,  Earl  Dundonald,  naval  commander          .              .  1775  1860 

Eng.  Oodrington,  Sir  Edward,  vice-admiral              ...       1770  1851 

Eng.  Coffin,  Sir  laaao.  admiral,  (b.  in  UTantncket)              .              .  1759  1839 

Eng.  Cogan,  Thomas,  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer    .  .       1736  1818 

Jffing.  Ccke,  Sir  Edward,  a  learned  judge              .              .              .  1549  1634 

Fr.  Colbert,  John  Baptist,  an  eminent  statesman    .              .  .       1619  1683 

Amer.  Coiburn,  Warren,  mathematician,  arithmetician,  Ac.  .  ,       1793  1823 

Amer. ,  Zerah,  precocious  arithmetician  .               .  1804  1840 

4mer.  Colden,  Cadwallader,  an  eminent  botanist,  astronomer,  &o.  .       1688  1778 

Amer.  ,  Cadwalladnr  D.,  statesman,  biographer  of  Fulton,  &o.  1769  1834 

;d  ng.  Coleridge,  tfartley,  author  and  poet           .              .              .  1707  18*9 


BIOGBAPHICAL   INDEX.  941 

WATIOK.  NAME   AND    PROFESSION.                                                          BORN.  UIKD. 

Bag.  Coleridge,  Henry  Nelson,  litterateur                   .              .          (sbt.)  1800  184S 

Eng.      ,  Sarah,  daughter  of  Samuel  T.,  author            .              .  1803  1852 

Eng.      ,  Samuel  T.,  poet  and  metaphysician          .              ."  177"  1&34 

Fr-  Coligni,  Gaspard  de,  admiral                 .               .              .              .  lf  17  1573 

Eng.  Collingwood,  Cuthbert,  lord,  admiral           ...  1743  1810 

Bug.  Collins,  William,  a  popular  poet           ....  1720  1758 

Eng.  Coleman,  Benjamin,  a  learned  divine,  (in  Boston)    .              .  1673  1747 

Eng.      ,  George,  dramatic  writer         ....  1733  1784 

Eng. ,  George,  (tae  younger),  dramatist  .              .  1762  1836 

Fr.  Colombat,de  1'Isere,  medical  writer     ...          (abt.)  1800 

Amor.  Colton,  Calvin,  clergyman  and  political  writer          .              .  1789  '857 

Eng       •— rC^C.,  author  of  'Lacon'          .....  1773  1832 

Amor.  — i ,  Q-eoige  H.,  author  of  Tecumseh,'  &o.          .               .  1818  1847 

Amer.  — — — ,  Walter,  Rev.  author  of  voyages  and  travels       .               .  1797  1851 

Ital.  Columbus,  Christopher,  the  discoverer  of  America                .  1441  1506 

Scot.  Combe,  Andrew,  medical  and  physiological  writer         .              .  1797  1847 

Scot. ,  George,  phrenologist  and  philosopher  .              .  1778  1858 

Tr.  Comines,  Philip  de,  statesman  and  historian     .              .              .  1445  '609 

Mex.  Comonfort,  Ygnacio,  President  of  Mexico                .              .  1812 

Amer.  Comstuck,  John  L.,  author  of  popular  school-books       .              .  1789  1358 

Fr.  Compte,  Auguste,  metaphysician,  founder  of  "Positiveism"  1798  T.857 

Amer.  Conant,  Thomas  J.,  D.  D.,  biblical  scholar  and  critic     .              .  1802 

Span.  Concha,  Jose  de  la,  capta  n-general  of  Cuba              .              .  1800 

Fr.  Conde,  Louis  IL  of  Bourbon                 ....  1621  1688 

Fr.  Condillac,  Stephen  Bonnet  de,  metaphysical  writer               .  1715  3.780 

Fr.  Condorcet,  M.  J.  A.  N.,  Marquis  of,  metaphysician        .               .  1743  '^94 

Amer.  Cone,  Spencer  Houghton,  baptist  clergyman            .              .  1785  1855 

Chin.  Confucius,  a  celebrated  philosopher                    .              .              B.  c.  550 

Eng.  Congreve,  Sir  William,  inventor  of  the  '  Congreve  rocket  *         .  1772  1828 

Qr.  Conon,  an  Athenian  general              .              .              .          .                        a.  .;.  390 

Amer.  Conrad,  Robert  T.,  judge,  politician  and  poet       .          .              .  IS'li  1856 

Fr.  Considerant,  Victor,  socialist  philosopl  er                  .               .  1805 

Scot.  Constable,  Archibald,  publisher  of  Scott's  poems,  miscellany,  &o.  1776  1827 

Fr.  Constant,  Benjamin,  statesman  and  metaphysician         .               .  1767  I«.830 

Gr.  Constantiue,  (the  Great),  the  first  Christian  emperor            .  274  337 

Gr. •,  VII.,  (Porphyrogenitus)  emperor  and  author         .  905  959 

Gr. ,  XII.  (Paleologus),  the  last  of  the  Greek  emperors  1403  1453 

Ir.  Am.  Conway,  Thomas,  maj.  gen.  in  Revolution  a  '  cnbaler,'  &c.  .  (abt.    1778 

Eng.  Conybeare,  William  D.,  clergyman  and  geologist                  .  1787  1857 

Eng.       -,  William  G-.  (son  of  the  above),  author  of '  Life  of  St.  Paul'  185T 

Eng.  Cook,  Eliza,  poetess                  .....  1818 

Eng.       ,  James,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator                .               .  17i8  1776 

Eng.  Cooke,  George  F.,  an  eminent  actor                    ...  1756  1812 

Eng.       ,  George  Musgrove,  '  History  of  Party*           .               .  1814  186* 

Amer.    ,  John  Esten,  novelist  and  poet                  ...  1830 

Amer    ,  Philip  P.,  poet       .....  1816  18SO 

Eng.      ,  T.  P.,  actor     .              .....  1786  1864 

Eng.  Cooper,  Bramsley,  surgeon  and  author       .              .  1792  1853 

Amer, ,  James  Fenimore,  novelist,  traveller  and  historian    ,  1789  1851 

Amer.    ,  Peter,  merchant  and  philanthropist  founder  of  Instiiu*4  1791 

Amer.   ,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  a  divine  and  political  writer       .              .  1725  178J 

Big.      8ir  A-siley  Fax'.on,  physician  and  medlcr".  wr'.ter           .  1768  184! 


942  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 

NATION.  HAME   AND   PROFESSION.  EOBS.  BUD: 

E»g.  Cooper,  Thomas,  chemist,  jurist,  and  politician  (in  Amer.)         .  1759  184« 

Eng. ,  Thomas  A.,  actor       .....  1776  J84« 

Irish.  Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  commander  in  India                .            •  .'             .  1726  178S 

Pruss.  Copernicus,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  the  reviver  of  the 

Pythagorean  system  of  the  universe        .              .              .  1473  1543 

Eng.  Copley,  John  Singleton,  Lord  Lynuhurst  (born  in  Boston,  U.  8.)  1772  1863 

Fr.  Corday  d'Armans,  M.  Charlotte  de,  guillotined  in  Revolution     .  1768  1783 

Ger.  Corinna,  a  poetess,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century  before  Christ 

Rom.  Coriolanus,  Cains  Marcius,  a  warrior    .  .          ' ''.-' '      "',•"'  B.C.    488 

Fr.  Cormenin,  L.  M.  de  la  Haye,  vicompte  de,  political  writer         .  1788 

ItaL  Cornaro,  Louis,  a  noble  author  of  a  book  on  temperance              .  1467  1561 

Eng.  Cornbury,  Ed.  Hyde,  lord,  governor  of  New  York    '  ".              ,  1723 

Fr.  Corneille,  Peter,  an  eminent  dramatic  writer    .         ''"•''.'.'*         •  1606  1684 

Fr. ,  Thomas  (brother  of  Peter),  poet  and  dramatist            .  1625  1708 

Fr.  Cornelli,  Mark  Vincent,  a  Venetian  geographer  and  historian     .  1718 

Eng.  Cornwallis,  Charles,  marquis,  military  com.  in  Amer.  and  India  1738  1806 

Bpan.  Cortez,  Fernando,  the  brutal  conqueror  of  Mexico          .'              .  1485  1554 

Amer.  Corwin,  ThomaH,  statesman,  sec.  of  treasury,  gov.  of  Ohio         .  1794 

Ital.  Cosmo  I.  de  Medici,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany     .              .              .  1519  1594 

ItaL            "     1L          "                  "                  "                                    .  1590  1621 

Ital.           "  ILL          "                 «                 "...  1642  1723 

ItaL  Coeta,  Paolo,  litterateur  .....  1771  1836 

Eng.  Costello,  Dudley,  author  and  journalist            ...  1803  1865 

Irish. ,  Louisa  Stuart,  author  of  memoirs  .  .^  1815 

Dutch.  Coster,  John  Lawrence,  one  of  the  supposed  inventors  of  printing  1370  1440 

Ger.  Cotta,  Baron  F.,  publisher  and  statesman          ...  1764  1832 

Eng.  Cottenham,  C.  J.  Pepys,  lord  chancellor              .                    .  1781  1851 

Fr.  Cottin,  Sophie,  Madame,  a  novelist      ....  1773  1807 

Eng.  Cottle,  Amos,  versifier      .               '.              .              .              .  1800 

Eng.  ,  Jos.,  publisher '  Recollections  of  Coleridge  •        .              .  1770  1853 

Eng.  Coiton,  Charles,  humorist  and  poet             ...  1630  1687 

Amer. ,  John  (of  Boston),  a  learned  divine       ...  1585  1652 

Eng.. ,  Sir  Stapleton,  Viscount  Combermere,  general            .  1773  1866 

Fr.  Coulomb.  Charles  Augustine  de,  philosopher    .              .              .  1736  1806 

Fr.  Hag.  Courayer,  P.  Francis  le,  Homan  Catholic  theologian           .  1681  1776 

Fr.  Courier,  Paul  Louis,  poet  and  satirist  ....  1772  1826 

Fr. ,  Paul  Louis,  political  writer             .               .               .  1774  1826 

Fr.  Court  de  Gebelin,  Anthony,  an  antiquarian  and  author  .              .  1725  1784 

Fr.  Cousin,  Louis,  historian  .               .          '    «              ._"            .  1627  1707 

Fr. ,  Victor,  statesman  and  metaphysician  ...  1792  1867 

Eng.  Coverdale,  Miles,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  trans.  Bible      .              .  1485  1566 

Eng.  Cowley,  Abraham,  poet           .              .              .              .              .1618  1667 

2Cng.  Cowper,  William,  lord  chancellor  ....  1664  1728 

Eng. ,  William,  poet              .....  1731  1800 

Amer.  Coxe,  Arthur  Cleveland,  episcopal  bishop  and  poet.  .  1818 

Amer.  ,  Samuel  H.,  presbyterian  author  and  clergyman   .  .        1793 

Amer.  Coxe,  Tench,  writer  on  political  economy   .              .              .  1756  1824 

Eng. ,  William,  traveller  and  historian              ...  1747  1828 

Amer.  Cozzens,  Fred  S.,  author  of  essays  and  poems          .  .  1818 

Eng.  Crabb,  George,  philologist,  author  of  synonyms           ,,'•"          •  1778  1854 

Eng.  Crabbe,  Rev.  George,  poet              •              .                            ,  1754  1833 

Ger.       Cramer,  John  Andrew,  miscellaneous  writer  .             •             •  1728  17W 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  943 


VATIOW.                                                          HAMS   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN. 

Eng.      Cramer,  7.  Baptist,  musical  composer        *              •              •  1771  185S 

Eng.     --  ,  Francis,           "             "                         .              .  .       1772  184? 

Amer.   Cranch,  "Wm  jnrtst,  judge  U.  S.  District  Court  D.  0.             .  1779  1855 

Eng.      Cranmer,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  reformer           .              •  .        1489  1551 

Eng.      Crashaw,  Richard,  poet  and  divine              .              .              .  1650 

Rom.     Crassus,  Marcus  Lucinius,  (the  rich)  military  commander  •              B.  o.      53 

Amer.    Crawford,  William  H.,  statesman  and  jurist            .               .  1772  1834 

Fr          Crebillon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  tragic  poet            .              .  •        1674  176J 

Ger.       Ci-euzer,  Geo.  Fred.,  philologist  and  antiquary         .              .  1771  1858 

Fr.         Oevier,  John  Baptist  Lewis,  historian              .              .  •       1693  1768 

Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,  famed  for  riches   .              .              .  B.  o.  6th  Cent. 

Eng.      Croft,  Wm.,  musical  doctor  and  composer         .              .  .       1657  1727 

Irish.     Croker,  John  Wilson,  statesman  and  author            .              •  1780  1357 

Irish.     -  ,  Thos.  Crofton,  author  of  '  Fairy  Legends,'  &o.  .       1798  1854 

Eng.      Croly,  Rev.  George,  poet  and  novelist    .                                    ,  1780  1360 

Eng.      Cromwell,  Oliver,  military  commander  and  statesman    .  .       1599  1658 

Eng.      -  ,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex,  successor  to  Wolsey         .  1490  "640 

Eng.      Crowe,  Catherine,  author  of  'Nightside  of  Nature*       .  . 

Eng.      Cruikshank,  George,  artist,  chiefly  caricature           .              .  1780 

Eng.                       <  ,  Robert,  humorous  artist                 .              .  .       1794  1856 

Scot      Cruden,  Alexander,  author  of  a  'Concordance  to  the  Bible*  1701  1770 

Eng.      Cudworth,  Ralph,  philosopher              .              .              .  .       1617  10f8 

Amer.  Cuffee,  Paul,  philanthropic  sea-captain       •              .              •  1759  1818 

Scot.      Cullen,  William,  an  eminent  physician              ...       1712  1730 

Eng.      Cumberland,  Richard,  a  multifarious  writer            .              .  1732  1811 

Eng.      --  ,  William  Augustus,  duke  of,  military  commander  .       1721  1765 

Scot.      Cumming,  John,  popular  preacher  and  theological  author    .  1810 

Scot.      -  ,  Rouallyn  W.  G.,  sportsman,  traveller,  and  author  .       1820 

Soot.      Cunningham,  Allan,  poet,  biographer,   &c.               .               .  1768  18*2 

Irish.     Curran,  John  Pbilpot,  a  celebrated  barrister  and  orator  .        1750  IS"1? 

Amer.   Curtis,  Benj.  R.,  jurist  and  judge  of  Supreme  Court  U.  8.  .       1809 

Amer.    -  ,  Geo.  Ticknor,  political  writer  and  jurist       .              .  1812 

Amer.   -  ,  Geo.  Wm.,  essayist,  traveller,  and  critio             .  .       1824 
Rom.     Curtius,  Rufus  Quintus,  historian.               ... 
Amer.    Cushing,  Caleb,  statesman  and  jurist                ...       1800 

Amer.    Cushman,  Charlotte  8.,  actress      ....  1816 

E.  Am.  -  ,  Robert,  one  of  the  founders  of  Plymouth        .  .       1580  1615 

Amer.    Custis,  Geo.  W.  Parke,  adopted  son  of  Washington              .  1781  1857 

Fr.         Cuvier,  George,  baron,  one  of  the  greatest  of  naturalist*  .       1769  1832 

Fr.         -  ,  Fred.,  (brother  of  the  baron)  naturalist        .              .  1773  1838 

Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  an  eminent  father  of  the  church  .  258 

Cyril,  of  Alexandria,  saint  and  patriarch,  and  theol.  writer  .  S76  444 

——,  of  Jerusalem,  saint  and  archbishop,  and  author  .  .         315  380 

-  ,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Sclav!              ...  822 

Pcre.     Cyrus,  the  Elder,  founder  of  the  Persian  empire              .  .                B.C.    559 

Pers.     -  (  the  Younger,  (son  of  Darius  Nothus)  king  of  Persia  .  •_.  o.    400 

PoL        Czartoryaki,  Adam,  prince,  head  of  the  Polish  nation     .  .       1770  186C 

D 

Fr.        Dader,  Anne,  a  celebrated  clasfdcal  scholar             .             .  i651  1721 

Fr.         Dag-nerre,  Louis  J.  M.,  inventor  of  daguerreotyplng     .  .       1788  1851 
Amer.  Dahlgren,  John  A.,  naval  officer  and  author              .              . 


944  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

HATI01T.                                                         SAME   AND   PROFBS8IOX.  BOR5.  DIBD. 

Amer.    Dahlglen,  CoL  TJlr'.c,  mil  it.  officer        ....       1842  1864 

Swe.      Dahlman,  Fred  O.,  historian          ....  1785 

Amer.    Dale,  Richard,  commodore  in  Revol.  war           .              .  •       1756  182- 

Bwe.       Dalin,  Glaus  von,  the  father  of  Swedish  poetry       .              .  1708  1753 

Amer.   Dallas,  Commodore  A.  J.,  naval  commander    ...       1791  1844 

Amer.   ,  Geo.,  M.,  vice-pres.  U.  8.  and  diplomatist     .              .  1792 

Amer.   ,  John  Alexander,  secretary  treasury  U.  8.           .  .       1759  1817 

Eng.      Dalton,  John,  chemist  and  mathematician   .              .              .  1768  1844 

Ger.       Damm,  Christian  Tobias,  Greek  lexicographer                 .  .        1699  1778 

Eng.      Dampier,  William,  an  eminent  navigator      .               .               .  1652  1711 

Amer,    Dana,  James  D.,  mineralogist,  geologist,  «fcc.    •               .  .        1813 

Amer.   ,  Richard  H.,  poet  and  essayist           .              »              .  1787 

Amer.    ,  Richard  H.  Jr.,  advocate  and  traveller                 .  .       1815 

Amer.    ,  Samuel  L.,  agricultural  chemist       .               .               •  1795 

Venet.  Dandolo,  Enrico,  doge  of  Venice           .               .              •  .        1110  1205 

Amer.    Dane,  Nathan,  jurist  and  legal  author        ...  1752  1835 

Eng.      Daniell,  John  F.,  chemist        .....       1790  1845 

Eng.      ,  W.,  B.  A.,  author  of  pictorial  works  on  India          .  1837 

Ger.       Dannecker,  sculptor  ('Ariadne,' &c.)            .                  .  •       1758  1841 

ItaL       Dante  Alighieri,  the  sublimest  erf  the  Italian  poets                  .  1265  1321 

Fr.         Dan  ton,  Geo.  Jacques,  leading  revolutionist     .              .  .        1759  1794 

Ital.       Da  Ponte,  Lorenzo,  poet  and  dramatist  (d.  at  N.  Y.)             •  1749  1838 

Eng.      D'Arblay,  Madame,  (Fanny  Burney)  novelist    .              .  .       1752  1840 

Eng.      Darling,  Grace,  famed  for  rescue  of  nine  persons  wrecked      .  1815  1842 

Amor.    Darlington,  Wm.,  botanist  and  politician    ...  1782 

Eng.      Daubeny,  Chas.  J.  B.,  natural  philos.  and  geologist        .  . 

Aust.    Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Mary  count  de,  military  commander  .  1705  1766 

Fr.         Daunou,  P.  C.  F.,  statesman  and  litterateur       .               .  .       1761  1840 

Eng.      Davenant,  Sir  Wm,  dramatist                       .  1605  1688 

Amer.    Davidson,  Lucretia  M.,  a  youthful  poetess  of  uncommon  genius  .       1808  1840 

Amer.    Davidson,  Margaret  Miller  (sister  of  above),  poet            .  .       1823  1838 

Amer.    Davies,  Charles,  mathematician    ....  1798 

,    Samuel,  president  of  Princeton  College,  theol.  writer  •       1724  1761 

Ital.       Davila,  Henry  Catharine,  an  historian        .              .              .  1576  1031 

Amer.   Davis,  Andrew  J.,  clairvoyant  and  writer  on  spiritualism  .       1826 

Amer.   ,  Charles  H.,  mathematician  and  naval  officer               .  1807 

Amer.    ,  Jefforson,  general  and  U.  8.  senator  from  Mississippi  .        1808 

Eng.      ,  John,  a  navigator,  discoverer  of  Davis  Straits            .  1605 

Amer.   ,  Matthew  L.,  biographer  of  Burr,  &o.      .               .  .       1766  1850 

Fr.         Davoust,  Louis  N.,  one  of  Bonaparte's  generals         .              .  1770  1823 

Eng.      Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  eminent  chemist              ...       1778  1829 

Amer.   Day,  Stephen,  the  first  printer  in  New  England       •              .  1611  1668 
Amer.    Dayton,  Wm.  Lewis,  jurist  and  statesman        ...       1807 

Amer.    Deane,  Silas,  minister  of  the  U.  8.  to  France             .              .  1758  1789 

Amer    Dearborn,  Henry,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  two  American  -vars   1751  1829 

A  me: ,    De  Bow,  J.  D.  B.,  journalist  and  statistician            .              .  1820 

Fr.         Debruce,  William  Francis,  a  bookseller  and  bibliographer  .       1731  1782 

Swiss.    Decandolle,  A.  P.,  botanist            ....  1778  1841 

Amer.    Decatur,  Stephen,  a  gallant  commodore  In  the  U.  S.  navy  .       1779  1820 

Eng.      Decker.  Thomas,  dramatic  poet      .              .              .              •  1638 

Eng.      Dee,  John,  mathematician  and  astrologer          .              .  •       1627  1618 

Eng.      Defoe,  Daniel,  miscellaneous  writer           .             .             .  1661  17JJ 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


945 


•ATJOJf.                                                         HAMB    ASD    PROFESSION. 

BOmH. 

PIBD. 

G.  Am.  UeKalb,  John,  baron,  maj.-gen.  in  Am.  revol.  army       . 

1782 

1780 

Eng.      De  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry  T.,  geologist           .               ,              .' 

1796 

1855 

Fr.         Delambre,  John  Baptist  Joseph,  astronomer     .               , 

1749 

1822 

Ampr.   Delancey,  William  H.,  Epis.  Bishop  West  New  York 

1797 

186- 

Fr.         Delavigne,  Casimir,  dramatist       .               .               .               . 

1794 

1S43 

Fr.         Delille,  James,  a  celebrated  poet          .              .              . 

1738 

1813 

Fr.         Delisle,  Joseph  Nicholas,  an  eminent  astronomer          . 

1688 

1768 

Swiss.    Delolme,  Jean  L.,  author  of  a  work  on  the  English  Constitution         1740 

1806 

Swisz.    Delnc,  Jean  Andr6,  natural  philosopher 

1727 

1817 

PoL       Dembinski,  Henry  K.,  general  in  Hungarian  revolt               . 

1791 

1864 

Gr.         Demetrius  Phalereus,  Athenian  orator  and  statesman  .                B.  c.  345 

B.  0.  28^ 

Bn      OP1^ 

Gr.        Democritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher               .              .               .B.C.  460 

.    <J»    —  <J<- 

Kng.      De  Morgan,  Augustus,  mathematician         .               .               . 

1806 

Gr.        Demosthenes,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators     .              . 

.  B.  c.  381 

13.  0.  322 

Eng.      Denham,  Lieut.-Col.  Dixon,  an  enterprising  traveller              • 

1786 

1828 

Ital.      Denina,  Charles  John  Maria,  an  historian           .              . 

.        173. 

1813 

Eng.     Denman,  Thomas,  lord  chief  justice  of  England         .              • 

^fet 

1851 

Amer.  Dennie,  author  and  editor  of  '  Portfolio,'  &c.                   . 

.       17.  '8 

1812 

Amer.  Dennis,  John,  critic,  embalmed  in  '  Dunciad1            .              . 

1757 

1783 

Fr.        D'Eon,  Chevalier,  equerry  to  Louis  XV.            .              . 

1728 

1810 

Eng.      DoQuincy,  Thomas,  essayist  and  critic       .              .              . 

1786 

1859 

Eng.      Derby,  Edw.  G.  S.  Stanley,  fourteenth  earl  of,  statesmar. 

1799 

Rusa.     Derzhavine,  Gabriel  R.,  a  poet  and  statesman        ;.              . 

1743 

1816 

Fr.          DesaU,  Louis  Charles  Anthony,  military  commander  . 

.        1768 

1800 

Fr.         Descartes,  Rene,  an  eminent  philosopher  .              .              . 

1596 

H550 

Fr.          Desmoulins,  Camille,  revolutionist  and  author                . 

1762 

1794 

Afric.     Dessalines,  John  James,  Emperor  of  Hayti              .              . 

1760 

1806 

Span.     De  Soto,  Fernando,  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi            . 

1500 

1542 

Fr.         Destouches,  Philip  Nericault,  dramatic  writer        .              . 

1680 

1754 

Dutch.  Deurhoff,  William,  founder  of  a  sect,  and  an  author 

1650 

1717 

Dan.  Am.     De  Vere,  Maximilian  Schele,  philologist  and  essayist     . 

1820 

Eng.      Devereux,  Robert,  third  Earl  of  Essex,  parliamentary  genei  a". 

1592 

1646 

Fr.         De  Vigr.y,  Alfred,  count,  poet  and  novelist 

1799 

1863 

Amer.    Deweep,  W.  P.,  medical  writer 

1768 

1841 

Ger.       De  Wette,  William  M.  L.,  theologian  and  biblical  critic        . 

17*) 

1849 

Amer.    Dewey,  Orville,  Unitarian  divine  and  essayist 

1794 

Dutch.  De  Witt,  John,  an  eminent  statesman         .              .              . 

1625 

1672 

Port.      Diaz,  Bartholomew,  discoverer  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

1500 

gpan.     j  del  Castillo,  Bernal,  adventurer  and  chronicler 

[abt  )  1560 

Eng.      Dibdin,  Charles,  a  dramatic  and  musical  composer  . 

174* 

1814 

IT  .;                      Thomas  C^on  of  Olnvlcs)  drimnti^t  and  sons?  Tvritcr 

.        1771 

1841 

jjngg      f  Thomas  Frognall,  bibliographer     .               .               . 

1770 

1847 

Scot.      Dick,  Thomas,  author  of  '  Christian  Philosopher'          . 

1772 

T8S9 

Eng.      Dickens,  Charles,  novelist              .... 

1812 

Amor.  Dickinson,  Daniel  S.,  statesman           ... 

1SOO 

1865 

Tnliti    mitbor  of  '  Firmor'fl  T  ottorfl  ' 

1732 

180S 

Fr.         Diderot,  Denis,  first  editor  of  '  Encyclop6die  M6thodique* 

1713 

1784 

Fr.         Didot,  Francis  A.,  a  celebrated  printer  and  type-founder      . 

173'J 

1804 

Fr.         ,  Firmin,  publisher  and  men  ber  of  Deputies         . 

1764 

I'M 

Fr.         ,  Amb.  Firmin,  publisher  and  traveller          .              . 

1790 

Egypt.  Didymns,  -who  wrote  from  3,000  to  6,000  works                . 

£  a.  c.  SO 

40* 


946 


THE  WOBLD'S  PROGRESS. 


NATION.                                                         NAME    AND    PROFESSION. 

BOBN 

T>1«9. 

Pruss.   Die'bitsch-Za'baJkaiisky,  count,  military  commander             • 

1785 

1S31 

Qer.       Diffenbach,  John  Fred.,  surgeon  and  surgical  author      .              • 

1792 

1847 

Span.     Diez,  John  Martin,  a  patriotic  military  commander                      . 

1775 

1825 

Eng.      Dilke,  Charles  W.,  journalist,  editor  of  '  Athenaeum*           . 

1810 

1864 

Ger.       Dindorf,  William,  philologist              .... 

1802 

Maced.  Dinocrates,  an  architect;  built  Alexandria,  &c.       .               .   f  .  B 

C.  350 

Rom.     Diocletian,  Valerius,  emperor            ;  .              .              .              . 

245 

313 

Gr.         Dio-Ohrysostom,  a  rhetorician  and  philosopher     .              .       f.  B 

.  C.30 

Swiss.    Diodati,  Giovanni,  theologian,  translator  of  Bible          . 

1576 

164* 

Gr.         Diodorus  Sicnlus,  a  historian           .              .              .              .    f.  B 

.0.10 

Gr.         Diogenes,  the  cynic,  philosopher.              .              .              .          B. 

0.413 

B.  0.  323 

/"i_                                        1  •  ort'n-    V!«~—  A^VA. 

vrr.                           ,  .Ljtieriiius,  uiograpue.                 •                .               .                • 

Gr.        Dion-Cassius,  author  of  •  Roman  History  *  .              .              . 

155 

Gr         Dionysius,  a  geographer        ..... 

f.  140 

Gr.         ,  of  Alexandria,  saint  and  bishop  of  the  Church    . 

265 

f]r                                      tbr   \rpnTlirntr    Imrnrd    'VtTirnin.n    Olrri'tliii                       A 

D     1st 

A 

'                               '  th       Id        t  •     't    f  °                                                             " 

O  430     **   **  Q*?'7 

r.                          ,      ee    er,   jra     o     yracuse              .              .             B. 

D.   \J.   N  | 

'  -1 

^    '                                   '  H  '  l_+«*a.  

0.367 

wm 

B.  c.  343 

(jr.                          ,  me  younger,  iy  rani  01  csyracuse              •              •       B. 

Eng.      Disraeli,  Isaac,  '  Curiosities  of  Literature'          ... 

1767 

1848 

Amer.   Dix,  D^r'-thea  L.,  philanthropist,  founder  of  asylums            . 

Amer.   ,  John  Adams,  U.  S.  senator  from  New  York,  dec.                 . 

Eng.      Dixon,  Vlliam  Hepworth,  author  and  critic            .              . 

1821 

Amer.   Doane,  -jreo.  W.,  Prot.  Epis.  Bishop  of  New  Jersey,  poet,  &c.     . 

1799 

is:,» 

Eng.      Dobell,  S^diey,  poet         .    '          .              .              .              . 

1824 

Eng.      Dodd,  Dr.  V'illiam,  miscellaneous  writer  (executed  for  forgery) 

1729 

1777 

Eng.      Doddridge,  f  hi?Jp,  a  gifted  and  pious  divine  and  writer        . 

1702 

1756 

Eng.      Dodsley,  Robert,  publisher  and  author              .              .              . 

1703 

1T64 

Ger.       Doebererme-,  7   "W.,  chemist                                     .              . 

1780 

Span.    Dominic  De  -Juzman,  founder  of  preaching  friars          .              . 

1170 

1221 

Rom.     Domitian,  e-nperor            ..... 

52 

96 

Scot.      Don,  David,  ootanist              ..... 

1800 

1840 

Ital.  '    Donatello  (^T-cneto  di  BeHodi  Bardi)  sculptor           .              • 

1383 

1466 

Ital.       Donizetti,  Graetano,  musical  composer              ... 

1797 

1848 

Eng-      Donne,  John,  poet  and  theologian              .              .              . 

1573 

1631 

Eng.      Donovan,  jSdward,  writer  on  natural  history    ... 

1798 

1837 

ItaL       Doria,  Andrew,  the  deliverer  of  his  country,  (Genoa)            . 

1468 

1560 

Amer.    Dorr,  Thomas  "W.,  politician,  elected  (?)  governor  of  Rhode  Island 

1805 

1854 

Fr.  En.  D'Orsay,  Gouiit  Alfred,  author,  artist,  and  '  beau  '                  . 

1798 

1852 

Hind.    Dost-Mohsmmed,  emir  of  Caboo                         .              -              . 

1785 

1863 

Eng.      Douce,  Frr  ncis,  antiquarian  and  author      ... 

1762 

1834 

Scot.     Douglas,  Gawin,  a  poet  and  translator              .              •              . 

1474 
1817 

1521 

Soot.      .  :  Sir  Howard,  general,  military  and  naval  author 

1776 

1861 

A      jir                            DtpTllifMi    \rnnld    TTnitrd  ^titrn  nrmtTir  from    Tllinnlfl 

1813 

1  v.    1 

Amer.   Dow,  Lorenzo,  an  eccentric  preacher  .... 

1777 

lODl 

1834 

Amer.   Downes,  John,  commodore  in  the  United  States  navy           . 

1786 

1855 

Amer.    Down'ng,  Andrew  J.,  author  of  works  on  landscape  gardening 

and  horticulture         ..... 

1815 

1853 

Amer.   Dowse,  Thomas,  a  leather  dresser,  collector  of  a  rare  library 

1772 

1856 

Ctr.         Draco,  an  Athenian  legislator              ...                   t   623 

Eng.       Drake,  Dr.  Nathan,  physician  and  essayist              .              . 

1766 

1831 

BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  94" 

RATION.                                                        MAKE   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  r)TF.-' 

Amer.  Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  poet         ...»  1795  1S2C 

Amer.  ,  Samuel  G.,  historian  of  the  Indians,  Boston,  &o  .       1798 

Eng.  ,  Sir  Francis,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator    .              •  1545  159fl 

E.  Am.  Draper,  John  W.,  chemist  and  physiologist       •              .  •       1811 

Eng.  Drayton,  Michael,  poet,  '  Poly-olbion '          .               .               .  1563  16?'.! 

Dutch.  Drebbel,  Cornelius  van,  inventor  of  the  thermometer    .  .       1572  1634 

Eng.  Drew,  Samuel,  methodist  divine  and  theological  author         •  1765  JtiSJ 

Vr  Drouyn  de  1'Huys,  Edward,  statesman              .              .  .       1805 

Fr.  Droz,  Joseph,  historical  and  political  writer               .               .  1773  I85f, 

Scot.  Drummond,  Captain  Thomas,  inventor  of  Drummond  lights  .       1797  1S40 

Eng.  ,  Sir  Wiliiam,  scholar,  author  and  diplomatist       .  1760  1835 

Scot.  . ,  William,  poet       .....        1585  1.649 

Rom.  Drusus,  Claudius  Nero,  general  in  Gaul  and  Germany         .  B.  c.    38  £ 

Eng.  Dry  den,  John,  an  eminent  poet    ....  1631  1700 

Amer.  Duane,  William,  politician  and  author  of '  Aurora '      .  1760  1835 

Fr.  Ducange,  Charles  Dufresne,  historian  and  philologist           .  1610  1688 

Fr.  Ducas,  Michael,  Byzantine  historian  ....  15th  cent. 

Fr.  Duchatel,  C.  M.  T.,  count,  statesman  and  author    .              .  1803 

Fr.  Duchcsne,  Andrew,  a  historian            .               .               .  •       1584  1640 

Fr.  Duclos,  Charles  Pineau,  an  historian           .              .              •  1704  1722 

Amer.  Duganne,  Augustine  J.  H.,  poet,  novelist  and  politician  •       1823 

Eng.  Dugdale,  Sir  William,  antiquarian  author .              .              .  1605  1686 

Fr.  Duguesclin,  Bertrand,  military  commander     ...       1314  1380 

Fr.  Duhalde,  Jean  B.,  geographer        ...»  1674  1743 

Fr.  Dumas,  Alexandra,  novelist,  traveller,  &c        .              .  .       1803 

Fr. ,  Alexandre,  (the  younger),  novelist  and  dramatist    .  1824 

Fr.  ,  J.  B.,  chemist            .              .              ,          _.  ,; ' .-  .       1800 

Fr.  Dumont  d'Urville,  J.  S.  C.,  circumnavigator            .              .  1790  1842 

Fr.  Bumont,  John,  traveller  and  political  writer    ...  1726 

Swiss. ,  P.  S.  L.,  writer  on  legislation       .              .              .  1759  1829 

Fr.  Domouriez,  Oharlea  Francis  Duperier,  military  commander  .       1730  1823 

Scot.  Dunbar,  George,  professor  at  Edinburgh, 'Greek  Lexicon1  1774  1851 

Scot.  ,  William,  poet                   .              .              .              .  H65  1535 

Scot  Duncan,  Adam,  viscount,  successful  admiral  ...       1731  1804 

Scot. ,  William,  logician  and  translator   •               .               .  1714  1760 

Scot.  Dundas,  Henry,  Viscount  Melville,  statesman                •  .       1741  1811 

Scot.  Dundonald,  Earl  of,  (•  Lord  Cochrane ')  admiral       .               .  1775  1860 

Amer.  Dunglisson,  Robley,  M.  D.,  medical  author        ...        1798 

Amer.  Dunlap,  William,  painter  and  historian       ...  1766  1839 

Eng.  Dunning,  John,  Lord  Ashburton,  lawyer         ...       1731  1783 

Scot.  Duns  Scotus,  John,  scholastic  theologian    .              .              .  J.274  1308 

Eng.  Dunstan,  Saint,  abbot  of  Glastonbury  and  politician      .  .        925  988 

Fr.  Dnpin,  A.  M.  J.  J.,  jurist  and  statesman    .              .              .  1783  1865 

Fr. ,  Charles,  baron,  jurist  and  statesman      .              .  .        1784 

Fr.  ,  Louis  Elie,  an  ecclesiastical  historian            .              .  1637  1719 

Fr.  Duponceau,  P.  S.,  philologist,  jurist,  &«.,  (at  Philadelphia)  .       1760  1844 

Amer.  Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,  admiral.              .              .  1803  1865 

Fr.  Dupuytren,  surgeon  and  anatomist     .              .              ,  1778  1835 

Fr.  Duquesne,  Abraham,  a  gallant  admiral      .              .              ,  1610  1638 

Amer.  Durand,  Asher  Brown,  painter  and  engrave?  ...       1798 

Amer.  Durbin,  John  P.,  methodist  divine  and  author         .              •  1800 

6er.  Durer,  Albert,  painter  and  engi  aver  .                             .  .       1471  1521 


948  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

K/.TIOK.                                                         NAME    AND    PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Amer.  Durfee,  Job,  priest  and  author       ....  1790  1841 

Eng.  Durfey,  Thomas,  dramatic  author      ....  1628  1723 

Eng.  Durham,  J.  G.,  Lambton,  earl  of,  governor-general  of  Canada  .        1792  184C 

Fr.  Duroc,  Michael,  Duke  of  Friuli,  military  commander  '        .  1772  1813 

Amer.  Dwight,  Dr.  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine  and  writer      .  .       1752  1817 

.Amer. ,  Theo.,  author  and  journalist          ...  1765  1849 

Amer.  ,  Theo.,  (son  of  the  above),  ethnologist  and  historian  .  1866 

Amer.  Duyckinck,  Evert  Aug. ,  author  and  critic                .              .  1816 

Amer. ,  Geo.  Long,  author  and  critic           ...  1823  1863 

Scot.  Dye  3,  Alex.,  author  and  critic      .              •              .              .  1797 

Eng.  Dyer,  John,  poet,  '  The  Fleece  »           .              .              .  .       1700  1758 

Eng.  Dymond,  Jona,  writer  on  ethics  and  philanthropist              .  1796  1720 


Amer.  Kastbnrn,  Manton,  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Mass.         .              .  1801 

Eng.  Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  L.,  painter  and  art-critic              .              .  1793 

Amer.  Eaton,  Amos,  botanist      .....  1776           1842 

Amer.  ,  Wm.,  military  officer  and  consul  in  Africa       .              .  1764          1811 

Ger.  Sckenian,  John  Peter,  litterateur              .                            .  1792           1852 

Amer.  Eckford,  Tlenry,  eminent  shipbuilder  ....  1775           1832 

Ger.  Eckhard,  John  George,  an  antiquary  and  historian               «  1674           1730 

Irish.  Edgeworth,  Maria,  novelist    .....  1767           1849 

Eng.  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  a  warrior         ...  1330           1376 

Amer.  ,  i-ola  B.,  theologian  and  miscellaneous  author  .              .  1802 

Bug.  Edwards,  3>yan,  an  historian        ....  1743           1800 

Amer.  , -Vohn  W.,  jurist  and  writer  on  spiritualism      .              .  1799 

Ainer. ,  Jonathan,  an  able  divine  and  metaphysician            .  1703  1757 

,  Milne,  (son  of  W.  F.,)  naturalist          .  .  . 

,  W.  F.,  anatomist  and  physiologist  (born  at  Jamaica)  1777 

Ger.  Eginhard,  in  historian,  biographer  of  Charlemagne       .              .  771            840 

Flem.  Egmont,  7  amoral,  count,  patriot  and  martyr            .              .  1552           1568 

Ger.  Ehrenberg,  C.  J.,  naturalist    .....  1795 

Ger.  Eichbom,  E  C.,  theologian  and  jurist         ...  1781           1854 

Eng.  Eldon,  L^:J,  lord  chancellor  of  England           .              .              .  1750           1838 

Scot.  Elgin,  T.,  :3ruce,  earl  of,  diplomatist— remover  of  '  Elgin'  marbles  1771           1841 

Eng.  Elizabeth,  queen       ......  1533           1603 

Amer.  Eliot,  Sam ael,  author  of '  History  of  Liberty'           .              .  1821 

Eng.  Ellenboro-zgh,  Edw.  Law,  lord  chief-justice     .              .              .  1750          1818 

Eng. ,  Edw.  L.,  earl  of,  governor-general  of  India      .  1790 

Amer.  EMery,  Wm.,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence      .              .  1727           1820 

Eug.  Ellesoere.  Fr.,  Egerton,  earl  of,  statesman  and  author         .  1800           1857 

Amer.  Ellet,  Eliza  F.,  biographer  and  critic  ... 

Amer.  Elliot,  John, 'the  apostle  to  the  Indians'.              .              .  1604           1690 

Eng.  Elliotson,  John,  physician  and  physiologist       .              .       (abt.)  1795 

Amer.  Elliott,  Charles  Loring,  portrait  painter     .              .              .  1812 

Amor.  Charles  Wyllys,  author  of 'History  of  New  England'     .  1817 

Eng.  ,  Ebenezer,  poet  '  Corn  Law  Rhymes'            .              .  1781 

Amer.  ,  J.  D.,  commodore  ia  American  navy               .              .  1785           1845 

Amer.  ,  Stephen,  naturalist            ....  1771           183C 

Amer.  Ellis,  Geo.  E.,  Unitarian  clergyman  and  author              .              .  1815 

Kng.             ,  Sir  Henry,  anticiary  and  author       ...  1777 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  949 

KATIC1C.                                                     NAME   AND   PROFESSION.                                                     BORN.  Dli.Q 

Eng.  Ellis,  "Wm.  Rev.,  missionary  and  author  .  .       (abt.)  1795 

Eng.  Elliston,  Robert  W.,  actor  ....  i771 

Amer.  Ellsworth,  Elmer  E.,  military  officer  in  Union  army     .  .  183T 

Amer.  ,  Oliver,  a  distinguished  chief-justice  of  the  U.  8.  1745 

Eng.  Elmes,  James,  architect  and  author  ,  .  1782 

Scot.  Elphinstone,  Mount  Stuart,  history  of  India           .              .  1778  185S 

Fr.  Elseler,  Fanny,  danseuse       .....  1811 

Dutch.  Elzevir,  Louis  M.  G.  B.,  and  A.,  printers  16th  and  17th  centuries 

Amer.  Embury,  Emma  E.,  poet         .              .              .              •              «  1806  1863 

Amer.  Emerson,  Geo.  B.,  educator  and  author     .  .  .  179T 

Amer. ,  Ralph  Waldo,  poet  and  essayist         ••'..>«  1803 

Eng.  "William,  a  distinguished  mathematician     .              .              .  1701  1782 

Irish.  Emmet,  Robert, 'United  Irishman' (executed)              .               .  1780  1803 

Irish.  ,  Thomas  Addis,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  orator       .  1764  1827 

Amer.  Emmons,  Ebcn,  geologist  and  author                  .                            .  1798  1863 

Amer. ,  Nathaniel,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  author  .              .  1746  1840 

Gr.  Empedocles,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  .  .  . 

Encke,  John  Francis,  astronomer               ...  1791  1S65 

Amer.  Endicott,  John,  governor  of  Massachusetts       •              •              .  1589  1665 

Ger.  Endlicher,  Stephen  L.,  botanist  and  linguist            .              .  1804  1849 

Eng.  Enfleld,  "William,  miscellaneous  writer              .              .              •  1741  1797 

Fr.  Enghien,  Louis  H.  de  Bourbon,  duke  of,  (executed)              .  1772  1804 

Fr.  Eon  du  Beaumont,  chevalier,  an  eccentric  writer  and -claier       .  1728  1810 

Gr.  Epaminondas,  an  illustrious  Theban  general  .  .  B.  c.  363 

Gr.  Epictetus,  a  stoic  philosopher  .  .  .  .  f.       40 

Gr.  Epicurus,  founder  of  the  Epicurean  sect  of  pLLo.  rpi-is      .    B.C.  342  B.  o.   371 

Dutch.  Erasmus,  Desiderius,  a  celebrated  scholar  and  <vtl.vr    .              .  1467  1536 

Ger.  Erastus,  Thomas,  founder  of  '  Erastianit-m1  theo'io/y            .  1524  1583 

Gr.  Eratosthenes,  astronomer,  geologist,  poet  and  philosopher         B.  o.  276  B.  o.   196 

Span.  Ercilla,  Don  Alonzo,  a  poet                                                       .  1525  1595 

Span.  Ericcira,  Ferdinand,  a  statesman  and  historian              .              .  1614  1699 

8.  Am.  Ericsson,  John,  inventor  and  engineer  in  America    .  ,  1803 

Eng.  Erigenus,  John,  a  learned  writer  of  the  ninth  century   .  . 

Pruss.  Erman,  A,  G.,  '  Travels  in  Siberia,'  &c.       ...  1806 

Ger.  Ernesti,  John  Augustus,  an  eminent  critic       ...  170T  1781 

Scot.  Erskine,  Ebenezer,  theologian       ....  1680  1756 

Scot.  • ,  Ralph,  divine, 'Gospel  Sonnets'         «•     '         ,               ,  1685  1752 

Scot. ,  Thomas,  lord,  a  celebrated  forensic  orator              .  1750  1828 

Aesyr.  Esarhaddon,  son  and  successor  to  Sennacherib,  kin.   ot  A.Myria  .  B.  o.  7th  cent. 

Span.  Escobar  y  Mendoza,  Anthony,  a  celebrated  casuist                 .  1589  1669 

Span.  Espartero,  J.  B.,  Duke  of  Vittoria,  statesman  and  soldier  .  1792 

Amer.  Espy,  James  P.,  meteorologist  and  author  .              .              ,  1785  1860 

Fr.  Esquirol,  J.  E.  D.,  writer  on  insanity  ....  1772  1840 

Ger.  EBS,  L.  Van,  theological  writer                                   .              .  1770  1847 

Eng.  Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of,  a  warrior       .              .              .  1567  16Q1 

Fr.  Estaing,  Charles  H.,  count  d',  naval  commander       .              .  1729  1794 

Aust.  Esterhazy,  Prince  Paul,  wealthy  statesman      .  .  . 

Eng.  Etheredge,  Sir  George,  comic  author  and  dramatist                .  1636  1684 

Afric.  Euclid,  an  eminent  geometrician  .  .  f.  B.  0.  300 

Fr.  Eugene-Francis,  prince,  a  great  warrior  in  the  German  service  166S  1738 

Span.  Eugenie,  Marie  de  Gusman,  Empress  of  France  .  .  1826 

Swiss  Euler,  Leonard,  an  eminent  mathematician             .              .  1707  1791 


950  THE  WORLD'S  PBOGRESS. 

NATION.                                                            NAME    AND   PROFESSION,  BOBN.              DIED. 

(Jr.        Itorlpldes,  a  celebrated  tragic  poet      .  .  .  s.  o.  480   B.  o.  401 

Or.        Euf.errus,  bishop  of  Caesarea,  a  learned  father  of  the  church,  and 

ecclesiastical  historian             .              .              •              «  344 

Kom.     Eutropias,  an  historian            .              .              .              .              .  f.  860 
Rorn.     Eutyches,  an  ecclesiastic,  founder  of  a  sect              .              • 

Amer.   Evane,  Oliver,  inventor  and  engineer  ....  1755           1819 

Amer.    Evarts,  Jeremiah,  (see  Amer.  B.  C.  for  Missions)      .              .  1781           1831 

'.  ">g.      Evelyn,  John,  miscellaneous  writer      ....  1620          1651 

/-mer.   Everett,  Alex.  H.,  essayist  and  diplomatist                .              .  1790           1847 

Amer.  ,  Edward,  statesman,  diplomatist,  and  author    .              .  1794           1865 

Cer.       Ewftld,  Geo.  H.  A  von,  orien^ist  and  theologian     .              .  1803 

-v'n.Am,  Ewbank,  Thos.,  writer  on  practical  mechanics                .         '     .  1792 

Amer.   Ewing,  Th -.3.,  statesman  and  jurist              .              .              .  1789 

Eng.      Exmouth,  ^dw.  Pellew,  viscount,  admiral        .              .              .  1757           1838 


Eng.  Faber,  George  Stanley,  theological  writer          ...  1773  1854 

Sng.  ,  Frederick  Wm.,  Eoman  Catholic  priest  and  theological 

author  ......  1815 

Rom.  FabinB,  Quintus  M.  V.,  a  skilful  warrior    ...  B.  c.  204 

<3er.  Fabricius.  John  Albert,  a  critic  and  bibliographer          .              .  1668  1736 

Ital. ,  John  Ohriatian,  a  celebrated  entomologist              .  1742  1807 

Ital.  Fabroni,  Angelo,  a  learned  biographer              .              .              .  1732  1803 

Eng.  Fabyan,  Robo.l,  chror'-der            ....  1450  1515 

Ital.  Faceiolato,  01  •  "accicUti.  Jac.,  philologist          .              .              .  1684  1760 

Pruss.  Fahrenheit,  Qtvoriel  Paniel,  an  experimental  philosopher     .  1686  1736 

Eng.  Fairfax,  Edwr-.-d,  poet,  -.-anslator  of  Tasso         .               .               .  1633 

Eng.  ,  Thon.as,  lo>-i,  a  general  in  the  civil  war    .              .  161 1  1671 

Kng.  Falconer,  "William,  a  pr-et,       .....  1730  1769 

Ital.  Faliero,  Marino,  doge  of  Venice,  (beheaded)            .              .  1355 

Eng.  Falkland,  Luci'ir  '"!a-T.  viscount,  politician  and  author                .  1610  1643 

Eng.  Fanshawe,  Sir  Kicnard,  poet  and  diplomatist           .              .  1608  1636 

Irish.  Faraday,  Michael,  chemist     .....  1790  1867 

Port.  Faria  y  Souza,  Manuel,  an  historian  and  poet          .              .  1588  1647 

ling.  Farmer,  Hugh,  tho -logian       .....  1714  1787 

Amer.  Farnham,  Mrs.  Eli^-a  W.,  traveller  and  philanthropist           .  1815  J864 

Irish.  Farquhar,  George,  a  dramatist                           .              .              .  1678  170" 

Amer.  Farrar,  Jolin,  rcetL-o  ^atician  and  author   ...  1779  ]853 

»'r.  Faucher,  Leon  political  economist       ....  1803  1864 

fr.  Fanriel,  Claude,  historian  and  belles-lettres  author               .  1772  1844 

Oer.  Faust,  John,  one  of  the  inventors  of  printing    ...  1466 

Vr.  Favre,  J.  C.  Jules,  lawyer  and  politician     .  .  .  1809 

Lug.  Fawkes,  Francis,  a  poet  and  translator               .              .              .  1632  1693 

Amer.  Fay,  Theo.  8.,  author  and  diplomatist         ...  1807 

Fr.  Fayette,  Mary  M.,  countess  of,  miscellaneous  writer      .              .  1632  1698 

Eng.  Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  traveller  in  the  East  .  .  1799 

Amer.  Felton.  Cornelius  C.,  scholar  and  critic,  president  of  Harvard 

College                                                         .             .             .  1807  1862 

Fr.  Fe-iS.on,  Francis  de  Sallgnac  de  la  Motto  de,  an  able  writer  and 

one  of  the  most  virtuous  of  men    .          "   ,•             .              .  1351  JTIJ 

B-re.  Ferber,  John  James,  an  eminent  mineralogist         .             .  1743  jjgf 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  951 

RATION,                                                          NAME  AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DTED. 

Scot.  Ferguson,  Adam,  an  historian  and  moral  philosopher     .  .        1724  1816 

Scot. ,  James,  a  self-educated  astronomer,  philosopher,  dec.          1710  1.76 

Scot.  Fergusson,  James,  architect  and  writer  on  art                .  ,        1808 

Span.  Ferreras,  John  de,  a  celebrated  historian    .              .              •  1652  VKi 

Scot.  Ferrier,  Mary,  novelist                                                       .  (        1782  1854 

Fr.  Fesch,  Joseph,  senior,  priest,  c:\rdlnal,  archbishop  of  Lyons  .  1763  1839 

Amer.  Fessenden,  Thos.  Green,  author  and  journalist              ?'«'.•!  1771  1837 

Amer. ,  Win.  Pitt,  U.  8.  senator  from  Maine,  ex  sec.  treas.  1806 

Ger.  Feuerbach,  Ludwig,  philosopher  and  author             .              .  1804 

Ger.  Feurbach,  Paul  John  A.  von,  statesman  and  jurist          .  ,1775  1833 

Span.  Feyjoo  y  Montenegro,  an  able  miscellaneous  writer               .  1701  1764 

Ger.  Fichte,  John  G.,  philosopher                 ....       1762  1814 

Ital.  Ficino,  Marsilius,  a  Platonic  philosopher     ...  1433  1499 

Amer,  Field,  Cyrus  W.,  promoter  of  Atlantic  telegraph            .  .       1819 

Amer.  Field,  David  Dudley,  jurist  and  advocate           .               .  .        1805 

Amer.  ,  Henry  Martyn,  clergyman,  journalist,  and  author       .  1822 

Eng.  Fielding,  Copley  Vandyke,  painter  in  water  colors         .  ,       1787  1855 

Eng. ,  Henry,  a  humorous  novelist  and  dramatist              .  1707  1754 

Ital.  Fiesco,  John  Louis,  the  conspirator  against  Doria          .  .  1547 

Amer.  Fillmore,  Millard,  13th  president  U.  8.                       .              .  1800 

Amer.  Finney,  Charles  G.,  preacher  and  theological  writer       .  .       1792 

Pers.  Fird  usi  or  Ferdusi,  poet,  author  of  60,000  verses      .              .  940  1020 

Amer.  Fisk,  "Wilbur,  president  Wesleyan  University,  '  Travels,'  &o.  .        1792  1839 

Amer.  Fitch,  John,  inventor,  pioneer  of  steam  navigation  .              .  1743  1798 

Horn.  Flaminius,  Titus  Quintus,  general  and  consul  .              .  B.  0.  230  B.  o.   '17 

Rom. ,  Caius,  general,  consul,  and  censor  of  tribune       .  s.  o.   J7 

Eng.  Flamsteed,  John,  first  astronomer  royal            .              .  .       1646  71S 

Eng.  Flatman,  Thomas,  poet    .....  1633  1688 

Zng.  Flavel,  John,  an  eminent  non-ccnformist  divine               .  .        1627  16.il 

Fr.  Flechier,  Esprit,  a  celebrated  prelate            ...  1632  1710 

Ger.  Fleischer,  H.  L.,  orientalist    .....       1801 

Scot.  Fleming,  John,  naturalist               ....  1785  1857 

Bcot.  Fletcher,  Andrew,  of  Saltoan,  statesman  and  author    .  .       1658  1716 

Eng. ,  Giles,  poet        .....  1580  1627 

Eng. ,  John,  a  dramatist    .               •              .               .  .        1576  1G25 

Eng. ,  Phineas,  poet    .....  1584  1650 

Fr.  Floury,  Andrew  Hercules  de,  a  cardinal  and  statesman  .       1653  1743 

jr. ,  Claude,  a  divine  and  historian          ...  1640  1722 

Amer.  Flint,  Rev.  Timothy,  novelist  and  historian      .              .  .        1780  .        1840 

Fr.  Florian,  John  Peter  Claris  de,  miscellaneous  writer               .  1755  1794 

Ger.  Flugel,  G.  L.,  philologist  and  historian               .              ,  .       1802 

Ger.  ,  John  G.,  lexicographer       ....  1788  1855 

Ger.  Follen,  0.  T.  C.,  theologian  and  philologist  (in  U.  S.)     .  .        1796  1846 

Fr.  Fonblanqne,  J.  8.  M.,  jurisprudence           .              »              .  1787  1865 

Fr.  Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bouvier  de,  miscellaneous  writer  .       1657  1757 

Amer.  Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  admiral  and  author    .              .              .  1806  1863 

Eng. ,  Samuel,  a  comic  writer  and  actor            .              .  .        1721  1771 

Eng.  Forbee,  Edward,  naturalist  and  author      ...  1815  1864 

Eng. ,  John,  M.  D.,  medical  writer    ....       1787 

An-jer.  Force,  Peter,  journalist  and  historian         .              •              .  1790 

ItaL  Forcelliui,  Giles,  a  Lalin  lexicographer              .              .  .       1688 

Eng.  Ford,  John,  an  early  dramatic  author          .              .  1586  164t 


952  THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BOBN  <»l*» 

Eng.      Ford,  Richard,  author  of  works  on  Spain          ...  1796  1851 

Itai       Foresti,  E.  Felice,  patriot  and  litterateur    .              .              .  1793  1858 

Arr.e?.  Forrest,  Edwin,  actor              .....  1806 

i  cr,.      Iforster,  John,  journalist  and  author            .              •              .  1812 

Sfer.       ---  ,  John  R.,  traveller  and  naturalist           ...  1T29  1799 

Amer.  Forsyth,  John,  diplomatist  and  statesman  .              .              .  J780  1841 

Eng.      Fosbrooke,  Rev.  T.  D.,  archasologist  (Ency.  Antiq.)        .               .  1770  184'J 

Ital.       Foscari,  Francesco,  45th  doge  of  Venice      .               .               .  1372  1451 

[tal.       Foscolo,  Nicol  TJgo,  poet  and  musical  author     .              .              .  1777  1821 

Eng.       Foster,  John,  essayist        .....  1770  184? 

Fr.         Fouche,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto,  a  brutal  revolutionist              .  1763  1820 

fter.      Fouque,  Fried  H.  L.  de  la  Motte,  author  of  '  Undine,'  &o.  1777  1843 

Fr.         Fourier,  Charles,  founder  of  the  '  social  '  system           .              .  1772  1386 

Fr.         -  ,  Francis  M.  C.,  writer  on  social  science       .              .  1772  1837 

Amer.  Fowler,  Orson  8.,  phrenologist             ....  1809 

Eng.      Fox,  Charles  James,  one  of  the  greatest  of  statesmen  and  orators  1748  1806 

Eng.      -  ,  George,  the  founder  of  the  society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  .  1624  1690 

Eng.      --  ,  John,  a  divine,  author  of  the  '  Book  of  Martyrs  '           .  1517  1587 

Eng.      -  ,  Sir  Charles,  eugineer,  builder  of  Crystal  Palace    .              .  1810 

ItaL       Fra  Diavolo  (Michael  Pezza),  Neapolitan  bandit      .               .  1769  1806 

Francia,  Jose  G.  R.,  dictator  of  Paraguay                 .               .  1757  1840 

Amet.  Francis,  John  W.,  physician  and  author          ...  1789  1861 

Ital.       -  ,  Saint,  founder  of  '  Franciscans  »                   .              .  1182  1228 

Savoy.  --  ,  de  Sales,  saint  and  bishop     ri»v.           ...  1567  1622 

Irish.     --  ,  Sir  Philip,  political  writer               .              .              .  1740  1808 

Amer.  Franklin,  Benjamin,  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  statesman      .  1706  1790 

En£.      --  ,  Sir  John,  admiral  and  Arctic  explorer      .               .  1786  1841 

Scot.       Frazer,  Simon,  Lord  Lovat,  Jacobite  leader,  beheaded    .               .  1667  1741 

truss.  Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  King,  an  able  general  and  author  .  1712  1786 

Amer.  Freeman,  James,  D.D.,  first  Unitarian  minister  in  U.  8.              .  1759  1835 

Amer.    Freliughuysen,  Theo.,  statesman  ....  1787      -  1862 

Amer.  Fremont,  John  Charles,  explorer  and  statesman            .             .  1813 

Amer.  .Freneau,  Philip,  poet  and  journalist            .              .              .  1752  1832 

Eng.      Frere,  John  Hookman,  poet  and  diplomatist    ...  1769  1848 

Gtr.       Freytag,  G.  W.  F.,  '  Arabic  Dictionary,'  &c.              .              .  1778 

Eng.      Frobisher,  Sir  Martin,  a  celebrated  navigator  ...  1594 

Fer.       Froebel,  Julius,  traveller  and  author           ...  1800 

Fr.         Froissart,  John,  a  chronicler  and  poet                .              .              .  1333  1400 

Amer.  Frothingham,  Kichard,  Jr.,  historian  and  journalist             .  1812 

Eng.      Fry,  Elizabeth,  philanthropist              .               .              .              .  1780  1845 

Amer.   —  ,  "Wm.  Henry,  composer  and  journalist  .              .              .  1815  1864 

Eng.      Fuller,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister    .              .              .  1754  1815 

Amer.    --  ,  Richard.  D.D.,  Baptist  preacher  and  author       .              .  1808 

Amer.    -  1  Sarah  Margaret,  Marchioness  d'Ossoli,  litterateur     .  1810  1850 

Eng.      -  ,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  historian              ...  1608  1661 

Eng.      Fullerton,  Lady  Georgiana,  novelist           ...  1812 

Fr.         Furetiere,  Anthony,  a  philosopher       ....  1620  1683 

Amer.    Furness,  "William  Henry,  D.  D.,  Unitarian  preacher  and  author  1802 

Q-er.       Furst,  Julius,  orientalist  and  philologist            .              .              .  1805 

Bwias.    Fuseli,  Henry,  painter  and  writer  on  art    .             .             .  1741  1821 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  953 


RATION.                                                           NAME  AND  PROFESSION.                                                          BORK.  B£B» 

Amer.    Gadsden,  Christopher,  revolutionary  statesman              •              •  1724  180JS 

Amer. ,  James,  statesman  and  negotiator                .              •  1788  1858 

Eng.      Gage,  Thomas,  last  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts      •              ,  1787 

Fr.         Gagnier,  John,  an  orientalist  and  author    .              .              •  1670  1740 

Fr.          Gail,  J.  B.,  philologist              .               *               .               .               .  1755  1S29 

Fr.         Gaillard,  Gabriel  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer  and  historian  l1"?^  1806 

Amer.    Gaines,  Major-General  E.  P.,  military  commander         .              .  17H  1849 
Rom.     Gaius,  or  Caius,  jurist  and  legal  writer       ...                        1st  cent 

Gr.         Galen,  Claudius,  a  celebrated  physician            .              •              •  131 

En.Am. Gales,  Joseph,  founder  of '  National  Intelligencer  '                .  1786 

Ital.       Galileo,  an  illustrious  philosopher  and  astronomer          .              .  1564  1642 
Ger.       Gall,  John  Joseph,  a  celebrated  physiologist,  and  founder  of  the 

science  of  phrenology                ....  1758  182S 

Amer.    Gallagher,  William  D.,  journalist  and  poet       .              .              .  1808 

8.  Am.  Gallatin,  Albert,  statesman,  diplomatist,  philologist,  and  ethnoL  1701  1844 
Amer.    Gallaudet,  Thomas  H.,  founder  of  the  first  American  asylum  for 

deaf  and  dumb            .              .              .              .              .  1787  1851 
Kuss.    Gallitzin,  the  name  of  several  distinguished  princes       .              .    16th  to  17th  cent. 

Russ. ,  Demetrius  Aug.,  a  noble  missionary  priest               .  1770  1840 

Scot.     Gait,  John,  novelist   ......  1779  18?9 

ItaL       Galvani,  Louis,  a  physician  and  experimental  philosopher,  dis- 
coverer of  galvanic  electricity  ....  1737  A798 

Port      Gama,  Vasco,  navigator,  first  who  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  152  < 

Jew.       Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee,  doctor  of  the  law             ...  89 

Ger.       Gang,  Edward,  jurist       .....  1798  W 

Span.     Garcia,  Manuul,  musical  composer      ....  1779  i83? 

Span.     Garcias-Lasso  de  la  Vega,  the  prince  of  Spanish  poetry        .  1503  153*5 

Span.     Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru     .              .  IDS'* 

Eng.       Gardiner,  Stephen,  Roman  Catholic  prelate              .               .  1483  15£o 

Ital.       Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  patriotic  general  and  leader            .              .  1806 

Pr.          Gamier,  Count  Germain,  jurist     .               .               .               .  1754  182] 

Eng.       Garrick,  David,  a  celebrated  actor  and  dramatist            .               .  1716  17r,9 

Amer.    Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  abolitionist  politician        .               .  1805 

Eng.      Garth,  Sir  Bamuel,  physician  and  poet              .              .              .  1718 
Eng.       Gascoigne,  Sir  William,  the  judge  who  imprisoned  Henry,  Prince 

of  Wales,  for  a  misdemeanor    ....  1350  1413 

Eng.       Gaskell,  Elizabeth  C.,  novelist  .....  1820  1865 

Fr.         Gassendi,  i'eter,  a  celebrated  philosopner      .          .              .  1592  1656 

Gaston  de  Foix,  duke  of  Nemours,  general,              .              .  1489  1512 

Amer.    Gates,  Horatio,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution             .  1728  1806 

Fr.          "  Gavarni,"  real  name  Sulpice  Paul  .Chevalier,  caricaturist  .  1801 

Eng.       Gay,  John,  a  popular  poet     .....  1888  17S2 

Fr.         Gay-Lussac,  N.  F.  chemist            ....  1778  1850 

Span.     Gayangos,  P:iscal  de,  Oriental  scholar  and  historian      .              .  1S09 

Amer.    Gayarre,  Charles  A.,  historian       ....  1805 

Eng.       Gell,  Sir  Vfilliam,  scholar  and  antiquary  (Pompeii  and  Rome)  1777  1836 

Ger.       Gellert,  Chrisiian  Furchtegoit,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer  1715  1769 

Rum.     Gellius,  Aulius,  gra-.-nmarian                ....  A.  ix  2d  cent, 

Fr          Qenest,  c:  ttenfit,  jfitiwarft  C.,  diploa.wif{                .             .  1765  1834 


954  THE  WOELD'S  PKOGBE&IS. 

KA1IOK.                                                            NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOKK.  BIB* 

Bai.  GcnL'hia  Khan,  a  celebrated  conqueror              .              .  .        1164  1221 

Fr.  Genlis,  Stephania  Felicite,  Countess  de,  miscellaneous  writer  1746  1830 

Eng.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  an  historian  of  the  12th  century  . 

IT.  Geoffrey-Saint  Hilaire  Etienne,  zoologist    .              .              ,  1772  1844 

Fr.  Gerando,  Baron  de,  writer  on  education,  &c.     .              .  .       1770  1842 

Fr.  Gerard,  Etienne  Maurice,  count,  marshal  of  France              .  1773  1852 

Horn.  Germanicus,  Tiberius  Drusus  Csesar,  military  commander  .  19 

Amer.  Gerry,  Elbridge,  a  distinguished  patriot,  vice-president  U.  8.  1814 

Fr.  Gerson,  John  Charlier  de,  an  ecclesiastic  and  author              .  1363  1429 

Amer.  Gcrstacker,  Fried,  novelist  and  traveller           .              .  .       1816 

Ger.  'Jervinus,  George  Gottfried,  historian  and  politician             .  1805 

Ger.  Gesenius,  Fred.  Hein.  William,  orientalist  and  biblical  critio  .       1786  1842 

Swiss.  Gessner,  Conrad,  an  eminent  naturalist    ...  1516  1565 

Ger.  ,  John  Matthias,  a  philologist               .              .  .       1691  1761 

ItaL  Giannone,  Peter,  an  historian        ....  1676  1758 

Ame'  Gibbes,  Robert  Wilson,  physician  and  author                 .  .        1809 

Eng.  Gibbon,  Edward,  one  of  the  greatest  of  England's  historians  1737  1794 

Amer.  Gibbs,  Josiah  W.,  philologist        ....  1790 

Amor.  Gibson,  Colonel  John  and  Col.  George,  both  officers  in  the  Eevo- 

lution     ....... 

Eng.  ,  Thomas  Milner,  statesman              .              .              .  1807 

Amer.  Giddings,  Joshua  Reed,  statesman       .              .              .  •       1795  I860 

Eng.  Giflbrd,  William,  a  critic  and  poet               .               .              .  1757  1826 

Eng. ,  John,  an  historical  and  political  writer              .  .       1758  1818 

Ger.  Gieseler,  John  K.  L.,  church  historian         .              .              .  1792  1854 

Eng.  Gilbert,  James  W.,  writer  on  banking               .              .  .       1794  1868 

Sng.  ,  Sir  Humphrey,  one  of  the  earliest  adventurers  in  Amer.  1583 

foot.  Gilflllan,  George,  clergyman  and  author            .              .  .       1813 

Eng.  Gill,  John,  a  divine,  oriental  scholar  and  author      .               .  1697  1771 

Amer.  Gillespie,  Win.  M.,  professor  and  author  on  engineering  .       1816 

Scot.  Gillies,  John,  '  History  of  Greece,' &c.         .              .              .  1747  1838 

Amer.  Oilman,  John  T.,  noied  governor  of  New  Hampshire     •  •        1759  1828 

Amer.' ,  Samuel,  Unitarian  clergyman  and  author  .              .  17J1  1858 

Eng.  Gilpin,  Bernard,  'apostle  of  the  JXorth'              .              .  .        1&7  1583 

Eng.        ,  Wm.,  writer  on  the  picturesque      .              .              .  1724  1804 

Eng.  (rilray,  James,  engraver  and  caricaturist           .              .  .        1757  1815 

Ital.  f-'oberti,  Vincenzo,  philosopher,  priest,  and  statesman         .  1801  1852 

ItaL  Gioja,  Melchior,  writer  on  economical  sciences                 .  .       17^7  1829 

8w.  Am. Girard,  Charles,  naturalist              ....  1822 

Fr.Am. ,  Stephen,  merchant,  banker,  millionaire              .  .       1750  1831 

Fr.  Girardin,  Emil  de,  journalist         ....  1802 

Eng.  Gladstone,  Wm.  Ewart,  statesman  and  author                .  .        1809 

Eng.  Glanvill,  Joseph,  divine,  philosopher,  and  author     .              .  1636  16SC 

Eng.  Gleig,  Geo.  Robt.,  clergyman  and  author          ...       1796 

Welsh  Glendower,  Owen,  chieftain            .               .               •              .  1349  1415 

Eng.  Gliddon,  Geo.  Robins,  Egyptologist  and  author              .  .       1809  1857 

Ger.  Gluck,  Christop  W.  von,  musical  oompoeer              .              .  1714  1781 

Bwe.  Gmelin,  John  Frederick,  chemist          .              .    .          .  .1748  180« 

Fr.  Godfrey,  of  Bouillon,  or  Boulogne,  a  celebrated  leader  hi  the 

Crusades            :•-.•••'»                   M   ;               .               .  .  1108 

Amer.  Godman,  John,  M.  D.,  a  distinguished  naturalist,  fco.            .  1794  1830 

Eng.  Godolphin,  Sidney,  earl  of,  statesman                 ...       1640  1712 


BIOGBAPHICAL  INDEX.  955 

RATIOS.                                                       NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BOBH.  EIKR 

S;ian.  Godoy,  Manuel  de,  statesman, '  prince  of  the  peace*               •  1707  1841 

Amer.  Godwin,  Parke, 'ournalist  and  historian           .              •              •  1816 

Eng.  ,  "William,  novelist  and  metaphysician         .              .  1755  1831 

Ger.  Goethe,  John  "Wolfgang,  poet  and  novelist       .              .              .  1749  1831 

Ital.  Goldoni,  Charles,  the  Italian  Moliere           .              .              .  1707  1793 

Irish.  Goldsmith,  Oliver,  celebrated  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer       .  3731  1774 

Dutch.  Golius,  James,  orientalist  and  lexicographer            .              .  1596  1667 

Span.  Gonsalvo,  of  Cordova,  a  celebrated  warrior       .              .              •  1443  1515 

Eng.  Good,  John  Mason,  physician  and  author    .              .              .  1764  1827 

Amer.  Goodrich,  Chauncey  A.,  scholar  and  divine      .              .              .  1790  1860 

Amer.  ,  Frank  B.,  (son  of  Samuel  G.,)  author       .              .  1826 

Amer.  ,  Samuel  Griswold,  '  Peter  Parley,'  voluminous  author  •  1793  1860 

Amer.  Goodyear,  Charles,  inventor  and  India-rubber  patentee          .  1800  1830 

Scot.  Gordon,  '  lord  George,'  political    agitator          .              .              .  1750  1793 

Eng. ,  "Wm.,  author  of  History  of  the  United  States          .  1730  1807 

Eng.  Gore,  Catharine  G.,  novelist                  ....  1799 

Eng.  Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando, 'lord  proprietor  of  Maine'                .  1647 

Hung.  Gorgey,  Arthur,  general  in  the  Revolution,  (supposed  traitor)     .  1818 

Gr.  Gorgias,  an  orator  and  sophist       .              .              .              .  f.  B.  c.  5th  cent 

Russ.  Gortchakoff,  Michael,  prince,  general  in  Crimea,  &o.     .              .  1792  1861 

Buss.  ,  Alexander,  prince,  diplomatist             .              .  1800 

Amer.  Gorton,  Samuel,  enthusiast  and  author             ...  1600  1677 

EmAm.  Gough,  John  B.,  lecturer  on  temperance    .              .              .  1817 

Irish.  ,  Hugh,  viscount,  general  in  India.  &o.  ...  1779 

Amer.  Gould,  Augustus  A.,  naturalist  and  physician          .              .  1805 

Amer.  ,  Hannah  F.,  poet              .                         .              .           (abt.)  1800  1865 

Eng.  ,  John,  naturalist  and  author              .              .              .  1804 

Fr.  Gourgaud,  Gaspard,  baron,  one  of  Napoleon's  generals              .  1783  1852 

Eng.  Gower,  John,  one  of  the  earliest  English  poets         .              .  1402 

Rom.  Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  a  celebrated  democrat  .  B.  c.  133 

Rom.  ,  Caius  Sempronius          ....  B.  c.  121 

Ger.  Graefe,  or  Graevius,  an  erudite  classic  writer    .              .              .  1632  1708 

Scot,  Gr^hame,  John,  viscount  of  Dundee,  lord  Grahame  of  Claver- 

house,  general      ......  1643  1689 

Scot.  ,  James,  a  poet    .....  1765  1811 

Scot.  ,  James,  author  of 'History  of  the  United  States'           .  1770  1842 

Fr.  Grammont,  Count  Philibert,  licentious  author  of  'Menoirs'  1621  1707 

Fr.  Grandville,  J.  S.  G.,  caricaturist  and  artist         .              .              .  1803  1847 

Fr.  Granier,  Adolphe,  journalist  and  historian                .              .  1805 

Scot.  Grant,  Anne,  (of  Laggan,)  novelist,  essayist,  Ac.            .              .  1755  1838 

Scot.  ,  James,  journalist  and  author            ...  1806 

Scot.  ,  James,  novelist           .....  1822 

Span.  Granvelle,  Ant.  Pierre,  cardinal  de,  statesman        .              .  1517  isgfl 

Eng.  Granville,  G.  G.  Leweson  Gower,  2d  earl  of,  statesman           .  1816 

Eng.  ,  John  Carteret,  earl,  statesman           ...  1690  1793 

Ital.  Gratian,  a  monk,  compiler  of  the  canon  law               .              .  f.  12th  cent. 

Irish.  Grattan,  Henry,  a  distinguished  orator  and  statesman    .              .  1750  1821 

,  Thomas  Colley,  novelist                 .              .              .  1796  1864 

Dutch.  Gravesande,  "Wm.  Jacob,  a  geometrician  and  philosopher             .  1688  174J 

Amer.  Gray,  Asa,  botanist,  prof,  in  Harvard,  author  of '  Flora,'  &o.  1810 

Amer.  ,  Henry  Peters,  painter.              ....  1819 

Eng.  ——,  John  Edward,  naturalist    ....    (alt.)  1800 


956  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATION.                                                           UAME   AND  1'ROFESSION.  BOEX.  DIED 

Eng.      Gray,  Thomas,  poet     .         .., -.    .         .             .              .,          .  1716  1771 

Amer.    Graydon,  Alex.,  author  of  Bevolutionary  Memoir* '             •  1752  1818 

Amer.    Greeley,  Horace,  journalist  and  politician          .              .              .  1811 

Fr.         Gregory  I.,  the  Great,  pope,  author              .              .  544  604 

Ital.                    ,  VII.,  the  Great,  pope  Hildebrand,  celebrates  despot       •  1085 

Scot. ,  David,  philosopher  and  mathematician       .              .  1661  1710 

Irish. ,  George,  D.  D.,  miscellaneous  writer    .              .              .  1754  1808 

Scot.      ,  James,  philosopher  and  mathematician      .              .  1648  V685 

,  Nazianzen,  St.  Christian,  writer           .               .               .  328  389 

ofNyssa,  St.   Christian,  writer        ...  331  396 

Eng.      ,  Olinthus,  mathematician  and  religious  writer                 .  1774  1841 

Fr. of  Tours,  historian             ....  544  593 

Amer.    Green,  Ashbel  D.  D.,  clergyman  and  author     .              .              .  1762  1848 

Amer.    ,  Horace,  physician,  author  of  medical  works                .  1802  1868 

Amer.    Greene,  Chas.  G.,  journalist  and  politician         .              .              .  1804 

Amer. ,  Geo.  Washington,  scholar  and  critic             .              .  1811 

Eng.      ,  Matthew,  poet            .....  1696  1737 

Amer.    ,  Nathaniel,  maj.  gen.,  distinguished  in  the  Revolution^  1741  1786 

Amer. ,  Nathaniel,  author  and  journalist          ...  1797 

Eng. ,  Robt,  dramatist                  ....  1560  1592 

Amer.    Greenhow,  Robert,  historical  writer    ....  1800  1854 

Amer.    Greenleaf,  Simon,  jurist  and  author            ...  1783  1858 

Amer.    Greenough,  Horatio,  sculptor  and  author          .              .              .  1805  1852 

Eng.      Greville,  Sir  Fulke,  (Lord  Brooke),  statesman  and  author      .  1554  1628 

Eng.      Grey,  Earl,  statesman,  whig  premier  for  William  IV.                    .  1764  1845 

Eng. ,  Lady  Jane,  the  accomplished  victim  of  another's  ambition  1537  1554 

Ger.      Griesbach,  John  James,  an  eminent  theologian  and  philologist    .  1745  1812 

Amer.    Griffin,  Edward  D.,  D.  D.,  theologian           ,              .              .  1770  1837 

Irish.     ,  Gerald,  novelist          .....  1S03  1840 

Amer.    Grimke,  Thomas  S.,  jurist              •              .              »             .  1786  1834 

Ger.       Grimm,  J.  M.  C.,  miscellaneous  writer                .              .              .  1785  1863 

Amer.   Griscom,  John,  educator,  philanthropist     .              .              .  1774  1852 

Ame'r.   Griswold,  Alex,  V.,  bishop  Prot.  Epis.  Church,  New  England     .  1766  1843 

Amer.   ,  Bufus  Wilmot,  author  and  critic               .              .  1815  1857 

Dutch.  Gronovius,  James,  an  erudite  critic      ....  1645  1716 

Eng.       Grose,  Francis,  antiquary  and  author           .               .               .  1731  1791 

Amer.   Gross,  Samuel  D.,  physician,  surgeon,  and  author          .              .  1805 

Eng.      Grote,  George,  author  of  History  of  Greece               .              .  1794 

Ger.       Grotefend,  G.  F.,  philologist                   ....  1775  1836 

Dutch.  Grotius  or  DeGroot,  Hugh,  an  eminent  scholar        .              .  1583  1645 

Fr.         Grouchy,  Emanuel,  count,  marshal  of  France                 .              .  1776  1847 

Amer    Grundy,  Felix,  senator  of  the  U.S.              .              .               (Tenn.)  1777  1840 

Ger.       Gryph,  Andrew,  a  dramatist                 ....  1616  1664 

Ital.       Guarini,  John  Baptist,  a  poet         ....  1537  1612 

Ger.       Guericke,  Otto,  experimental  philop.,  inventor  of  the  air-pump   .  1602  1686 

ItaL       Guerrazi,  Francesco  D.,  author  and  politician            .              .  1805 

Ital.       G-uiccardini,  Francis,  an  historian        ....  1482  1640 

Fr.         Guillotin,  Joseph  T..  benevolent  physician,  Inventor  of  the  guillotine  1738  1814 

Fr.         Guise,  Charles  of,  cardinal,  a  bigoted  and  ambitious  statesman  1525  1574 

Fr.         ,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  celebrated  warrior         .  1519  1563 

Fr.                  ,  Henry  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  an  ambitious  warrior             .  1550  1588 

Fr.        Guizot,  Francis,  statesman,  historian,  and  metaphysician       .  1787 


BIOGRAPHIC AL  INDEX.  957 

VATION.                                                   NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BOB*.  DIED. 

Nor.      Q-alscard,  Robert,  a  Norman  warrior      ....  1015  108i 

Eng.      Gunter,  Edmund,  a  mathematician,  inventor  of  the  Gunter  scale  1581  1619 

Eng.      Gurney,  Joseph  John,  philanthropist                  .           (Soc.  Friends)  1788  1S41? 

Pol.        Gurowsky,  Adam  de,  count,  publicist  and  author     .              .  1805  1864 

Eng.      Gurwood,  John,  Col.,  editor  of  "Wellington's  Despatches              .  1791  1843 

8we.      Gustavus  1.,  (Gustavus  Vasa)  king  of  Sweden          .              .  1496  1560 

Swe. IL,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden  ;  able  warrior                  .  1594  1633 

Swe.      III.,  king  of  Sweden                                     ,              .  1746  1792 

Swe      IV.,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden             .•  -         .              .  1778  1837 

Amer.    Guthrie,  James,  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  Pierce               .  1793 

Scot.      ,  William,  author  of  a  history  of  England,  Scotland,  &e.  1708  1770 

Ger.       Guttenberg,  John,  one  of  the  inventors  of  printing                 .  1400  1468 

Pruss.    Gutzlaft',  Charles,  traveller  and  historian  of  China          .              .  1803  1851 

Fr.         Guyon,  Jeanne  M.  B.,  de  la  Motto,  mystical  teacher  and  writer  1648  1717 

Eng.      ,  Richard  D.,  general  in  the  service  of  Hungary,  &c.           .  1813  1856 

Sw.Am.Guyot,  Arnold  H.,  writer  on  physical  geography       .              .  1807 

Eng.      Gwynn,  Eleanor,  ('Nell  Gwynn')  mistress  of  Charles  II.             .  1650  1687 

Hg.  AttGyulai,  Francis,  count,  commander  of  Austrian  army  in  Italy  1798  1866 

Eng.      Habington,  Wm.,  poet           .....  1605  164£ 

Amer.  Hackett,  Horatio  B.,  biblical  critic               .              .              .  1808 

Amer.  ,  James  H.,  actor        .              .              ,              *              .  1800 

Pers.      Hafiz,  Mohammed,  the  Anacreon  of  Persia              ,              •  1389 

Get       Hagenbach,  Karl  L.,  ecclesiastical  historian      .              .              .  1801 

Ger.      Hahn,  August,  theological  writer   ....  1807  1857 

Ger.      -,  Simon  Frederick,  an  historian                 .              .              .  1692  1729 

Ger.      Hahneman,  founder  of 'Homeopathy '  in  medicine                .  1755  1843 
Ger.      Hahn-Hahn,  Ida,  countess  of,  traveller  and  novelist       .              .1805 

Eng.      Hakluyt,  Richard,  author  of  voyages,  &c.,  of  the  English     .  1553  1616 

Boot      Haldane,  Robert,  philanthropist  and  theologian              .              .  1764  1842 

Scot.      Haldeman,  S.  S.,  naturalist  and  philologist                 .               .  1812 

Amer.  Hale,  Benj.,  D.D.,  educator  and  author              .              .              .  1797 

Amer.  ,  David,  journalist,  founder  of  N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce  1791  1849 

Amer. ,  Nathan,  revolutionary  patriot,  executed  as  a  spy           .  1758  1776 

Amer.  ,  Nathan,  journalist,  Boston  Daily  Advertiser        .              .  1784  1863 

Amer. ,  Sarah  J.,  poet  and  prose  writer          .              .              .  1795 

Eng. ,  Sir  Matthew,  eminent  and  incorruptible  judge      .              .  1609  1676 

Fr.         Halevy,  J.  F.  C.,  musical  composer         — _~-         <              t  1799  jgG2 

Eng.      Halford,  Sir  Henry,  physician  and  medical  writer         .              .  1766  1844 

Eng.      Haliburton,  Thos.  C.,  humorous  writer,  '  Sam  Siick'             .  1803  18o5 

Eng.       Hall,  Capt.  Basil,  author  of  Travels,  &c.            .               .               .  1788  1844 

Amer.   ,  Gordon,  first  American  missionary  in  Bombay               .  1784  1826 

Amer.  ,  James,  jurist  and  author              ...»  1793 

Amer.  ,  James,  geologist  and  paleontologist    .              .              .  1811 

Eng.      ,  Joseph,  bishop  of  Norwich,  theological  author      .              .  1574  1656 

Eng.      ,  Rev.  Robert,  theologian  and  pulpit  orator        .              .  1764  1831 

Eng.      Hallam,  Henry,  historian        .....  1777  1859 

Amer.  Halleck,  Fitz  Greene,  poet              .              .              .  1795 

Bwiss     Haller,  Albert  von,  miscellaneous  writer           .              .  1708  1777 

Eng.      ITalley,  Edmund^  an  eminent  astronomer  and  mathematician.  1656  1741 

Eng.      Halliwell,  James  Orchard,  archaeologist  and  author       .              .  1820 

Scot.      Halyburton,  Thomas,  theological  writer                    •              .  1674  1712 

Oarth.  Hamilcar  Barca,  a  Carthaginian  general  .  .  .  «.  c.  229 


958  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATION.                                                          NAME    AHD   PROFESSION.  BORV.  DIKIX 

Amer.  Hamilton,  Alexander,  statesman,  first  secretary  of  treasury,  U.  S.  1757  1804 

Irish.  ,  Elizabeth,  a  talented  miscellaneous  writer            .  1758  1818 

Amer.  ,  James,  statesman,  U.  S.  senator  from  South  Carolina  1786  1857 

Scot. ,  Sir  "Wm.,  diplomatist  and  antiquary       .              .  1730  1803 

Scot. ,  Sir  Wm.,  metaphysician                                                 ,  1788  1856 

Irish.  ,  Sir  Wm.  Kowan,  mathematician  and  philosopher  1805 

Scot.  ,  Thos.,  Capt.,  novelist,  'Men  and  Manners  in  America'  1789  1842 

Eng. ,  William  Richard,  archaeologist  .               .              .  1777  1859 

Ger.  Hammer,  Baron  von,  historian  and  orientalist .              .              .  1774  1856 

Eng.  Hammond,  James,  poet    .....  1710  1742 

Amer. ,  James  H.,  U.  S.  senator  from  South  Carolina              .  1807 

Eng.  Hampden,  John,  a  celebrated  patriotic  statesman                   .  1594  1643 

Amer.  Hampton,  Wade,  general  in  revolution              .              .              .  1755  1835 

Amer.  Hancock,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot,  president  of  Congress  1737  1793 

Ger.  Handel,  Geo.  Frederick,  one  of  the  greatest  musical  composers  .  1684  1758 

Carth,  Hannibal,  or  Annibal,  general  against  Rome             .              .       B.  o.  247  B.  c.   183 

Carth.  Hanno,  navigator       .              .              .              .              .              .  B.  o.  5th  cent. 

,  the  Great,  general  and  statesman  .              .              .  B.  c.  202 

Nor.  Hanstein,  G.,  mathematician  and  astronomer    ...  1784 

Amer.  Harbaugh,  Henry,  author  of  religious  works           .              .  1817 

Ger.  Hardenbergh,  Karl  A,  von,  statesman               .              .              .  1750  1823 

Amer.  Harding,  Chester,  portrait  painter              .              .              .  1792  1866 

Eng. ,  James  D.,  artist  and  author  on  art      .              .               .  1798  1863 

Eng.  Hardinge,  Henry,  viscount,  general  and  governor-general  of  India  1785  1856 

Eng.  Hardwicke,  Charles,  theological  writer        .              .              .  1821  1859 

Eng.  Hare,  Julius  Charles,  archdeacon,  theological  writer     .              .  1795  1855 

Eng.  ,  Robert,  chemist  and  physicist            .              .              ,  1781  1858 

Amer.  Harlan,  Richard,  M.  D.,  naturalist       ....  1796  1843 

Eng.  Harley,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  celebrated  statesman            .  1661  1724 

Bar.  Haroun  AlRaschid,  caliph,  a  patron  of  learning             .              .  808 

Amer.  Harper,  James,  John,  J.  Wesley,  and  Fletcher,  publishers,  born  1795,  '7,  1801  ,'4 

Eng.  Harrington,  James,  political  writer      ....  1611  1677 

Eng.  Harriott,  Thos.,  mathematician  and  voyager  to  Virginia       .  1560  1621 

Eng.  Harris,  James,  compiler  of  the  first  Cyclopedia,  4tc.      .              .  1670  1719 

Eng.  ,  John,  theological  writer    ....  1804  1856 

Amer.  ,  Thaddeus  Wm.,  naturalist       .              .              .              .1795  1856 

Amer  Harrison,  Gen.  Wm.  H.,  military  commander  and  president  U.  S.  1773  1841 

Amer.  Harvard,  John,  founder  of  Harvard  College       .              .             ,.  1688 

Eng.  Harvey,  "William,  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  1569  1658 

Ger.  Hase,  Henry,  classical  antiquary           ....  1789  1843 

Ger.  ,  Karl  Aug.,  theological  author             ...  1800 

Ger.  Hassenclever,  John  Peter,  painter  (Dusseldorf  school)  .              .  1810  1863 

Eng.  Haslam,  John,  writer  on  insanity  ....  1764  1844 

Eng.  Hastings,  marquis  of,  military  commander       ...  1754  1825 

Eng. ,  Warren,  governor-general  of  British  India            .  1733  1818, 

Ger.  Hauser,  Casper,  a  mysterious "  wild  boy "         ..,,,.          .              .  1833 

Fr.  Haussez,  Baron,  minister  of  Charles  X.,  traveller    .              *  1778 

Eng.  Hatton,  Sir  Christopher,  lord  chancellor            .              .              .  1591 

Fr.  Hauy,  Rene  Just,  mineralogist            ....  1742  1822 

Eng.  Ilavolock,  Henry,  general  in  India              ...  1795  1857 

Amer.  Haven,  Alice  B.,  author  of  juvenile  books       ...  1828  1860 

Er   4.  Haviland,  John,  architect             .             .             .             ,  1792  1861 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


959 


BATI01T, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amor. 

Ger. 

Eug. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ajner. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Horn. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Eng. 

Pr. 

Amer. 

Araer. 

Amer. 

Port. 

Boot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 


NAME  AND  PROFESSION.                                                  BORN.  DIZH 

Hawes,  Joel,  Congregational  clergyman  and  author        .              .  1789  1861 

Hawke.  Edward,  lord,  a  brave  and  successful  admiral            •  1713  1781 

Hawksworth,  Dr.  John,  miscellaneous  writer                 .              .  1715  1773 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,  a  navigator,  originator  of  the  slave  trade  1520  1595 

,  Sir  John,  author  of '  History  of  Music,'  <&c.     .              .  1719  1788 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  Episcopal  divine  and  historian           .  1798  1808 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  novelist            ....  1804  1862 

Haydn,  Joseph,  a  celebrated  musical  composer         .              .  1732  1809 

Haydon,  Benj.  A,,  historical  painter    ....  1786  18ifl 
Hayes,  Isaac,  Arctic  navigator  and  author              .              . 

Hayley,  "William,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer          .              .  1745  1820 

Hayne,  Robert  T.,  governor  of  South  Carolina  and  senator  U.  S.  1791  183S 

Haynes,  Lemuel,  colored  preacher  and  patriot              .              .  1758  1834 

Haywood,  Abraham,  translator  of  'Faust'               .              .  1800 

Hazlitt,  William,  essayist  and  critic    .              .              .              .1778  1830 

Head,  Sir  Francis  B.,  author  of  Travels,  &c.             .              .  1793 

,  Sir  George,  author  of  '  Home,'  &c.       .              .              .  1782  1856 

Headley,  Joel  T.,  author  of  biographies  and  histories              .  1814 

Heath,  Wm.,  major-general  in  the  revolution,  author  of  Memoirs  1737  1814 

Heber,  Reginald,  a  divine  and  poet            .              .              .  1783  1826 

,  Richard,  bibliomaniac  and  book  collector            .              .1773  1833 

Hecker,  Fred.  K.  F.,  politician      ....  1811 

,  Isaac  F.,  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  and  author          .  1819 

Heckwelder,  John,  Moravian  missionary  and  author              .  17-13  1823 

Hederick,  Benjamin,  a  lexicographer                  ...  16T5  1748 

Hedge,  Fred.  H.,  clergyman  and  author     .               .               .  1805 

Hedwig,  John,  a  physician  and  botanist             .                           .  1730  1799 

Heeren,  A.  H.  L.,  historian           ....  1760  1842 

Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  metaphysician           ....  1770  1831 

Heine,  Henry,  poet  and  litterateur              ...  1799  1856 

Heineccius,  Jno.  G..  juridical  author              .              .              .  1681  1741 

Helena,  St.,  wife  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  emperor  .              .  247  327 

Heliodorus  (of  Emessa)  the  first  romance  writer              .                fl.  4th  cent 

Heloise,  abbess  of  the  Paraclete,  famed  for  intrigue  with  Abelard  1101  1164 

Helps,  Arthur,  essayist  and  dramatist              ...  1817 

Helvetius,  Claude  A.,  philosopher              ...  1715  1771 

Helvicus,  Christopher,  a  chronologist        -rac             .              .  1581  1617 

Hemans,  Felicia  D.,  poetess          ....  1794  1835 

Henfey,  Arthur,  botanist        .....  1800 

Hengstenberg,  E.  W.,  metaphysician,  antiquary  and  theologian  1802 

Henley,  John,  clergyman  and  author,  '  orator  Henley'              .  1692  1756 

Hennepin,  Louis,  missionary  and  explorer  of  N.  A.              .  1640  1699 

Henningsen,  Chas.  Fred.,  author  and  soldier                .              .  1815 

Henry  IV.,  an  able  and  popular  monarch    .              .              .  1553  1610 

,  Caleb  S.,  clergyman  and  author              .              .              .  1804 

,  Joseph,  physicist,  director  of  Smithsonian  Institute  1797 

,  Matthew,  author  of  '  Comment,  on  the  Bible1     .              .  1662  17U 

,  the  Navigator,  prince,  3d  son  of  John  I.       .  1394  1463 

,  Robert,  an  historian                  ....  1718  1790 

,  Patrick,  an  orator  and  patriot          .              .  1736  1799 

Hentz,  Caroline  Lee,  novelist              ....  1851 

Heraclius  (born  in  Cappadocia),  emperor  of  the  East              *  676  641 


960  THE   WORLD'b   PROGRESS. 

KATIOH,  NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BOB1T.  Dill 

Or.        Heraclifrus,  a  philosopher        .              .              .             .          f.  B.  o.  604 

Eng.      Herbert,  Edward,  Lord  of  Cherbury,  diplomatist  and  philosopher  1581           1648 

Eng.      Herbert,  George,  clergy  man  and  poet           ...  1593           1632 

.Eng. Am. ,  Henry  Wm.  novelist  and  miscellaneous  author             .  1807           1858 

Eng. ,  Sidney,  statesman           .•              .              .              .  1810 

Eng.      ,  Wm,,  (3rd  Earl  of  Pembroke)  poet      .              .              .  1580           1630 

Eng.      — — •,  Wm.,  dean  of  Manchester,  poet  and  philosopher    .  1778           1847 

G'-:r.      Herder,  John  Godfrey,  a  philosophical  writer              .              .  1744           1803 

Scot.      Heriot,  George,  goldsmith,  founder  of  school           .              .  1563           1624 

Ger.       Hermann,  Ch.  F.,  philologist,  «  History  of  Philosophy'  &o.         .  1804 

Ger.       ,  J.  G.  J.,  philologist       ....  1772           1848 

Gr.         Hermogenes,  a  rhetorician      .  .  .  .  .1    180 

Amer.    Herndon,  Win.  L.,  naval  commander  and  explorer              .  1813           1859 

Herod,  Agrippa  I,  King  of  Judea,  (grandson  of  Herod  the  Great)  B.  c.   7   A.  D.    44 

,  the  Great,  King  of  the  Jews             .              .              .        B.  o.    71  4 

Gr.        Herodian,  an  historian            .              .              ,              .              .  f.   230 
Gr.         Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  historians  whose  works  are 

extant       .               .              .              .              .              .              B.  o.  484 

Fr.         Herold,  L.  G.  P.,  musical  composer             ...  1793           1833 

Span.     Herrera,  Anthony,  an  historian                          .              .              ,  1659           1625 

Mex, ,  Jose  J.  de,  president  of  Mexico    .              .              *  1851 

Eng.      Herriek,  Robert,  poet              .....  1591           1674 

Eng.       Herschel,  Caroline  3J.,  astronomer              .              .              .  1750           1848 

Eng. ,  Sir  William,  one  of  the  greatest  of  astronomers         .  1738           1822 

Jew.       Herschell,  Dr.  Solomon,  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews  in  England  1760           1842 

Eug.      ,  Sir  J.  F.  "W.,  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher       . 

Eng.      Hervey,  Jarnes,  a  pious  and  amiable  divine  and  writer          .  1713           1758 

Eng.      ,  Thomas  K.,  poet  and  prose  writer        .              .              .  1799           1859 

Russ.     Herzen,  Alexander,  publicist,  editor  and  author       .              .  1812 

Gr.         Hesiod,  a  poet,  contemporary  of  Homer            .              .           fa.  0.  907 

Ger.       Heyne,  C.  G.,  a  learned  critic  and  writer    ...  1729           1812 

Eng.      Hey  wood,  Thomas,  humorist  and  dramatist      ...  1650 

Eng.  '    Hickes,  George,  a  theologian  and  philologist            .              .  1642           1715 

Amer.   Hickok,  Laurens  P.,  metaphysical  author          ...  1798 

Amer.  Hicks,  Elias,  preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends       .              .  1748           1830 

Amer.    Hildreth,  Richard,  author  of  History  of  the  United  States            .  1807           1863 

Fr.         Hilaire,  Geoff.  St.,  naturalist           .              ,         -'-.I,'.;?"         .  1772           1844 

Eng.      Hill,  Rowland,  author  of  cheap  postage  in  England       .              .  1795 

Eng.      Hill,  Rowland,  Rev.,  eccentric  clergyman    .              .              .  1744           1833 

Eng.      ,  Rowland,  viscount,  general  in  Spain  and  at  "Waterloo           .  1772           1842 

Eng.      ,  Sir  John,  a  botanist  and  multifarious  writer    .              .  1716           1775 

Amer.    Hillard,  George  S.,  author  and  journalist            .              .              .  1808 

Jew.      Hillel,  the  elder,  compiler  of  the  Talmud     ...      B.  0.  112 

Amer.    Hillhouse,  James  A.,  poet       .....  1789           11341 

Eng.      Hind,  John  Russell,  astronomer     ....  1823 

Eng.      Hlnton,  John  Howard,  author  of  History  of  United  States           .  1800 

G-r.         Hipparchns,  astronomer   .              .              .              .              .  B.  o.  2d  cent. 

Gr          Hippocrates,  the  father  of  medicine      .  .  .  B.  c.  460 

Hlppolytus,  Saint,  ecclesiastical  writer       .              .              .  A.  D.  3d  cent, 

Amor,   Hitchcock,  Edward,  D.  D.,  theologian  and  geologist     .              .  1793 

— — — — ,  Roswell  D.,  theologian,  orator,  and  patriot  . 

Kng.      Hoadley,  William,  a  celebrated  prelate  aid  author         .             .  1070          1761 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  961 

XATIOH                                                           HAMS    AND    PROFESSION.  BOKK.  DTKD, 

Amer.   Hobart,  John  Henry,  bishop  of  New  York                ,              .  1776  1830 

Eng.       Hobbes,  Thomas,  a  philosopher  and  translator.             .              .  1588  1797 

Eng.      Hobhou«e,  John  Cam.,  Lord  Broughton,  author  and  statesman  1786 

Fr.         Hoche,  Lazarus,  a  military  commander      .              .              .  1768  1797 

Amer.  Hodge,  Charles.  Rev.,  theological  writer           .              .              .  1797 

Amer.   Hoe,  Richard  M.,  an  inventor  of  printing  presses     .              .  1812 

Swiss.    Hofer,  Andrew,  a  Tyrolian  patriot      .              .              .              .  1765 

Eng.      Hofland,  Barbara,  novelist                            .              .              .  1770 

Eng.       Hoffman,  David,  lawyer  and  author    .               •              ,              .  1784 

Amer.   Hoffman,  Charles  Fenno,  poet  and  novelist              .              .  1806 

Scot.      Hogg,  James, '  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,'  poet       ...  1772  1835 

Hung.    Hohenlohe,  prince  of,  prelate,  and  alleged  miracle  worker    .  1793  184J 

Dan.      Holberg,  Louis,  baron  de,  an  historian               ...  1685  1754 

Amer.   Holbrook,  John  E.,  naturalist       ....  1795 

Eng.      Holcroft,  Thomas,  a  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  writer              ,  1744  1809 

Eng.      Hole,  Matthew,  writer  on  the  Liturgy           .                           .  1640  1730 

Eng.       Holingshed,  chronicler            .....  1582 

Amer.   Holland,  JosiahQ-.,  journalist,  poet  and  essayist      .              .  1819 

Eng.      ,  Lord,  statesman  and  litterateur            ...  1773  1840 

Eng.      ,  Philemon,  a  translator     ....  1551  1636 

Amer.   Hollis,  Thomas,  benefactor  of  Harvard  College                .              .  1659  1731 

Amer.  ,  Thomas,  philarthropist  (life,  2  vols.,  4to)     .              .  1720  1774 

Eng.      Holman,  James,  a  blind  traveller  and  author    .              .              .  1787  1857 

Amer.   Holmes,  Abiel,  D.  D.,  « Annals  of  America '               .              .  1763  1837 

Amer. ,  Oliver  Wendell,  physician,  poet  and  essayist     .              .  1809 

Eng.      Holt,  Sir  John,  lord  chief  justice                  ...  1642  170!> 

Amer.    Holyoke,  Kdward  Aug.,  physician  and  naturalist            .              .  1728  1829 

Scot.      Home,  Henry,  Lord  Kaimes, 'Criticism'                  .              .  lfi96  1782 

Scot.      ,  John,  a  divine,  dramatist  and  historian                .              .  1724  1808 

Gr.         Homer,  the  greatest  of  poets,  supposed  to  have  flourished        B.  o.  907 

Eng.      Hone,  Wra.,  author  of  '  Every  Day  Book,'  and  political  works    .  1779  1842 

Eng.      Hood,  Samuel,  viscount,  a  naval  officer       .              .              .  1724  1818 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  poet  and  humorist      ....  1798  1846 

Dutch.  Hoogvliet,  Arnoid,  a  poet                 ....  1687  1763 

Eng.      Hook,  Robert,  a  mathematician               ....  1635  1702 


Eng.      ,  Theo.  E.,  novelist  and  humorist        ... 

1788 

1841 

Eng.      Hooke,  Nathaniel,  author  of  a  Roman  history                .              . 

1690 

1763 

Eng.      Hooker,  Joseph  D.,  physician  and  botanist               .              . 

1818 

T*    IT                             T?irTilTr1    in  rinirtrnt  rlivlnn 

_ 

Enjr                     Sir  ^V  J    botinict 

1MB 

Ifoe 

1600 

Eng.      Hoole,  John,  a  poet  and  translator       «... 

ioo 
1717 

J885 
1803 

Eng.       Hooper,  John,  one  of  the  first  Protestant  martyrs     .               . 

1495 

1555 

Eng.      Hope,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous  writer,  "  Anaetasius  '»   .              . 

1770 

1831 

Amer.    Hopital,  Michel  de  1',  chancellor  of  France                 .               . 

1505 

1578 

Atne  .   Hopkins,  Ezek.,  first  commodore  TJ.  S.  Navy      .              .              . 

1718 

1803 

Atne  .  ,  Mark,  clergyman  and  author               ... 

1792 
1802 

4  _^  „                               a—  .«.,~t    «,,    >rninp    t  *3!«!  —  -  •*    *^-    — 

1721 

1803 

ATTIC  .                 ,  i.fiTnutij  au  e        em  uiv  ,nc  and  antnor       .               • 

Ame  .  ,  Stephen,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence     . 

1707 

1785 

Ame  .  Hopkinson,  Francis,  signer  of  the  Dec.  of  Independence  and  author  1737 

.791 

Ame  .  ,  Joseph,  jurist  and  statesman          .              .              . 

1770 

1841 

Rom.      Horace,  Qnintus  Flaccus,  eminent  poet      .              .              . 

B.  o.  65 

B.  0.      1 

41 

962  THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

NATICN.                                                          NAME  AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  BIKO, 

Flem.  Horn,  Philip  de  Mont,  count  of,  soldier  and  statesman                .  1622  1568 

Eng.  Home,  George,  a  learned  prelate,  bishop  of  Norwich  1730  1792 

Eng.  ,  Richard  H.,  poet  and  essayist                .              .              .  1803 

Eng.  ,  Thomas  Hartwell,  biblical  critic  and  historian          .  1780  1862 

Eng.  Homer,  Francis,  statesman  and  essayist            ...  1778  1817 

Eng.  ,  Leonard,  geological  writer      .              .                      .  1785  1864 

Eng.  Horeley,  Samuel,  a  prelate  and  mathematician                .              .  1736  1806 

Rom.  Hortensius,  Quintus,  orator         .              .              .                       B.  o.  114    B.  c.   60 

Arner.  Hosack,  David,  M.  D.,  medical  and  scientific  writer       .              .  1769  1835 

Heb.  Hosea,  prophet    ......  8th  cent.  B.  c. 

Fr.  Houdin,  Robert,  conjurer                      .              •              .              .  1805 

Fr.  Houdon,  Jean  Antoine,  sculptor    ....  1741  1828 

Fr.  Houssaye,  Arsene,  miscellaneous  writer            .              .              ,  1815 

Amer.  House,  Samuel  G.,  physician  aud  philanthropist     .              .  1801 

Amer.  Houston,  Sam.,  general,  governor,  and  ex-governor  of  Texas  1793  1862 

Eng.  Howard,  John,  a  celebrated  philanthropist       .              .              .  1726  1790 

Amer.  — ,  John  Eager,  revolutionary  soldier  and  statesman    .  1752  1827 

Amer.  Howe,  Elias,  jr.,  inventor  of  sewing  machines               .              .  1819 

Eng.  ,  Geo.  Aug.,  general  in  colonial  war  .              .              •  1724  1758 

Eng.  ,  Richard,  lord,  earl,  admiral     ....  1725  1799 

Eng. ,  Sir  Wm.,  oommander-in-chief  in  America  .              .  1814 

Eng.  Howell,  James,  author  of 'Letters'     ....  1596  1666 

Eng.  Howitt,  Mary  (wife  of  Wm.),  novelist  and  poet        .              .  1804 

Eng.  ,  William,  traveller,  essayist,  &c.            ...  1795 

Eng.  Howley,  William,  archbishop  of  Ca;  terbury            .              .  .1765  1848 

Eng.  Hoyle,  Edmund,  writer  on  games        ....  1672  1769 

Swiss.  Huber,  Francis,  naturalist              ....  1750  1831 

Fr.  Hue,  Evariste  R.,  Catholic  missionary  and  author           .              .  1813  1860 

Eng.  Hudson,  Henry,  discoverer  of  Hudson  river            .              .  1611 

Fr.  Huet,  Peter  Daniel,  an  erndite  prelate  and  author         .              .  1630  1721 

Ger.  Hufeland,  Chris.  W.,  medical  author          .              .              .  1762  1536 

Fr.  Hngh  Capet,  founder  of  the  Capetian  line  of  French  kings          .  946  996 

Irish-Am.  Hughes,  John,  Catholic  Archbishop  N.  Y.           .            ,.  1798  1864 

Fr.  Hugo,  Victor  M.,  novelist,  poet,  and  statesman               .              .  1802 

Amer.  Hull,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander  (Const,  and  Guer.),  &c,  1775  1845 

Amer. ,  Wm.,  general  in  War  of  1812    ....  1753  1825 

Ger.  Humboldt,  Karl  Wilhelm,  bai-on,  statesman  and  author       .  1767  1835 

Pruss. ,  F.  H.  A.,  baron,  traveller,  geographer,  and  nat.  phil.  1769  1859 

Scot,  Hnme,  David,  an  historian  and  philosopher      .              .              .  1711  1776 

Eng.                 ,  Jos.,  statesman  and  reformer            ...  1777  1855 

Amer.  Humphrey,  Heman,  theologian  and  author       ...  1779  1859 

Amer.  Humphreys,  David,  poet  and  diplomatist  ...  1753  1818 

Hung.  Hunnlades,  John,  a  celebrated  warrior              .              .              .  1400  1456 

Amer.  Hunt,  Freeman,  author  and  journalist        .              .              .  1804  1S58 

Eng.  ,  James  Henry  Leigh,  poet  and  essayist    .              .              .  1784  1859 

Eng.  ,  Leigh,  poet  and  essayist       .              .              .              .  1785  1859 

Amer. ,  Thomas  8.,  chemist  and  geologist            .              .  1826 

Scot.  Hunter,  John,  surgeon  and  medical  author              .              .  1728  1792 

Amer.  ,  Robert  M.  T.,  TJ.  8.  senator  from  Virginia       .  1809 

Eng.  Huntlngton,  Selina,  countess  of,  patron  of  Methodist*          .  1707  1791 

JSng.                          ,  Wm.,  Antinomian  preacher           ...  1744  1SU 

Arner.    •    •    •       •-,  Jeded.  V.,  poet  and  novelirt    ...  1815 


BIOGRAPHICAL  LNDBX.  963 

•ATIO1C.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Amer,    Huntlngton,  Fred.  D.,  clergyman  and  author   •  •              •       1819 

Kng.      Hurd,  Richard,  bishop  of  Worcester,  &o.                ,  .              1726'  1808 

Eng.       Huskisson,  Rohon  William,  able  statesman      •  •              •        1769  1830 

(Jer.       Huss,  John,  the  great  Bohemian  reformer                .  ,              1376  14ta 

Irish.     Hutcheson,  Francis,  a  philosophical  writer       •  •              .       1694  1747 

Amer.   Hutchinson,  Anne,  founder  of  X.  E.  Antinomians .  .  1643 

Eng. ,  John,  Colonel  (Life  by  his  widow)  .              .       1617  1664 

Amer.                      ,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  gov.  of  Mass,  and  historian       1711  178C 

Ger.       Ilutten,  Ulrich  von,  scholar  and  reformer         .  »              .       1488  1523 

Eng.      Hutton,  Charles,  an  eminent  mathematician             .  •              1737  1823 

Scot.               •  ,  James,  a  geologist  and  philosopher      «  .              »        1726  1797 

Dutch.  Huygens,  Christian,  a  scientific  author       .              .  .               1629  1706 

Fr.         Hyde  de  Neuville,  F.  G.,  baron  de,  politician   .  .              ,       1776  1867 

Ind.       Hyder  A\i,  a  celebrated  warrior               .              .  .              1717  1782 

Gr.         Hypatia,  Neo,  Platonic  philosopher     .              .  .              .         370  416 

Jew.     Hyrcanvu  T.  and  IL,  high  priests                •             ,  ,            1st  and  2d  cent . 


lambllchnB,  Neo,  Platonic  philosopher              .  .             •       A.  D.  4th  cent. 

Turk.     Ibrahim  Pasha,  viceroy  of  Egypt                 »  •              .              1789  1848 

Gr.        Ibycns,  a  lyric  poet                  .              .              .  ,        f.  B.  o.      650 

Span.      Ignatius  de  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Jesuits  .              .              1491  1556 

,  Saint,  primitive  father  of  the  church  .              .  107 

,  St.,  patriarch  of  Constantinople    .  •              .                779  877 

Eng.      Inch  bald,  Elizabeth,  dramatist  and  novelist      «  •              .       1756  1821 

Port.      Inez  de  Castro,  qneen  of  Portugal               .  .              •  1356 

Amer.    Ingersoll,  Charleu  J.,  statesman  and  historian  .              .       1782  1862 

Amer. ,  Joseph  R.,  statesman  and  lawyer  .              •              17S6 

Scot.      Inglia,  Henry  D.,  traveller  and  author              •  •              •       1795  1836 

Eng.      Ingram,  Rev.  Dr.  James,  Saxon  scholar      .  •              •              1774  1850 

Amei.   Inman,  Henry,  portrait  and  landscape  painter  .              .       1801  1846 

Amer. ,  John,  journalist  and  litterateur       .  .              .  1850 

Innocent,  the  name  of  thirteen  popes  .              •  .              •         402    to    1687 

Irenaeus,  saint,  a  Gallic  bishop,  and  author  •"'"'•                    2d  cent. 

Eng.      Ireland,  Samuel '  Picturesque  Tour  *    .               .  .    -           .        1750  1800 

Eng.      ,  W.  H.,  author  of  the  '  Shakespeare  Forgeries'        .  1777  1835 

Gr.        Irene,  a  Byzantine  empress     .              .              .  .              ,         752  803 

Eng.      Ireton,  Henry,  son-in-law  of  Cromwell,  and  one  of  his  generals  1610  1651 

Amer.    Irving,  John  Treat,  author  of  travels  and  novels  .              .       1810 

Amer.  ,  Peter,  author  (brother  of  Washington)  .              .              1771  1838 

Scot.      ,  Rev.  Edward,  theological  writer            .  .              .       1792  1834 

Amer.  ,  Theodore,  author  of '  Conquest  of  Florida'  .              1809 

Amer.    ,  Washington,  historian  and  essayist       .  .               ,        1783  1859 

Amer.   ,  William,  one  of  the  authors  of  Salmagundi  .              .              1766  1821 

Span.     Isabella,  the  Catholic,  queen  of  Spain,  patron  of  Columbus  .       1451  1604 

Span.     II.,  qneen  of  Spain            •              .  .              •              1830 

Gr.         Isaeus,  an  orator        .              .              •              .  •              B.  c.  418 

Eeb.      Isaiah,  the  greatest  of  the  Hebrew  prophet*  •              •             B.  o.  (\bt)    800 

Fr.         Isambert,  Franc  A.,  politician  and  jurist         .  •              ,       1792  1857 

Gr.         Isocrates,  an  orator          .              .              .  •              •       B.  0. 436 

Span.     Iturbide,  emperor  of  Mexico                .              .  •              .       1784  1821 


964  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

WATIOV.                                                       NAME  AMD  PROFESSION.  BORN.            KKD, 

Amer.   Ives,  Levl  S.,  ex-protestant  episcopal  bishop  of  North  Carolina  1797 

Amor.  Izard,  Ralph  statesman  (of  South  Carolina)     .              •              •  1742          1804 


Amer.  Jackson,  Charles  T.,  chemist,  mineralogist,  geologist.            ,  1805 

Amer.  ,  James,  eminent  physician     ....  1777 

Amer.    ,  Gen.  Andrew,  military  commander,  president  TT.  8.  1767  1845 

Amer.   ,  Patrick  T.,  eminent  merchant           ...  1780  1847 

Amer. ,  Thomas  Jonathan  ('  Stonewall '),  rebel  general     .  1826  1863 

Eng.      ,  William  ('of  Exeter')  musical  composer         .              .  1730  1803 

Heb.      Jacob,  the  Patriarch     •    .              .              .              .              .      B.  a  1836  B.  o.  1689 

Ger.       Jacob!,  Fred.  H.,  philosopher,  novelist,  Ac.       ...  1743  1819 

Ger.       Jacobs,  Fred.,  classical  philologist              ...  1764  1847 

Fr.        Jacotot,  Jean  J.,  educational  writer-     ....  1770  1840 

FT.        Jacquard,  Jos.  M.,  inventor  of  the  Jacquard  loom    .              .  1752  1834 

Fr.        Jacquernont,  Victor,  traveller  and  naturalist    .              .              .  1801  1832 

Dutch.  Jacquin,  Nicholas  Joseph,  a  botanist           ...  1727  1817 

Ger.       Jahn,  John,  an  eminent  oriental  scholar            ...  1750  1817 

Eng.      James,  G.  P.  R.,  novelist  and  historian       ...  1801  1860 

Amer.             ,  Henry,  philosophical  writer      ....  1811 

Amer.  ,  John  Angell,  congregational  clergyman  and  author  1785  1859 

,  St.,  the  Elder,  apostle                ....  44? 

,  St.,  the  Less,        "             .             .             .             .  66? 

Eng.      Jameson,  Anne,  essayist  and  writer  on  art        ...  1797  1860 

Scot.      ,  Robert,  naturalist  and  author      ...  1774  1854 

Pers.      Jami,  or  Djami,  poet            '    .^                          .              .              .  1414  1492 

Scot.      Jamieson,  John,  D.  D.,  miscellaneous  author           .               .  1759  1S38 

Fr.         Janin,  Jules,  litterateur          .....  1804 

Dutch.  Janaen,  Cornelius,  founder  of  a  sect             ...  1585  1638 

Ital.       Jannarins,  patron  saint  of  Naples         ....  272  305 

Amer.    Jarves,  James  J.,  traveller  and  author        ...  1818 

Amer.'  Jarvis,  Samuel  F.,  D.  D.,  historian  and  theologist            .              .  1786  1851 

Fr.         Jasmin,  Jaques,  barber-poet                                       ,              .  1798  1864 

Amer.   Jasper,  William,  heroic  soldier  of  the  Revolution            .              .  1750  1779 

Amer.   ,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot  and  statesman              .  1745  1829 

Amer.   Jay,  William,  judge,  anti-slavei-y  philanthropist             .              .  1779  1858 

Eng.      ,  Wiliam,  D.  D.,  religious  writer            .              .              .  1769  1853 

Fr.         Jeanne  d'Arc, '  Maid  of  Orleans,'  heroine         .              .              ,  1412  1431 

Ger.       Jean,  Paul,  see  Richter,  novelist  and  metaphysician               .  1763  1825 

Irish.     Jebb,  John,  Bishop  of  Limerick,  theological  writer         .              .  1736  1775 

Amer.   Jefferson,  Thomas,  a  patriotic  statesman,  3d  pros,  of  the  U.  S.  1743  1826 

Scot.      Jeffrey,  Francis,  lord,  essayist  and  critic               .              .           .  1773  I860 

Eng.      Jeffreys,  George,  infamous  judge                 ...  1648  1689 

Hind.     Jejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamsetjee,  Parsee  merchant  and  philanthropist  .  1783  1859 

Anst.    Jellaohich,  de  Buzim,  baron,  ban  of  Croatia             .              .  1S01  1859 

Eng.      Jenkinson,  B.  B.,  earl  of  Liverpool,  premier      ...  1770  1828 

Eng.      Jenkyns,  William,  non-conformist  ('  on  Jade ')        .              .  1612  1686 

Bag.      Jenner,  Edward,  introducer  of  the  vaccine  innocnlation              .  1749  1823 

Eng.      Jenyns,  Soame,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer          .              .  1 704  1787 

Scot.      Jerdan,  'William,  journalist     .....  1782 

Heb.      Jeremiah,  prophet             .              .              .             .              .  t.  B.  c.  678  671 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 

RJLTIOV.                                                   IAMB  AND  PROFESSION.  BOUH.  DIED 

Jerome,  St.,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church      •              •  •  424 

G«r.  ,  of  Prague,  reformer,  companion  of  HUM    .              .  1416 

Eng.  Jen-old,  Douglas,  essayist        .               .               .              *  .       1782  185) 

Eng  Jervis,  sir  John,  earl  St.  Vincent,  admiral  .              .  1774  1823 

Elite.  Jewell  John,  learned  prelate  and  author           •              .  .       1522  1571 

Eng.  Jewsbury,  Maria  J.,  essayist          .              ,              «              .  1833 

Fr.  Joan  of  Arc, 'the  greatest  of  heroines'              .              .  .       1410  1431 

ItaL  Joanna,  queen  of  Naples  ...  * 

Heb.  Joel,  the  prophet       .  .  .  .  .  f.  B.  o.  800 

HoL  Johannes  Secundus  (Johannes  Evorard;,  poet          .              .  1511  1534 

Fr.  Johannot,  Tony,  artist  and  designer     ....       1803  1859 

Heb.  John,  the  Evangelist        .              .              .              .              .  100 

Eng.  ,  of  Gaunt  (or  Ghent),  duke  of  Lancaster                .  .       1340  1399 

Ger.  ,  king  of  Saxony  and  author                 .              .              .  1801 

PoL ,  III.,  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  and  general            .  .       1629  1696 

Eng.  ,  Edward,  historian  of  JST.  England      .              .              .  1600  1673 

Eng.  Johnson,  Samuel,  a  divine  and  writer  in  the  cause  of  liberty  .       1649  1708 

Eng.  ,  Samuel, '  the  Colossus  of  English  literature'           .  1709  1784 

Amer.                 ,  Alex.  B.,  philologist  and  miscellaneous  writer  .       1786 

Amer.  ,  Andrew,  president  U.  8.                 .              .              .  1808 

Amer.  ,  Reverdy,  jurist  and  statesman  ...       1796 

Amer.  ,  Richard  M.,  general  and  statesman,  vice-president  U.  8.       1780  1850 

Amer.  ,  Samuel,  first  president  Columbia  College  and  author  .       1696  1772 

Amer.  ,  Walter  R..  physicist        ....  1794  1852 

Tr.  Amer.  Johnson,  Sir  "William,  general  and  governor  in  North  America      1715  1744 

Amer.  Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  rebel  general       .              .              .  1803  1862 

Scot.  ,  Alex.  K.,  geographer           .              •              .  .       1804 

Scot.  . ,  George,  writer  and  naturalist*                   .              .  1798  1855 

Scot.  ,  James  F.  W.,  chronicler  and  agricultural  author  .       1796  1865 

Fr.  Joinville,  Jean,  sire  de,  chronicler                .              .              .  1224  1319 

Fr.  ,  Francois,  prince  de,  third  son  of  Louis  Philippe  .       1818 

Fr.Am.  Jolliet,  Louis,  one  of  the  discoverers  of  the  Mississippi          .  1730 

ItaL  Jomelli,  Nicholas,  dramatic  and  musical  composer         .  .       1714  1744 

Swiss.  Jomini,  Henry,  baron  de,  military  writer    ...  1775 

Heb.  Jonah,  the  prophet                  .              .              -              .  .              f.  B.  o.  862 

Amer.  Jones,  Anson,  last  president  of  the  republic  of  Texas            .  1798  1858 

Eng.                 ,  Inigo,  an  eminent  architect       ....       1572  1652 

Amer.  ,  Jacob,  commodore  in  the  U.  8.  navy              .              .  1770  1850 

Scot.  ,  John  Paul,  captain  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States  .       1736  179i 

Eng.  ,  Owen,  ^architect  and  decorator          .              .              .  1809 

Eng.  ,  Thomas  By mer,  writer  on  anatomy  and  physiology  •       1810 

Eng.  • ,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  poet,  scholar,  and  lawyer    .  1746  1794 

Eng.  ,  Eev.  William,  «  of  Nayland,' Hutchinsonian  divine  .       1726  1800 

Eng.  ,  William,  divine  and  author               ...  1726  1800 

Eng.  Jonson,  Benjamin,  celebrated  poet  and  dramatist            .  .       1574  1637 

IceL  Jonsson,  Finnur,  Icelandic  historian           ...  1704  17S9 

Irish.  Jordan,  Dorothy,  actress,  mistress  of  William  IV.         .  .1762  1814 

Dan.  Jorgenson,  Jorgen,  adventurer  and  author               .              .  1779  1830 

Eng.  Jortin,  Dr.  John,  learned  theologian  and  author             .  .       1698  1770 

Fr.  Josephine,  empress  of  the  French  (born  in  Marti nlco)          .  1761  1*14 

Jew.  Josephua,  celebrated  historian  and  warrior        ...  87  91 

Heb.  Joshua,  successor  of  Moses  as  leader  of  the  Israelites  •  B.  o.  1504 


966  BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 

WAT.OH                                                            NAME    AND    PHOFKSSI05.                                                          BOBN.  DIED, 

Heb.       Joslah,  17th  king  of  Judah     .              .    '         .              *               •.  c.  647  •.  o.  608 

Heb.      Jotham,  king  of  Judah      .              .              .              .              .       B.C.  783  a.  o.  742 

Fr.         Joufiroy,  Theo.  B.,  metaphysician  and  statesman            ,              .  1790  1842 

Fr.        Jourdan  J.  B.,  marshal  of  France                               .              .  1762  1831 

Jovianus,  Flavius  O.,  emperor              .              .              •              •  364 

Ger.       Juan,  or  John,  of  Austria,  don,  -warrior      ...  1546  1578 

Mex.      Juarez,  Benito,  statesman  and  president           ...  1807 

Juba,  king  of  Numidia    .              .              .              .              .  B.  C.  46 

,  king  of  Mauritania  and  historian    .          .              .              .  B.  o.  18 

Jew.      Judab,  Hakkadosch,  famous  rabbi  and  Talrnudist     .              .  129  194 

Heb.      Judas  Maccabeus,  patriot        .              .              .              .             .  B.  o.  160 

Amer.    Judd,  Sylvester,  author  of '  Margaret '       .              .              .  1813  1853 

Amer.   Judson,  Adoniram,  missionary  in  India            ...  1788  1850 

Amer.    ,  Ann  Hazeltine,  first  wife  of  the  above         .              .  1789  1826 

Amer.  ,  Emily   Chnbbuck,   third  wife  of  above,  and  author 

('Fanny  Forester')          .....  1817  1854 

Amer.   ,  Sarah  Boardman,  second  wife  of  above       .              .  1803  1845 

Dan.      Juel,  Nicholas,  celebrated  admiral       .              .              .              .  1629  1697 

Jugurtha,  Numidian  king               ....  B.  c.  104 

Bom.     Julian,  Flavius  Claudius,  Roman  emperor  and  author,  <  Apos- 
tate'      .......  331  363 

Fr.         Julien,  A.  J.,  orientalist                 ....  1799 

Swiss.    Jullien,  Louis  G.,  musical  composer,  &c.           .              .              •  1812  1860 

Hind.    Jung-Bahadoor,  prime  minister  of  Nepaul  .              •              •  1816 

Ger.       Junge,  Joachim,  philosopher                 .              .              •              •  1587  1657 

Ger.       Jung-Stilling,  John  H.,  mystic  author        .              .              .  1740  1817 

Dutch.  JuniuB,  Adrian,  voluminous  writer                    .              •              .  1512  1575 

Pr.         Junot,  Andoche,  duke  d'Abrantes/military  officer                .  1771  1813 

Fr.         ,  Madame,  duchess  d'Abrantes,  biography,  &o.      .              .  1784  1839 

Fr.        Jussieu,  A.  L.  de,  botanist              ...»  1748  1836 

Gr.        Justin  Flavius,  A.  J. '  the  Elder,'  Byzantine  emperor     .              .  450  627 

Horn.     ,  Latin  historian      .  .  .  .  .   £  B.  o.  200 

Gr.                   ,  Martyr,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church              .              .91  165 

Or.        Justinian,  Flavius  A.  J., '  the  Byzantine  '  emperor                .  482  565 

Rom.     Juvenal,  Decius  Junius,  the  most  vehement  of  satirists                .  128 


Ger.       Kaempfer,  naturalist,  traveller  and  historian           .              .  1651           1716 

Ger.       Kaestner,  Abraham  Gotbelf,  mathematician  and  astronomer     .  1719           1799 

Fr.         Kalb,  baron  de,  who  generously  aided  the  American  cause  1717           1780 

tiwe.       Ealm,  Peter,  traveller  and  botanist     ....  1716           1770 

Kumehameha  (or  Famehameha)  L  first  king  of  the  Sandwich 

Islands       .                                          ...       <abt)  1800 

— ,  IL  king,  introduced  Christianity        .              .  1824 

,  III.  introduced  Constitution       .              ,              :  1817           1864 

,  IV.  (Alex.  Liholiho)              .              .  1884 

Boot,       Eames,  Henry  Home,  lord,  judge  and  author              .  1596           1827 

Amer.   Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  arctic  explorer  and  author       .              .  1820           1857 

Ger.       Kant,  Emanuel,  metaphysician                                         .              .  1724           1804 

Buss.    Karasmin,  Nicholas  M.  historiographer  of  the  empire       •  1766           1826 

Fr.         Karr,  J.  B  Alphonse,  miscellaneous  author      .              .              •  1808 


BIOGBAPHICAL   INDEX.  967 

RATION.                                                            NAME   AND  PROFESSION.  BORN  IUED. 

Eng.       Rater,  Henry,  mathematician                      .              .              •  1777  1833 

Irish.      Kavanagh,  Julia,  novelist       .              •              .              .              .  1824 

Eng.      Eean,  Charles  John,  actor            •              •              •              .  1*11 

Eng.      ,  Edmund,  tragedian     .....  1787  1838 

Eng.      ,  Ellen  Tree,  wife  of  0.  J.  Kean,  actress          .              .  1805 

Amer.    Kearny,  Philip,  Union  general  in  war  against  rebellion,               .  1815  1562 

Eng.      Keats,  John,  a  poet           .....  1796  1820 

Eng.       Keble,  John,  divine  and  poet  .....  1790 

Irish.      Keightley,  Thos.,  miscellaneous  author       ...  1800 

Keith,  Geo.  K.  Elphinston,  admiral     ....  1746  1820 

Soot.      ,  James,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  and  Prussian  service  1696  1758 

,  Thos.,  mathematician,  ('  Use  of  Globes ')              .              .  1759  1824 

Fr.         Kellerman,  Frank  C.,  duke  of  Valmy,  general         .              .  1735  1820 

FT. ,  Franc  Etienne,  son  of  above,  general            .              .1770  1835 

Irish.      Kelly,  Michael,  composer  and  singer           .              .              .  1762  1826 

Eng.      Kemble,  Charles,  actor            .....  1775  1S54 

Eng.      ,  Frances  Anne,  actress  and  author            .              ,  1811 

Eng. ,  John  M.,  scholar  and  historian           ...  1807  1857 

Eng.       ,  John  Philip,  celebrated  tragedian              .              .  1767  1823 

Ger.      Kemfelen,  "Wolfgang,  baron,  author  of  the  automaton  chess-player  1754  1806" 

Eng.      Kempis,  Thomas  a,  supposed  author  of  the  '  Imitation  of  Christ'  1380  1471 

Eng.       Ken,  Thos.,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  theological   writer          .  1637  1711 

Amer.    Kendall,  Amos,  statesman  and  author        .              .              .  1789 

Amer. ,  George  W.,  journalist  and  author       ...  1810 

Amer.    Kendrick  Asahel  C.,  Greek  scholar  and  author         .              .  1809 

Scot.      Kennedy,  Grace,  writer,  (Father  Clement)       .              .              .  1782  1826 

Amer.   Kennedy,  John  Pendleton,  statesman  and  novelist  .              .  1795 

Eng.      Kennet,  White,  learned  prelate  and  author       .              .              .  1660  1728 

Eng.      Kennicott,  Benjamin,  a  divine  and  Biblical  critic    .              .  1718  1783 

Ir.-Am.Kenrick,  Francis  P.,  Catholic  prelate  and  author            .              .  1797  1863 

Kent,  Edward,  Aug.,  duke  of,  father  of  Queen  Victori*       .  1767  1820 

Amer.    ,  James,  jurist,  chancellor  of  New  York    ...  1763  1847 

Amer.    ,  William,  judge,  esteemed  jurist       .              .              .  1861 

Eng.       Kenyon,  Lloyd,  lord,  jurist     .....  1732  1802 

Eng. ,  John,  poet           .....  17S3  1856 

Ger.       Kepler,  John,  eminent  astronomer       ....  1571  1630 

Eng.       Keppel,  Aug.,  viscount,  admiral     ....  1726  1786 

Scot.      Kerr,  Robert,  miscellaneous  writer     ....  1814 

Amer.    Key,  Francis  8.,  author  of 'Star  Spangled  Banner*              .  1779  1843 

Eng.       Kidd,  Wm.,  noted  pirate,  executed      ....  1701 

Eng.      Killigrew,  Henry,  dramatist          ....  1612  1690 

Scot.      Kilmarnock,  Wm.  4th,  earl,  Jacobite,  beheaded              .              .  1702  1746 

Amer.    Kimball,  Richard  B.,  author          «...  1818 

Amer.    Kins?,  John  A.,  ex-governor  of  New  York           .              .              .  1789  1867 

Amer. ,  Rufus,  statesman  and  diplomatist      .              .              .  1755  1827 

Amer.    ,  Thomas  Starr,  author    .....  1824  1884 

Amer.   ,  William  E.,  diplomatist,  senator,  and  vice-president    .  1786  ISM 

Eng.      Kingl  ak  a,  Alex.  Wm.,  M.  P.,  author  of  « Both  en'          .              .  18u2 

Irish.     Kingsborough,  Lord,  patron  of  great  work  on  Mexican  antiquities  1795  1831 

Eng.      Kingsley,  Charles,  clergyman,  novelist  and  poet            .              .  1819 

Amer.   Kip,  "Win.  Ingraham,  Prot.  Epis.  bishop  and  author              .  1811 

Amer    Kirkland,  Caroline  M.,  author  of  travels  and  essays       .              .  1864 


968  THE    WORLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

WATIOW.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION  BtXX.  DIKX 

Eng.  Kitchine,William,  writer  on  Cookery        .              .              ,  1821 

Eng.  Kitto,  John,  biblical  scholar  and  author            .              •  1804  1864 

Hung.  Klapka,  George,  patriot,  soldier  and  author             •              •  1820 

Pruss.  Klaproth,  Henry  J.,  philologist  axd  ethnologist              .  1784  183d 

Fr.  Kleber,  John  Baptist,  military  officer          .              .              .  1754  1800 

Ger.  Klopstock,  the  '  Milton  of  Germany  '              .              .  .       1724  1808 

Ger.  Knapp,  Geo.,  Christ,  theologian                  .              .              .  1753  1825 

Amer.  --  ,  Bamuel  L.,  miscellaneous  writer            .              .  .       1784  1838 

Eng.  Knight,  Charles,  publisher,  editor,  and  author          .              •  1791 

Eng.  --  ,  Richard  Payne,  miscellaneous  writer    .              •  •       1750  3824 

Irish.  Knowles,  Jas.  Sheridan,  dramatic  author  and  actor              .  1784  1862 

Eng.  Knox,  Dr.  Vicesimus,  divine  and  miscellaneous  author  •       1752  182L 

Amer.  -  ,  Henry,  military  officer  and  statesman          .   .           *  1750  1806 

Ger.  Knyphausen,  baron,  general  in  British  service              .  .        1730  1789 

Ger.  Koch,  Christopher  William,  historiau         ...  1737  181? 

Fr.  Kock,  Charles  Paul  de,  novelist  and  dramatist              .  .       1794 

Ger.  Kohl,  Johann  George,  traveller  and  author          .           .  .       1808 

Dan.  Koppen,  Adolph  Louis,  historical  writer  and  lecturer           .  1804 

Ger.  Korner,  or  Koerner,  Charles  T.,  poet                  .              .  .       1791  1813 

Pol.  Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  warrior  and  patriot,  served  in  the  Ameri- 

can army  during  the  Revolution          .              .              .  1746  1817 

Hung.  Kossuth,  Lajos  (Louis),  late  governor  of  Hungary         .  .       1802 

Ger.  Kotzebue,  Augustus  Frederick  Fer.  von,  historian,  &c.        .  1761  1819 

Hung.  Kraitsir,  Charles,  philologist                 ....       1804  1860 

Pol.  Krasinski,  Valerian,  count,  author              ...  1780  1855 

Ger.  Krummacher,  Fred.  Adolph.,  poet  and  theologian          .  .       1768  1845 

Ger.  •  -  1  Fred.  William,  religious  writer          .  . 

Russ.  Krusenstern,  Adam  Jean,  navigator     ....       1770  1846 

Ger.  Kugler,  Franz  Theodore,  writer  on  art,  &c.              .              .  1808  1858 

Ger.  Kuhnoel,  Christ  F.,  critic       .....       1768  1841 

Ger.  Kunth,  Charles  3.,  botanist            ....  1788 

Buss.  Kutusofl,  Michael  L.  G.,  field-marshal               ...       1745  1813 


Fr.  Labat,  Jean  B.,  missionary  and  historian          ...  1663  1738 

Ital.  Lablache,  Lnigi,  renowned  vocalist              ...  1794  1858 

Eng.  Labouchere,  Henry,  Baron  Taunton,  statesman               .              .  1798 

Fr.  Laborde,  A.  L.  G.,  comte  de,  traveller,  &c.                .              .  1774  1842 

Fr.  Labrtryere,  see  Bruytre  .  .  .  .  • 

Fr.  Lacepede,  Bernard  G.  8.  Delaville,  count  de,  naturalist        .  1756  1826 

Fr.  Lacordaire,  Jean  B.  H.,  Catholic  theologian  and  author               .  1802 

Fr.  Lacretelle,  Charles,  traveller  and  litterateur              .              .  1766  1817 

Fr.  Lacroix,  Sylvestre  F.,  mathematician               ...  1765  1833 

Lactantius,  a  father  of  the  Church  styled  the  Christian  Cicero  325 

Rom.  Laelius,  Caius,  publicist,  tribune,  prator  and  consul       .              B.  P.  186   ».  o.  115 

ITr.  Laennel,  an  eminent  physician      ....  1782  1826 

Fr.  Lafarge,  Marie  C.,  notorious  as  a  poisoner         ...  1816  1852 

FT.  La  Fayette,  G.  M.,  marquis,  &c.,  military  commander  and  states- 

man      .......  1757  1834 

Fr.  -  •  —  »  George  W.,  statesman  .  .  • 

Fr.  Lafltte,  Jacques,  wealthy  banker  and  statesman              .              .  1768  1844 

Kr.  -  ,  Jean,  corsair,  privateer,  or  pirate                .             ,  1780  P       1891 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  969 

•AXIOM.                                                            NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Ger.  La  Fontaine.  Aug.  J.  H.,  author  of  200  volumes  miscellaneous     .  1756  1831 

Fr.  Lafontaine,  Jean  de,  an  inimitable  fabulist              .              .  1621  1691 

Ital.  Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  able  mathematician    .              .  1736  1811 

Fr.  La  Gueronniere,  Louis  E.  A.,  viscount  de,  publicist              .  1816 

Fr.  Laharpe,  John  Francis  de,  dramatist,  critic,  &c.              .              ,  1739  1793 

Scot.  Laing,  Malcolm,  historian               ....  1762  1818 

Fr.  Lalande,  Joseph  J.  le  Francis  de,  astronomer                 .              .  1732  1801 

Amer.  Lamar,  MirabeauB.,  second  president  of  the  republic  of  Texas  1798  1851 

Fr.  Lamarck,  J.  B.  A.  P.,  naturalist            .              .              .              .1782  1807 

Fr.  Laniarque,  Maxim.,  general  of  the  revolution  of  1789              .  1770  1882 
Fr.  Lamartine,  Alphonse  de,  poet,  historian,  traveller,  and  states- 
man           ......  1802 

Eng.  Lamb,  Charles,  poet  and  essayist    ....  1776  1834 

Eng.  ,  Lady  Caroline,  novelist             ....  1785  1828 

Ital.  Lamballe,  Marie,  princess  of,  victim  of  the  revolution           .  1748  1792 

Eng.  Lambert,  A.  B.,  botanist        .....  1761  1842 

Eng.  ,  Daniel,  noted  for  corpulency,  789  pounds                 .  1770  1809 

Fr.  Lammenais,  F.  R.,  abbe  de,  theological  and  political  writer         .  1782  1854 

Fr.  Lamoriciere,  Christ.  L.  J.  de,  general           .              .              .  1806  1866 

Fr.  Lamotte  Fouque,  Fred., baron  de,  novelist  'Undine'                   .  1777  1841 

Eng.  Lancaster,  Joseph,  founder  of  system  of  education  .              .  1771  1839 

Amer.  Lander,  Fred.  W.,  military  officer  (k.  at  Ball's  Blufl)    .              .  1822  1862 

Eng.  t  Richard  and  John,  travellers  in  Africa       .              .  1834 

Fr.  Landon,  C.  P.,  author  of  works  on  the  fine  arts               »              .  .  1826 

Eng.  ,  (Maclean),  Letitia  E.,  poet  and  novelist     .              .  1802  1839 

Eng.  Landor,  Walter  Savage,  poet  and  essayist          ...  1775  1864 

Eng.  Landseer,  John,  engraver  and  author          .              .              .  1769  1852 

Eng.  Lane,  Edw.  Wm.,  orientalist,  author  of '  Modern  Egyptians,'  &c. 

Amer.  ,  James,  general,  U.  S.  senator  for  Oregon     .              .  1801  1867 

Ger.  Lange,  commentator  on  scripture         .... 

Amer.  Langdon,  gov.  New  Hampshire,  U.  S.  senator          .              .  1739  1819 

Ital.  Langfranc,  learned  archbishop  of  Canterbury   .               .               .  1605  1689 

Eng.  Langhorne,  John,  miscellaneous  author      .               .               .  1735  17— 

Eng.  Langton,  Stephen,  cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury           .  1228 

Fr.  Lannes,  Jean,  duke  of  Montebello,  marshal  of  France          .  1769  1809 

Eng.  Lansdowne,  Henry  Petty,  marquis  of,  president  of  Council          .  1780  1863 

Eng. ,  William  Petty,  marquis  of,  premier      .              .  1787  1805 

Itnl.  Lanzi,  Luigi,  writer  on  art      .....  1732  1810 

Fr.  La  Perouse,  Jean  F.,  count,  navigator        ...  1741  1789 
Fr.  Laplace,  Peter  Simon,  marquis  of,  eminent  astronomer  and  geo- 
metrician            ......  1749  1827 

Lappen berg,  Johann  M.,  historian               .              •              .  1794 

Irish.  Lardner,  Dionysius,  writer  on  physical  science               .              .  1798  18tfl 

j;ng>  ,  Nathaniel,  a  learned  dissenting  divine         .             .  1684  1768 

Fr.          Larrey,  Dominique  J.,  baron,  surgeon  and  author           .              .  1760  1842 

Fr.  La  Salle,  Robt.  C.,  sieur  de,  navigator  and  author    .              .  1635  "687 

Span.  Las  Casas,  Barth  de,  missionary  and  historian  .               .              .  1474  iJJl'iJ 

Fr.  ,  biographer  of  Napoleon,  &c.         .          .              .  1762  1843 

Nor.  Lassen,  Chris.,  oriental  philologist  and  historian             .  1800 

Eng.  Latimer,  Hugh,  a  prelate,  martyred  for  being  a  reformer  1470  15(9 

Eng  Latham,  John,  ornithologist  ....  1740  18*1 

Eng.                .    ,  Bobert  G.,  philologist  and  ethnologist        .  1812 

41* 


970  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATIOS.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORS,  DIED 

Eng.  Land,  "William,  prelate,  famed  for  his  tyranny  and  superstition  .  1573  1641 

Soot.  Lauder,  Sir  Thos.  Dick,  writer  on  Natural  History                .  1784  1848 

Amur.  Laurens,  John,  lieutenant  colonel  in  Revolutionary  war               .  1756  1782 

Amer.  ,  Henry,  patriot  and  statesman        ...  1724  1792 

Fr.  Lavalette,  M.  C.,  count  de,  military  commander              .              .  1769  1830 

Fr.  La  Valliere,  F.  L.,  duchesse  de,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV         .  1644  1710 

Swiss.  Lavater,  John  Caspar,  celebrated  physiognomist            .              .  1741  1801 

Fr.  Lavoisier,  Anthony  L.,  celebrated  chemist                .              .  17  43  1794 

Scot.  Law,  John,  financier  of  the 'Mississippi  Bubble*           •              .  1671  1729 

Eng.  ,  "Win.,  religious  and  mystical  author   .              .              .  1686  1761 

Ainer  Lawrence,  Abbott,  merchant  and  diplomatist    .              .              .  1792  1855 

Amer. ,  Amos,  merchant  and  philanthropist       .              .  1786  1852 

Amer. ,  James,  captain  in  U.  8.  Navy           ...  1781  1813 

Eng.  Layard,  Austen  H.,  traveller  and  explorer  of  Nineveh          .  18i7 

Amer.  Lea,  Isaac,  naturalist  and  publisher     .              .              .              t  1792 

Eng.  Leake,  Wm.  M.,  traveller  and  philhellenist              .              .  1777  1860 

Amer.  Lear,  Tobias,  secretary  to  "Washington,  diplomatist        .              .  1760  1826 

Fr.  Lebrun,  Pontius  D.  E.,  poet           ....  1729  1807 

Swiss.  Leclerc,  John,  eminent  critic     .....  1657  1736 

Amer.  Le  Conte,  John,  naturalist              ....  1784 

Amer.  ,  John  L.  M.  D.,  naturalist,  (son  of  preceding)               .  1825 

Amer.                    ,  John,  M.  D.,  naturalist,  (Georgia)             .              .  1818 

Fr.  Ledru-Rollin,  Alex  A.,  jurist  and  politician      ...  1808 

Amer.  Ledyard,  John,  intrepid  and  enterprising  statesman             .  1751  1788 

Amer.  Lee,  Arthur,  M.D.,  statesman               ....  1740  1782 

Amer.  ,  Charles,  officer  in  the  Revolution       ...  1730  (?)     1782 

Amer.  ,  Eliza  B.,  miscellaneous  writer     .  .  .  (abt.)  1890 

Amer.  ,  Francis  Lightfoot,  signer  Dec.  Independence  .               .  1734  1797 

Eng.  ,  Harriet,  Miss,  (sister  of  Sophia),  novelist  .               .               .  1750  1824 

Amer.  ,  Henry,  general  in  Revolutionary  War               .               .  1756  1816 

Amer.  ,  Robert  E.,  commander  in  chief  of  rebel  armies      .              .  1808 

Amer.  .  Richard  Henry,  pres.  of  Congress       ...  1732  1791 

Eng. ,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  oriental  scholar    ....  1783  1852 

Eng.  ,  Sophia,  Miss,  novelist             .              .              .              .  1750  1824 

Eng.  Leech,  John,  humorous  artist  in  Punch,  &c.      ...  1817  1864 

Fr.  Lefebvre,  Francois  Joseph,  duke  of  Dantzick,  marshal  of  France  1755  1820 

Amer.  Legare,  Hugh  S.,  jurist,  statesman  and  litterateur            .              .  1797  1843 

Fr.  Legendre,  Adrian  M.,  mathematician                         .               .  1753  1833 

Amer.  Leggett,  William,  political  and  miscellaneous  writer      .              .  1802  1840 

Ger.  Leibnitz,  Godfrey  William,  able  and  learned  philosopher       .  1646  1716 

Eng.  Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of,  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth    .  1532  1588 

Eng.  Leicester,  T.  W.  Coke,  earl  of,  agriculturist      .              .              .  1752  1842 

Scotch.  Leighton,  Robert,  able  prelate       .              .              .              .  1613  1684 

Amer.  Leisler,  Jacob,  political  adventurer               ...  1691 

Amer.  Leland,  Charles  G.,  essayist  and  humorist        .              .              „  1824 

Eng.  ,  John,  eminent  divine  and  author   .              •              .  1691  1768 

Irish.  ,  Thomas,  eminent  divine  and  author     ...  1772  1788 

Pol.  Lelewcl,  Joachim,  historian          ...»  17S6 

Fr.  Lemaltre,  Fred.,  actor             .              .              .              •              .  1798 

Eng.  Lemon,  Mark,  humorist,  editor  of 'Punch  '              .              .  1809 

Eng.  Lempriere,  John,  biographer  and  lexicographer              .               .  1824 

Fr.  L'Knclos,  Ninon  de,  noted  courtezan            .              .              ,  1915  1684 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  971 


RATION                                                     MAKE  AMD   PROFESSION.                                                     BORN. 

DIkD 

Dutch.  Lennep.  David  J.  van,  jurist  and  poet                 ... 

1774 

Dutch.   ,  Jan  van,  poet  and  novelist             ... 

1802 

Eng.      Lennox,  Charlotte,  authoress,  (born  in  N.  Y.)    ... 

1710 

1804 

Fr.         Lenormand,  Marie  A.,  fortune-teller  and  biographer             . 

1772 

1043 

Leo,  the  name  of  twelve  popes  and  six  Byzantine  emperors         . 

ItaL       Leo  X,  pope  (John  de  Medici),  a  patron  of  injustice  and  the  arts. 

1475 

1521 

Ger.       Leo,  Henry,  historian      .... 

1799 

Gr.        Leonidas  I.,  king  of  Sparta,  the  hero  of  Thermopylae         .       f.  B.  c 

.491 

Ger.       Leopold  L,  king  of  the  Belgians             .... 

1790 

186- 

Ger.       I,  emperor  of  Germany     .... 

1640 

1705 

Ger         ••        •    VI,        "              "       .            .              .              .              . 

1747 

T192 

a  or               11,       "          " 

1707 

Rom.     Lepidus,  noted  Roman  family              .              .              .              B.  c. 

&«wl 
200 

36 

Ger.       Lepsius,  Karl  Rich.,  traveller  and  Egyptologist       .              . 

1811 

Russ.     Lermontotf,  Michael,  poet       ..... 

1811 

1841 

Fr.         Leroux,  Pierre,  philosopher  and  socialist    ... 

1798 

Fr.         Leroy  de  Su  Arnaud,  J.  A.,  marshal  of  France,  general  in  chief 

1801 

1854 

Fr.         Lesage,  Alain  Rene,  novelist  and  dramatist,  '  Gil  Bias  '               . 

1668 

1747 

Eng.       Leslie,  Charles  Robt.,  artist  and  author       ... 

1794 

1859 

gcot.                ,  John,  bishop,  theological  writer             ... 

1570 

ITfift 

1671 

Fr.         Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  diplomatist      .... 

It  DO 

1805 

1832 

Ger.       Lessing,  Gotthold  E.,  critic  and  author     ... 

1729 

1781 

Amer.    Lester,  Charles  E.,  miscellaneous  author          ... 

1815 

Eng.      L'  Estrange,  Sir  Roger,  political  writer        ... 

1616 

1704 

Fr.         Leuret,  Francis,  anatomist     ..... 

1797 

1851 

Fr.         Le  Vaillant,  Franc,  traveller  and  ornithologist        .              . 

1753 

1824 

Irish.     Lever  Chas.  Jaa.,  novelist       ..... 

1806 

Amer.   Leverett,  Fred.  P.,  classical  scholar  and  author         .              . 

1803 

1836 

Fr.         Leverrier,  Urbain  J.  J.,  astronomer      .... 

1811 

Amer.  Le  Vert,  Octavia  W.,  authoress     .... 

1820 

Scot.      Levizac,  Sir  John,  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher          . 

1813 

Eng.      Lewes,  George  Henry,  miscellaneous  author             .              . 

1817 

Amer.   Lewis,  Francis,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence          . 

A  mar.     —        —  .  Mflinr-ftftn.  Mori/an,  militarv  ^nmmanrtAr-  inriaf    Arn 

1713 

•\-7t.i 

1803 

1  OOfl 

Eng.  ,  Matthew  Gregory,  miscellaneous  writer.  Monk  Lewis      .  1773  1818 

Amer.  -  ,  Meri  wether,  soldier,  explorer,  and  author     .              .  1774 

Amer.  -  ,  Samuel,  educationist                  ....  1799  1554 

Eng.  ,  Sir  George  Cornwall,  author  and  statesman                .  1806 

Amer.  ,  Taylor,  classical  scholar  and  author       ...  1802 

Bcot.  Ley  den,  John,  author       .....  1775  jsil 

Fr.  L'Hdpital,  Michel  de,  chancellor  of  France                    .              .  1504  1573 

Ger.  Iiichtenberg,  George  C.,  experimental  philosopher                 .  1742  1790 

Amen  Lieber,  Francis,  publicist,  political  philosopher  (born  in  Berlin)  1800 

Ger.  Liebig,  Justus,  baron,  chemist              ....  1803 

Russ.  Lieven,  Dorothea,  princess  of,  diplomatist                .              .  1784  1857 

Eng.  Lightfoot,  John,  learned  divine  and  author       ...  1735  1814 

Dutch  Ligne,  Charles  Joseph,  military  officer  and  author               .  1735  1814 

ItaL  Liguorl,  Alfons  M.  de,  saint  and  theological  writer                       .  1696  1787 

Eng.  Lilly,  George,  dramatist  ...                            ,  1693  ITSfl 

Eng.  -  ,  John,  the  Euphuist  dramatic  writer        .              ,              .  1653  1600 

Eng.  -  ,  William,  astrologer              ...»  1002  1681 


972 


NATION.                                                        NAME    AND   PROFESSION. 

JOHN. 

DII» 

Dutch.  Iiimborch,  Philip,  theologian  and  author           .              . 

1633 

171J 

Amer.    Lincoln,  Abraham,  statesman,  16th  president  of  the  U.  8.     . 

1809 

1865 

Ainer.   ,  Levi,  attorney  -general  of  the  U.  3.  (from  Mass.)      . 

•        1733 
1749 

1  "7CO 

1810 
1821 

Swe.      Liud,  (Goldschmidt)  Jenny,  vocalist            ... 

.         17o« 
1821 

Bug.      Lindley,  John,  botanist           .... 

1799 

Eng.       Lindsay,  Alexander  W.  Crawford,  lord,  author  of  TravelB,  &c. 

1812 

Scot.      ,  Sir  David,  poet                  .... 

(abt)  1480 

1556 

Swe.       Ling,  Peter  E.,  physiologist  and  poet                 .              . 

1776 

1839 

Eng.       Lingurd,  John,  author  of  '  History  of  England'        .              . 

1771 

1851 

Fr.         Linguet  Simon  N.  H.,  political  writer  and  historian         . 

.        1736 

1794 

Swe.       Linnaeus,  Charles  von,  the  most  celebrated  of  naturalists       . 

1707 

1778 

Lipsiuti,  Justus,  critic              .              .              .              . 

1547 

1606 

Eng.      Lister,  Thomas  Henry,  novelist  and  biographer  of  Clarendon 

1801 

1S42 

Eng.      Listou,  John,  comic  actor       .                 ... 

1776 

1846 

Hung.    Liszt,  Francis,  performer  on  piano               ... 

1811 

Eng.      Littleton,  Sir  Thomas,  jurist                                              . 

• 

1481 

Ger.       Littrow,  John  J.,  writer  on  mathematics  and  astronomy 

1781 

1840 

Amec    Livermore,  Abiel  A.,  clergyman,  journalist  and  author 

.       1811 

Eng.      Liverpool,  Robert  Banks  Jenkinson,  earl  of,  premier             . 

1770 

1828 

Amer.    Livingston,  Brockholst,  soldier  and  jurist          .              . 

1757 
i  nf\A 

1823 

.                 "                                                 '     TJUJl!—         •                        <     V        T^-J                                   J?  T       J                     •,          ' 

ITvl 

1718 

1836 
1778 

Amer.   ,  Robert  R.,  statesman  and  jurist             .              . 

1747 

1  70^1 

1813 

Scot.      Livingstone,  David,  traveller  and  missionary  in  Africa         . 

•             I  i-o 

1815 

1790 
1866 

Rom.     Livius,  or  Livy,  Titus,  celebrated  historian       .              . 

.  B.  o.  59    A. 

D.    17 

Span.     Llorente,  Don  Juan,  antiquary,  historian,  &o.          .              . 

1756 

1823 

Eng.       Lloyd,  Henry,  soldier  and  author         .              .              . 

1729 

1783 

Fr.         Lobau,  count,  marshal  of  France                 .              .              . 

1770 

1838 

Eng.      Locke,  John,  eminent  philosopher  and  metaphysician  . 

1632 

1704 

Scot.      Lockhart,  J.  GK,  critic  and  novelist,  editor  of'  Quarterly'     . 

1794 

1854 

Eng.       Lodge,  Edmund,  herald  and  antiquary,  '  Portraits' 

1756 

1S39 

lud.       Logan,  English  name  of  a  famous  Indian  chief         .              . 

1780 

Amer.  ,  James,  colonial  statesman  and  author      .              . 

.        1674 

1751 

Amer.              ,  John  A.,  major-general  in  Sherman  s  campaign,  AT.  C» 
Eng.      Lofft,  Capel,  author                 .              .              .              . 

.        1751 

1824 

Irish.     Lola-Monte/,  Maria,  countess  of  Lansfeldt,  adventurer         • 

1824 

1861 

Lollard,  "Walter,  Protestant  martyr  at  Cologne               . 

• 

1S22 

RUBS.     Lomonozoff,  Michael  V.,  poet  and  historian               .              . 

1711 

1765 

Irish.     Londonderry,  Robert  Stewart,  marquis  of,  statesman    . 

1769 

1££2 

Amer.   Long,  Stephen  H.,  engineer,  traveller,  and  author                  . 

1784 

Amer.    Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  poet  and  novelist          .              . 

1807 

Or.         Longinus,  Dionysius  Caseius,  critic  and  philosopher              .   f.  B.  c.  250 

Eng.      Longman,  Thomas,  founder  of  the  publishing  house      . 

1699 

1756 

Amer.    Longstreet,  Aug.  B.,  jurist  and  author        .              •              . 

1790 

ft.         Longueville,  Anne  G.,  duchess,  politician  .              .              . 

1619 

1678 

Amer.    Long-worth,  Nicholas,  extensive  wine  manufacturer      . 

.        1782 

1S63 

Amer.    Loi>mis,  Elias,  physicist,  astronomer            .              .              , 

1811 

Span.     Lope  de  Vega,  Carpio  Felix,  poet  and  dramatist              . 

1562 

1638 

BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


973 


ICATI01C.                                                     NAME  AND  PROFESSION.                                                    BOBN. 

DIF.D 

Fr.         Lorraine,  Oharles  de,  cardinal  and  politician            .              • 

1524 

1574 

Amer.  Lossing,  Benson  J.,  historian  and  artist             ... 

1813 

Boot.      London,  J.  C.,  voluminous  writer  on  horticulture,  agrioultuie, 

and  architecture         ..... 

1783 

1813 

Eng.      ,  Mrs.  Jane  W.,  horticultural  writer     ... 

1800 

1858 

French.  LOUTS,  the  name  of  eighteen  kings  of  Franc*          .              • 

Louis  I.,  the  Debtmnaire         .              .              .              .              . 

778 

84C 

-      IX.,  Saint                ..... 

1215 

1270 

«      XL,  ethofhonseofValois          .... 

1423 

148? 

M      XIL,  8th        "               «       . 

1462 

1515 

1601 

1643 

*      XIV.,  3d        "..... 

1638 

1715 

"      XV.,  4th        "                ..... 

1710 

1774 

"     XVt.                       ..... 

1754 

1793 

1785 

1795 

'«     XVIIL      ...... 

1755 

1824 

1S37 

1773 

1850 

XT.         •~~^~™-  Jrhiiippe,  King  of  the  r  rench              ... 

Fr.         Napoleon.    Sec  Bonaparte. 

Scot.      Lovat,  Simon  Fraser,  lord,  executed  for  treason       .             . 

1667 

1747 

Amer.    Lovejoy,  Owen,  statesman  and  abolitionist       ... 

1811 
1802 

1864 
1837 

Irish.     Lover,  Samuel,  novelist  and  song  writer           ... 

1797 

Irish.     Lowe,  Sir  Hudson,  general,  jailor  of  Napoleon         .              . 

1769 

1844 

Amer.    Lowell,  Charles,  clergyman  and  author              ... 

1782 

1S01 

Amer.    ,  James  Russell,  poet  and  critic       ... 

1819 

Amer.   ,  John,  lawyer  and  philanthropist          ... 

1769 

1799 

1840 

•ioo« 

Amer.               ,  John,  jr.,  rounder  of  Lowell  Institute           •              . 

1810 

1000 

Amer.  Lowndes,  Rawlins,  statesman,  opposed  the  Union                  . 

1722 

1800 

Amer.   ,  William  J  ,  statesman          .... 

1782 

1861 

Eng.       ,  William  Thomas,  'Biblio-  Manual'    ... 

1843 

Eng.      Lowth,  Robert,  eminent  divine  and  author                .              . 

1710 

178T 

Span     Loyola,  Saint  Ignatius  de,  founder  of  the  Jesuits            .              . 

1491 

1556 

Eng.       Luoan,  G.  C.  Bingham,  earl  of,  general  in  Crimea     .              . 

1800 

If(-.In                                        XT«..«,-.«     A  vTTVll  •      T«  +  ;n  tmpt 

019 

Gr.         Lucian,  celebrated  writer                .              .             .              . 

120 

O/ 

210 

Rom.      Lucilins,  the  earliest  Roman  satirist    .              .              .               B.  c 

.  148 

B.  0.  191 

Ger.       Lucke,  Gott  C.  F.,  theologian         .... 

1792 

1855 

Rom.     Lucretius.  Caius  Titus,  eminent  poet                  .              .               B.  a 

95 

Rom.     Luc  nllns,  wealthy  warrior              ....       B.  c.  115 

B.  O.    49 

Eng.      Ludlow,  Edmund,  republican  judfre  of  Charles  L           .              . 

1620 

1693 

Span.     Lnlly,  Raimond,  '  the  enlightened  doctor'                               . 

1235 

1316 

Amer.    Lundy,  Benjamin,  abolitionist              .... 

1789 

1839 

Amen    Lunt,  George,  poet,  essayist,  and  journalist               .              . 

Ger.       Luther,  Martin,  the  parent  of  the  Protestant  reformation            . 

14S4 

1548 

Irish.     Lnttrell,  Henry,  poet        ..... 

1851 

Fr.        Luxemburg,  duke  of,  military  officer    .... 

1628 

1695 

Gr.         Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  legislator                 .              .              .       B.  c.  898 

]£ng.      Lydgate,  John,  poet  (Benedictine  monk)           ... 

1375 

1461 

Scot.      Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geologist  and  traveller                  .              . 

1797 

Amor.    Lynch,  Thomas  J.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence    . 

1749 

l"7f 

974  THE  WOELD'S  PBOGBESS. 

WATIOX.  NAME    AND   PROFESSION.  BORX.  DIBtt 

Amer.    Lynch,  "William  P.,  captain  U.  8.  navy,  author  of  •  Dead  Sea,  fco.  1805 

Eng.      Lyndhurst,  lord,  statesman  and  jurist  (born  in  Boston)                .  1772 

Amer.    Lyon,  Mary,  teacher  and  philanthropist      ...  1797           1849 

Amer.    ,  Matthew,  politician     .....  1746           1822 

Ainer.   ,  Nathaniel,  Union  general,  fell  at  "Wilson's  Creek       .  1819           1861 

Or.        Lysander,  famous  Spartan  general       .              .              .              .  E.  c.  395 
Gr.        Lvsias,  orator         .              .           .              *              .              .B.C.  459 
Gr.        Lyeimachus,  one  of  Alexander's  generals          .              •               B.  c.  360    B.  c.  281 

Eng.       I.yttleton,  George,  lord,  poet  and  historian                .              •  1709           1763 

B. 

Fr.         Mabillon,  Jean,  ecclestaetical  author   ....  1632          1707 

Scot.      Macadam,  John,  originator  of  Macadamized  roads    .              .  1756           1836 

Irish.     Macartney,  Geo.,  earl  of,  diplomatist  ....  1737           1806 

Eng.      Macaulay,  T.,  Babington,  essayist,  historian,  critic  and  statesman  1800           1859 

Eng.      Macaulay,  Zachary,  anti-slavery  statesman       .              •              .-  1768           1838 

Eng.      Macauley,  Catherine,  miscellaneous  writer               .              .  1733           1791 
Scot.      Macbeth,  chieftain  of  the  11  tb  century       .              .              . 

Irish.     MacClintock,  Sir  F.  L.,  Arctic  navigator           .              .              .  1819 

Irish.     MacClure,  Sir  B..  J.,  discoverer  of  North-west  passage         .  1807 

Amer.  Macconnell,  John  L.,  novelist                ....  1826 

Amer.   Maccorst,  David  J.,  political  writer             ...  1797           1855 

Scot       Maccosh,  James,  clergyman  and  author              ...  1810 

Scot.      Macculloch,  J.  R.,  political  economist  and  statistician           .  1789           1864 

Amer.    McClellan,  Geo.  B.,  commander-in-chief  Union  armies  .              .  1826 
Amer.   McCook,  father  and  three  sons  from  Ohio,  generals  in  Union  Army 

Eng.      McCulloeb,  John,  M.  D.,  geologist,  &c.       .              .              .  1773          1835 

Scot.      Maediarmid,  John,  author       .....  1779          1808 

Scot.      Macdonald,  Flora,  adventurous  heroine       ...  1720           1790 

Fr.         Maodnna'd,  S.  T.  A,,  marshal  of  France             .              .              .  1765           1840 
Amer.  Macdonough,  Thos.,  commodore  in  U.  8.  Navy,  victor  on  Lake 

Champlain               .....  1783           1825 
Amer.  McDowell,  Irwin,  commander  dnion  Army     .              .              .1818 

Amer.  Macduffle,  Geo.,  U.  8.  senator  from  South  Carolina  .              .  1788           1851 

Scot      Macgillivray.  Win.,  naturalist                ....  1796           1852 

Scot.     Macgregor,  John,  statistical  and  political  author     .              .  1797           1857 

ItaL      Machiavel,  Nicholas,  celebrated  writer  on  politics            .              .  1469           1627 

Scot.      Maokay,  Charles,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer       .              .  1812 

Amer.  Mackean,  Thos.,  jurist,  statesman,  signer  of  Dec.  of  Ind.  1734           1817 

Amer.  Mackenzie,  A.  Slidell,  naval  commander,  author  of  travels   .  1803           1849 

Bcot.      Mackenzie,  Henry,  tho  A ddison  of  the  North   .              .              .  1745          1831 

Irish.     Mackenzie,  Robt.  8.,  journalist,  &c.          .  .              .              .  1809 
Amer.   Mackintosh,  Maria  J.,  novelist              .              .              .          (»bt )  1810 

Scot.      Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  celebrated  literary  character     .              .  1766           1333 

Irish.     Macklin,  Charles,  actor  and  dramatist        ...  1690           1796 

Scot      Macknight,  James,  divine  and  author  ....  1721           1800 

Aust     Mack  von  Liebenich,  Karl,  baron,  general               .  1752           1828 

Amer.  MacLane,  Louis,  statesman  and  diplomatist     ...  1786           1857 

Scot      Maclaurin,  Colin,  mathematician  ....  1698           1741 

Amer.  Maclean,  John,  statesman,  judge  of  U.  S.  Supreme  Court            .  1785 

Ecg.      MacLean,  L.  E.  L.,  (Miss  Landon),  poet  and  novelist            .  1804          1835 


BIOGEAPHICAL  INDEX.  975 

JUTION.                                                 NAME  AND  PROFESSION.                                                 BORN.  DIED 

Irish.     Mac.ise,  Daniel,  historical  painter       .              .              ,              .  1811 

Amer.   M;icleod,  Alex.,  clergyman  and  author        .              .              ,  1774  183k 

Amer.  Macleod,  Xavier  Donald,  miscellaneous  writer .              ,              ,  1821 

Scot.      Maclure,  William,  geologist,  &c     ....  1763  1840 

Fr.         MacMahon,  M.  E.  P.,  duke  of  Magenta,  marshal              .              .  1807 

Scot.      MncNab,  Sir  Allan,  Canadian  Statesman    .               .               .  1798 

Irish.     MacNeven,  Wm.  J.,  patriot  and  physician,  (died  at  N.  Y.)          .  1763  1841 

Amer.   Macomb,  Major-General  Alex.,  military  commander              .  1782  1841 

Amer.    Macon,  Nathaniel,  member  of  Congress  for  N.  Carolina  37  years  1757  183't 

Scot.      Macpherson,  James,  miscellaneous  writer  .              .              .  1738  1796 

Amer.  Macpherson,  Jas.  B.,  Union  general  in  rebellion              .              .  1828  1864 

Eng.       Macready,  "Wm.  Chas.,  tragedian  ....  1793 

Scot.      M  aerie,  Thomas,  D.D.,  clergyman  and  author,  biographer  of  Knox    1772  1835 

Eng.       Madden,  Sir  Fred.,  antiquarian  author       ...  1801 

Ger.       Maddler,  Johann  Henry,  astronomer  ....  1794 

Amer.    Madison,  James,  4th  president  of  United  States       .              .  1751  1836 

Welsh.  Madoc,  prince,  said  to  have  discovered  America             .              .  12th  edit. 

Span.     Madoz,  Pascuale,  statesman  and  author     .              .              .  1806 

Rom.     Maecenas,  Caius  C.,  minister  of  Augustus  and  patron  of  literature  B.  o.  9 

Ital.       Maflei,  Franc  S.,  marquis,  author  of  21  vols.      .              .              .  1675  1755 

Amer.   Maffltt,  John  Newland,  noted  Methodist  preacher    .              .  1794  1350 

Irish.    Magee,  "Wm.,  arcnbishop  Dublin,  (on  Atonement)          .              .  1765  1831 

Port.      Magellan,  Ferdinand,  celebrated  navigator                .               .  1521 

Fr.         Magendie,  Francis,  physiologist           ....  1783  1855 

Irish.     Maginn,  William,  classical  and  miscellaneous  writer  and  critic  1793  1842 

Fr.          Magnan,  Bernard  Pierre,  marshal  of  France             .               .  1791  1864 

Amer.   Magoon,  Elisha  L.,  clergyman  and  author          .              .              .  1810 
Bar.       Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  founder  of  the  religion  which  hears  his 

name         ......  569  632 

Turk.    Mahomet  II.,  7th  Turkish  Sultan,  conqueror  of  Constantinople  1430  1480 

Fr.          Maimbourg,  Louis,  historian                  ....  1610  1686 

Jew.       Maimonide*,  Moses,  celebrated  rabbi          ...  1131  1204 

Fr.         Maintenon,  Frances  d'Aubigne,  queen              ...  1635  1719 
Ital.       Maio,  Angelo.  discoverer  and  editor  of  Latin  classics            . 

Ital.       Maistre,  Joseph  de,  statesman  and  author       .               •              .  1753  1821 

Eng.       Maittnire,  Michael,  bibliographer,  &c.         .               .               .  1668  1747 

Heb.       Malachi,  the  prophet                .               .               •               .               .  B.  c.  5th  cent. 

Swiss.     Malan,  Caesar  H.  A.,  theologian  and  author              .              .  1787  1864 

Amer.   Malcom,  Howard,  clergyman  and  author           .              .              .  1799 

Scot.      Malcolm,  Sir  John, 'History  of  Persia  and  India'    .              .  1769  1833 

Fr.          Malebranche,  Nicholas,  metaphysician              ...  1638  1715 

Fr.         Malesherbes,  C.  G.  de,  statesman,  (executed)           .              .  1721  1794 

Ital.       Malibran,  M.  F.,  Madame,  vocalist         ....  1808  1836 

Fr.         Malherbe,  Franc  de,  poet               ....  1555  1628 

Scot.      Mallet,  David,  miscellaneous  writer     ....  1702  1765 

Swies.     Mallet,  Paul  Henri,  historian       ....  1730  1807 

Eng.      Malmesbury,  Jas.  Harris,  earl  of,  diplomatist  .              .              .  1746  1820 

Eng. ,  Jas.  H.H.,  (son  of  above),  statesman  .              »  1807 

Eng.       ,  William  of,  historian      ....  1143 

Eng.       Malone,  Edward,  dramatic  commentator  .              .              •  1741  1S12 

ItaL        Malphlghi,  Marcellus,  naturalist  and  anatomist             .              .  1628  1694 

Eng.       Maltby,  Edw.,  bishop  of  Durham,  philologist           .              .  1770  1861 


976  THE   WORLD'S   PEOGEESS. 

RATIO*.                                                           5AMK   AND   PBOFESSIOH.  BOBS.  DJKD. 

Ger.  Malte  Tirun,  Conrad,  poet  and  geographer         .              .             .  1375  1821 

Ger. ,  M.,  geographer  .  ,  . 

Eng.  Malthus,  T.  R.,  political  economist       .              •              ,              .  1766  188- 

Ital.  Mamiant,  Terenze,  count,  statesman  and  author       .              .  1799 

Eng.  Mandeville,  Sir  John,  traveller  and  author       .              .              .  1300  1372 

Pers.  Manes,  or  Manichseus,  founder  of  the  Manichaean  sect           .  239  21 

Ital.  Manfred,  prince  of  Tarenturn,  king  of  Two  Sicilies  .  (aht.)  1231 

Ital.  Manin,  Daniele,  Venetian  statesman    .              .              .              .  1804  1857 

Amer.  Mann,  Horace,  statesman  and  educationist .              .              .  1793  1859 

Eng.  Manning,  Henry  E.,  clergyman  and  author       ...  1812 

Eng.  Mansel,  Henry  L.,  metaphysician  and  theologian     .              .  1815 

Ger.  Mansfeld,  Ernest  of,  warrior  .....  1585  1624 

Amer.  Mansfield,  Jos.  K.,  Union  general  .              ...  1803  1862 

Scot. ,  Wm.  Murray,  Earl  of,  jurist  and  statesman     .              .  1705  1793 

Eng.  Mantel!,  G.  A,,  geologist                 ....  1790  185- 

Ital.  Manutius  Aldus,  celebrated  printer  and  author              .              .  1447  1517 

Ital. ,  the  Younger,  printer  and  author    .              .  1547  1597 

Ital.  ,    Paulus,  (son  of  Manutius),  printer     .              .              .  1512  1574 

Ital.  Manzoni,  author  of  T.  Promessi  Sposi         ...  1784 

Fr.  Marat,  John  Paul,  infamous  revolutionist         ...  1754  1793 

Bom.  Marcellus,  Marcus  Olaudius,  general         .              .              .       B.  c.  267    B.  c.  208 

Ital.  Marco  Polo,  Venetian  traveller             ....  1256  1323 

A.irer.  Marcy,  "Win.  Learned,  statesman  .              .              .              .  1786  1857 

PC'S.  Mardonius,  Persian  general  in  Greece  .  .  .  B.  o.  479 

Vf.  Margaret  of  AngoulSme,  queen  of  Navarre               .              .  1492  1549 

JB>.  Margaret  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Henry  VI.  of  England           .           .  lii>9  1481 

Qer.  Margaret  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Maximil.  I.  and  Mary  of  Burgundy  1480  1530 

Dan.  Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark,  &c., 'Semiramis  of  the  North  '      .  1353  1412 

Fr.  Margaret  of  Valois,  queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  .              .  1552  1612 

Aust.  Vlaria  Louisa,  empress  of  France,  afterwards  Duchess  of  Parma  1787  1847 

Span.  Maria  Christina,  queen  dowager  of  Spain,  (born  at  Naples)         .  1806 

Ital.  Vlaria  de  Medici,  queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France      .              .  1574  1642 

Span.  Mariana,  John,  celebrated  historian     ....  15';7  1624 

Ger.  Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Germany          .              .              .  1717  1780 

Fr.  Marie-Amelie,  queen  of  the  French,  (Louis  Philippe)     .              .  1782 

Fr.  Marie  Antoinette,  queen  of  France,  (Louis  XVI)    .              .  1755  1793 

Fr.  Mariette,  Aug.  E.,  Egyptologist  and  explorer  .              .              .  1821 

Ital.  Mario,  Giuseppe,  m;irquis  of  Candia,  vocalist          .              .  1810 

Amer.  Marion,  Francis,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution              .  1795 

Horn.  Marius,  Gains,  famous  general  and  demagogue       .              .       B.  c.  153     B.  o.  86 

Eng.  Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  duke  of,  able  warrior      .              .  1650  1722 

Fr.  Marmont,  A.  F.  V.,  duke  of  Ragusa,  marshal  of  France  and 

traveller     .            ,*.            •              •              •              .  1773  1852 

Fr.  Marmontel,  John  Francis,  celebrated  writer     ...  1723  1799 

Eng.  Marlowe,  Christ,  or  Kit,  dramatic  poet        .              .              .  1564  1593 

Amer.  Mapes,  James  J.,  agriculturist              ....  1865 

fi.  Marquette,  Jacques,  early  explorer  of  the  Mississippi            .  1637  1675 

-Fr.  Marrast,  Annand,  journalist  and  politician        .              .              .  1800  1852 

Fr.  Mars,  Mademoiselle,  actress           ...»  1778  1847 

Eng.  Marsden,  oriental  traveller  and  historian      .                 .              .  1755  18M 

Eng.  Marsh,  Anne,  novelist   .....       (abt)  1800 

Amer.  Marsh,  Geo.  Perkins,  phik'ogist  and  diplomatist           .              .  1801 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDBX.  977 

9  ATI  OH.                                                          NAME   AND   PROFESSION.                                                          BORN.  PUD. 

Eng.      Marsh,  Herbert,  bishop  of  Peterborough,  theological  writer  1758  1888 

Amer.   Marsh,  James,  metaphysician        ....  1794  1847 

Amer.   Marshall,  John,  chief-justice  of  U.  S.,  biographer           .              .  1755  183i 

Eng.      Marshman,  Joshua,  missionary  in  India,  and  author             .  1767  1637 

Eng.       Marston,  John,  poet  and  dramatist        .               .               .           (abt.)  1570  1634 

Kom.     Martial,  Marcus  Valerius,  epigrammatist          ...  40  100 

Eng.      Martin,  Benj.,  optician  and  author              .              •              •  1704  1782 

Fr.          Martin,  Bon  Louis  Henry,  historian            '        .               .               .  1704  1782 

Amer.    Martin,  Francis  Xavier,  jurist  and  historian           - .              •  1810 

Eng.      Martinean,  Harriet,  miscellaneous  authoress    ...  1764  1846 

Eng. ,  James,  (brother  of  Harriet),  clergyman  and  author  1800 

Prus.     Marios,  Ivan  P.,  sculptor                ....  1753  1835 

Span.     Martine^dela  Rosa,  don  Franc,  statesman  and  litterateur            .  1786 

Ger.       Mai  tius,  C.  F.  P.  von,  botanist  and  traveller  .  . 

Eng.      Martyn,  Henry,  missionary  in  India  and  Persia              .              .  1781  1812 

Martyr,  Justin,  Christian  apologist               .               .              .  103?  1671 

ItaL      ,  Peter,  reformer  and  theologian            .              •              .  1500  1561 

Eng.      Marvell,  Andrew,  author  and  statesman      ...  1621  1678 

Eng.      Mary  I.,  first  queen  regnant  of  England           "...  1515  1558 

Eng.      ,  II.,  queen  regnant  with  Wm.  of  Orange          .              .  1662  1694 

Scot.      Stuart,  queen  of  Scots      .....  1542  1587 

Eng.      Marryatt,  Captain,  novelist  and  traveller    ...  1792  1848 

Eng.      Maseres,  Francis,  'baron,'  mathematician         ...  1731  1824. 

Eng.      Maskeleyne,  Nevil,  astronomer      ....  1732  1811 

Amer.  Mason,  George,  statesman       .....  1726  1792 

Amer.  ,  Jeremiah,  lawyer  and  statesman      .              .              .  1768  1848 

Amer.  ,  John,  maj.  gen.  Connecticut  colonial  forces        .              .  1600  1672 

Eng.      ,   John,  divine  and  author    ....  1706  1763 

Amer.  ,  John.  M.,  eminent  divine          ....  1770  1829 

Amer.  ,  John,  M.,  senator  from  Viiginia,  rebel          .  . 

Amer.  ,  John  Y.,  statesman  and  minister  to  France        .             .  1795  1859 

Amer.  ,  Lowell,  mnsical  teacher  and  composer          .              .  1792 

Eng.      ,  William,  divine  and  poet          ....  1725  1797 

Ind.      Massasoit,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags       .              .              .  1661 

Fr.         Massena,  Andrew,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Napoleon's  marshals       .  1758  1817 

Eng.      Massey,  Gerald,  poet               .....  1828 

Fr.         Massillon,  John  Baptist,  eloquent  divine    .              .              .  1663  1742 

Massinissa,  king  of  Numidia  ....    (abt)  B.  o.  240  B.  o,  148 

Scot.      Masson,  David,  biographer  and  essayist      ...  1823 

Eng.      Maunder,  Samuel '  Treasury  of  Knowledge '     ...  1790  1849 

Amer.    Mather,  Cotton,  divine  and  author               ...  1663  1728 

Amer.    ,  Increase,  clergyman  and  author           ...  1639  1723 

Irish.     Mathew,  Theobald,  '  Apostle  of  Temperance '        .              .  1790  1856 

Eng.      Mathias,  Thorrias,  author  of  'Pursuits  of  Literature'    .              .  1750  1835 

Eng.      Matthew  of  Westminster,  historian             ...  13th  cent. 

Eng.      Matthews,  Charles,  actor  and  humorist             .              .              .  1776  183J 

Amer.    '  Matthias '  (Kobert  Matthews),  religions  impostor   .              .     'abt/ 1790  183- 

Fr.         Matter,  Jacques,  philosopher  and  historian                       .              .  1791 

Irish.     Maturin,  Charles  Robert,  divine,  dramatist  and  poet             .  1782  1825 

Eng.      Muundrell,  Rev.  Henry,  traveller  in  the  East    .               .               .  1650?  1710 

Fr.         Maupertuis,  Peter  L.  M.,  geometrician  and  astronomer.         .  1698  ]"59 

Hoi.       Maurice,  Count  of  Nassau,  and  Prince  of  Orange,  gtadtholder    .  1667  1621 


978 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGEESS. 


VATIOX.  NAME  AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Maurice,  Jno.  Fred.  D.,  clergyman  and  author         . 

Eng.  ,  Thos.  Rev.,  history  of  Hindostan,  <fco.  , 

Mauricius,  Fiavius  Tib.,  Byzantine  emperor  . 

Amer.  Maury,  Matthew  F.,  naval  officer,  astronomer,  rebel,  &c. 

Fr.  — ' ,  John  Sifl'rein,  cardinal  and  statesman 

Eng.  Mavor,  Rev.  Wm.,  writer  and  compiler,  voyages,  &o.     . 

Ger.  Mavrocordato,  statesman  .  .  . 

Eng.  Mawe,  Joseph,  mineralogist  and*conchologist    .  , 

Ger.  Maximilian  I.,  emperor  of  Germany  .  . 

Ger. ,  prince,  emperor  of  Mexico  .  , 

Rom.  Maximinus,  Cains  J.  V.,  emperor  of  Rome  . 

Eng.  Maxwell,  Wm.  E., 'Life  of  Wellington,' &c.    .  , 

Amer.  Mayer,  Brantz,  lawyer  and  historical  writer  . 

Ger.  Mayer,  Johann  T.,  astronomer  . 

Eng.  Mayhew,  Henry,  Edward,  Thomas,  and  Horace,  brothers,  hu- 


morous and  miscellaneous  writers 
-,  Jonathan,  clergyman  and  author 


Mazariri,  Julius,  cardinal,  able  statesman 
Mazeppa,  John,  prince  of  the  Cossacks  . 

Mazzini,  Giuseppe,  democratic  politician  (Genoa) 


Amer. 
Fr. 

Ital. 

Amer.   Meade,  Geo.  G.,  commander  army  of  Potomac 

Amer.    ,  Wm.,  episcopal  bishop  of  Virginia  and  author 

I.Amer.Meagber,  Thos.  F.,  gen.  in  Union  armies,  gov.  Idaho 
Eng.  Medhurst,  Walter  H.,  oriental  scholar  and  missionary 
Ital.  Medici,  Hippolytus,  cardinal  . 

Ital. ,  Cosmo  de,  the  Great,  first  Gd  Duke  Tuscany 

Ital. ,  '  pater  patrise,'  Florence 

Ital.      ,  Lorenzo  de,  poet,  gov  of  Florence,  and  patron  of  arU 

Ital.      ,  Pietro,  successor  of  Cosmo,  patron  of  arts 

Turk.  Mehemet-Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt  ... 
Ger.  Meiners,  Christopher,  historian  .  . 

Ger.       Melanchthon,  Philip,  celebrated  reformer  .  . 

Eng.  Melbourne,  Wm.  Lamb,  Viscount  de,  statesman  . 
Amer.  Mellen,  Grenville,  poet  .... 
Eng.  Melmoth,  Wm.,  'Letters,'  translation  of  Cicero,  &c. 

Eng. ,' Religious  Life'    .  . 

Eng.      Melville,  Andrew,  religious  reformer  . 

Amer. >  Herman,  author  of  travels,  romances 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Port. 


BORN. 

DUD 

• 

1805 

. 

1755 

1821 

. 

539 

602 

• 

1806 

. 

1746 

1817 

. 

1758 

1837 

. 

1790 

1755 

1829 

. 

1459 

1519 

(shot) 

1834 

1867 

. 

233 

• 

1795 

i  onQ 

1851 

. 

1  OUl? 

172S 

1762 

,  hu- 

.  (abt) 

1812 

. 

1720 

1766 

. 

1G02 

1661 

. 

1709 

. 

1809 

. 

1815 

• 

1789 

. 

1867 

. 

1796 

1857 

. 

1511 

1535 

. 

1519 

1574 

. 

1389 

1464 

:g 

1448 

1492 

1769 

1849 

. 

1747 

1810 

. 

1497 

1560 

. 

1779 

1848 

. 

1799 

1841 

• 

1710 

1799 

• 

1666 

•  1743 

. 

1545 

1G22 

-,  Sir  Jas.,  soldier,  statesman,  and  author 
Menunder,  comic  poet      .... 
Mendelssohn,  Bartholdy  Felix,  musical  composer 

--,  Moses,  Jewish  scholar  and  philosopher 


Mendez-Pinto,  Femam,  adventurer,  unjustly  famed  for  lying  - 
Span.    Mendoza,  Diego  H.  de,  scholar,  author,  and  statesman 
Ger.        Mengs,  Anton  Raf:iel,  painter  and  writer  on  art  . 

Meninski,  Francis  M.,  learned  orientalist  .  .  . 

Mentchikoff,  Alex.,  prince,  statesman  .  . 

•,  Alex.,  8.,  admiral 


Ger. 
Russ. 
Buss. 
Ger. 

Ger. 


Menno-Simonis,  reformer,  founder  of  'Mennoniteg' 
Menzel,  Wolfgang,  critic  and  historian        .  . 

Dutch.  Mercator,  Gerard,  geographer  .  . 

Air«r.    Mercer,  Hugh,  general  in  the  Revolutionary  w«     . 


1809 
1729 
1510 
1503 
1728 
1623 
1672 
1789 

1798 
1512 

172C 


1607 

B.  c.  290 
1847 
1786 
1580 
1575 
1779 
1698 
1769 

1561 

1594 
1777 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  979 

NATION.                                                           SAME   AND  PROFESSION  BORN.  TOBP. 

Amer.  Meigs,  Return  J.,  revol.  officer             .              .              .  1740  1828 

Amer.  Meri  am,  Ehen,  statistician  and  meteorologist                          •  1794  1861 

Fr.  Aieiimee,  Prosper,  novelist     .              .              •              •  •       1800 

Eng.  Merivale,  Charles,  historian  •  •  •  • 

Eng.  ,  John  Herman,  poet              .              •              •  .       1779  1844 

Swiss.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  J.  H.,  D.  D.,  historian     ...  1794 

Fr.  Merovaeu#,  founder  Merovingian  dynasty        .              .  .         411  457 

Fr.  Mery,  Joseph,  poet  and  novelist     .              .              •              •  1798 

Ger.  Mesmer,  Fred.  A.,  founder  of  '  Mesmerism '     .              .  .       1734  1815 

Ital.  Metastasio,  Peter  B.,  celebrated  poet          .     •          .              .  1698  1782 

Eng.  Metcalfe,  Charles  T.,  baron,  gov.  in  India  and  Canada  .  .       1783  1846 

Bom.  Metellus,  the  name  of  several  famous  plebeians     .               .  B.  c.    250  69 

Aust.  Metternich,  Prince,  statesman,  and  diplomatist               .  .        1773  1859 

Dutch.  Meursius,  John,  erudite  critic                                      .               .  1579  1639 

Ger.  Meyerbeer,  musical  composer               .              .              .  .       1791 

Eng.  Meyrick,  Sir  Saml.  R.,  antiquarian  author               .              *  1783  1848 

Fr.  Mezerai,  Francis  de,  historian               .              .              .  .       1610  1682 

Ital.  Mezzofanti,  Cardinal,  celebrated  linguist    ...  1774  1849 

Gr.  Miaulis,  naval  commander     »             •             •             •  •       1772  1835 

Heb.  Micah,  the  Prophet            .              .              .              .              .  f.  B.  o.  750 

Ital.  Micari,  Guiseppe,  historian     .              .              .              •  .  1839 

Ger.  Michaelie,  John  David,  learned  orientalist  and  critic      .  .       1717  1791 

Fr.  Michaud,  Joseph,  historian                                             •          ,  1767  1839 

Fr.  Michaux,  Andre,  botanist,  (' Sylva  Americana')     ...        1746  1802 

Fr.  Michel,  Francisque,  archasologist             ....  1809 

Fr.  Michelet,  Jules,  historian          .            .           .           .           .  .        1798 

Ger.  Michelet,  Karl  Ludwig,  philosophical  writer    .           .          .  1801 

PoL  Mickie-wicz.  Adam,  poet            .           .                       .           ,  .        1798  1855 

Eng.  Mickle,  William  J.  poet,  translator  of '  Lusiad,"  4to.               .  1734  1788 

Eng.  Middleton,  Conyere,  divine  and  elegant  writer       .           .  .       1683  1750 

Amer.  ,  Arthur,  patriot  and  statesman       .          .          .  1743  1787 

Eng. ,  Thomas,  dramatist              ....  1627 

Amer.  Mitnin,  Thomas,  general  in  Revolutionary-war            .           .  1744  1800 

Fr.  Mignet,  F.  A.,  historian              .....  1795 

Port.  Miguel  Don,  rival  of  Don  Carlos  to  the  throne  of  Portugal  1802 

Amer.  Milbum,  William  Henry, 'blind  preacher' and  author  1823 

Scot.  Mill,  James,  historian  of  British  India  and  political  economist  1775  1836 

Eng.  ,  John  Stuart,  political  philosopher          .           .           .  1806 

Eng.  Millais,  John  Everett,  'pre-Raphaelite1  painter            .           .  1829 

Amer.  Miller,  James,  general  at  Chippewa,  &c.,  ('  I'll  try,  sir')  .       1776  1851 

Eng.  ,  Joseph,  comic  actor,  putative  parent  of  jests              .  16S4  1738 

gcot.  ,  Hugh,  geologist              ......        1802  1856 

Amer. ,  William,  founder  of  the  «  Millerites,'  or  second  adven lists       1781  1849 

Fr.  Milleroye,  Charles  Hubert,  poet           .....        1782  1816 

Fr.  Millin,  Aubin  Louis,  naturalist,  &c          ...»  1759 

Eng;  Millman,  Henry  Hart,  Rev.,  poet  and  historian       .          .  1791 

Fr.  Millot,  Claude  Francis  Xavier,  historian           .          .          .  1726  1785 

Eng.  Mills,  Charles,  historian              ......       1788  1826 

Fr.  Milne-Edward,  Henri,  naturalist              .           .           •           •  1800 

Eng.  Milnes,  Richard  Monckton,  poet  and  statesman     .           .  1809 

Eng.  Milner,  Joseph,  author  of 'Church  History'                  .           (  1744  1797 

Amer-  Milnor,  James,  D.  D.,  episcopal  clergyman              .          .  1773  1844 


980 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


•ATION,                                                           NAME    AND   PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

DIEU 

Gr.        Miltiades,  illustrious  Athenian  general            .          •          , 

B. 

0.  48S 

Eng.      Milton,  John,  the  Homer  of  Biitain               .          .          •          • 

1608 

1674 

Fr.        Mini6,  Claude  E.,  inventor  of  the  Mini6  rifle-bullet     .          . 

1810 

Amer.  Minot,  George  R.,  historian      ...... 

1758 

1803 

Rom.     Minutius-Felix,  Marcus,  Christian  writer          ... 

3d  cent. 

Mex.     Miramon,  Miguel,  military  leader           ....        (abt.)  1830 

1867 

Span.    Miranda,  Francis,  revolutionary  general           ... 

1750 

1818 

Fr.         Mirabeau,  H.  G.    Riquetti,  count  de,   celebrated  character  in  the 

1749 

1791 

Fr.        Mirbel,  Charles  F.  B.  de,  naturalist                 .... 

1776 

1854 

Amer.  Mitchel,  Ormsby  M.,  astronomer  and  patriotic  general            . 

1810 

186- 

1822 

1818 

Amer.  ,  Samuel  L.,  celebrated  physician  and  naturalist              . 

1763 

1831 

TJ,  T*v,rt»«rt«     rl  ')'•"•'  C"3  1   ««^~1««.  «"  *3   ~—  ?  +  :~ 

nncQ 

1845 

Eng.      Mitford,  Mary  Russell,  novelist  and  essayist            ... 

1  ICO 

1786 

1855 

Eng.      ,  Rev.  John,  editor  of  poets,        .... 

1781 
1734 

1859 
1827 

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  warrior      .           .          .           .       B. 

c.  123    B 

0.    64 

Ger.       Mitscherlich,  E.,  chemist              ..... 

1794 

1863 

Ger.       Mittermaier,  Karl  J.  A.,  jurist  and  statesman         ... 

1787 

Turk.    Mohammed-AH,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  (See  Mahomet  and  Mehemet) 

1769 
f.  1650 

1850 

Ger.        Mohler,  Johann  Adam  K.,  catholic  theologian              .           . 

1796 

Ger.       Mohs,  Frederick,  mineralogist            ..... 

1774 

1839 

Scot.      Moir,  David  Macbeth,  miscellaneous  writer               .          . 

1798 

1851 

JFr.          Molle,  M.  L.,  comte,  statesman           .           .           •           .           . 

1781 

1855 

Hoi.       Moleschott,  Jacob,  physiologist  and  raturalist            .           . 

1822 

Eng.       Molesworth,  Sir  William,  statesman  and  author                 .           . 

1810 

1855 

Fr.         Moleville,  Anthony  F.  deBertrand,  count  de,  historian         . 

1754 

1817 

Fr.         Moliere,  John  Baptist,  celebrated  dramatist           ... 

1622 

1673 

Span.     Molina,  Luis,  Jesuit  theologian  and  author       ... 

1585 

1600 

Scot.  '  Monboddo,  lord,  judge  and  philologist          .... 

1714 

1799 

Eng.      Montfort,  Simon  de,  earl  of  Leicester,  statesman          .          . 

1265 

Eng.      Monk,  George,  duke  of  Albemarle,  military  officer            .           * 

1608 

1670 

Swiss     Monod,  Adolphe,  '  reformed  pastor  '  and  author          .          . 

1802 

1856 

£S         •                                              T"»          I?        A     «.'     V       (  »»«lfWt»n    itA   -r.natr\t**       t    T>         ' 

1794 

1863 

oWlss.    —    ;  J-T.  .neu*  nc&,    r        mtupasior   «ii  jrans    ... 

Amer.    Monroe,  James,  statesman,  5th  president  U~i+<»H  States          . 

1759 

1831 

Ger.       Mouse,  Gaspar,  eminent  geometrician           ... 

1746 

1818 

Fr.         Monstrelet,  Enguerrand  de,  chronicler              ... 

1390 

1453 

Eng.       Montagu,  Basil,  lawyer  and  author                 .... 

1770 

1851 

TT                                     T^li7ibot}i    iiitlior  nf  '  HijilnnripH  '  A*n 

1720 

1802 

*i*ng.                            ,  -C*ii£«iuciii,  ituufui  vM     umiuguce,    cvo.              .             . 

T*                                     T  -idv  M'li'V  \Vorflpv    fllpfiTit  TvHtnr 

1690 

17*V? 

Eng.       Montague,  Charles,  earl  of  Halifax,  statesman  and  poet       . 

1661 

1  1  <'— 

1715 

Fr.         Montaigne,  Michel  de,  eminent  essayist                  ... 

1533 

1592 

Fr.         Montalembert,  Charles  F.,  count,  statesman  and  author       . 

1810 

Fr,          Montcalm,  Louis,  marquis  de,  general  in  Canada               .           . 

1712 

1759 

Fr.         Montehello,  John  Lannes,  duke  of,  marshal      .          .           • 

1769 

1808 

Ger.       Montecuculi,  Raimond,  warrior           •           .          .          .          • 

1609 

1681 

Fr.         Montespan,  Franc,  marquise  de,  mistress  Louis  XIV.           . 

1641 

1707 

Pr.         Montesqieu,  Charles  baron  de,  able  writer        .              .              . 

1689 

1755 

Montei,  Lola,  female  adventurer         .              .              .              . 

1824 

1861 

BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  981 

lAUOJf.                                                          NAME   JiKD    PROFESSION.  BOBS,  »1EI>. 

Mcx.      Montezuma  I,  the  greatest  of  Mexican  sovereigns  .              •  1471 

ilex. II,  last  Atzec  emperor      .               .               •  •        1480  1520 

Fr.         Montfaucon,  Bern,  de,  arcbseologist  and  author        .              *  1655  1741 

Eng.      Montgomery,  James,  poet      .              .              •              .  •       1771  1854 

Amer. ,  Richard,  intrepid  military  officer       .              .  1737  1778° 

Eng. ,  Robert,  poet      .....        1807  1855 

l-'r.         Montbolon,  comte,  secretary  and  biographer  of  Napoleon    .  1783  1853 

Fr.         Montmorenci,  Anne  de,  constable  of  France    .              .  .       1493  1567 

Ital.       Monte,  Vincent,  poet       .....  1753  1828 

Fr.         Montmorency,  noble  family  of  France  .              .            .  10th  to  19th  century 

Fr.         Mompensir,  Madame,  author  of  Memoirs  &o           .              .  1627  1693 

Scot.      Montrose,  Jas.  Grahame,  marquis  of,  military  leader    .  .       1612  1661 
Amer.  Moore,  Geo.  H.,  author    ..... 

Amer.  ,  Frank  H ,  author         .              .              .              •  . 

Amer.  ,  Clement  C.,  writer  of  verses,  Ac.     .              .              .  1779  1863 

Amer.  ,  Jacob  Bailey,  journalist  and  author       ...       1797  1853 

Scot      ,  John,  miscellaneous  author              .              .              .  1728  1802 

Scot.      ,  Sir  John  (son  of  above,)  general,  killed  at  Corunna  .        1761  1809 

Ital.        Morata,  Olympia,  Prot.  writer       ....  1526  1555 

Eng.      More,  Hannah,  poet,  essayist  and  moralist,       .               .  .        1744  1833 

Eng.      ,  Henry,  mystical  divine  and  philosopher         .              •  1614  1687 

"St.         Moreau,  John  Victor,  celebrated  general           ...       1763  1818 

.Amer.  Morfit,  Campbell,  chemist  and  author        .              .              .  1820 

Amer.  Morgan,  Daniel,  brig,  gen.,  in  revolutionary  war            .  .       1736  1802 

Amer. ,  Jno.  Henry,  rebel  flllibuster  general  .  . 

Eng. ,  Lady  Charles,  author  of  novels,  travels  &e.      .  .       1780  1858 

Eng. ,  Sir  Henry  J.,  buccaneer                .                             .  1637  1690 

Eng.      Morier,  James,  novelist,  '  Hajji  Baba'  Ac.                .  .        1780  1849 

Eng.      Moruington,  G.  Wellesley,  earl  of,  musical  composer            .  1720  1784 

Fr.          Morny,  Chas.  A.  count  of,  minister  of  Napoleon  III.    .  .        1811  1866 

Amer.  Morphy,  Paul  Charles,  famous  chess-player             .               .  1837 

Eng.      Morrell,  Thos.,  lexicographer  and  classical  writer          .  .       1703  1784 

Amer.    Moms,  Geo,  P.,  poet  and  journalist             .              .              .  1802.  1864 

Amer.    ,  Gouverneur,  distinguished  statesman  .               .  .        1752  1816 

Amer. ,  Lewis,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence    .  1726  1798 

Amer. ,  Robert,  signer  Declaration  Independence  and  financier         1703  1806 

Eng.       Morrison,  Robert,  Chinese  traveller  and  philologist              .  1782  1834 

Eng. ,  Robert  D.  D.,  missionary  and  philologist       .  .        1782  1834 

Amer.   Morse,  Jedodiah,  geographer  and  statistical  Tvriter              .  1761  1827 

Amer.   ,  Samuel  F.  B.,  artist  and  inventor  of  telegraph    .  .       1791 

Amer.    ,  Sidney  E.,  journalist  and  geographer              .               .  1794 

Fr.         Mortier,  marshal  of  France,  killed  by  Fieschi    ...       1768  183S 

Scot.      Morton,  Jas.  Douglas,  earl  of,  regent           .              .              .  1530  1581 

Amer.   ,  John,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence    .       (Penn)   1724  1777 

Amer.    ,  Samuel  Geo..  anatomist  and  ethnologist      .               .  1799  1851 

Amer.    ,  Wm.  T.  G.  dentist,  discoverer  of  the  use  of  ether  (7)  .       1819 

Heb.      Moses,  lawgiver  of  the  Jews          .               .               •               .  B.  0.     1571  B  c.  1451 

Ger.       Mosheim,  John  Lawrence,  ecclesiastical  historian           .  .       1695  175& 

Scot.      Motherwell,  William,  poet               ....  1797  1836 
Amer.    Motley,  John  Lothrop,  historian          ....       1814 

Amer.    Mott,  Lucretia,  minister  of 'Friends' and  philanthropist     .  1793 

Amer. -,  Valentine,  surgeon  and  author              .              *  .       1786  1801 


982  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATIOV.                                                          NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOBS.  DIED 

Fr.         Motte,  Cadillac,  Ant  de  la,  founder  of  Detroit       .              .  1660  17 11 
Ger.        Moschus,  bucolic  poet            .              .              .              .       f.  B.  c.      160 

Ainer.    Moullrie,  Wm.,  general  and  statesman              .              .              .  1731  1805 

Mouradgea,  D'Ohason,  Armenian  historian               .               .  1740  1807 
•Amer.    Mowatt  (Ritchie),  Anna  Cora,  actress  and  authoress            .    (abt)    1826 

Ger.       Mozart,  C.  "W.  T.,  eminent  composer              .              .              .  1756  1792 

Eog.      Mudie,  Robert,  author  of  various  works  on  Nat  ural  History,  &o.  1777  1842 

Ger.      Muller,  C.  O.,  historiau,  archaeologist  classical  scholar    .              .  1797  1840 

Swiss.  Muller,  John  von,  celebrated  historian, 'Universal  History'  1752  1809 

Ger. ,  John,  physiologist       .....  1801  1S58 

Ger.       Munchhausen,  J.  C.  F.,  proverbial  for  'stories'      .              .  1720  1797 

Eng.       Manden,  Jos.  8.,  comedian     .....  1758  1832 

Fr.         Murat,  Joachim,  intrepid  marshal  and  king  of  Naples         .  17T1  1815 

ItaL        Muratori,  Louis  Anthony,  historian    ....  1672  1750 

Irish.     Murphy,  Arthur,  dramatist  and  translator              .              .  1727  1805 

Scot.      Murray,  Alex.,  self-taught  linguist      ....  1775  1813 

Scot.       ,  Hugh,  geographer  (Encyclo)           .               .              .  1779  1846 

Scot ,  or  Moray,  Jas.  Stuart,  earl  of,  regent    ...  1531  1570 

Eng.       ,  John,  the  elder,  eminent  publisher               .               .  1778  1843 

Amer.    ,  Lindley,  grammarian              ....  1745  1826 

Amer.    ,  Wm.,  Vans,  statesman     ....  1761  1803 

Gr.         Musaeus,  Athenian  poet         .  .  .  .       f.  B.  0.    1243 

Fr.         Musset,  Louis  C.  A.  de,  poet           .              .              .              .  1810  1857 

N. 

&.ssyr.    Nabonassar,  first  king  of  the  Chaldeans             .              .         fl.  B.  o.  747 

Assyr.   Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon      .               .               .               .  fl.  B.  C.  626 

1'ers.     Nadir  Shah,  or  Thatnas  Kouli  Kahn,  warrior  and  king  .              .  1688  1747 

Heb.     Xahum,  prophet               .              .               .              .              .  f.  B.  c.  7th  cent. 

Irish.     Napier,  Ohas.  Jas.,  general  in  India,  &c.           .              .              .  1782  1853 

Scot.      ,  John,  baron,  inventor  of  logarithms             .              .  1550  1617 

Eng.      -, ,  Sir  Charles,  admiral  .....  1786  1860 

Fr.         Napoleon  I.,  (Bonaparte)                ....  1769  1821 

Fr.         ,  II.,  king  of  Rome,  (see  Bonaparte)     .              .              .1811  1832 

Fr.         ,  III.,  (Louis  Napoleon),  emperor  ...  1808 

Eng.      N  ares,  James,  musical  doctov,  composer           ...  1715  1783 

Eng.      ,  Rev.  Edmund, 'Thinks  I  to  myself              .              .  1T62  1841 

Pers.     Narses,  warrior  in  the  service  of  Justinian  I.,  the  emperor           .  567 

Span.     Narvaez,  don  Ramon,  duke  of  Valentia,  statesman  .              .  1795 

Eng.      Nash,  Richard,  styled '  Bean  Nash '     .              .              .              .  1674  1761 

Dutch.  Nassau,  prince  Maurice  of,  able  general      ...  1567  1625 

Pers.     Nassir  Eddyn,  celebrated  astronomer  ....  1201  1274 

Span.    Navarrete,  Martin  F.  de,  'Collect  of  Voyages'         .              .  1765  1844 

Eng.      Neal,  Daniel,  author  of  the 'History  of  the  Puritans,' &e              .  1678  1743 

Amer.  ,  John,  novelist          .....  1794 

Amer.  ,  Joseph  C.,  litterateur      .              .              .              .              .1807  1848 

Ger.       Neander,  J.  W.  Augustus,  ecclesiastical  historian    .              .  1789  1850 

Gr.         Neaichus,  admiral  and  voyager            .              .              •              .  B.  o.  4th  cent. 

Chald.  Nebux.hadne7.zar,  king  of  Babylon                 .              .  B.  o.  462 

Fr.         Meeker,  James,  eminent  financier  and  statesman            .              .  1732  1804 

,  Madame  J.  C.,  wife  of  James,  essayist         .  1739  1704 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  983 

IUTIOM                                                             NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOEN.  LED, 

fing.      Neele,  Henry,  poet  and  miscellaneous  wr;ter    .              .              .  1798  1828 

Swiss.    Neff,  Felix,  apostle  of  the  Alps       ....  1798  1829 

Heb.      Nehemiah,  governor  of  Judea    .              .              .              .       1.  B.  c.  444 

Eng.       Nelson,  Horatio,  viscount,  celebrated  admiral          .              .  1758  1808 
Horn.      Nepos,  Cornelius,  historian    .              .              .              .              .                   B.  c.  3C 

Bom.     Nero,  infamous  emperor                .              .              .              •  37  68 

Rom.     Nerva,  emperor          ......  32  98 

Buss.     Nesselrode,  Charles  B.,  count,  statesman  and  diplomatist     .  1780  1862 

Gr.         Nestorius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  founder  of  Nestorians    .  439 

Ger.       Neukomm,  Sigism.  cbevalier,  composer      .               .               .  1778  1857 

Ger.       Neuwied,  Maximilian,  prince  of,  traveller  in  North  America,  &c.  1782 

Eng.      Newton,  John,  Calvinistic  divine  and  writer             .               .  1725  1807 

Eng. ,  Sir  Isaac,  the  greatest  of  philosophers               .              .  1642  1727 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  learned  prelate,  (on  Prophecies)  .              .  1704  1782 

Fr.         Ney,  Michael,  marshal, '  the  bravest  of  the  brave*         .              .  1769  1815 

Gr.          Nicephorus,  Greg.,  Byzantine  historian       .               .               .  14bh  cent. 

Russ.     Nicholas  1.,  emperor,  (1825-55)             ....  1796  1855 

Eng.      Nichols,  John  Bowyer,  printer  and  archaeologist     .              .  1807  1863 
Eng.      Nicholson,  Peter,  architect  and  political  mechanic          .              . 

Eng. ,  William,  writer  on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  1753  1815 

Amer.  Nicklin,  P.  H.,  bookseller  and  miscellaneous  writer                .  1786  1842 

Ger.       Nicolai,  Chris.  Fred.,  bookseller  and  author      .              ._          ,  1733  1811 

Eng.       Nicolas,  Sir  Harris,  antiquary         ....  1799  1848 

Ger.       Niebhur,  B.  G.,  statesman  and  historian            ...  1776  1830 

Ger.       ,  Carsten,  celebrated  traveller         .               .               .  1733  1815 

Pol.       Niemcewiez,  Julius  U.,  military  commander  and  author              .  1756  1841 
Eng.      Nightingale,  Florence,  practical  philanthropist        .              . 

Amer.  Niles,  Hezekiah,  journalist  'Register'                ...  1777  1839 

Swe.      Nilston,  Sven,  zoologist    .....  1787 

Amer.    Noah,  Mordecai  M.,  journalist,  politician  and  author     .              .  1851 

Ger.      Noehden,  G.  H.,  grammarian  and  miscellaneous  writer        .  1770  1826 

Fr.         Nodier,  Charles,  novelist         ...               .               .               .1783  1844 

Ger.  Am.  Nordheimer,  Hebrew  scholar  and  author       .  . 

Eng.      Normanby,  C.  G.  Phipps,  marquis  of,  novelist  and  statesman    .  1797  186." 

Eng.       North,  Francis,  1st  lord  Guilford, 'lord  keeper'       .               .  1637  168i 

Eng.      ,  Frederick,  lord,  prime  minister  of  George  IIL  .              .  1732  1791 

Eiig.      Northcote,  James,  artist  and  biographer    .              .              .  1746  3837 

Amer.  Norton,  Andrews  theological,  Unitarian  author              .              .  1790  1835 

Eng.      ,  Hon.  Mrs.,  poetess  .  .  .  . 

Amer.   Nott,  Abner  Kingman,  remarkable  Baptist  preacher     .              .  1834  1859 

Amer.  ,  Eliphalet,  D.  D.,  president  of  Union  College  and  author  1773  1866 

Eng.      ,  John,  poet  and  translator             ....  1751  1826 

Ger.       Novalis,  or  Fred,  von  Hardenberg,  author                .              .  1772  1801 

Eng.      Novello,  Vincent,  musician  (life  by  Mrs.  Clarke)            .              .  1781  1861 

Amer.    Noyes,  Wm.  Curtis,  jurist  and  patriot       .              .              .  1805  1864 

Irish.     Nugent,  lord,  author  of 'life  of  Hampden,' &c.              .               .  1850 
Bom.     Numa  Pompilius,  second  king  of  Rome            .              .       f.    B.C.    714 

Span.     Nunez,  Alv  a  C.  de  Vaca,  explorer       ...»  1564 

O. 

Eng.      Gates,  Titus,  infamous  pretender  of  the  'Popish  plot*  .              .  1619  1701 

Fr.         Oberlin,  John  Fred.,  philanthropist             .              .              .  1740  t83# 


984  THE  WOBLD'S  PBOGBESS. 

KATIOH.                                                         XAHE    AND    PEOFES3IOM.                                                         BORN.  DIED. 

Irish.    O'Brien,  Fitz-James,  poet       ....  1888 

Itish. ,  Wm.  Smith,  political  agitator       ...  1806  186- 

Irish.    O'Connell,  Daniel,  political  agitator     ....  1775  1841 

Irish.    O'Connor,  Fergus,  chartist  orator  ....  1795  185a 

Eng.     Ockley,  Simon,  orientalist                                    .              ,              .  1678  1720 

Arab.    Odenatus,  warrior,  husband  of  Zenobia      .              .\           .  267 

Fr.         Odilon-Barrot,  C.  H.,  statesman           ....  1791 

Bar.       Odoacer,  Gothic  king  of  Italy        ....  493 

Dan.      Oersted,  Hans  Ch.,  discoverer  of  electro-magnetism       .              .  1777  1851 

Eng.      Oglethorpe,  J.  E.,  founder  of  Georgia               .               .               .  1698  1785 

Irish.     O'Keefe,  John,  dramatist                ....  1748  1833 

Ger.      Oken,  Louis,  naturalist           .....  1778  1851 

Ger.       Olbers,  H  W.  M.,  astronomer       ....  1S40 

Eng.       Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham       ....  1360  1417 

Amer.    Olin,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  Methodist  theologian  and  author        .  1797  1851 
Span.     Olivan,  don  Aless.,  publicist  ..... 

Amer.    Oimsted,  Denison,  professor,  astronomer,  &c.          .              .  1791  1859 

Ger.       Olshausen,  Hermann,  protestant  theologian      ...  1796  1839 

Arab.     Omar  I.,  caliph,  captor  of  Jerusalem           •              •              .  581  644 

Irish.      O'Meara,  Barry,  surgeon  to  Napoleon  and  author          .               .  1778  1836 

Eng.       Onslow,  Arthur,  speaker  House  Commons               .              .  1691  1768 

Eng.      Opie,  Mrs.  Amelia,  writer  on  morals  and  education        .              .  1771  1853 
Gr.         Oppian,  poet    ......               f.     150 

Dutch.  Orange,  "William  I.,  of  Nassau,  prince  of,  founder  of  Dutch  republic  1533  15S4 

Dutch. ,  William  IL,  prince  of,  stadtholder  .               .               .  1626  1650 

Dutch. ,  William  III.,  prince  of,  stadtholder,  and  king  of  England     1650  1702 

Span.     Orflla,  M.  J.  B.,  chemist  and  toxicologist                   .               .  1787 

Origen,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church           ...  185  253 

Fr.         Orleans,  L.  J.  P.,  duke  of « Kgalite,'  guillotined         .              .  1747  1793 

FT.          ,  Fer.  P.  L.,  duke  of,  heir  of  Louis  Philippe                 .  1810  1842 

Buss.     Orlofl',  Gregory,  count,  favorite  Catherine  II.    .               .               .  1734  1783 

Eng.      Orme,  Robert,  historian  of  India  ....  1728  1801 

Eng.      Ormond,  James  Butler«  duke,  of,  statesman      .              .              .  1610  16S3 
Gr.         Orpheus,  poet,  sometimes  styled  the 'father  of  poetry'         . 

Irish.      Orrery,  Charles,  4th  earl  of,  natural  philosophy               .               .  1676  1731 

Irish.     ,   Boger  Boyle,  1st  earl  of,  statesman  and  author          .  1621  1679 

Eng.       Orton,  Job,  dissenting  divine  and  author          .              .              .  1717  1783 

Amer.  Osgood,  Frances,  poetess                ....  1812  1850 

Amer. ,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  Unitarian  divine  and  author      .              .  1812 

Port.      Osorio,  Jerome,  philosopher,  historian,  and  theological  writer  1502  1580 

Scot.      OtfBian,  Gaelic  bard,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  3d  century 

Egypt.  Osymandias,  king  of  Egypt  ....    (abt.)  1500 

Amer.   Otis,  James,  patriot  and  statesman       ....  1725  1772 

Amer.  ,  Harrison  Gray,  statesman  and  jurist  .              .               .  1767  1848 

Ger.       Otho  L,  king  of  Greece  (born  in  Bavaria)         ...  1815  1867 

Eng.       Ottley,  Wm.  Young,  writer  on  art               .              .              .  1771  1836 

Eng.      Otway,  celebrated  dramatist,  '  Venice  Preserved '          .              .  1651  1685 

Fr.         Oudinot,  Charles  N.,  marshal  of  France      .              .              .  1767  1847 

Eng.      Ouseley,  Sir  Gore,  diplomatist             ....  1769  1844 

Ger.       Overbeck,  Fred.,  founder  of  modern  religious  school  of  art  1783 

Eng.      Overbury,  Sir  Thos.,  (poisoned  in  the  Tower)   .              .              .  1681  1612 

Bom.     Ovid,  Fublius  N  wo,  poet               .              .              .              .       B.  c.    43  17 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  985 

RATIOS.                                                           NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  VIED. 

Span.     Oviedo,  J.  G.,  bishop  of,  author  of  '  Voyages  in  the  West  Endies'  1640 

Amer.    Owen,  David  Dale,  geologist          ....  1807  1860 

Eng.       ,  John,  independent  theologian                 .               •               •  1618  1683 

Eng.       ,  Eichard,  surgeon  and  naturalist       ... 

Welsh. ,  Robert,  political  theorist            ....  1771  1800 

Amer.    ,  Robert  Dale,  statesman  and  author  *  . 

Eng.      Oxford,  Horace  Walpole,  earl  of,  author            .              .              .  1717  1797 

P. 

Amer.    Paine,  Elijah,  jurist  ......  1757  1842 

Amer. ,  Elijah  (son  of  above),  jurist             .              .              .  1796  1853 

Auier.  ,  John  Howard,  dramatist,  '  Home,  Sweet  Home '               .  1791  1851 

Amer.  ,  Robert  Treat,  lawyer  and  patriot     ...  1731  1814 

Amer.  ,  Robert  Treat,  son,  poet,             .               .               .               .1773  1811 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  political  and  deistieal  writer            .              .  1736  1809 

JTr.         Paixhan,  general,  inventor  of  guns  bearing  his  name      .              .  1782  1854 

Ven.      Paez,  military  commander  and  president  Venezuela              .  1787 

ItaL       Paganini,  Nicolo,  famous  Violinist       ....  1784  1835 

Eng.       Paley,  William,  eminent  divine  and  author               .               .  1745  1805 

Eng.       Palgrave,  Sir  Francis,  antiquarian  author          ...  17S8  1861 

Fr.         Palisset  de  Montenoy,  Charles,  satirist       .              .              .  .  1730  1815 

Fr.         Palissy,  Bernard, 'the  Potter'              ....  1510  1590 

Ital.       Palladio,  Andrew,  architect            ....  1518  1580 

Pruss.   Pallas,  Peter  Simon,  traveller  and  naturalist    ...  1741  1811 

Eng.      Palmerst on,  Henry  Temple,  viscount,  statesman     .               .  1784  1865 

Ger.       Panzer,  G.  W.  F.,  bibliographer           ....  1729  1812 

Ital.       Paoli,  Pascal,  Corsican  patriot  and  general               .               .  1726  1806 

Can.      Papineau,  L.  J ,  politician  and  patriot                ...  1789 

Rom.     Papinian,  ^Emilius,  civil  lawyer     ....  145  212 

Swiss.    Paracelsus,  A.  P.  T.  B.  de  H.,  alchemist          ...  1493  1541 

Eng.      Pardoe,  Julia,  Miss,  novelist          ....  1812  1S62 

Fr.         Paris,  count  of,  Louis  Ph.  Al.,  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe         .  1838 

Eng.       ,  Matthew,  historian                ....  1259 

Scot.       Park,  Mungo,  celebrated  traveller       ....  1771  1804 

Amer.   Parker,  Theodore,  Unitarian  preacher  and  oriental  scholar   .  1810  1860 

Eng.       Parkes,  Samuel,  chemist  and  author   ....  1759  1829 

Ital.       Parma,  Alexender  Farnese,  duke  of,  regent  of  the  Netherlands  1546  1592 

Irish.     Parnell,  Thos.,  poet  and  divine            ....  1679  1717 

Eng.       Parr,  Samuel,  learned  divine  and  philologist             .               .  1746  1825 

Eng.       ,  Thomas,  lived  152  years               .               .                              .  1483  1635 

Eng.      Parry,  C  apt.  Edward,  Arctic  navigator      ...  1790  18J6 

Amer.    Parsons,  Theophilus,  jurist    .....  1750  1813 

Amer.  • ,  Theophilus  (son),  jurist    .... 

Amer.    Parton,  James,  biographer,  historian,  and  essayist         .  . 

Atnei.   ,  Mrs.  Sarah, 'Fanny  Fern,' authoress          .              .  1811 

Fr.         Pascal,  Blaise,  eminent  geometrician  and  writer             .               .  1623  1662 

Russ.     Paskewitsch,  Ivan  F.,  prince  of  "Warsaw,  general    .               .  1782  18J6 

Eng.       Pasley,  Gen.  Sir  Chas.  W.,. engineer    ....  1781  1861 

Fr.         Pasquier,  Etienne  D.,  count,  chancellor  of  France  .               .  1767  1862 

Ger.       Paasow,  Francis  L.  C.  F.,  philologist  and  lexicographer  (Greek  lex.)  1786  183* 
Rom.      Paterculus,  Cuius  Velleius,  historian          .              .         (abt.)  B.  o.     30 

.  42 


986  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATIOW.                                                          NAME   AND  PROFESSION.  BOHN.  DIKD. 

Eng.      Patinore,  Coventry,  poet         ...»  1823 

Irish.     Patrick,  St.,  apostle  of  Ireland     ....  372  493 

Eng.      ,  Simon,  bishop  of  Chichester,  Bible  commentary  .       1626  1707 

Paul,  Father,  (see  Sarpi)                ....  1552  1623 

Heb.      ,  St.,  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles       ....  65? 

Fr. ,  St.  Vincent  do,  Catholic  missionary .              .              .  1576  1669 

Amer.    Paulding,  James  Kirke,  novelist  and  essayist    .               •  .        1779  I860 

Eom.     Paulus-^Emilius,  Lucius,  fell  at  Cannsa       .              .              .  B.C.    216 

Gr.          Pausanias,  spartan  commander                     .               .               .  B.  o.     470 

Gr. ,  topographical  writer           .              .              .  .            f.  (abt.)  120 

Eng.      Paxt on,  Sir  Joseph,  horticulturist  and  architect      .              .  1802  1865 

Eng.       Payne,  Eoger,  noted  book-binder          ....        1739  1797 

Amer.  Payson,  Edward,  D.  D.,  congregational  divine         .              .  1783  1827 
Amer.  Pcabody,  Eliz  P.,  educational  writer                  ...       1802 

Amer. ,  O.  W.  B.,  reviewer  and  biographer            .              .  1799  1848 

Eng.      Peacock,  George,  dean  of  Ely,  mathematician                 .  .  1858 

Eng.      Pearson,  John,  bishop  of  Chester,  '  On  the  Creed'                  .  1613  1686 

Port.      Pedro,  V.,  king  of  Portugal,  (son  of  Donna  Maria  II.)  .        1837  1S6- 

Port.     ,  don,  claimant  to  the  throne  of  Portugal         .              .  1834 

Eng.      Peel,  Sir  Kobert,  1st  baronet,  cotton  manufacturer        .  .       1750  1830 

Eng.      ,  Sir  Robert,  3d  baronet,  statesman       ...  1850 

Eng.      Peele,  George,  poet,  (Life  by  Dyce)    ....       1552  1598 

Brit.      Pelagous,  monk,  founder  of  a  sect                •              .              .  S54 

Span.     Pelayo,  first  king  of  Asturias                  .               •               .  .  757 

Fr.         Pelissier,  A.  J.  J-,  duke  of  Malakoff,  marshal            .              .  1794  1864 

Ital.       Pellico,  Silvio,  poet  and  patriot            ....       1789  1854 

Gr.         Pelopidas,  illustrious  Theban  general         .              .              .  B.  o.    364 

Fr.          Pelouze,  Theodore  Jules,  chemist         ....        1807 

Eng.       Pembroke,  Mary  Sidney,  countess  of          .              .              .  1621 

Eng.       Penn,  Granville,  author           .....        1761  1844 

Eng. ,  William,  admiral,  father  of  founder  of  Pennsylvania  1621  1670 

Eng.      ,  William,  founder  and  legislator  of  Pennsylvania         .  1644  1718 

Eng.     .  Pennant,  Thomas,  naturalist  and  antiquary                    .  .        1726  1798 

Ital.       Pepo,  William  Florestan,  general                ...  1780  1S55 

Amer.  Pepporell,  Sir  William,  general            .              .              .  1697  1759 

Ital.       Pepoli,  Charles,  litterateur           ....  1801 

Eng.      Pepys,  Samuel,  secretary  to  Admiralty,  axithor  of  '  Diary'  .       1632  1703 

Eng.      Perceval,  Spencer,  prime  minister,  assassinated       .              .  1762  1812 

Amer.  Percival,  James  Gates,  poet,  geologist  and  critic              .  .        1795  1857 

Eng.      Percy,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Dromore,  ' Religious  Ant,  Poetry*  1728  1811 

Fr.          Perefixe,  Hardouin  de  Beaumont  de,  historian                 .  .        1605  1670 

Eng.       Pereiren,  Jonathan,  M.  D.,  'Materia  Medica'           .              .  1804  1853 

Ital.       Pergolese,  John  B.,  musical  composer              .              .  .       1710  1736 

Gr.          Pericles,  able  Athenian  orator  and  statesman           .               .  B.  c.  490  B  c.  429 

Amer.   Perit,  Pelatiah,  merchant  and  philanthropist                  .  .        1735  1864 

Eng.       Perkins,  Hugh,  eccentric  preacher  and  roundhead  (executed)  1599  1660 

Amer. ,  Jacob,  inventor  of  steam-gun,  &c.       .              .  .        17G6  1849 

Kng. ,  Thomas  H.,  eminent  merchant  and  philanthropist  1764  1854 

Fr.         Perouse,  John  F.  Galaup,  circumnavigator              .              .  174L  1788 

Fr.          Perrier,  M.  Casimir,  statesman              .               .              .  .        1777  188J 

Amer.  Perry,  Matthew  G.,  commodore,  ('Japan')              .              .  1795  1858 

Amer.  — — ,  Oli ver  Hazard,  commodore  U.  S.  navy               .  .       17«6  181$ 


BIOGB-JPHICAL   INDEX.  987 

NAME   AND  PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIBD. 

Fr.  Persigny,  Jean  Q.  V.,  politician  and  diplomatist      .  1808 

Horn.  Persius,  Flaccus  Aulus,  satirist             .               -               .              ,  34  61 

Ger.  Perthes,  Christian  Frederick,  bookseller,  (life  by  son)  1772  1843 

Rom.  Pertinax,  emperor     ......  126  193 

Swiss.  Pestalozzi,  Henry,  introducer  of  a  new  system  of  education  1745  1827 

Russ.  Peter  I.,  the  great,  statesman  and  warrior         .              .              .  1672  1725 

Fr. the  Hermit,  first  mover  of  the  crusades            .              •  1050?        1115 

Eng.  Peters,  Hugh,  '  fanatic '.....  1599  1600 

Eng.  Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  earl  of,  warrior     .              .  1658  1735 

Ger.  Petermann,  August  H.,  geographer     .  .  •  . 

Amer.  Petigrew,  James  Louia,  of  S.  0.,  Union  statesman    .              .  1789  1863 

Petion,  Alexander,  mulatto,  president  Hayti     .               .              .  1770  1818 

Ital.  Petrarch,  Francis,  one  of  the  four  greatest  of  Italian  poets    .  1304  1374 

Fr.  Peyronnet,  Pierre  D.,  count  de,  minister  of  Charles  X.  andhi.-torian  1778  1854 

Ger.  Pfeiffer,  Ida,  traveller  and  author               .              .              .  1795  1858 

Bom.  Phsedrus,  fabulist       .               .               .               .               .               .  f.     30 

Fr.  Philidor,  Andrew,  writer  on  chess               .              .              .  1726  1795 

Philip  II.,  king  of  Macedon,  warrior    .  .  .  B.  o.   383  B.  0.  336 

St.,  of  Neri,  founder  of  the  Oratory                .              .  1515  1595 

Eng.  Phillimore,  John  G.,  author  on  law                    .              .              .  1809  1865 

Eng.  Phillips,  Ambrose,  poet  and  dramatist       .              .              .  1749 

Eng. ,  John,  poet 'Splendid  Shilling'             ...  1676  1708 

Eng.  ,  Sir  Richard,  bookseller  and  compiler           .              .  1768  1840 

Jew.  Philo-Judasus,  learned  Jewish  writer  of  Alexandria       .              .  f.    A.  D.    40 

Qr.  Philopcemen,  celebrated  general  .  .  .  .  B.  o.  253  B.  o.  183 

Eng.  Phipps,  Sir  William,  colonial  governor  Massachusetts                  .  1651  1695 

Gr.  Phocion,  eminent  Athenian  general  .  .  .B.C.  400    B.  C.  318 

Photius,  learned  patriarch  of  Constantinople                   .              .  815  891 

Amer.  Physic,  Philip  Syng,  M.  D.                           .              .              .  1768  1837 

Ital.  Piazzi,  Joaeph,  astronomer                   ....  1746  1826 

Fr.  Picard,  Uouis  Benedict,  dramatist  and  novelist       .              •  1769  1824 

Fr.  Pichegru,  Charles,  eminent  general     ....  1761  1804 

Amer.  Pickering,  Timothy,  distinguished  statesman           .               .  1746  1829 

Amer.  ,  John,  philologist                                                .              .  1772  1846 

Swiss.  Pictet,  Benedict,  theological  and  historical  writer                   .  16o5  1724 

Eng.  Pictou,  Sir  Thomas,  general                  ....  1815 

Amer.  Pierce,  Franklin,  general,  14th  president  U.  S.          .               .  1804 

Rom.  Pilate,  Pontius,  Roman  governor  of  Judea       .               .              .  38? 

Amer.  Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth,  general  and  diplomatist       .  1825 

Amer.  ,  William,  distinguished  orator  and  diplomatist              .  1765  1822 

Gr.  Pindar,  the  greatest  of  lyric  poets  .  .  .       B.  o.  522    B.  o.  442 

Scot.  Pinkerton,  John,  fertile  and  eccentric  author                  .              .  1758  1826 

Span.  Pinzon,  Vincent  Yanez,  navigator,  dUcovered  Brazil               .  f.  1500 

Amer.  Piozzi,  Hester  L.,  miscellaneous  writer,  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson  1789  1821 

Fr.  Piron,  Alexis,  poet  dramatist,  and  wit         .               .              .  1689  1773 

Gr.  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Athens  .  .  .  .  B.  c.   527 

Amer.    Pitkin,  Timothy,  historian  and  statistician                .               .  1765  1841 

Eng.  Pitt,  Christopher,  poet  and  translator                ...  1699  ]  748 

Eng.  ,  "William,  1st  earl  of  Chatham,  statesman          .              .  1708  ]778 

Eng.  ,  Wil  iam,  celebrated  statesman,  sou  of  Lord  Chatham         .  1759  1806 

Gr.  Pittacus,  of  Mitylene,  one  of  the  seven  sages  .  .       B.  o.  650    B.  c   670 

Ital.  Pins  IX.,  pope,  (Giov.  Mastai  Ferretti)              .              .              .  1782 


988 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS, 


NATION 

Span. 
Eng. 
Gr. 
Rom. 

Eng. 

Boin. 

Rom. 

Egypt. 

Irish. 

Gr. 

Ind. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Fr, 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Port 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Rom. 

Span. 

Pol. 

Ind. 

Eng. 


NAME    AND    PROFESSION.  BOBV. 

Pizarro,  Francis,  conqueror  of  Peru            .              .              .  1475 

Platoche,  James  R.,  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  writer  .       1796 

Plato,  illustrious  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Academic  sect  B.  o.  430 

Plautus,  comic  poet                  .              .              .              .  B.  o.  227 
Playfair,  John,  eminent  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher       1749 

,  Lyon,  chemist,  (born  in  Bengal)         .               .  .        1819 

Pliny,  the  elder,  or  C.  P.  Secundus,  author  of  natural  history  23 

,  the  younger,  warrior  and  author               .              .  .61 

Plotinns,  Platonic  philosopher         ....  203 
Plunkct,  W.  C.,  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland        ...       1765 
Plutarch,  celebrated  biographer                    .               •               •  50 
Pocahontas,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  of  Va.       .               .  . 
Pocock,  D.  E.,  learned  critic  and  commentator        .              . 
,  D.  K.,  learned  prelate  and  traveller      .              . 


Poe,  Edgar  A.,  poet,  critic  and  novelist      .  . 

Poggendorf,  John  Chris.,  physicist  and  chemist 
Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  statesman,  diplomatist,  and  author 
Poisson,  D.  S.,  mathematician 
Pole,  Reginald,  cardinal  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
Polignac,  J.  A.  M.,  prince,  minister  of  Charles  X. 

,  Melchior  de,  cardinal  and  statesman         . 

Polk,  Jas.  Knox,  president  U.  S.          .  . 
.  Leonidas,  Bp.  of  La.,  and  rebel  general         . 


1604 

.  1704 
1811 
1796 
1773 
1781 
1500 
1780 
1611 
1795 
1806 
1799 
1250 
B.  c.  205 


Pollok,  Robt.,  poet,  '  Course  of  Time  '  .  . 

Polo,  Marco,  celebrated  Venetian  traveller  . 

Po'ybius,  eminent  historian 

Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  Christian  martyr  and  author    . 

Pombal,  Seb.,  marquis  of,  statesman  ....        1699 

Pomfret,  John,  poet         .....  1667 

Pompadour,  J.  A.  P.,  Marchioness  of  .  .  .  .       1772 

Pompey,  Cneus,  statesman  and  warrior     .         ('  The  Great.')    B.  o.  106 


Ponce  de  Leon,  discoverer  of  America               .              .              .  1460 

Poniatowski,  Joseph,  prince,  general,  marshal  of  France     .  1763 

,  Stanislaus  Aug.,  last  king  of  Poland          .               .  1732 

Pontiac,  Indian  chief       .....  1712 
Poole,  John,  author  of  '  Paul  Pry,'  &o.               ... 
,  Matthew,  able  divine  and  author     ... 


.  1624 

Eng\      Pope,  Alexander,  celebrated  poet         ....  1688 

Amer.   ,  John,  Union  general,  com.  army  Potomac  aud  4th  mil.  dist,  1823 

Porphyry,  Platonic  philosopher           ....  233 

Eng.       Person,  Richard,  eminent  hellenist  and  critic           .              .  1759 

Ital.       Porta,  John  Baptist,  natural  philosopher           ...  1540 

Eng.       Porter,  Anna  Maria,  novelist          ....  1781 

Amer.   ,  David,  commodore,  U.  S.  Navy              .              .              .  1780 

Amer.    ,  David  D.,  rear-admiral       ....  1776 

Eng.      ,  Jane,  novelist,  .  .  .  .       . 

Eng.       ,  Sir  Robert  Ker,  author  of 'Travels,' &o.      .              .  1780 

Eng.       Porteus,  Beilby,  eminent  prelate          ....  1731 
Amer.   Potter,   Alonzo,  D.  D.,  epis.  bp.  of  Pennsylvania,  and  educa- 
tional author            .....  1800 

A i .HT.   Horatio,  D.  D.,  episo.  bishop  of  New  York          .  . 

Kng.      ,  John,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.    '  Gr.  Antlq.'          .  1674 


1541 

B.  c.  347 

B.  c.  184 

1819 

79 

115 

270 

1854 

120 

1617 

1691 

1765 

1856 

1851 
1840 
1558 
1847 
1741 
1840 
1864 
1827 
1323 

B.C.  123 

160 

1782 

1703 

1764 

B.  c.  48 
1521 
1818 

1769 

1779 
1744 

304 
1808 
1616 
1832 
1843 
1850 

1843 

1808 

1863 
1747 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


989 


•A1IOV. 

HAME  AND   PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

DIED. 

Eng. 

Potter,  Robert,  divine,  poet,  and  translator       .                           . 

1721 

1S04 

Eng. 
Irish. 

Pottenger,  Sir  Henry,  diplomatist               .              t-              . 

1787 
1795 

1866 
1841 

Russ. 

Pozzo  di  Borgo,  diplomatist            •              .              •              • 

1768 

1841 

Eng. 

Praed,  Winthrop  Mackworth,  poet      .              .              .              . 

1802 

1839 

Amer, 

Pradt,  Abbe  Dominique  de,  political  writer              .              . 

1759 

1837 

Amer. 

Preble,  Edward,  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  Navy               .              . 

1761 

1807 

Amor. 

Prentiss,  Sargent  8,  lawyer  and  politician,  famed  for  eloquence 

1810 

1850 

Amer. 

Prescott,  Wm.  Hickling,  historian       .... 

1796 

1859 

Amer. 

Preston,  Wm.  0.,  U.  8.  senator  for  South  Carolina  .              . 

1794 

1860 

Eng. 

Rncr 

Price,  DK  R.,  writer  on  civil  liberty                   ?'••'• 

1728 
1747 

1791 
1829 

JMJg. 

Eng. 

Prideanx,  Humphrey,  learned  divine.                .              .              • 

1648 

1724 

Ger. 

Priessnitz,  Vincent,  founder  of  Hydropathy             .              . 

1799 

1851 

"Eng. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  eminent  philosopher  and  writer         .              . 

1733 

1804 

Amer. 

Prince,  Rev.  Thos.,  historian  of  N.  England            .              . 

1687 

1758 

Eng. 

Piingle,  Thos.,  poet  and  traveller         .... 

1789 

1834 

Eng. 

Prinsep,  Chas.  R.,  political  economist        .              •              • 

1788 

1864 

Bug. 

Prior,  Mathew,  poet  and  statesman      .... 

1664 

1721 

Eng. 

Pritchard,  J.  C.,  ethnologist,  •  Natural  History  of  Man'       . 

1785 

1848 

Rom. 

Probus,  Marcus  Aurelius,  emperor      .... 

232 

282 

Ital. 

Procida,  John  of,  patriot               .              »              .              . 

1225 

1303 

Gr. 

Probus,  a  Platonic  philosopher          .             .              .              . 

410 

4S7 

Procv  ~>ius,  historian          ..... 

410 

487 

Rom. 

,  Antliemius,  emperor            .               .              .               . 

472 

Eng. 

Tariff 

Proctor,  Miss  Ade  aide  A.,  poetess              .              .              . 

17S7 

1864 

•C'Ug. 

Rom. 

Propertius,  Sextus  Aureiius,  poet                .              .              .       B 

J  »o  { 

.  o.    52 

B    0.     12 

Fr. 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Jos.,  political  theorist  and  socialist    .              . 

1809 

1865 

Eng. 

Prynne,  learned  lawyer,  political  writer,  and  antiquary        . 

1609 

1669 

Fr. 

Psalmanazar,  George,  literary  impostor             .              .              . 

1679 

1763 

Egypt 

Ptolemy,  Claudius,  eminent  astronomer  and  geographer        . 

70 

Ger. 

Puckler-Muskau,  H.  L.  H.,  prince  of,  author  of  Travels,  &o.     . 

1785 

Ger. 

Puffendorf,  Samuel,  baron  de,  publicist  and  historian           . 

1632 

1794 

Eng.- 

Pugin,  Augs.  Welby,  architectural  writer          .              .              . 

1S11 

1852 

Pole. 
Ital. 

Pnlaski,  Casimir,  count,  genl.  in  the  U.  S.  service   .              . 

1747 

1779 

1487 

Hung. 

Pulszky,  Franz,  politician  and  author         ... 

1814 

Eng. 

Parcel!,  Henry,  musical  composer       .... 

1658 

1695 

Eng. 

T'U««        »,.«.;AA1    «**«»nn«*... 

1682 

i  -^  nos.,  nj  \                         er  «... 

Eng. 

Purchas,  divine,  editor  of  Voyages  and  Pilgrimage        .              . 

1577 

1628 

Amer. 

Pursh,  Fred.,  botanist      ..... 

1774 

1820 

Eng. 

Pusey,  Edward  Bour,  D.D.,  founder  of  '  Puseyites  '      .              . 

1800 

Amer. 

Putnam,  Israel,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Revolution         . 

1718 

1790 

Amer. 

"Pnfllo        Tlirt«rtrt»    RoftloV    ~*"     '""*!"« 

1738 

1824 

,  ivuiiis,  pjoneer  senior  01  wnio               .                •                • 

Eng. 

Puttenham,  George,  poet  and  critic,  'Art  of  Eng.  Poesie'    . 

1600 

Eng. 

Pye,  Henry  James,  poet  laureate         .... 

1745 

1813 

Bug. 

Pym,  John,  republican  politician   .... 

1584 

1643 

Amer. 

Pynchon,  "Wm.,  f  junder  of  Sprinefield,  Ma°B.                .              . 

1591? 

1.62 

Gr. 

Pyrrho,  philosopher,  founder  of  Sceptic  Sect           .              .    f.  B. 

0.  300 

Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirm  .                     .... 

B.  o.  27J 

Gr. 

Pythagoras,  celebrated  philosopher            .              .              .       B. 

0.  586 

B.  c.  497 

990 


ras  WORLD'S  PBOGEESS. 


WAI/OK. 

KAMF.   AND   PROFESSION.                                                         BORIC.              1  1KB. 

Eng. 

Qaaln,  Jones,  M.  D.,  anatomist             .... 

1861 

Eng. 

Quaries,  Francis,  poet,  author  of  'Emblems'           .              „ 

1592 

1644 

Fr. 

1857 

Quekett,  John,  microscopist          «... 

1815 

1861 

Fr. 

Quesne,  Abraham  du,  admiral             .              .              •              . 

1610 

1688 

Quesnel,  Peter,  'History  of  Jesuits'           .              .              . 

1699 

1774 

Belg. 

Quetelet,  L.  A.,  mathematician  and  statistician             .              « 

1796 

Span. 

Quevedo  de  Villegas,  Francis,  poet              ... 

1580 

1645 

Eng. 

Quin,  James,  actor    ...... 

1G93 

1766 

Fr. 

Quinault,  Philip,  lyrical  dramatist              ... 

1655 

1668 

Amer. 

Quincy,  Josiah  ex-pres.  Harvard  Univ.,  and  author       .              . 

1772 

1864 

A  mpT* 

TftHnh     Tr     f*T  TDivnr  nf  TlftrtnTi    finrl  fininfMcr 

1802 

Fr. 

Quinet,  Edgar,  liti&rateur        ...                             . 

1803 

Span. 

Quintana,  Jose  Manuel  de,  poet  and  historian          .              . 

1772 

1857 

Rom. 

Quintilian,  Marcus  Fabius,  celebrated  orator        .               .               . 

42 

122 

Rom. 

Qu'.ntus-Curlius,  historian    .              .              .       f.  time  Vespasian 

1st  Cent. 

Amer. 

Quitman,  John  A.,  general  and  gov.  of  Mississsipi             .          . 

1799 

1858 

R 

Fr. 

Rabelais,  Francis,  wit  and  satirist       .              .              .              . 

1483 

1553 

Fr. 

Racine,  John,   eminent  dramatist              .              .              . 

1589 

1699 

Fr 

Rachel,  Eliza  Rachel  Felix,  actress      .... 

1820 

1858 

Eng. 

Radcliffe,  Anne,  romance  -writer,  '  Mysteries  of  TJdolpho'    . 

1764 

1823 

Aust. 

Radetzky,  Joseph,  count,  commander  in  Italy                .              . 

1766 

1858 

Eng. 

Raffles,  Rev.  Thos.,  independent  minister  and  collector         . 

1788 

1863 

1R9A 

JVlg. 

Amer. 

Rafinesque,  S.  C.  J.,  botanist          .... 

1784 

J.OZO 

1842 

Dan. 

Rafn.  C.  C.,  historian  and  antiquary     .... 

1795 

Eng. 

Raglan,  J.  H.  Fitzroy  Somerset,  lord,  general  in  Crimea       . 

1788 

1855 

Amer.  . 

Raguet,  Condy,  political  economist     .... 

1784 

1842 

Eng. 

Raikes,  Robt,  printer,  founder  of  '  Snndsy  schools'              . 

1785 

1811 

Eng. 

Raleigh  or  Ralegh,  Sir  Walter,  '  a  man  illustrious  in  arms  and 

literature'      .              .               .    -            .               .               . 

1552 

1618 

Hind. 

Rammohun,  Roy,  philanthropist            .... 

1776 

18:)3 

Scot. 

Rarr.say,  Allan,  poet          ..... 

1685 

1758 

A         *».• 

1749 

1812 

jvmer. 
Span. 

Ramun'o,  John  Bapt,  '  Collect,  of  Voyages'             .              . 

1485 

1557 

Amer. 

Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke,  eccentric  statesman         . 

1773 

1833 

Amer. 
Ger. 

Ranke,  ^Leopold,  historian      .              .              .              •              . 

1795 

Fr. 

Kaoul,  Rochette,  archaeologist  and  traveller             .              - 

1790 

neb. 

Raphali,  Morris  J.,  learned  rabbi  and  preacher               .              . 

1798 

Fr. 

Rapin  de  Thoyras,  author  of  '  History  of  England'              . 

1661 

1725 

Rnpp,  Oeo.,  founder  of  '  Sect  of  Harmonists    .              .              . 

1770 

1847 

Pan. 

R:isk,  E.  C.,  philologist  and  lexicographer              .              . 

1784 

18SI 

Fr. 

Raspr.il,  F.  V.,  chemist  and  radical  statesman              »              . 

1794 

PruM. 

Rnuch,  Fred.   A.,   metaphysician              ... 

1806 

1841 

Ger. 

Raumer,  Fred.  L.  G.  von,  historian    .              •              •              . 

1781 

Amer. 

Rawle,  William,  jurist                     .              .              »              . 

1759 

1831 

BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  991 

NATIOS.                                                        HAVE    AND    PROFESSION.  BORX  DIED. 

Eng.  Rawllnson,  Sir  Henry  C.,  geographer  and  orientalist     .  .  1810 

Eng.  Bay,  John,  naturalist  and  author              .              .              .  1628  1701 

Fr.  Raynal,  "William  Thomas  Francis,  historian  and  philosopher     .  1713  1796 

Bcot.  Reach,  Angus  B.,  journalist  and  author      .  .  .  1821 

Amer.  Read,  Geo.  Campbell,  admiral            .              •              .              .  1863 

Eng.  Reade,  Charles,  novelist   .  .  .  .  . 

Fr.  Recamier,  Mme  Jane  F.  A.     .              .              .              .              .  1777  1849 

Eng.  Tiedding,  Cyrus,  journalist  and  author       ...  1785 

Amer.  Redfield,  William  C.,  meteorologist       ....  1789  1867 

Red  Jacket,  Thayendanega,  Indian  Chief  ...  1759?  1830 

Amer.  Reed,  Henry,  metaphysician  and  essayist           ...  1808  1854 

Eng. ,  Isaac,  critic  and  editor           ....  1742  1807 

Amer.  ,  Joseph,  general  in  revolution    «...  1748  1786 

Amer.  ,  Win.  B.,  politician  and  author  ... 

Eng.  Rees,  Dr.  Abraham,  editor  of  an  encyclopedia  &o.       .              .  1743  18?5 

Eng.  Reeve,  Clara,  novelist,  'Old  English  Baron'            .              .  1723  1803 

Eng. ,  John,  comic  actor         .....  1799  1838 

Eng.  ,  Lovell  A.,  conchologist  and  publisher           ,              .  1814  1865 

Fr.  Regnard,  John  Francis,  comic  writer              .              .              .  1647  1709 

Fr.  Regnault,  Henry  Viet.,  chemist        ....  1810 

Ger.  Reichenbach,  Charles,  baron  de,  naturalist       ...  1788 

Irish.  Reid,  Capt.  Mayne,  novelist          ....  1818 

Bcot. ,  Col.,  Sir  Wm.,  engineer  and  metereologist, 'Use  of  Storms'  1791  1858 

Amer.  -,  Samuel  O.,  naval  commander     ....  1783  1S61 

Scot. ,  Thomas,  celebrated  metaphysician  .              .              .  1710  1796 

Ger.  Relnhaid,  Francis  V.,  (founder  of  Christ.)        .              .              .  1753  1812 

Fr.  Remusat,  J.  P.  A.,  historian  and  linguist    ...  1788  1832 

Fr.  Rene,  duke  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily    ....  1409  1480 

Eng.  Kennel,  Major  J.,  geographer  and  traveller              .              .  1742  1830 

Scot.  Rennie,  John,  eminent  erg:neer  and  architect              «              .  1761  1821 

Amer.  Reno,  Jesse  L.,  general  in  Union  army        .               .               .  1825  1862 

Eng.  Repton,  Humphrey,  landscape  gardener            .               ,               .  1702  1818 

Turk.  Reschid  Pasha,  statesman,  premier  of  Turkey         .              .  1802  1858 

Fr.  Retz,  John  F.  P.,  de  Gondi,  cardinal  de,  ministerof  Louis  XV.  .  1614  1679 

Ger.  Retzsch,  Fred.,  A.  M.,  printer  and  designer               .               .  1779  1859 

Amer.  Reynolds,  John  F.,  Union  general,  killed  at  Gettysburg             .  1820  1863 

Eng.  Ricardo,  David,  writer  on  political  economy  and  finance       .  177:2  1S23 

,  Joseph  Lewis,  (on  International  law)                .               .  1812  1862 

Fr.  Ricaut,  Sir  Paul,  traveller  and  historian     .              .              «  1700 

Eng.  Rich,  Obadiah,  bibliographer               .              .               .               *  1850 

Eng.  Richard  I,  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of  England               .               .  1157  1199 

Eng.  III,  king,  killed  at  Bosworth               .               •               .  1550  1485 

Eng.  Richardson,  Charles,  philologist  (Eng.  Diet)            .               .  1775  1861 

Scot. ,  James,  traveller  in  Africa             .              .              .  1851 

Eng. ,  Samuel,  eminent  novelist        .              .              .  1GS9  1761 

Scot. ,  Sir  John,  naturalist  and  Arctic  explorer  1787  1865 

Fr.  Richelieu,  A.  J.,  du  Plepsis,  cardinal  and  duke,  statesman         •  1585  1642 

Ger.  Richter,  John  Paul  Frederick,  novelist  &c.               .              .  1763  1825 

Eng.  Ridley,  Nicholas,  bishop  and  prof. martyr          .              .               •  1500  1555 

Span,  Riego  y  Nunez,  Raphael  de,  patriot            .              •              .  1783  1826 

Ital.  Rienzi,  Nicholas  Gabrino  de,  political  reformer  .  .  1313      •     13'H 

Ital.  Riatori,  Adelaide,  actress  .  .  •  1821 


992  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


HA  MB    AND    PROFESSION.  BORN.  P.T8D, 

Eng.  Ritchie,  Leitch,  journalist  and  author              .              .              .  1800  186J 

Amer.  Ritchie,  Thomas,  journalist,  'Richmond  Enquirer'                .  1778  1854 

Eng.  Ritson,  Joseph,  lawyer,  antiquary  and  critic    .              •              .1752  1803 

Amer.  Rittenhouse,  David,  philosopher  and  astronomer    .              .  1731  1798 

Ger.  Ritter,  Aug.  H.,  '  History  of  Philosophy  »                        .              .  1791 

Ger.  -  ,  Charles,  geographer           ....  1779  1858 

Span.  Rivas,  Angel  de  Saavedra,  duke  of,  soldier,  statesman,  poet  1791 

Amer.  Rives,  M.  C.  (of  Va.)  statesman  and  diplomatist       .  . 

Amer.  Rives,  John  0.,  journalist,  '  "Washington  Globe'             .              .  1796  1864 

Amer.  Rivington,  Jas.,  royalist  printer  of  N.  Y.              .              .  1724  1802 

Scot.  Roberts,  David,  landscape  painter  and  author              .              .  1796  1864 

Scot  Kobertson,  William,  celebrated  historian              .              .  1721  1793 

Fr.  Robespierre,  F.  M.  J.  L.,  'the  terrorist'  of  the  revolution         .  1759  1794 

Amer.  Robinson,  Edward  D.  D.,  biblical  geographer  and  philologist  1794  1864 

Scot.  Rob  Roy  (Robert  Macgregor)  highland  freebooter          .       (abt)  1763 

Fr.  Rochambeau.  J.  B.  D.,  count  de,  marshal              .              .  1725  1807 

Fr.  Rochcfoucauld-Liancourt,  F.  A.  F.,  duke  de  la              .              .  1747  1827 

Fr  .  Rochejacquelin,  H.  de  la,  royalist  leader     ...  1773  1794 

Amer.  Rodgers,  John,  commodore  U.  8.  navy              ...  1771  1838 

Eng.  Rodney,  Geo.  Brydges,  lord,  able  admiral              .              .  1717  1792 

Eng.  Roebuck,  John  Arthur,  statesman       ....  1802 

Eng.  Rogers,  Henry,  theologian  and  critic           ...  1806 

Amer.  --  ,  Henry  Darwin,  naturalist,  professor  in  Glasgow  . 

Eng.  -  ,  Samuel,  poet       .....  1763  1855 

Eng.  Roget,  Peter  Mark,  physiologist  and  philologist               .               .  1779 

Fr.  Roland  de  la  Platriere,  J.  M.,  revolutionist  and  author          .  1733  1793 

Fr.  -  ,  M.J.  P.,  Madame,  martyr  of  the  revolution     .              .  1754  1793 

Fr.  Rollin,  Charles,  celebrated  historian            ...  1661  1741 

Eng.  Romaine,  William,  divine  and  author  .              ...  1714  179S 

Eng.  Romilly,  Sir  Samuel,  jurist  and  statesman              .              .  1757  1818 

Rom.  Romulus,  founder  and  first  king  of  Rome         .  .  .  B.  o.    718 

Ger.  Ronge,  Johannes,  educational  and  religious  reformer            .  1813 

Eng.  Rooke,  Sir  George,  admiral    .....  1650  1708 

Span.  Rosa,  don  Francisco  Martinez  de  la,  statesman,  poet,  historian  &o.  1789 

Span.  Rosas,  don  Juan,  Manuel  de,  ruler  of  Buenos  Ayres     .              .  1793 

Rom.  Roscius  Quintus,  actor  of  proverbial  talent              .              .  B.  a.     61 

Eng.  Roscoe,  Henry,  biographer    .....  1800  1836 

Eng.  --  —,  William,  biographer  and  miscellaneous  writer        .  1751  1831 

Eng.  Roscommon,  Dillon  Wentworth,  earl  of,  poet   .              .  1G33  1684 

Ger.  Rose,  Gustave,  chemist    .....  1795 

Eng.  -  -,  Hugh  James,   '  Biograph.  Diet.'              .              .              .  1795  1838 

Eng.  -  ,  Wm.  Stuart,  translator  of  Ariosto    .              .              .  1775  1843 

Ital.  Rosellini,  Hypolito,  author  of  '  Monuments  of  Egypt,'  &o.        .  1800  1843 

Amer  Rosecrans,  W.  S.,  gen.  in  Union  army     .              .              .  1819 

Get.  Rosenkranz,  Jonas  K.  F.,  metaphysician  and  professor  of  phil- 

osophy             ......  1805 

Ger.  Rosenmuller,  E.  F.  C.,  orientalist         ....  1768  1835 

Ital.  Hosetti,  Gabriele,  poet,  artist  and  critic    ...  1783  1854 

Eng.  ROBS,  Admiral  Sir  John,  Arctic  navigator        ...  1777  1858 

Eng.  -  ,  Sir  James  Clark,  Arctic  explorer        ...  3800  1863 

Eng  Rosse,  Wm.  Parsons,  earl  of,  astronomer         *              •              .  1800 

Ital  Rossini,  Joachim,  musical  composer             *              •              .  1792 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  993 

•ATIOir.                                                       HAMB  AND   PROFESSION.                                                    BORN.  Dim 

tKT.d  w.Rothschild,  Meyer  Ansehn,  founder  of  the  great  banking-house  1780  182] 

,  Anselm  at  Frankfort,  Nathan  at  London  (d  1836)  and 

Solomon,  tons  of  Meyer  Anselm  Rothschild  .  . 

Gei,       Rotteck,  Chas.  "W.  R.  von,  historian   ....  1775  1840 

Fr.         Rousseau,  John  Baptist,  poet         ....  1670  1741 

Fr.         ,  John  James,  eloquent  and  paradoxical  writer              .  1712  1778 

Eng.       Rowe,  Nicholas,  poet  laureate  and  dramatist           .               .  1673  1718 

ItaL       Rubini,  Jno.  Baptist,  tenor  vocalist     ....  1795  1854 

Ger.       Ruckert,  Frederick,  poet                ....  1789 
Amer.  Rum  ford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  count,  officer  (in  foreign  service)  and 

philosopher              .....  1753  1814 

Amet.  Rumsey,  James,  inventor       .              •             .              .              .  1743  1792 

Ger.       Rupert,  prince,  warrior  .....  1619  168° 
Anier.  Ruschenberger,  W.  S.  W.,  author  of  voyages  and  scientific  works    1807 

Amer.  Rash,  Richard,  diplomatist            ....  1780 

Eng.      Rush-worth  John, '  Historical  Collections '         .              .              .  1607  1690 

Amer.  Rusk,  Thos,  J.,  U.  S.  senator  from  Texas    ...  1803  1857 

Eng.      Ruskin,  John,  writer  on  art  .....  1819 

Eng.      Russel,  Lady  Rachel  (wife  of  lord  Wm.),  author  of  '  Letters*  1636  1723 

Eng.       ,  Lord  "William,  one  of  the  martyrs  of  liberty      .              .  1641  1683 

Scot.      Russell,  John  Scott,  engineer,  builder  of  '  Great  Eastern  '    .  1808 

Eng.      ,  Lord  John,  now  Earl  Russell,  statesman  and  author       .  1792 

Scot.      ,  William,  historian  of  modern  Europe         .              .  1746  1794 

Irish.     ,  William  H.,  Times  correspondent  and  author  .              .  1821 

Amer.  Rutledge,  Edward,  statesman       ....  1749  1800 

Amer. ,  John  (brother  of  above),  statesman  ...  1739  1800 

Dutch.  Ruyter,  M.  A.  de,  admiral               ....  1607  1679 

Eng.      Rymer,  Thomas,  antiquary,     '  Federa '             •              .              .  1713 

S. 

Eng.      Sabine,  Major-General  Edward,  physicist         ...  1790 

Eng.      Sacheverell,  Henry,  tory  divine,  impeached  for  sedition        .  1672  1724 

Fr.         Sacy,  Louis  Isaac,  Jansenist,  translator  of  Bible              .               .  1613  1684 

Fr.         ,  Sylvester,  baron 'de,  orientalist           ...  1758  1838 

Pers.      Sadi,  or  Saadi,  poet  .              .              .              .              .              .1175  1296 

Eng.      Sadler,  Sir  Ralph,  diplomatist  and  historian              .              .  1567  1587 

Turk.     Said  Pasha  Mohammed,  viceroy  of  Egypt          ...  1822  1863 

Fr.         Saint-Arnaud,  J.  A.  Leroy  de,  marshal       ...  1798  1854 

Amer.   St.  Clair,  Arthur,  general  in  Revolution         .              .                 .1735  1813 

Fr.         Bt.  Hilaire.  Auguste  de,  botanist  .              .              ,              .  1799  1861 

Fr.         ,  Gtoff.  S.,  naturalist  and  anatomist                 .               .  1772  1844 

Fr.         St.  Pierre,  Bernardin  de,  author  of  'Paul  and  Virginia,'  &o.  1736  1814 

ItaL       St.  Real,  Caesar  Vichard  abbi  de,  historian         .               .               .  1639  16S3 

Fr.         St.  Simon,  Claudius,  count  de,  philosopher               .              .  1760  1823 

Eng.      St.  Vincent,  John  Jervis,  earl  of,  admiral         ...  1734  1823 

Fr.          Saintine,  Xavier  B.,  writer  of  tales              ...  1790 

Eng.       Sala,  Geo.  Augustus,  journalist  and  author       .               .               .  1827 

Bar.         Saladin,  sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  celebrated  warrior          *  1137  1103 

Eng.       Bales,  George,  historian  and  translator  of  the  Koran     .              .  1680  1738 

Eng.      Salisbury,  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of,  statesman               •              .  1550  1619 
Rom.      Saliust,  Caius  Crispus,  historian          .              .              .          f.  B.  0.    86  B.  o.     3fi 
42* 


994 


THE  WORLD'S  PEOGEESS. 


NATIOS.  JIAMK   AND    PROFESSION. 

Pr.        Salmasius,  Claudius,  scholar  and  author     •  • 

Fr.         Salvandy,  N,  A.,  comte  de,  statesman  .  .  . 

F*.         Salverte,  miscellaneous  writer       .  ,  « 

Heb.      Samson,  judge  of  Israel  *  .  .  . 

Heb.      Samuel,  last  judge  of  Israel  .  •  . 

Phoe.     Sanconi.itho,  philosopher  and  historian  .  . 

Fr.         Sand,  George  (Madame  Duclevant),  novelist  • 

Amer.   Sanderson,  John,  litterateur    .... 

A\ner.    Sands,  Robt.  C.,  poet  and  litterateur  .  . 

Eng.       Sandwich,  Edward  Montague,  e;ui  of,  naval  officer       . 

Fr.         Sanson,  Nicholas,  geographer  and  engineer  . 

Hex.      Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de,  general  and  ex-president 

Or.         Sappho,  poetess  .  .  .  . 

Chafd.  Sardanapalus,  king  of  Nineveh  .  .  .  . 

Ital.       Sarpi,  Peter,  better  known  as  Father  Paul,  patriot  and  historian 

Saul,  1st  king  of  Israel  .  .  .  .  . 

Sauley,  Louis  F.  J.,  count  de,  antiquarian  .  . 

Saumarez,  James,  lord  de,  admiral      .... 

Saurin,  divine  and  sermon-writer  .  .  .  . 

Saussure,  H.  B.  de,  naturalist  and  traveller      .  .  . 

-  ,  Nich.  Theo.  de,  chemist,  geologist,  &o.    .  . 


BORK. 

1588 
1795 
1771 


Heb. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Ital. 


.    B.  o.  12th  Cent. 
B.  c.  llth  Cent. 
.          f.  B.  c.    760 

1S04 
.        1785  1844 

1790  1832 

.        1623  1672 

1600  1667 

.       1798 
f.  B.  C.    606 
.  B.C.    8761 

1522  1623 

B.  c.  1055 

1807 

1757 

1677 

1740 

1767 

1697 

1750 

1779 

1452 


Savage,  Richard,  poet  .... 

Savary,  Nicholas,  'Life  of  Mahomet,'  'Letters  on  Egypt'    . 

Savigny,  Fred.  C.  von,  historian  of  Roman  law  . 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  monk,  fumed  for  zeal  and  eloquence    . 

Pole-Fr.  Saxe,  Maurice,  count  de,  celebrated  general  in  the  French  service  1096 

Ger.       Saxe-Weimar,  Bernard,  duke  of,  warrior           .              .              .  1600 

Dan.      Saxo-Grarnmaticus,  historian        ....  1134 

Fr.         Say,  Horace  Emile,  political  economist,  son  of  J.  B.  Say              .  1794 

Fr.         —  ,  Jean  Baptiste,  writer  on  political  economy       .              .  1767 

Amer.   —  ,  Thomas,  naturalist           .....  1787 

Ital.       Scaliger,  Joseph  Justus,  critic  and  historian            .              .  1540 

ItaL       -  ,  Julius  Caesar,  learned  critic  ....  1484 

Scandenberg  (real  name  Geo.  Castriot),  Albanian  prince  and  warrior  1404 


Ger.       Scapula,  John,  lexicographer  ... 

Eng.       Scarlett,  James,  1st  lord  Abinger,  jurist    .  .  . 

Fr.         Scarron,  P.,  comic  poet  and  satirist      ... 
Ger.       Schadow,  Julien  Gottfried,  sculptor  .  .  . 

Swe.       Scheele,  Charles  Win.,  eminent  chemist  .. 

Ger.       Schelling,  Fred.  Augs.,  novelist    .... 
Ger.       -  ,  Fred.  W.  J.,  philosopher     ... 
Amer.   Schenck,  Robert  C.  statesman  and  general,  (Ohio)  .  . 

Pruss.    Schill,  Ferdinand  von,  intrepid  and  patriotic  officer        . 
Ger.       Schiller,  John  Frederic  C.,  eminent  historian  and  dramatist 

Beliimmelpenninck,  Mary  A.,  'Mem.  Port  Royal'          . 

Schlegel,  A.  W.  von,  critic  and  essayist      .  . 

-  ,  Fred.  C.  W.  von,  critic  and  historian  . 


Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Ger. 


Schliermacher,  F.  D.  E.,  classical  philologist  and  theologian 
Bcnlosser,  M.  S.  F.,  historian  ... 

Schmidt,  Michael  Ignatius,  historian  .  .  .. 

Amer.    Schofldd,  major-genera.1  and  governor  Virginia  . 

Ger.       Bcholl,  historian  ...... 


1540 
1769 
1610 
1764 
1742 
1760 
1775 

1773 
17£9 
1778 
1767 
1772 
1768 
1776 
1736 

1766 


1836 
1730 
1799 


1743 
1788 
1801 
1498 
1750 
16S9 
1208 

1832 
18,4 
1C09 
1558 
1467 
1600 
1844 
1600 

1780 
1839 
1854 

1809 

1805 

1856 

1845 

18-29 

1834 

186 

179» 

1889 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX;  995 

•ATIOW.                                                       NAME  AND  PBOFESSIOH.  BOBN.  DIED 

Dutch,  bchomberg,  Armand  Frederick,  warrior           .              •              •  1619  1691 

Ger.  Schomburgk,  Sir  liobert  H.,  naturalist  and  traveller              .  1804  1861 

Amer.  Schoolcraft,  Henry  R.,  traveller  and  historian  of  the  Indians  1793  1864 

Ger.  Schopenhauer,  J.  F.,  novelist                ....  1770  1838 

Dutch.  Bchrevelius,  Cornelius,  lexicographer         ...  1615  1667 

Ger.  Schullembourg,  John  Matthias,  warrior             •              .              .  1661  174T 

Dutch.  Schumacher,  H.  C.,  astronomer     ....  1780  1850 

Ger.  SchUiZ,  C.  G.,  critic  and  litterateur      ....  1747 

Amer.  Schuyler,  Philip,  general  officer  in  Revolution         .              .  1731  1804 

Ger.  Schwartzenberg,  Chas.  Ph.,  prince,  general      ...  1771  1820 

Ger. ,  prince  F.,  premier  of  Austria       .              .  1800  1852 

Ger.  Scioppius,  Gaspar,  philologist  and  grammarian              .              .  1576  1649 

Rom.  Scipio,  -/Emilianus  Publius,  able  warrior,  (minor)  .  B.C.  128 

Rom.  ,  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Africanus,  able  warrior,  (major)          B.  0.  189 

Scot.  Scott,  Michael,  philosopher,  supposed  magician             .              .  1291 

Eng. ,  Thomas,  divine  and  bible  commentator  ,       .              .  1747  1821 

Scot.  ,  Sir  "Walter,  one  of  the  moat  eminent,  voluminous  and  popular 

writers  of  modern  times              ....  1771  1832 

Amer.  ,  Winfield,  lieutenant  general  commander-in-chiefU.  8.  army    1786  1869 

Fr.  Scribe,  Eugene,  dramatist              ....  1791  1861 

Fr.  Sebastian,  count  Horate,  marshal  of  France,  statesman              .  1775  1851 

Eng.  Seeker,  Thomas,  eminent  prelate                 ...  1693  1768 

Dutch.  Secundus,  John,  Latin  poet                   ....  1511  1536 

Amer.  Sedgewick,  Catharine  M.,  Miss,  novelist  and  philanthropist  1790  1867 

Amer.  ,  John,  (of  Conn.)  Union  general                    .              .  1815  1864 

Amer.  ,  Theodore,  statesman  and  political  economist      .  1780  1839 

Amer. ,  Theodore,  (son)  lawyer  and  writer               .              .  1811  1859 

Eng.  Sedley,  Sir  Charles,  poet                 ....  1639  1701 

Fr.  S6gur,  count  Louis  de,  diplomatist  and  writer              .              .  1753  1830 

Eng.  Selden,  John,  antiquary  and  historian         ...  1584  1654 

Scot.  Selkirk,  Alexander,  seaman  and  adventurer                   t              .  1723 

Scot.  Selwyn,  George  Augustus,  (Life  by  Jesse)  .  . 

Chald.  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria                 .               .               .           f.  B.  C.  1250 

Rom.  Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus,  philosopher,  statesman  and  moralist     B.  o.      2  65 

Eng.  Senior,  Nassau  W.,  political  economist              ...  1790  1864 

Ger.  Sennefelder,  Aloys,  of  Munich,  inventor  of  lithography         .  1771  1834 

Span.  Sepulveda,  John  Ginez  de,  historian                   ...  1490  1572 

Amer.  Sergeant,  John,  jurist  and  statesman           ...  1779  1852 

Rom.  Sertorus,  Quintus,  warrior  and  naval  commander           .               .  B.  o.     73 

Span.  Servetus,  Michael,  polemical  writer  against  Calvin                .  1509  1553 

Egypt,   Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt           ....           f.  B.  0. 1500 

Fr.  86 vigne,  Mary  de,  marchioness  of,  epistolary  writer              .  1627  1696 

Eng.  Seward,  Anna,  poetess,  (Letters)                  .                       .               .  1747  1808 

Amer.  ,  William  H.,  statesman,  U.  S.  senator  from  N.  Y.,  sec  of  state  1801 

Eng.  Shadwell,  T.,  poet  laureate             ....  1640  1692 

Eng.  Bhaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  earl  of,  statesman            .  1621  1688 

Eng.  ,  Anthony  A.  Cooper,  3d  earl,  «  Characteristics  *  1671  1713 

Eng.  Shakespeare,  John,  orientalist              ....  1774  1858 

Eng.  • ,  "William,  the  greatest  of  dramatic  poets            .  1564  1616 

Eng.  Sharp,  Granrille,  philanthropist           .               .                               .  1734  1813 

Scot.  ,  James,  nrcht.  St.  Andrews,  assassinated       .              .  1618  1679 

Kng.  Shaw,  George,  naturalist       ...                             .  17(1  1819 


996  THE  WORLD'S  PEOGBESS. 

VATIOX.                                                       HAME   AND  PROFESSION.  BORH.  CIgT, 

Amer.    Shays,  Daniel,  leader  in  Shay's  rebellion                   .              ,  1740  18!ii 
Amer.    Shedd,  "W.  G.,  D.  D.,  theologian,  historian,  and  critic                 . 

Eng.      Sheepshanks,  John,  founder  of  picture  gallery        .              •  1787  1863 

Eng.      Shelley,  Mary  W.  widow  of  P.  B.,  the  poet,  novelist     .              .  1798  1851 

Eng.      ,  Percy  Bysshe,  eminent  poet  and  atheist       .              .  1792  1822 

Eng.      Shenstone,  William,  poet                                                    .              <,  1714  1763 
Amer.   Sheridan,  Philip  H.  general,  and  governor  military  department 

Eng. ,  Richard  Brinsley,  dramatist  and  orator          .              .  1751  1816 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  actor,  and  author           ...  1722  1788 

Eng.       Sherlock,  Thomas,  bishop  ofLondon                   .               .              .  1678  1761 

Amer.    Sherman,  Roger,  patriot  and  self-taught  statesman  .              .  1721  1793 

Amer.    ,  John,  U.  S  senator  from  Ohio     ... 

Amer.  ,  William  T.,  general  .  .  . 

Eng.       Sherwood  Mrs.,  novelist         .              .              .              .              .  1775  1852 

Irish.      Shiel,  Richard  Lalor,  statesman  and  dramatist        .              .  1792  1851 

Eng.      Shirley,  James,  dramatist           .....  1594  1666 

Eng.      Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  able  naval  officer                .              •  1650  1705 

Amer.   Shubrick,  John  Templar,  naval  officer               ...  1778  1815 

Amer. ,  William  B.,  rear  admiral  ... 

Eng.      Shuckford,  Rev.  Samuel,  '  Connect.  Old  and  New  Tesament'  1754 

Eng.      Sibbes,  Richard,  theologian, 'Bruised  Reed'                   .              .  157T  1635 

Eng.       Sid  dons,  Sarah,  the  most  eminent  of  tragic  actresses              .  1755  1831 

Eng.      Sidmouth,  viscount,  (H.  Addington)  statesman              .              .  1757  1844 

Eng.       Sidney,  Algernon,  martyr  of  liberty  and  author       .              .  1620  1683 

Eng. ,  Sir  Philip,  accomplished  officer  and  author       .              .  1554  1586 

Qer.       Siebold,  Ph.  F.  Von,  naturalist  and  botanist  .  .  1796 

Amer.  Sigel,  Franz,  general  in  Union  army,  war  1861-66  .  .  1824 

Amer.   Sigourney,  Lydia  H.,  poet  and  essayist       .              .              .  1791  1865 

Amer.   Sllliman,  Benjamin,  chemist  and  geologist        .              .               .  1779  1804 

Amer.   ,  Benjamin  (son),  chemist  and  geologist  .  . 

Eng.      Simeon,  Rev.  Charles,  theological  writer  and  editor              .  1759  1836 

,  Simon  Sty lites,  Syrian  Ascetic               .              .              .392?  461? 

Amer.   Simms,  William  Gilmore,  novelist  and  poet  .  .  1806 

Gr.         Simonides,  of  Amorgus,  Iambic  poet  .  .  B.C.  660  ? 

Or. ,  of  Eos,  lyric  poet        .  .  .  .  550  ? 

Scot.      Simpson,  Robert,  mathematician         ....  1687  1768 

Eng.      .Thomas,            "                              ...  1710  1761 

Eng.       Sinclair,  Catharine,  authoress               ....  1800  1864 

Hind.     Sing,  M,  rajah  Runjeet,  chief  of  Lahore  and  Cashmere         •  1779  1839 

Swiss.    Sismondi,  J.  C.  L.,  historian                 ....  1773  184? 

Eng.      Skelton,  John,  poet  laureate  to  Henry  VIII              .              .  1450  P  1529 

Ger.       Sleidan  John  Pbilipson,  historian        ....  1506  1656 

Kng.      Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  eminent  naturalist           ...  1660  1752 

Scot.      Smith,  Adam,  celebrated  writer  on  morals  and  political  economy  1723  1790 

Scot.      ,  Alex,  poet  .....  1830 

Eng.      ,  Charlotte,  poet            .....  1749  1806 

Amer.  ,  General  Samuel,  military  commander  and  statesman  1752  1839 

Eng.      ,  Horace,  poet, 'Rejected  Addresses,' Ac.              .              .  1779  1849 

En?.      ,  James,  poet,            "              "                        .              .  1775  183» 

Eng.      ,  John, « History  Viginia'                          .              .              •  1679  1631 

Eng.      ,  John  Pye,  theological  writer            •              •              •  1774  1851 

Ajner.    ,  Joseph,  Mormon  prophet          .              .              •              .  1806  1844 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  997 

NATION.                                                        SAME    AND    PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Eng.       Smith,  Rev.  Sidney,  essayist,  critic  and  moralist      .              ,  1768  1841 

Eng.      ,  Sir  James  E.,  botanist  and  naturalist     .              .              .  1759  1828 

Eng.      ,  Sir  William  Sidney,  military  commander     .  1764  IStO 

Eng.      ,  T.  South-worth,  writer  on  sanitary  reform           .              .  1790  1861 

Eng. ,  William,  classical  scholar  and  author           .               .  1814 

Eng.       Smithson,  James,  founder  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  (U   S.)  1835 

Scot.      Smollett,  Dr.  Tobias,  novelist  and  historian              .              .  1721  1771 

Eng.      Bmytb,  Win.,  Pr.  of  History  at  Cambridge,  author,  lecturer        .  1764  184& 

Eng.      ,  Wm.  Henry,  admiral,  scientific  writer          .              .  1788  1865 

Eng.       Soane,  Sir  John,  architect  and  virtuoso              .              .              .  1753  183T 

Pol.        Sobieski,  John  III.,  king  of  Poland,  warrior            .              .  1629  1698 

Ital.        Bocinus,  Faustus,  founder  of  the  Socinian  sect                .              .  1539  1594 
Gr.         Socrates,  one  of  the  greatest  of  ancient  philosophers               .       B.  c.  470    B.  c.  400 

Or. ,  ecclesiastical  historian           .               .               •  5th  cent.,  A.  D. 

Span.     Soils,  Antonio  de,  historian  of  Mexico         .              .              •  1610  1686 
Heb.      Solomon,  king  of  Israel  and  author  of  Proverbs              •              •                  B.  o.  975 

Gr.         Solon,  the  illustrious  legislator  of  Athens    .              .              .  f.  B.  c.  598 

Eng.      Somers,  Lord  John,  chancellor  and  political  writer       .              .  1650  1716 

Eng.       Somerville,  Mrs.  Mary,  astronomer               ...  1790 

Eng. ,  Wm.,  poet, 'The  Chase'    ....  1692  1743 

Ger.       Sontag,  Henrietta,  countess  de  Rossi,  vocalist           .              .  1804  1854 
Gr.         Sophocles,  eminent  tragic  poet               .               .               .               B.  C.  495    B.  c.  404 

FT.         Sorbonne,  R.  de,  theologian,  founder  of  the  8.  College  at  Paris.  1201  1274 
Amer.  Soule,  Pierre,  TJ.  S.  senator  from  Louisiana,  and  diplomatist 

Fr.         Soulie,  Frederick,  novelist  and  dramatist  .              .              .  1800  1847 

Soulouque,  Fanstin,  ex-emperor  of  Hayti          ...  1789 
Fr.        Soult,  Nicholas  J.  de  D.,  duke  of  Dalmatia,  marshal  of  France 

and  statesman         .....  1769  1851 

Eng.       South,  Robert,  eminent  divine             ....  1638  1716 

Amer.  Southard,  Samuel  L.,  sec.  navy,  and  senator  IT.  3.,  N.  Y.       .  1787  1842, 

Eng.      Southcott,  Joanna,  fanatic,  (her  sect  not  yet  extinct)      .              .  1750  1814 

Eng.      Southerne,  J.,  dramatic  writer  and  poet       .              .              *  1662  1746 

Eng.       Southey,  Mrs.  Robt.,  (Caroline  Bowles),  poet   .               .               .  1787  1854 

Eng.      ,  Robert,  poet,  historian,  biographer            .              .  1775  1843 

Fr.          Souvestre,  Emile,  essayist        .....  1806  1854 

Fr.         Soyer,  Alexis,  famous  cook  and  writer  on  Cookery  .              .  1800  1858 

Gr.         Sozomen,  ecclesiastical  historian            ....  450 

Amer.   Sparks,  Jared,  historian  and  biographer      .              .              .    (abt.)  1794  1866 

Eng.      Speke,  Civpt.  John  H.,  explorer,  discov.  source  of  Nile  .              .  1827  1864 

Eng.       Spelman,  Sir  Henry,  historian  and  antiquary           .              .  1561  1643 

Eng.       Spence,  "Wm.,  entomologist     .....  1783  1860 

Amer.    Spencer,  Ambrose,  chief-justice  of  New  York          .              *  1765  1843 

Eng.       ,  earl  of,  statesman     .....  1758  1835 

Amer.  ,  John  C.,  jurist  and  sec.  navy        .              .              .  1788  1855 

Eng.      ,  Wm.  R.,  translator    .               .              .              .              .1770  1834 

Eng.      Spenser,  Edmund,  eminent  poet     .               .               •              .  1553  1598 

Span.     Spinola,  Ambrose,  marquis  de,  warrior             ...  1571  1630 

Dutch.  Spinoza,  Bened.,  metaphysician,  (atheistt)  .               .              .  1633  1877 

Ger.       Spohr,  Lonis,  musical  composer           .              •              •              .  1783 
Atner.    Spooner,  Shearjashub,  (Diet  of  Painter*)     ... 

Ger.       Sprengel,  Kent,  botanist        .....  1766  1889 

Eng.      Spurgeou,  Rev.  Charles,  popular  Baptist  clergyman  1834 


998  THE  WORLD'S  PROGBESS. 

HATION.                                                        NAME    AND   PROFESSION.  BOIIN.              Ell J 

Qer.       Spurzheim,  Dr.,  celebrated  phrenologist,  (died  at  Boston)           .  1776           1831 

Amer.    Sprague,  Charles,  poet     .....  1791 

Amer.   ,  Win.  B.,  D.  D.,  Presbyterian  clergyman  and  historian  .  1795 

Amer.   Squier,  E.  Geo.,  traveller  and  antiquary      .              .              .  1820 

Bug.      Staokhouse,  Thomas,  divine  and  author.  « Hist  Bible  '.              .  1680           1753 

Fr.         Stael-Holstein,  Anne  L.  G.,  baroness  de,  authoress               .  1766           1817 

Fr.         ,  Madame,  talented  writer              .              .              .              .1693  1750 

Eng.      Standish,  Miles,  military  leader  Pilgrims  in  N.E.    .              •  1584?       1658 

Eng       Stanfleld,  Clarkson,  marine  painter        ....  1798           1867 

Eng.      Stanhope,  Charles,  earl,  politician  and  inventor        .              .  1753           1816 

Eng.     Stanhope,  Lady  Esther,  eccentric  traveller         .              .              .  1776           1839 

Eng. ,  Phil.,  Hon.,  earl  of,  known  as  Lord  Mahon,  historian  1805 

Amer.   Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  sec:  etary  of  war    .... 

Amer.  Stark,  John,  distinguished  officer  in  the  Eevolution               .  1728           1822 

Bom.     Statius,  Publius  Pepinus,  poet              .              .              .              .  61?            96? 

Eng.      Staun  ton,  Sir  Geo.  L.  *  Embassy  to  China'.              .              .  1737           1801 

Irish.     Steele,  Sir  Richard,  essayist  and  dramatist        .              .              .  1671           1729 

Eng.      Steevens,  Geo., '  Comment,  on  Shakespeare '            .              .  1736           1800 

Eng.      Stephen,  Henry,  Prof.  Hist.,  statesman  and  author        .              .  1789          1859 

Fr.         Stephens,  Anthony,  Charles,  Robert  and  Henry,  printers      .  16th  tent. 

Amer. ,  John  L.,  traveller  and  author            .              .              .  1805           1,V52 

Eng.       Stephenson,  George,  engineer       ....  1788           1848 

Eng.      .Robert,        M                                       .              .              .  1803           1859 

Scot.      Sterling,  Wm.,  M.  P.,  bibliographer  and  critic         .             .  1806           1844 

Ger.      Sternberg,  Alex.,  baron  von,  miscellaneous  author          .              .  1806 

Irish.     Sterne,  Lawrence,  miscellaneous  writer       .              .              .  1713           1768 

Eng.      Sternhold,  Thos.,  versifier  of  Psalms    ....  1549 
Pruss.   Steuben,  Fred.  W.  A  ,  baron,  who  generously  aided  the  American 

cause          ...... 

Amer.  Stevens,  Robt.  Livingston,  inventor      ....  1749 

Amer.  Stevenson,  Andrew,  of  Va.,  minister  to  England       .              .  1784 

Amer.  Stewart,  Charles  8.,  Rev.,  chaplain  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  and  author  1798 

Boot.     — : ,  Dugald,  eminent  philosopher  and  writer          .              .  1753           1828 

Amer.   Stiles,  Ezra,  theologian  and  historian            .               .               .  1727           1795 

Eng.      Stillingfleet,  Dr.  E.,  bishop  of  "Worcester  and  author                     .  1633           1699 
Amer.  Stone,  Wm.  L.,  historian  of  '  Six  Nations,' '  Brandt,'  and  '  Red 

Jacket'                      .....  1793           1844 

Russ.    Storch,  Henry  F.,  political  economist  ....  1766           1885 

Amer.   Story,  Joseph,  jurist  and  writer  on  jurisprudence     .              .  1779          1846 

Eng.      Stow,  John,  antiquary  and  historian    ....  1525           1605 
Amer.  Stowe,  Calvin  E.,  biblical  critic       .... 

Amer.  ,  Harriet  Beecher,  Mrs.,  novelist               ...  1814 

Kng.      Stowell,  lord,  jurist            .....  1746           1836 

Gr.        Strabo,  eminent  geographer    .           •  *              .              .              .  19 

Eng.      Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  earl  of,  statesman    .              .  1593           1641 

Eng.      Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  viscount,  diplomatist     .              .              .  1798 

Qer.      Strauss,  Dav.  Fred.,  author  of  sceptical '  Life  of  Jesus'         .  1808 

Ger.      ,  Ger.  Fred.  Alb.,  prof,  of  theology  and  author     .              ,  1786 

Eng.      Strickland,  Agnes,  historian  of 'Queens  of  England'             .  1806 

Eng.      Strype,  John,  theologian,  biographer  and  historian        •              .  1643          1787 

Buss.     Struve,  Fred.  Geo.  \Vm.,  astronomer          ...  1793           1864 

Bcot,       Stuart,  Gilbert,  historian        .              .              .              .              .  1742           1788 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX.  999 

RATION.                                                          NAME   AND    PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Eng,      8ti  art,  James,  architect  and  author            .              .              .  1713  1788 

Amer. ,  James  E.  B.,  Confederate  general                        ,  1S32  ?       1864 

Amer.   ,  Moses,  theologian  and  philologist    .              .              .  1780  1851 

Bug.      8t urge,  Joseph,  philanthropist              ...»  1S5J 

Ger.       Sturm,  Christopher  C.,  theol.  writer,  '  Reflections,'  &c.        .  1740  1786 

Dutch-Amer.  Stuyvesant,  Peter,  last  Dutch  gov.  N.  Netherlands            .  1602  1682 

Fr.          Sachet,  Louis  Gabriel,  celebrated  marshal  .              .              .  1772  1826 

Eng.      Suckling,  Bir  John,  poet  and  dramatist              .              •              .  1613  164] 

Fr.         Sue,  Eugene,  novelist       .....  1SOS  1851 

Bom.     Suetonius,  Paulinus,  warrior  .              .              .              •              .  37 

Rom.     ,  TranquilluB  Caius,  historian       •              «              .  f.  100 

Dan.      Sulim,  Peter  Fred.,  eminent  historian                .              .              .  1728  1798 

Gr."         Suidas,  Greek  lexicographer  ...  £  abt.  1000 

Amer.  Sullivan,  Jas.,  gov.  Mass.,  political  writer         .              .              .  1744  180i 

Amer. ,  John,  revolutionary  general          .              .              .  1740  1795 

Amer. ,  Win.  LL.  D.,  political  writer               .              .              .  1774  1839 

Fr.         Sully,  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  duke  of  warrior  and  statesman  1560  1641 

Amer.  — » — ,  Thomas,  portrait  painter           ....  1783 

Amer.    Summerfield,  John,  eloquent  Methodist  preacher           .              .  1798  1826 

Amer.    Samner,  Charles,  U.  8.  sen.  from  Mass.,  orator  and  philanthropist  1811 

Amer. Edwin  Vose,  Union  general    ....  1796  1863 

Eng.      John  Bird,  archbishop  of  Cantc-rbury  and  author    ,  1780  1862 

Amer.   Sumter,  Thomas,  Revolutionary  gen.  of  S.  0.                   .              .  1734  1832 
Eng.      Sunderland,  Robt.  Spencer,  2d  earl,  statesman          .              ,  1641  1702 
Eng.       Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  earl  of,  poet    .               .               •  '            .  1515  1547 
Eng.       Surtees,  Robt.,  antiquary  aud  poet                .               .              .  1779  1834 
Eng.       Sussex,  Aug.  Fred.,  duke  of,  son  of  Geo.  IIL  .               .               .  1773  1843 
Eng.      Sutton,  Chas.  Manners,  arch,  of  Canterbury             .              .  1755  1828 
RUBS.     Buvaroff,  or  Suwarow,  prince  Alexander,  celebrated  and  cruel  war- 
rior     ....               ...  1730  1800 

Eng.       Swain,  Charles,  poet          .....  1803 

Dutch.  Swnmmerdam,  John,  naturalist  and  anatomist .              .               .  1637  1681 

Swe.        Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  founder  of  a  sect   ...  1689  1772 

Irish.     Swift,  Jonathan,  celebrated  satirist     ....  1667  1745 

Eng.       Swinburne,  Algernon,  poet  .... 

AnuT.    Swinton,  Wm.,  critic  and  historian, '  Army  of  Potomac*      .       . 

Eng.      Sydenham,  C.  W-  Poulett,  lord,  gov.  gen.  of  Canada,  &o.      .  1793  1841 
Rom.      Sylla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  warrior  and  brutal  usurper       .               B.  0.  137   B.C.     78 

Eng.       Syms,  Michael  Col.,  '  Embassy  to  Ava '    ,          .               .  1809 
Afric.     Syphax,  Numidian  prince       .              .              .              .              .                B.  o.  201 

T 

Rom.     Tacitus,  Cains  Cornelius,  eminent  historian             .              .  56  185 

Rom.     ,  Marcus  Claudius,  emperor                    .              •              .  200  ?         276 

Swe.      Taglioni,  Marie,  danzueae             ....  1804 

Eng.      Talbot,  Jno.,  1st  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  gen.  in  France     .              .  1373  1463 

Amer.   ,  Silas,  mil.  and  naval  officer  in  Revolution     .              .  17oO  1813 

Kng.      Talfourd,  Thomas  Noon,  jurist,  dramatist,  and  essayist                .  1795  1854 

Fr.         Talleyrand,  prince,  statesman,  and  diplomatist       .              .  1754  183S 

Eng.      Tallis,  Thos.,  musical  composer            ....  1529  1588 

Amer.    Tallmadge,  Benj.,  Revol.  officer    ....  1754  1S35 

Fr.         Talma,  Francis  J  oseph,  one  of  the  greatest  of  actors      .              .  1768  1989 


1000  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

NATION.                                                            NAME    AND  F&OFESSION.  BORN.              DIBB 

Tartar.  Tamerlane,  Titnur  Beg  or  Timoor,  celebrated  Tartar  prince 
and  conqueror  .  .  ,  . 

Amer.   Taney,  Roger  B.,  chief-justice  U.3.    .               .              .              .  177T           1881 

Scot.      Tannahill,  Robt.,  poet      .....  1774           1810 
.Span.     Tapia,  Eugenic,  miscellaneous  writer               ... 

Eng.       Tarleton,  Bannastre,  royalist  officer  in  America      .               .  1754           1833 

Ital.       Tasso,  Bsrnardo,  poet,  author  of  Amadis  de  Gaul         .              .  1493           1588 

Ital.                   ,  Torquato,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian  pouts             .  1544           159£ 
Ger.        Tauchnitz,  Bernard,  publisher  at  Leipsic          ... 

Ger. ,  Karl,  eminent  publisher  at  Leipsic          .              .  1838 

Amer.    Taylor,  Bayard,  traveller,  poet,  and  lecturer     ...  1825 

Eng.       ,  Isaac,  essayist        .....  1787           1865 

Eng.       ,  Jeremy,  prelate  and  eloquent  writer      ...  1613           1667 

Eng. ,  John,  '  the  Water  Poet '    .              .              .              .  1580          1654 

Eng.       ,  Sir  Robert,  sculptor  and  architect            ...  1714           1788 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  editor  of  Plato  and  other  classics    .              .  1758           1836 

Eng.       ,  Tom,  dramatist                                                           .  1817 

Eng.      ,  Wm.,  miscellaneous  writer.               .              .              .  ISOff          1849 

Amer.  ,  Zacliary,  major-general    U.  8.  Army,  victor  in  Mexico, 

pres.  U.S.    .              .              .              .              .              .  1784           1850 

Tecumseh,  Indian  chief  (k.  at  Tippecanoe)          .           .              .  1813 

Eng.       Telford,  Thomas,  civil  engineer    ....  1757           1834 

Swiss.    Teli,  William,  one  of  the  champions  of  Swiss  liberty  .              .  1354 

Eng.       Temple,  Sir  "William,  statesman  and  writer                .               .  1628           1698 

Amer.   Tennent,  Gilbert,  clergyman  and  writer            ...  1703           1764 

Amer. ,  Rev.  Wm.,  famous  for 'France'  .              .              .  1705           1777 

Eng.      ,  Sir  Jas.  Emerson,  statesman  aad  writer            .              .  1804 

Ger.       Tennyman,  William  T., 'Hist,  of  Philosophy1         .               .  1761           1819 

Eng.       Tennyson,  Alfted,  poet  laureate           ....  1810 

Eng.       Tenterden,  Chas.  Abbott,  lord,  jurist,  chief-justice  K.  B.        .  1762           1833 
Bom.      Terence,  or  Terrentius,  comic  writer    .               .               .           ,     B.  o.  19;! 

Tertullian,  Q.  8.  F.,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Fathers  of 

the  Church              .....  160            245 
Amer.   Terry,  Alfred  K.,  of  Ct.,  Union  general,  victor  at  Port  Fisher    . 

Eng.       Thackeray,  Wm.  Makepeace,  writer  and  essayist    .              .  1811           1863 

Ger.       Thaer,  Albert,  writer  on  agriculture  ....  1752           1828 

Ger.  Thalberg,  Sigismund,  pianist  ....  1812 
Ger.  Thales,  one  of  the  seven  sages,  founder  of  the  Tonic  school  of 

Philosophy       .               .               .               .               .               B.  0.  639    B.  o.  513 
Gr.         Themistocles,  eminent  Athenian    .              .               .               .       B.  0.  535   B.  o.  470 
Fr.          ThonarJ.  chemist  and  statesman           .               .               .               . 
Gr.         Theocritus,  pastoral  poet  .              .              .              .              .   f.  B.  c.  285 

Eng.      Theobald,  Lewis,  comment  on  Shakepenre       ...  1744 

Gr.        Theodoret,  ecclesiastical  historian              ...  333             457 

Rom.      Theodosius,  Flavius,  Roman  emperor  and  warrior         .              .  346            395 

Gr.        Theophrastus,  celebrated  philosopher         .              .              .       B.  c.  371 

Span.     Theresa,  St.,  Carmelite  nun  and  mystical  writer             .              .  1515           1582 

Eng.  Thesigor,  Sir  Fred.,  attorney-general  of  England  .  .  1794 
Gr.  Thespis,  poet,  said  to  be  the  Inventor  of  tragedy  .  B.  o.  576 
Fr.  Thibaudean,  A.  C.,  count,  historian  .... 

Fr.          fhierry,  Jas.  Nioh.  Augustine,  historian    .              .              •  1795           1854 

Ft, ,  Amedee  a  D.,  historian        ....  1797 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


JTATIOK, 

NAME   AJTD  PROFESSION.                                                         BOUN 

BIED 

Fr. 

Tlners,  Adolphe,  historian  and  statesman  ... 

1793 

Ger. 

Thiersch,  F.  W.,  Greek  philologist,  &c.               .              .              . 

1784 

1860 

Ger. 

Tliirwall,  Dr.  Conop,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  historian            . 

1797 

Ger. 

Tholuck,  Fred.  Aug.,  theologian           .... 

1799 

Amer. 

Thompson,  Benj.    See  Rumford  .... 

,  Col.  Thos.  Peyronnet,  political  reformer  and  author 

178?, 

Scot. 

Thomson,  Anthony  T.,  medical  and  misc.  writer            .              . 

1778 

1849 

A  mpi« 

/~<Vm.-,      urc^ifli't  it  ntf  '~*""~»«'*«a 

1729 

1824 

Boot. 

1773 

1852 

Scot. 

1700 

1748 

,  James,  popular  poet                      ... 

Amer. 

Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  naturalist,  geologist  and  essayist    .              . 

1817 

1862 

Dan. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert,  sculptor       .... 

1771 

1844 

Gr. 

Thrasybulus,  Athenian  general              .... 

B.  0.  889 

Gr. 

Thucydides,  historian     .              .              .              .              .       B.  0 

.  469 

B  o.  400 

Eng. 

Thurlow,  Edward,  lord,  lord  chancellor             ... 

1732 

1806 

Rom. 

Tiberius,  Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  warrior  and  emperor        .           B. 

c.  84 

37 

Rom. 

Tibullus,  Aulus  Albius,  elegiac  poet    .              .              .           f.  B. 

c.  30 

Eng. 

Tickell,  Thomas,  poet  and  essayist  in  Spectator       .              . 

1686 

1740 

Amer. 

Ticknor,  George,  historian  of  Spanish  literature              .              . 

1791 

Ger. 

Tieck,  Ludwig,  poet  and  essayist  .... 

1773 

1853 

Eng. 

Tighe,  Mrs.  Mary,  poetess,  '  Psyche  '  .              .              .              . 

1774 

1810 

Tillotson.  John,  eminent  prelate  and  archb.  Canterbury       . 

1630 

1694 

Ger. 

Tilly,  John  F.,  count  de,  military  commander.              .              . 

1559 

1632 

Gr. 

Timoleon,  of  Corinth,  liberator  of  Syracuse              .              . 

B.  o.  337 

Tart 

Timour  Beg.    See  Tamerlane              .              .              .              . 

Hind. 

Tippoo-Saib,  sultan  of  Mysore,  Indian  warrior         .              . 

1739 

1799 

Swiss. 

Tissot,  Simon  A.,  medical  writer          .... 

1728 

1797 

Rom. 

Titus,  Sabinus  Vespasianus  Flavius,  emperor,  father  of  his  people 

40 

81 

Eng. 

Tobin,  John,  dramatist,  '  Honey  Moon  '      .              .              . 

1770 

1804 

Fr. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  de,  publicist  and  statesman              .              . 

1805 

1859 

Eng. 

Todd,  Robt.  B.,  '  Medical  Cyclopaedia  '  &o.               .              . 

1810 

1866 

Russ. 

Todleben,  Fr.  Edw.,  gen.  of  engineers               ... 

1818 

Eng. 

Tomline,  Geo.,  prelate  and  writer,  bishop  of  Winchester      . 

1750 

1787 

Amer. 

Tompkins,  Daniel  D.,  vice-pres.  U.  S.                .              .              . 

1774 

1825 

Irish. 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe,  gen.  in  Irish  rebellion          .               . 

1763 

1798 

Eng. 

Tooke,  John  Home,  politician  and  philologist  ... 

1736 

1812 

Entr 

Thofl    '  History  of  Prices  ' 

1774 

1858 

ng. 
Eng. 

J.  1  I* 

1744 

1820 

Eng. 

Toplady,  Augustus  M.,  eminent  divine       ... 

1740 

1778 

Span. 

Torquemada,  Thos.  de,  Inquisitor  general         ... 

1498 

Irish. 

Torrens,  colonel,  novelist  and  political  economist     .              . 

1783 

1S4C 

Amer. 

Torrey,  John,  botanist  and  chemist      .... 

Torricelli,  Evangelista,  mathematician,  inv.  of  barometer    . 

1608 

1647 

Totila,  kln£-  of  the  Ostrogoths,  captor  of  Rome  .              .              . 

352 

Amer. 

Totten,  Joseph  G.,  military  engineer           ... 

1788 

Amer. 

Touro,  Judah,  Hebrew  philanthropist               ... 

1776 

1854 

Toussaint  1'Ouverture,  negro,  pres.  of  Hayti            .              . 

1745 

180* 

Eng. 

Townsend,  Geo.,  prebendary,  '  Comment,  on  Bible  '       .              . 

1857 

Fr. 

Tracy,  A  L.  C.  Deslutt,  comte  de,  writer  on  Education  and  Phi- 

losophy     ...... 

1754 

1836 

Bug. 

Traill,  Thos.  J.,  editor  'Encyclo.  Britannica'    ... 

1781 

1862 

Bom. 

Trajan,  Marcus  U.  C.,  able  emperor  and  warrior      .              • 

62 

117 

1002  THE   WORLD'S  PEOGEESS. 

RATION.                                                            NAME   AND   PJtOFE.-SION.  BDIIN.  1)1  KB 

Eiig.      Tredgold,  Thos.,  civil  engineer  and  author         .              .              .1788  1829 

Eng.      Trench,  Rev.  Eich.  Chenevix,  poet,  philologist  and  theologian  1807 

Ger.      Trenck,  Fred.,  baron  de,  celebrated  for  his  adventures  .              .  1726  1794 

Eng.      Trimmer,  Mrs.  Sarah,  misc.  writer               ...  1741  1810 

Fr          Tristan,  1'Hyrmite,  Francis,  poet            ....  1601  1666 

.Eng.      Troliopo,  Mrs.  Frances,  novelist  and  traveller            .              •  1778  1863 

Dutch.  Tromp,  Martin  H.  van,  celebrated  admiral        .              .              .  1597  1652 

Amer.    Trooet,  Gerard,  chemist  and  geologist          ...  1776  1850 

Amer.    Trumbull.  Col.  John,  statesman  and  hist,  painter            .               .  1756  1843 

Amer. ,  itenj.,  historian  of  Connecticut  .               .               .  1735  1820 

Amer. ,  Jonathan,  statesman,  gov.  Connecticut          .              .  1740  1809 

Amer. ,  John,  poet,  born  in  Ct.                ...  1750  1831 

Eng.      Truro,  Thos.,  baron  (Sir  T.  Wilde),  ex-lord-chancellor  .              .  1782  1853 

Amer.    Truxton,  Thos.,  naval  commander               .              .              .  1755  1822 

Eng.       Tucker,  Abraham,  metaphysical  writer              ...  1705  1774 

Amer.   ,  Beverley,  lawyer  and  novelist        .              .              .  1784  1851 

Amer.  Tuckerman,  Henry  T.,  critic  and  essayist          ... 

Amer. ,  Jos.,  writer  and  philanthropist              .              ,  1778  1840 

Amer.  Tudor,  Wm.,  editor  K.  Amer.  Rev.  and  biographer          .              .  1779  1830 

Eng.     Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar,  poet  and  essayist              .              .  1810 

Fr.         Turenne,  Viscount  de,  eminent  warrior              ...  1611  1675 

Fr.         Turgot,  Anne  liobt.  Jas.,  statesman              ...  1727  1781 

Eng.      Turner,  Dawson,  botanist  and  antiquary             ...  1858 

Eng. ,  Edward, 'Elements  of  Chemistry'                .              .  1798  1839 

Amer.  ,  Samuel  H.,  Rev.,  theologian  and  critic                 .               .  1791  1861 

Eng.      ,  Sharon,  'History  of  England'          .              .              .  1768  1847 

Amer.  — ,  "Wm.  W.,  printer  and  philologist          .              .              .  1810  1859 

Turretin,  Benedict,  theologian,  (Prof,  at  Geneva)  .              .  1588  1C3L 

,  Francis,  (son)                   "      "            «'                 .  362$  1687 

,  John  A.  (son)                   "      «           "                           .  1671  1737 

Eng.      Tusser,  Thos.,  author  of  '  500  points  of  Good  Husbandry'             .  1500  1536 

Amer.   Tviggs,  David  E.,  rebel  general     .  1790  1863 

Eng.      Twining,  Rev.  Thos.,  translator  of  Aristotle     .              .              .  1734  1804 

Amer.  Tyler,  John,  ex-pree.  U.  S.,  and  rebel           .              .  1790  l!-62 
Eng.      Tyndaie,  Wm.,  reformer  and  first  translator  of  the  Biblfo  /nto 

English               ......  1500  1636 

Amer.  Tyngr,  Stephen  H.,  D.  D.,  epis.  divine  and  author    .              .  1800 

Eng.      Tyrrell,  James,  historian         .....  1C42  1718 

Gr.         Tyrtaeus,  poet                     .              .              .              ,              .   £  B.  c.  668 

Scot.      Tytler,  Alex.  Fraser,  historical  and  misc.  writer              .              .  1747  1813 

gcot_      1  Patrick  Eraser,  historian, '  Life  Mary  Queen  of  Scots'  1790  1849 

gcot.      ,  "Wm.,  historical  and  misc.  writer            ...  1711  1792 


Ger.       TJhland,  Ludwig,  poet  '.....       1787 

Span.     Ulloa,  Don  Anthony  de,  navigator  and  author          .  .  1718  179o 

tineas,  North  American  Indian  chiei  (Mobegans)  .  .       1680 

Eng.      Upcott,  William,  autograph  collector  and  historian  •  .  1779  1845 

Amer.  Upshnr,  Abel  P.,  of  Va.,  judge  and  secretaiy  of  state  .  .  1844 

Scot.      Uie,  Andrew,  M.  D.,  chemist  and  author  .  .  1778  185\ 

Irish.     Usher,  James,  learned  divine  and  historian  .  .       1680  1661 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDlfiX, 


1003 


KATiOH.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Fr.         Vailliant,  Sebastis.  (,  eminent  botanist         .  . 

Dutch.  Valcknenaer,  Louis  Gaspar,  able  philologist  and  critic 


Valdo,  Peter,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Waldenses 
Valentia,  George  A.,  viscount, «  Voyages  and  Travels ' 
Valerian,  emperor  .... 
Valerius  Flaccus,  poet  .  .  . 
Maximus,  historian           .               .  . 


Fr. 

Horn. 
Rom. 
Rom. 

ItaL       Valla,  Laurence,  eminent  philologist  .  • 

Amer.    Van  Buren,  Martin,  president  of  the  United  States  . 

Eng.      Vancouver,  George,  navigator  ... 

Eng.      Vandenhoff,  John,  actor  .  .  •  • 

Amer.    Vanderlyn,  John,  historical  painter      ... 
Dutch.  Van  Diemen,  Anthony,  governor  of  India  .  • 

Amer.   Van  Dorn,  Earl,  confederate  general  .  . 

Eng.       Vane,  Sir  Henry,  advocate  of  republicanism  .  . 

Amer.    Van  Ness,  Cornelius  P.,  jurist  and  diplomatist  . 

Amer.    Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen,  '  the  Patroon'  .  . 

Rom.     Varro,  Marcus  T.,  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans 

Vasari,  George,  architect  and  biog.,  '  Lives  of  the  Painters ' 

Vater,  John  Severinus,  eminent  physiologist  .  . 

Vattel,  F.  de,  jurist,  author  of  Law  of  Nations  . 

Vaugh an,  S.  le  P.  de,  marshal,  military  engineer      .  . 

Vauban,  Rev.  Robert,  D.  D.,  '  dissenting'  divine  and  historian 

Vega,  Garcilasso  de,  poet  .... 

,  Lopez  de,  dramatic  poet  •  .  . 

Velpeau,  Alfred  A.  L.  M.,  eminent  surgeon  .  . 

Vendome,  Louis  Joseph,  duke  of,  warrior          .  . 

Venn,  Rev.  Henry,  'Whole  Duty  of  Man*  .  . 

Verdi,  Giuseppe,  musical  composer     ... 

Vere,  Sir  Aubrey  de,  dramatic  poet  .          •    .  . 

Vernet,  Horace,  historical  painter       ... 

Vernon,  Edward,  admiral  .... 

,  Robert,  founder  of  Vernon  Gallery     . 


ItaL 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 


BORN.  DIED 

1669  1722 

1715  1785 

f.  12th  cent. 

1770  1844 

2GO? 

88? 

{.  30 

1406 

1782 

1750 

1790 

1776 

1593 

1823 

1612 

1781 

1764 
.  c.  116     B.  c.  27 

1512  1574 

1826 
1767 
1707 


1457 

1834 
1798 

1852 
1645 
1863 
1662 
1851 
1839 


1771 
1714 
1633 


Ve>on,  Louis  D6sir6,  author  and  journalist  .  . 

Verplanck,  Gulian  C.,  scholar  and  critic  ... 

Veriot,  Rene  Hubert,  abbe  de,  historian  .  .  . 

Vertue,  George,  engraver  and  antiquary  ... 

Vespasian,  Titus  Flavius,  warrior  and  emperor         .  . 

Vespucius,  Americus,  navigator,  whose  name  was  unjustly  given 
to  the  new  world  ..... 

Vestris,  Madame  (Mrs.  Mathews),  actress  .  . 

Victor  Emanuel  II.,  king  of  Italy         .... 
Victoria  Alexandrina,  queen  of  Great  Britain          .  . 

Vicars,  Hedley  H.,  capt.          -  .... 

Vida,  Mark  Jerome,  Latin  poet      .... 
Vidocq,  Eugene,  French  chief  detective  police  .  . 

Vieuxtemps,  Henri,  violinist  .  .  . 

Vigny,  Alfred,  count  de,  poet  and  critl*  .  ,  . 

Villurs,  Louis  Hector,  duke  of,  able  general  .  . 

Villemain,  Abel,  Fr.  politician  and  autaor         .  .  . 


1503 
1562 
1795 
1654 
1725 
1814 

1789 
1684 
1774 
1798 

1655 
1684 


1451 
1797 
1820 
1819 
1826 
1490 
1775 
1820 
1799 
W>3 
1791 


1634 

1712 
1797 

1846 
1864 
1759 
1849 


1735 

1756 

79 

1516 
1858 


1855 
1566 
1850 


1734 


1004  TBS-    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

RATION.                                                            NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BOBN.  DIED 

Eng.      Vince,  Samuel,  eminent  mathematician  and  astronomer        .  1821 

Fr.          Vinet,  Alex.  E.,  theologian      .....  1797  1847 

Horn.      Virgi  I,  or  Publius  Virgilius  Maro,  the  greatest  of  Roman  poets      B.  c.  70  B.  c.  It 

Ital.       Visconti,  Phil.  Aur.,  antiquary        ....  1831 
Ital.       Vitruvius  Pollio,  Marcus,  architect      .              i              .             f.  B.  c.  27 

Ital.       Vittoria  Colonna,  Bcholtir               ....  1490  1547 

Russ.     Vladimir  the  Great,  grand  duke           .               .              .  101£ 

Dutch.  Voet,  John,  jurist  at  Leydcn           .              •              »              .  1647  1714 

Dutch.  ,  Paul,  jurist  at  Utrecht                 ....  1619  1667 

Ger.       Vogel,  Dr.  Edward,  botanist          ....  1829  1856 

Fr.         Volney,  count,  celebrated  writer           ....  1757  1820 

ItaL       Volta,  Alexander,  natural  philosopher  (Battery)      .              .  1745  1828 
Fr.         Voltaire,  Francis  Marie  Arouet,  celebrated  poet,  philosopher, 

and  historian                .....  1694  1778 

Ger.       VOBS,  J.  G.,  historical  painter                ....  1577  1649 

W 

Ger.       Waagen,  Gustave  Fried.,  art  critic               ...  1794 

Amer.   Wad&worth,  James,  wealthy  philanthropist      ...  1768  1844 

Amer.   ,  James  8.  (son),  patriotic  general           .              .  1807  1864 

Ger.       "Wagner,  Rudolph,  physiologist             ....  1805 

Amer.   Wainwright,  Jon.  M.,  epis.  bishop  of  New  York      .              .  1792  1854 

Eng.      Wakefleld,  Edward  Gibbon,  political  economist              .              .  1796  1862 

Eng. ,  Gilbert,  scholar  and  critic          ...  1756  1801 

Amer.    Waldo,  Daniel,  rev.,  centenarian          ....  1762  1864 

Fr.         Walewski,  Florian,  count,  statesman            .                 .          .  1810 

Eng.      Walker,  John,  lexicographer                ....  1732  1807 

Amer. ,  Robert  J.,  politician,  ex-secretary  of  treasury          .  1801 

Amer.    ,  William, '  filibustering' adventurer                  .              .  1824  1860 

Amer.   Wallace,  Horace  Binney,  scholar  and  essayist         .              .  1817  1852 

Scot. ,  William,  patriot  and  hero      ....  1276  1305 

Irish.   .  ,  William  Vincent,  musical  composer          .              .  1815  1865 

Ger.       Wallenstein,  A.  E.  V.,  celebrated  general          .              .              .  1583  1634 

Eng.       Waller,  Edward,  elegant  poet         .               .               •              .  1603  16S7 

Eng.      ,  Sir  William,  parliamentary  general     .              .              ,  1597  1688 

Eng.       Walpole,  Horace,  earl  of  Oxford,  author                   .              .  1718  1797 

Eng. ,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  statesman      .              •              .  1676  1745 

Amer.    Walsh,  Robert,  author  and  journalist           ...  1784  1858 

Eng.       Walsingham,  Sir  Francis,  statesman    .               .               .               .  1536  1590 

Amer.    Walworth,  Reuben  H.,  jurist,  ex-chancellor  of  New  York     .  1815  1865 

Eng.       Walton,  Brian,  divine  and  orientalist      ....  1600  1661 

Eng. ,  Izaak,  angler  and  biographer          ...  1593  1683 

Amer.    Walworth,  Reuben  H.,  jurist,  ex-chancellor  of  N.  T.     .              .  1789 

Bug.       Warburton,  William,  eminent  prelate  and  writer    .              .  1698  1779 

Amer.   Ward,  Artemas,  officer  in  the  Revolution           ...  1748  18CO 

Bcot.      Wardlnw,  Rev.  Ralph,  theologian                 .               .               .  1780  1853 

Amer.   Ware,  Henry,  rev.,  Unitarian  theologian  and  author     .              .  1764  1845 

Amer.    ,  Heniy,  rev.,  jr.,  Unitarian  theologian  and  author        .  1794  1843 

Amer.   ,  William,  novelist, « Zenobia,'  &c.            .              ,              .  1797  1862 

Amer.   Warren,  John  Collins,  eminent  surgeon      .              .              ,  1778  1856 

Amer. ,  Joseph,  patriotic  general,  fell  at  Bunker  Hill                  .  1741  1771 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


100? 


•  ATION.  NAME  AND   PROFESSION. 

Amer.    "Wanen,  MTB.  Mercy,  historian,  '  American  Review' 


Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 


-,  Samuel,  jurist  and  novelist, '  10,000  a  Year' 


Sir  John  Borlase,  naval  officer 
\Varton,  Joseph,  poet  and  critic 
,  Thomas,  poet  and  critic 


Warwick,  R.  Neville,  earl  of,  general  and  statesman,  '  king-maker' 
Amer.   Washington,  Bushrod,  justice  of  supreme  court  of  U.  S.  . 

Amer. ,  George,  the  father  of  his  country       .  . 

Amer.   ,  "Win.  Aug.  officer  in  the  Revolution  .  . 

Eng.       Waterland,  Rev.  Dr.,  theological  and  polemical  writer          • 
Amer.    Watson,  Elkanah,  merchant,  agriculturist,  and  historian  . 


Scot. 
Eng. 
Boot. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 


Robert,  historian  .  .  . 

,  Richard,  eminent  prelate  and  writer  .  . 

Watt,  James,  celebrated  natural  philosopher  and  engineer 

,  Robert,  bibliographer  .  .  . 

Watts,  Alario  Alex.,  poet  and  journalist 

Dr.  Isaac,  divine,  poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer 


Wayland,  Francis,  D.  D.,  metaphysician,  theol.  and  polit.  econ. 
Amer.    Wayne,  Anthony,  distinguished  officer  in  Revolution  . 

Eng.      Weale,  John,  publisher  and  editor,  engineering,  &c.  . 

Amer.   Webber,  Charles  W.,  naturalist  and  author  .  . 

Ger.        Weber,  Carl  Maria  \on,  eminent  composer  .  . 

Weber,  Henry  William,  antiquary  and  critic  •  . 

Webster,  John,  dramatic  poet  •  «  •  • 

,  Daniel,  statesman  .... 

,  Noah,  author  of  English  Dictionary  .  , 


Eng. 

Bug. 

AllKT. 

Amer. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Amer. 


BORN. 

1728 
1807 
1754 
1720 
1728 

1759 
1732 
1752 
1683 
1758 
1730 
1737 
1736 
1774 
1799 
1674 
1796 
1745 
1792 
18i9 
1786 
1783 


DIKfi. 

1814 

1822 
1800 
1790 
1471 
1829 
1709 
1810 
1740 
1842 
1780 
1816 
1819 
1819 
1864 
1748 
1865 
1796 
1862 
1856 
1826 
1813 


17th  cent. 


Wedderburn,  Alex.,  earl  Rosslyn,  lord  chancellor   .  . 

Wedgewood,  J.,  scientific  manufacturer  of  porcelain     .  . 

Weems,  Rev.  Mason  L.,  author  of  school  biographies  . 

Amer.    Welby,  Amelia  B.,  of  Kentucky,  poetess  .  .  . 

Irish.     "Welh-sley,  marquis  of,  governor-general  of  India,  and  lord-lieut. 

of  Ireland  ...  . 

Eng.      Wellington,  Arthur  "Wellesley,  duke  of,  mil.  com.  and  statesman 
Amer.   "Wells,  David  A.,  editor,  statistician,  and  author  .  . 

Eng.      ,  Edward,  theologian  and  scholar        .  ,  . 

Amer. ,  Horace,  dentist,  discoverer  of  anaesthesia  .  . 

Scot.      "Welsh,  David,  D.  D.,  founder  of  North  British  Review     . 

Eng-Am.  "Wentworth,  Sir  John,  gov.  of  N.  Bamp.,  also  gov.  of  Nova  Scotia  1736 


1782 
1758 
1733 
1731 

1821 

1760 
1769 

1663 
1815 

1794 


Eng. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 


-,  Sir  Thomas,  Earl  of  Stafford 


Werner,  Abraham  Tbeophilus,  mineralogist 

,  Fred.  L.  Z.,  poet  and  dramatist 

Wesley,  Rev.  Charles,  'Hymns' 

,  John,  founder  of  Methodist  society 


"Westall,  Richard,  histoiical  painter  ... 

Whateley,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Duhlin,  theological  and  edu- 
cational writer  ...... 

Amer.   Wheatley,  Phillis,  negro  poetess    .... 

Eng. ,  Rev.  Charles,  on  '  Book  of  Common  Prayer'  . 

Amer.   Wheaton,  Henry,  jurist,  diplomatist  and  law  commentator  . 
Eng.      Wheatstone,  Charles,  electrician         .... 
Amer.    "Wheelock,  Eleazar,  D.  D.  founder  of  Dartmouth  College      . 
Bng.      Whewell,  Rev.  William,  theol.,  scientific  and  educational  writer 


1593 
1750 
1768 
1708 
1703 
1765 

1787 
1753 
1686 
1785 
1802 
1711 
1795 


1852 
1843 
1805 
1795 
1825 
1852 

1842 
1852 

1727 
1S48 
1845 
1820 
1641 
1817 
1823 
1788 
1791 
1837 

1863 
1794 
1743 
1848 

177« 
18d< 


1006  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

RATIO!?.                                                           SAME    AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  MBB 

Amer.    Whipple,  Edwin  P.,  critic  and  essayist  .  .  .  1819 

Amer.    Whistler,  George  Win.,  engineer  of  Russian  railways             •  1800  1841 

.£ng.      Whiston,  Wm.,  divine,  mathematician  and  translator    .              .  1667  1752 

Eng.      Whitby,  David,  learned  divine,  commentator  of  New  Testament  1638  1726 

Eng.      White,  Henry  Kirke,  poet       .....  1785  1808 

,  Rev.  Joseph  Blanco,  priest  and  English  author           .  1775  1841 

Eng.      ,  William,  one  of  the  two  first  bishops  of  the  P.  E.  church 

in.  United  States                .              .              ...              .  1747  1836 

Eng.       Whitefleld,  George,  founder  of  the  Calvanistic  Methodists  .  1714  1770 

Amer.    Whitney,  Eli,  inventor  of  cotton  gin    ....  1765  1828 

Amer.   "Whittier,  John  Greenieaf,  poet  and  essayist  .  .  1808 

Amer.   Whittingham,  Wm.  R.,  epis.  bp.  of  Maryland  and  author  .  1805 

Eng.      Whittington,  Sir  Richard,  lord  mayor  of  London     .              .  1419 

Eng.      Wickliffe,  or  Wicklif,  John,  the  morning  star  of  the  Reformation  1324  1384 

Ger.       Wieland,  Christopher,  able  and  fertile  writer            .              .  1733  1813 

Eng.      Wiffen,  J.  H.,  poet  and  historian          ....  1792  1836 

Eng.       Wilberforce,  Samuel,  bp.  of  Oxford  and  author        .  •  1805 

Eng.      ,  William,  statesman  and  philanthropist      .              .  1759  1853 

Amer.    Wilde,  Richard  Henry,  poet  and  litterateur               .              .  1789  1847 

Eng.      Wilkes,  John,  celebrated  political  character      ...  1717  1791 

Scot.      Wilkie,  Sir  David,  historical  painter            .              .              .  1785  1841 

Eng.      Wilkins,  John,  bp.  of  Chester,  mathematician  and  theologian     .  1614  1672 

Eng.      ,  Sir  Charles,  oriental  philologist                    .              .  1836 

Amer.   Wilkinson,  James,  general  in  Revolution  and  author     .              •  1757  1825 

Eng. ,  Sir  John  Gardner,  Egyptologist  .  .  1797 

Eng.       Williams  of  "Wykeham,  arch-ecclesiast  and  statesman                  •  1324  1404 

Amer.   Williams,  Eleaaar,  rev.,  alleged  to  be  Louis  XVIL                 •  1787  1  1858 

Eng.      ,  Helen  Maria,  miscellaneous  writer     .              .              .  1762  1827 

Eng.      ,  John,  missionary  and  author       .              .             .  1796  1839 

Eng.      ,  Major-gen.  Sir  Fenwick,  defender  of  Kara        .  .  1800 

Amer.    ,  Otho  H.,  general                ....  1748  1794 

En. Am. — — ,  Roger,  colonizer  of  Rhode  Island         .              .              .  1606  1683 

Amer.    Williamson,  Hugh,  physician  and  historian  of  N.  Carolina    .  1785  1819 
Amer.  Willis,  Nath.  Parker,    poet,  novelist,  essayist,  critic  and  jour- 
nalist      .               .               .               .              .              .    '          .  1807  1867 

Scot.      Wilson,  Alex.,  celebrated  naturalist              .              .              .  1766  1813 

Eng. ,  Daniel,  bishop  of  Calcutta       ....  1778  1858 

Eng. ,  Horace  H.,  orientalist,  professor  of  Sanscrit               .  1808  1860 

Scot.       ,  John  (Christopher  North),  poet,  critic  and  essayist         .  1785  1854 

Eng. ,  Mrs.  Cornwall  Barron,  author        .              .              .  1846 

Ger.       Winckelman,  John  Joachim,  '  History  of  Art '                .              .  1717  1708 

Anst.     "Windiscbgratz,  Charles  Alfred,  prince  de,  generalissimo       .  1787  1S62 

Eng.       Windham,  William,  statesman               ....  1750  1810 

Ger.       Winer,  George  Bened.,  prot.  theologian       ...  1789  1858 

Swiss.    Winkelried,  Arnold  von,  patriot           ....  1388 

En.Am.  Winslow,  Edward,  governor  of  Plymouth  colony    .              .  1595  1655 

Eng.  ,  Forbes,  physician  and  writer  on  insanity       .  .  1810 

Aiaer.   ,  llubbard,  D.D.,  editor  and  author       .                  .  1800  1864 

Amer.   ,  Miron,  D.  D.,  missionary  and  orientalist        .              .  1789  1864 

Eng.       Winterhsilter,  Franz  Xavier,  '  court  painter'            .               .  1803 

Bn.A.m.Wlnthrop,  John,  governor  of  colony  of  Mass.    .              ,             .  1588  1649 

Rfi_Ain ,  John  (son),  governor  of  Connecticut       .              .  1606  167* 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX.  1007 

RATIO*.            .                                              NAME  AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Winthrop,  Major  Theodore,  novelist  and  patriot                          .  1828  1861 

Amer.    Wirt,  William,  attorney-general  U.  8.  and  biographer           .  1772  183d 

Eng.       Wiseman,  Nicholas,  cardinal,  Roman  catholic  theol.  and  author  1802  1865 

Amer.    Wistar,  Caspar,  eminent  physician  and  anatomist          .              .  1761  1818 

Eng.      Withers,  George,  poet       ....  1590  1667 

Amer.    Witherspoon,  John,  able  divine  and  patriot          .              .           .  1722  1794 

Dutch.  Witzi us,  Herman,  theologian          ...»  1636  1708 

Scot.      Wodrow,  Robert,  ecclesiastical  historian            .              .              .  1679  1734 

Irish.     Woffington,  Margaret  (Peg  W.),  actress     .              .              .  1719  1760 

Eug.      Wolcott,  John,  known  as  Peter  Pindar,  poet     ...  1738  1818 

Amer. ,  Oliver,  patriot,  signer  of  Declaration  of  Independence  1727  1797 

Amer. ,  Roger,  colonial  governor  of  Conn.                      .              .  1679  1767 

Eng.  Jew.  Wolf,  Dr.  Joseph,  missionary  and  traveller          .              .  1795  1602 

Ger. ,  Fred.  Aug.,  classical  author  and  critic    ...  1759  1824 

Eng.       Wolfe,  James,  distinguished  general           ...  1726  1759 

Eng. ,  Rev.  Charles,  poet,  '  Sir  John  Moore'    .              .               .  1791  1823 

Ger.       Wolff,  John  Christian,  philosopher  nud  mathematician         .  1679  1754 

Eng.       Wollaston,  William  Hyde,  experimental  philos.               .              .  1766  1828 

Eng.       Wolsey,  Thomas,  cardinal,  celebrated  statesman       .               .  1471  1530 

Eng.       Wollstonecroft,  Mary  (Mrs.  Godwin),  author     ...  1759  1797 

Eng.       Wood,  Authony,  antiquary  and  biographer               .              .  1632  1695 

Eng.      ,  Robert,  archaeologist  and  secretary  of  state           .               .  1716  1771 

Amer.    Woodbury,  Levi,  statesman  and  jurist         .               .              .  1789  1851 

Eng.       WoodMl,  William,  newspaper  publisher  (Junius)           .               .  1745  J822 

Eng.       Woodhouse,  Robert,  mathematician  and  astronomer              .  1773  1827 

Scot.      Woodhouselee,  Alex.  Fraser  Tytler  (see  Tytler)  historian             .  1747  1813 

Amer.    Woods,  Leonard,  theologian            ....  1770  1851 

Eng.       Woodville,  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Edward  IV.     ...  1486? 

Amer.    Woodworth,  Samuel,  poet,  *  Onken  Bucket '             .              .  1785  1842 

Amer.   Wool,  John  E.,  major-general  U.  S.  army          .              .              .  1789 

Amer.    Woolman,  John  (Quaker),  philanthropist                   .              .  1720  1773 

Amer     Wooster,  David,  Revolutionary  general             ...  1710  1777 

Eng.      Worcester,  Edward  J.,  marquis  of,  'Century  of  Inventions  *  1667 

Eng. ,  Joseph  E.,  geographer  and  lexicographer    •               .  1784  1865 

Eng.    ,  Wordsworth,  Rev.  Christ.,  '  Ancient  Greece '          .              .  1770  1850 

Eng. ,  William,  poet  laureate    ....  1770  1850 

Amer.    Worth,  William  J., major-general  U.  R.  army           .               .  1794  1849 

Eng.      Wortley,  Lady  Emeline  C.  E.,  traveller  and  author      .              .  1806  1855 

Eng.       "Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  statesman  and  poet      .               .              .  1568  1689 

Eng.      Wiaxall,  Sir  Nathaniel  W.,  traveller  and  historian       .              .  1751  1831 

Eng.       Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  celebrated  architect              .               .  1632  1723 

Eng.       Wright,  Fanny  (Madame  Darusmont),  '  Social  Reformer'          .  1796  1853 

Amer. ,  Silas,  governor  of  New  York  and  senator  U.  S.         .  1795  1847 

Eng.       ,  Thomas,  antiquarian  author                 .               «              .  1810 

Aust.     Wnrmser,  D.  S.,  field-marshal  in  Austrian  army     .              .  1717  174)7 

Eng.      Wyatt,  Matthew  Digby,  architect  and  author                  .              .  1820 

Eng. ,  Sir  Thomas,  poet  and  statesman      .              .              .  1503  1540 

Eng.      "Wycberley,  William,  dramatic  poet     ....  1640  1715 

Eng       "Wycliffe,  see  Wicklife,  reformer                    .               .               .  1324  1404 

Eng.      Wykeham.  M.,  bishop  of  Winchester,  statesman  and  philanth.  1S24  1404 

Eng.      Wyndham,  Sir  William,  statesman            .              .               .»  1687  174| 


1008  THE  WOBLD'S  PBOGEESS. 

KATIOH.  SAME  AMD  PROFESSION.  BOBN.      D1MI 

Eng.       "Wyse,  Sir  Thomas,  M.  P.,  writer  on  education  .  . 

Amer.    Wj  the,  George,  eminent  lawyer,  statesman  and  patriot         .  180« 


Fr.  Xavier,  St.  Francis, 'Apostle  to  the  Indies'       ...       1506  1552 

Gr.  Xenocrates,  philosopher                  .              .              .  .        B.  o.  406  B  c.  314 

Gr.  Xenophanes,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Eleatics           .  £  B.  c.  540 

Gr.  Xenophon,  celebrated  philosopher,  historian  and  general  .       B.  o.  416  B   c.  360 

Pers.  Xerxes  L,  king  of  Persia         ....  BO,  465 

Pers. II.,  king  of  Persia  .              .              .  .  B.  c.  425 

Span.  Ximenes,  Francis,  cardinal,  eminent  statesman              •  .       1457  1517 


Amer.  Yale,  Elihu,  early  patron  of  Yale  College           ...  1648  1721 

Eng.  Yarrell,  William,  naturalist  and  author.                   ,              .  1784  1856 

Eng.  Yonatt,  William,  author  of  works  on  the  horse              .              .  1777  1847 

Amer.  Young,  Alex.,  D.  D.,  historian  of  Pilgrims               .              .  1800  1854 

Eng.      ,  Arthur,  agricultural  writer       ....  1741  1820 

Amer.    ,  Brigham,  leader  of  the  Mormons      ...  1801 

Eng.      ,  Charles,  actor  •  .  .  1777  1856 

Eng.      ,  Edward,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer         .  .  1681  1765 

Eng.      ,  Thomas,  physician  and  philosopher       .  .  .  1774  1829 

Gr.  Ypsilanti,  prince  Alexander,  leader  in  the  Greek  modern  rev.  1792  1828 

Span.  Y  riarte,  don  Thomas  de,  eminent  poet               .              .              •  1750  1790 


Ital.       Zaccaria,  Francis  A.,  voluminous  writer            .              .              .       1714  1798 

Heb.      Zechariah,  the  prophet     .  .  .  .  .  £  B.  0.  520 

Ital       Zeno,  Apostolo,  eminent  wnter     ....              1668  1750 

Gr.         Zeno  of  Elea,  philosopher       .  .  .  •  B.  c.  463 

Gr.        ,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Stoics  .  .     '         .       B.  o.  362   B.  0.  264 

Zenobia,  Septhnia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  conqueror,  and  patroness  of 

the  arts                ......  300 

Heb.       Zephaniah,  the  prophet      .  .  .  .  .    £  B.  o    520 

Ger.       Zimmerman,  E.  A.  "W.  von,  naturalist               ...       1743  1815 

Swiss. ,  John  George,  miscellaneous  writer       .             .              1728  1795 

Ger.       Zinzendcrrf,  N.  L.,  count,  chief  of  the  Moravians             .              .       1700  1760 

Swiss.    Zolikofer,  G.  J.,  theologian             .              .              .              .              1730  1788 

Zoroaster,  famous  Eastern  philosopher  .  .  . 

Eng.      Zouch,  Thomas,  theologian  and  biographer              .              .              1737  1816 
Gr.         Zozimus,  historian     .              .              .              .              .              .     f.  400 

Ger.       Zschokke,  John  Henry  D.,  miscellaneous  writer, '  Tales '      .              1771  1848 

Swiss.    Zuinglius,  Ulric,  enlightened  reformer                .              .              •       1484  1531 

(far.       Zumpt,  Karl,  author  of  Latin  Grammar      .              «              .              1792  1851 


BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. ARTISTS.  1009 


ARTISTS. 


PAINTEKS— ENGEAVEES— SCULPTORS— AECHITECTS. 


NATION.  NAME  AND  PROFESSION.  BORN.            DIED. 

G-r.  Agatharcus,  inventor  of  perspective  scenery  in  theatres.  Painter.  B.C.   480 

Gr.  Ageldas              .....       Sculptor,  t.  B.  c.  5th  Cent. 

Gr.  Agesander,  sculptor  of  'Laocoon  and  his  Children'        Sculptor.  B.  c.  5th  Cent. 

Ital.  Albano,  Francis,  '  the  painter  of  the  Graces '            .       Painter.  1578          1660 

Ital.  Alberti,  Leo  Baptist,  a  Florentine          .        Pa.,  Sc.,  and  Archit.  1400           1490 

Ital.  Albertinelli,  Mariotto        .               .       ,        .               .        Painter.  1520 

Gr.  Alcannenes  (pupil  of  Phidias)               .              .              Sculptor.  f.  B.  c.   450 

Scot.  Allan,  Sir  William             ....       Painter.  1781           1850 

Amer.  Allston,  Washington  .              .             Port,  and  Histor.  Painter.  1779           1843 

Ital.  Andrea  del  Sarto                ....        Painter.  1488           1530 

Ital.  Angelo,  Michael  (Buonarotti),  a  pre-eminent  Pa.,  Sc.,  and  Arch.  1174           1568 

Ital.  Angelo,  Michael  (Caravaggio)        .               .               .        Painter.  1568           1609 

Gr.  Apelles,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient  painters        .       Painter.  f.  B.  c.    330 

Gr.  Apollodorus,  an  Athenian         .               .               .               Painter.  f.  B.  C.    408 

Ital.  Appiani,  of  Milan              ....       Painter.  1754           1817 

Gr.  Aristides,  of  Thebes    ....              Painter.  f.  B.  o.    240 

Fr.  Audran,  Gerard,  celebrated           .              .       Histor.  Engraver.  1640          1703 
(Eight  painters  and  engravers  named  Audran  nearly  contemporary.) 

B 

Ital.  Baccio-Della  Porta,  fcno\m  as  San  Marco  (Fra  Bartolo- 

meo)           .....       Painter.  1469          1517 

Eng.  Bacon,  John               ....              Sculptor.  1740          1799 

Amer.  Baker,  Geo.  A.  (N.  Y.)           .              .              .       Port.  Painter. 

Flem.  Balen,  Henry  van              ....       Painter.  1560           1632 

Ital.  Bandinelli,  Baccio     ....               Sculptor.  1489           1559 

Eng.  Banks,  Thomas                .              .              •              .       Sculptor.  1745           1805 

Dutch.  Barents,  Dietrich       .              .              .                Histor.  Painter.  1534           1582 

Irish.  Barker,  Kobert,  inventor  of  panoramas      .              .       Painter.  1740           1806 

Irish.  Barry,  James              ....              Painter.  1741           1805 

Eng.  Barry,  Sir  Chas.             .              .              .              .       Architect.  1795           I860 

ItaL  Bartolini,  Lorenzo                .              •              .                 Sculptor.  1777.          1850 

ItaL  Bartolozzi,  Francesco                 ...           Engraver.  1730           1813 

Ital.  Bartolomeo,  Fra  di  San  Marco      .              .              .        Painter.  1469           1517 

Ital.  Bassanio,  Jas.,  Fran.,  Jerome,  John,  and  Leander         Painters.  16th  Century. 

ItaL  Batoni,  Pompey  .....       Painter.  1708           1787 

Ger.  Bauer,  Ferdinand       ...            Botanical  Painter.  1826 

Eng.  Beechy,  Sir  William        .              .              .    Landscape  Painter.  1753          183fl 

Amer.  Beard,  Wm.  H.  (N.  T.)            •              •            .               Painter. 

Eng.  Beaumont,  Sir  George  H.                ...        Painter.  1753           1827 

Ital.  Bella,  Stefano  Delia,  Florentine             .              .          Engraver.  1610           1684 

.   43 


1010  THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

NATIOS.                                                    IAMB  AND   PROFESSION.  BORH.  D1SR 

Ital,  Bellini.  Giov.,  founder  of  the  Venetian  school  .  Painter.  1462  151? 
Ital.  Bellini  Gentine  .  .  .  .  Portrait  Painter.  1421  1501 
Ital.  Btnini,  Giovanni  L.  .  .  Painter,  Sculp'r,  and  Aren't.  1598  168<» 
Flem  Berchem,  Nicholas  .  .  .  Engraver.  1624  1689 
Eng.  Bewick.  John,  publisher  of  various  works  with  wood- 
oats  ....  Wood  Engraver.  1760  1795 
Amer.  Bierstadt,  Albert  (N.  Y.)  .  .  Landscape  Painter. 
Eng.  Bird,  Edward  .....  Painter.  1772  1819 
Eng.  Blake,  William  .  .  .  Painter  and  Engraver.  1757  1826 
Flem.  Bologna,  John  of  (in  Italy)  .  Sculptor  and  Architect.  1524  1608 
Eng.  Bone,  Henry  .  .  .  Enamel  Painter.  1755  1834 
Ital.  Bordone,  Paris  .....  Painter.  1503  1588 
Dutch.  Both,  John  and  Andrew  ...  Painters.  1610  1650,  '56 
Fr.  Bourdon,  Sebastian  .  .  Painter  and  Engraver.  1616  1671 
Swiss.  Bourgeoise,  Sir  Francis  (born  in  London).  .  Painter.  1756  1811 
Eng.  Boydell,  Jno.  (priutseller  and  lord  mayor  of  London)  Engraver.  1719  1804 
Dutch.  Brentel,  Francis  ....  Painter,  fc  1635 
Ital.  Bramant.e  D'Urbino,  Francis  I+,  (1st  of  St.  Peter's 

Church)                ....       Architect.  1444  1514 
Amer.   Brevoort,  J.  R.  (N.  T.)         .              .              Landscape  Painter. 

Dutch.  Brill,  Matthew               • .              .              .               .           Painter.  1550  1584 

Dutch.  Brill,  Paul                ...              Landscape  Painter.  1556  1626 
Amer.  Brown,  Geo.  L.              .              .              .             .            Painter. 

Amer.   Brown,  Henry  Kirke           .              .              .              .    Sculptor.  1814 

Flem.    Bruges,  John  of,  or  John  Van  Eyck      .              .              Painter.  1370  1441 

Ital.       Brunelleschi,  Ph.,  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence                .    Architect.  1377  1444 
Ital.       Buonarotti,'see  Angelo 

Eng.      Burnett,  James            .              .              .         Landscape  Painter.  1783  1816 

O 

ltd.       Cagliari,  Paul,  known  as  Paul  Veronese,  celebrated       Painter.  1632  1588 
Ital.       Cagliari,  Benedict,  Carlotto,  and  Gabriel,  brothers  and 

sons  of  Paul 

Eng.      Calcott,  Sir  A.  W.                       .              .       Landscape  Painter.  1779  1844 

ItaL.       Caldara,  or  Polydore  Caravaggio      ...    Painter.  1495  1543 

Or.         Calimachus              ...        Sculptor  and  Architect.  f.  B.  o.    540 

Ital.       Cambiaso,  Lucus,  a  Genoese       ...          Painter.  1527  1587 

Ital.       Canaletto,  or  Canale,  Anthony,  a  Venetian          Lands.  Painter.  1697  1768 

Ital.       Canova,  Antonio      ....              Sculptor.  1757  )822 

Ital.       Caracci,  Ludovico              •              .              •              .       Painter.  1555  1619 

ItaL       Caracci,  Agoetino        ....              Painter.  1558  1601 

Ital.       Caracci,  Annibale              •              .             .              .       Painter.  1560  1609 

Ital.       Caracci,  Anthony        .              .              .              •              Painter.  1583  1618 
Ital.       Caravaggio,  see  Angelo     .... 
Ital.       Carpi,  Ugo  da,  discoverer  of  the  art  of  printing  in  Chiaro-oscuro 

with  three  plates  to  imitate  drawings       .              .  I486  1530 
Fr.         Casas,  Louis  Francis              .              .      Painter  and  Architect  1756  1827 
Amer.    Casilear,  John  W.  (N.  Y.)             .              .           Lands.  Painter. 
Span.     Castillo  y  Saavedra,  Anthony              .              .              Painter.  1603  1667 
ItaL       Cavendone,  James             ...          Fresco-Painter.  1677  1508 
Ital.       Cellini,  Benvennto,  Florentine  artist,  author  of  auto- 
biography        •              .              •              .              .       Painter.  1500  1570 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. — ARTISTS.  1011 

JI4TION.  NAME   AND    PROFESSION.  BORN.              DIED. 

Span.  Cespedes.Paulde       .              .         Painter,  Sculptor,  Architecl.  1538           1CO» 

Flem.  Champagne,  Philip  de                      .              .              .       Painter.  1004           1074 

,  John  Baptist          .               .              .               Painter.  1643           168? 

Eng.  Chantry,  Sir  Francis          ....      Sculptor.  1781           1841 

Amei.  Chapman,  John  G.      .              .              .              .    Hist.  Painter. 

Gr.  Chares    ......        Painter.  fc  1.  0.  300 

Ft.  Chaudet,  Anthony  Denis          .              .      Painter  and  Sculptor.  1763           1810 

Amei.  Church,  Fred.  E.              .              .              .         Lands.  Painter. 

Ital.  Cignani,  Carlo              ....               Painter.  1628           1716 

Ital.  Cimabue,  Giov.,  Florentine              .              .              .       Paii.ter.  1240           1300 

Ital.  Claude  Gelee— called  Claude  Lorraine  .              .              Painter.  1600           1682 

Gr.  Cleomenes,  an  Athenian,  (the  Medicean  Venus)       .      Sculptor.  t.  B.  C.  180 

Ajner.  Clevenger,  Shobal  Vail              .              .              .            Sculptor.  1812           1844 

Amer.  Cole,  Thomas        .               .               .        Lands,  and  Hist.  Painter.  1802           1848 

Eng.  Collins,  William         .              .       Lands,  and  Fam.  life  Painter.  1788           1847 

Amer.  Colman,  Saml.  (N.  T.)       .              .               .         Lands.  Painter. 

Eng.  Constable,  John          .                                                         Painter.  1776           1837 

Eng.  Cooper,  Samuel    ....    Miniature  Painter.  1689           1776 

Amer.  Copley,  John  Singleton  (born  in  Boston)             .              Painter.  1737          1816 

Ger.  Cornelius,  Peter  von          ....       Painter.  1787 

Ital.  Correggio,  Ant.,  founder  of  the  Lombard  school              Painter.  1493 

Dutch.  Cort,  Cornelius    .....    Engraver.  1536 

Ital.  Cortona,  Pietro  da.  Tuscan       ...              PainteN  1596 

Eng.  Coswuy,   Richard               ....        Painter.  1740 

Fr.  Courtois,  James,  known  as  H  Eorgognone         .              Painter.  1621 

Fr. ,  William  (brother)  .              .              .       Painter.  1628 

Fr.  Couture        .....              Painter. 

Fr.  Couston,  Nicholas  (also  his  brother  William)     .            Sculptor.  1658           1731 

Fr. ,  William  .              .          Sculptor  and  Architect.  1716           1777 

Fr.  Cousin,  John              ...            Paint.,  Sculp.,  etc.  1500           1590 

Eng.  Cox,  David           ....         Lands.  Painter.  1723           1859 

Ger.  Cranach,  Lucas           ....            Engraver.  1470           1553 

Amer.  Cranch,  Christr.  P.             •              .              .              .       Painter. 

Amer.  Crawford,  Thomas      ....             Sculptor.  1814          1857 

Amer.  Cropsey,  Jasper  F.  (N".  Y.)              .              .         Lands.  Painter. 

Dutch.  Cuyp,  Jacob  G.            .              .            Lands,  and  Cattle  Painter.  1568           1649 

Dutch. ,  Albert  (son  of  Jacob)  .    Lands,  and  Cattle  Painter.  1606          1667 

Dutch. ,  Benjamin          •  .              .              •     Hist.  Painter.  1650 


Eng.  Danby,  Francis         ....                Painter.  1793  1861 

Eng.  Daniel,  Thomas  .              .             .              .           Lands.  Painter.  1749  1840 

Eng.  ,  Wm»            ....    I^ands.  Painter.  1769  1837 

Ger.  Dannecker,  John  Henry, '  Adriadne,*  &c.                .         Sculptor.  1758  1841 

Amer.  Darley,  F.  O.  C.       .  .  .       Painter  and  Designer.  1822 

Fr.  David,  James  Louis        ....           Painter.  1750  1828 

Fr.  — — ,  Peter  John,  of  Angers  (founder  of  recent  French 

school)             .....       Sculptor.  178»  1858 

Fr.  Delacroix,  F.  V.  E.    .              .              .              .                Painter.  1798  1863 

FT.  Delaroche,  Paul              ...              Hist.  Painter.  1797  ISM 


1012  THE  WOELD'S  PROGRESS. 


NATION,                                                .         NAME    AND    PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

DltD 

Oer.       Banner,  Balthasar     ....       Port.  Painter. 

1685 

174'. 

Dutch.  De  Witt,  James              ....         Painter. 

1695 

1747 

Gr.         Dinocrates,  a  Macedonian  (builder  of  Alexandria,  &o.)  Architect. 

i. 

B.  o.  330 

Ital.       Dolci,  Carlo       ....        Scripture  Painter. 

1616 

1686 

ItaL       Domenichino,  Dominic  Zampieri  (excelled  in  expression)  Painter. 

1581 

1641 

Ital.       Donatello,  or  Donato       .              .               .    Florentine  Sculptor. 

1383 

1463 

Fr.         Dor6,  Gustavo          .              .              .         Painter  and  Designer. 

Amer.   Doughty,  Thomas            .              •              .           Lands.  Painter. 

1793 

1856 

Dutch.  Douw,  or  Dow,  Gerard           .              .       Familiar  Life  Painter. 

1618 

1674 

Fr.         Dubuffe,             ....               Hist.  Painter. 

Fr.         Dufresnoy,  Charles  Alphonse              .              .                 Painter. 

1611 

1665 

Amer.   Dunlap,  William              .                             .              Hist.  Painter. 

1768 

1839 

Amer.    Durand,  Asher  B.  (N.  Y.)      .              .        Painter  and  Engraver. 

Ger.       Durer,  Albert  (aud  author)            .     Paint.,  Eng.,  So.,  and  Arch. 

1471 

1528 

B 

Eng       Eastlake,  Chris.  L.           .               .               .               .        Painter. 

1793 

1865 

Ger.       Eberhardt,  Conrad    ....              Sculptor. 

1768 

1859 

Eng.       Eginton,  Francis,  restorer  of  the  art  of  painting  on 

glass          .....                Painter. 

1737 

IS  OS 

Amer.    Ehninger,  John  "W.  (N.  Y  *           .              .              .         Painter. 

Amer.    Elliott,  Chas.  L.  (N.  Y.)                        .              .       Port.  Painter. 

Eng.      Etty,  Wm.         .                                                                    Painter. 

1787 

184* 

Gr.         Eupompus  (founder  of  school  at  Sicyon)  •          .                Painter. 

Dutch.  Eyck,  John  van  (said  to  have  invented  painting  In  oil)    Painter. 

1370 

144! 

F 

Ita1.Am.Fagnanl,  G.        .              .              .              .             Port.  Painter. 

Eng.      Fielding  (Copley  Vandyke)  .              .              .    Lands.  Painter. 

fing.      Flaxman,  John  ....  Sculptor  and  Artist. 

1755 

182* 

Eng.      Finden,  Wm.              ....             Engraver. 

1787 

1859 

Amer.    Forbes,  Edwin  .....         Pointer. 

Scot.      Forrest,  Robert     .    .              .              .              .              Sculptor. 

1790 

1862 

Fr.         Frere,  Edouard              .               .              .             Genre  Painter. 

Swiss.    Fusel!,  Henry  (resided  in  England       .              .                Painter. 

1741 

182J 

Swiss.    ,  John  G.  .....         Painter. 

1706 

1781 

G 

Eng.      Gainsborough,  Thomas            .              .              .   Lands.  Painter. 

1727 

1788 

Fr.         Gerard,  Fran.  P.  S.,  barot.             .              .              .        Painter. 

1770 

1837 

Fr.         ,  John  I.  (Granville)    .              .              .         Caricaturist. 

1803 

1847 

Ital.       Ghiberti,  Lawrence          .              .              .  Florentine  Sculptor. 

1378 

1456 

Eng.      Gibbons,  Grinling,  famed  for  carving  In  oak    .               Sculptor. 

1648 

1721 

Eng.      Gibson,  John      .....       Sculptor. 

1791 

1867 

Amer.    Gifford,  Sanford  R.  .               .             •  .               .    Lands.  Painter. 

Pr.An..  Gignoux,  Regis               .              .              .           Lands.  Painter. 

Ital.       Giordan!,  Luke  (the  Proteus  of  Painting)        .                Painter. 

1629 

1704 

Ital.       Giorgione,  Barbarelll       ....         Painter. 

1477 

1511 

Ital.       Giotto  (one  of  the  earliest  modern)      .     Paint.  Sculp,  and  Arch. 

1276 

133« 

Fr.         Glrardon,  Francis            ...          Sculp,  and  Arch. 

1630 

1718 

V::         Girodet,  Trioson  Aim6  Louis              .              .                 Painter. 

1767 

182* 

BIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. ARTISTS. 


1013 


VATTOK.                                                      NAME  AND  PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

D1KTX 

Ital.       Qiulio  Romano  (Pippi)    ....          Painter. 

1492 

1546 

Fr.         Goujon,  John,  the  French  Phidias     .              .               Gculptor. 

1515 

1572 

Amer.    Gray,  Henry  Peters        .              .            Port,  and  Hist.  Painter. 

Amer.    Greenough,  Horatio               .              .              .               Sculptor. 

1805 

1853 

Amer.   Greene,  E.  D.  E.               .              .              .              Port.  Painter. 

Fr.         Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste           .              .              .                 Painter. 

1726 

1805 

Ital.       Guercino,  real  name  Francis  Barbieri       .              .          Painter. 

1590 

1606 

Ital.       Guido,  Reni  (excelled  in  beauty  of  expression  and  grace)  Painter. 

1574 

1642 

a 

Eng.      Harlow,  Geo.  Henry         ....       Painter. 

178T 

1819 

Amer.  Hart,  "Wm.,  b.  in  Scotland         .              .              .              Painter. 

1823 

Amer.   Hart,  Jas.  M.          "                          .               .               .        Painter. 

1828 

Amer.  Haseltine,  W.  Stanley              •              .           Landscape  Painter. 

Eng.      Haviland,  John                ....       Architect. 

1792 

1859 

Eug.      Haydon,  R.  B.          .              .              .              Historical  Painter. 

1786 

1846 

Amer.    Healy,  Grx>.  P.                  ....           Painter. 

1808 

Eng.       Heath,  Charles          ....               Engraver. 

1848 

Amer.   Hennessy,  "W.  I.                 .              .              .              .        Painter. 

Amer.    Hicks,  Thos.                ....              Painter. 

1823 

Eng.       Hilton,  William    .              .              .                  Historical'Puinter. 

1786 

1889 

Flem.     Hobbema,  Mynderhout               .              .       Landscape  Painter. 

1611 

1699 

Eng.       Hogarth,  William             ....       Painter. 

1607 

17fi4 

Swiss.    Holbein,  Hans              .                Portrait  and  Historical  Painter. 

1498 

1554 

Ger.       Hollar,  "Wenceslans,  executed  2,400  plates              .       Engraver. 

1607 

1677 

Amer.    Homer,  Wirslow        ....               Painter. 

Flem.     Honthorst,  'jerard  (called  Gherarda  del  Notte)         .       Painter. 

1592 

1660 

Amer.    Hosmer,  Harriet        -.              .              .              .              Sculptor. 

1831 

Dutch.  Houbraken,  Jacob  (600  portraits)    ...    Entrraver. 

169S 

1780 

Fr.          Houdon  (executed  statue  of  Franklin)               .              Sculptor. 

1746 

1828 

Fr.         Houel,  John,  Travels,  &c.       Picturesque  Painter  and  Engraver. 

1736 

1813 

Amer.  Hnbbard,  Rich.  W.     ....              Painter. 

Amer.    Hughes,  Ball  (b.  in  England)          .              .              .      Sculptor. 

1806 

Amer.     Huntington,  Dan.                        ...               Painter. 

1816 

Eng.      Hunt,  Wm.  H.  (Pre-Raphaelite)    .              .              .       Painter. 

1827 

Dutch.  Huysum,  John  van  (flowers  and  fruit)               .              Painter. 

1682 

1749 

1659 
1684 

1716 
1706 

I 

Amer.  Inman,  Henry               .             Portrait  and  Landscape  Painter. 

1801 

.840 

J 

Amer.  Jarvis,  J.  W.                                     .                      Portrait  Painter. 

Amer.  Johnson,  Eastman  (N.  Y.>        .              .              .              Painter. 

Fr.        Johannot,  Chas.  H,  A.            .              .       Painter  and  Designer. 

1800 

1887 

Fr.         —  —  —  ,  Tony  (brother)            "  .              Painter  and  Designer. 
Amer.   Jones,  Alfred,  N.  Y.                      .              .              .        Er.graver. 

1803 

1952 

Eng.      ,  luigo               ....              Architect 

1672 

1653 

Amer.    —  ,  Thoa.  D.                ....        Sculptor. 

1014  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 

SAT105.  KAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Fiem.    Jordaens,  Jacob  ....             Painter.  1595  1671 

Ital.       Julio,  Romano  .  •            .              .       Painter  and  Architect.  1492  154« 


Swiss.    Kauffinau,  M.  A.  Angelica  C.  (in  England)        Poetical  Painter. 

1747 

180'' 

Amer.   Kensett,  John  F.                ....       Painter. 

1818 

Ger.        Kiss,  August              ....              Sculptor. 

1802 

1865 

Ger.       Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey  (resided  in  England)                .       Painter. 

1648 

1723 

L 

Dutch.  Laireese,  Gerard  (excelled  in  expedition)   Painter  and  Engraver. 

1640 

1711 

Fr.         Landon,  C.  P.             .              .            Writer  on  Art  and  Painter. 

1828 

Eng.       Landseer,  Chas.         ...              Painter  of  Genre. 

T7AQ 

1RVJ 

E,~.,f                                     o:«  TvluTiTi                                                                                           T>«i—  **._ 

1  |U» 

1803 

XO«M 

Amer.  Lang,  Louis  (b.  in  Germany)            ...       Painter. 

1814 

Eng.      Lawrence,  Sir  Thoe.    ....              Painter. 

1769 

1830 

Fr.         Lebrun,  Charles  (painter  to  Louis  XIV.)    .              .        Painter. 

1619 

1696 

Eng.      Leech,  John                .              .              .              Humorist  Artist. 

1816 

Gr.         Lely,  Sir  Peter  (painter  to  Charles  II.  of  England)            Painter. 

1618 

1680 

Fr.         Le  Sieur,  Eustace  (the  French  Raphael)     .              .        Painter. 

1617 

1655 

Amer.  Leslie,  Chas.  R.  (resided  in  England)      .              .              Painter. 

1794 

1859 

Ger.       Lessing,  Carl  Fred.            ....       Painter. 

1808 

Amer.  Leutze,  Emanuel  (b.  in  Germany)         .              .              Painter. 

1816 

Fr.         Leyden,  Lucas  Dammesz  .              .           Painter  and  Engraver. 

1494 

1538 

Eng.      Liverseege,  Henry          ....           Painter. 

1803 

1832 

Gr.         Lysippus  (made  600  statues)                 .              .              Sculptor. 

f.  B. 

0.  324 

Amer.    Malbone,  Kdward  G.      .              .              .       Miniature  Painter. 

1777 

1807 

Scot.      Marshall,  "Wra.  O.       .              .              .              .              Sculptor. 

1813 

Amer.  ,  Wm.  C.    .              .              .              .               Engraver. 

Eng.     Martin,  John         ...                            .        Painter. 

1789 

1854 

Ital.      Masaccio         .              .....              Painter. 

1402 

1427 

Flem.    Matsys,  Quintin    .....       Painter. 

1460 

1529 

Ger.       Mayer           .....              Sculptor. 

Ital.       Mazzuolo,  Francis              ....        Painter. 

1503 

1540 

Amer.    McEntee,  Jervis           ....              Painter. 

Fr.         MeisBonier,  Justus  A.        .          Painter,  Sculptor,  and  Architect. 

1695 

1R1  R 

1750 

Fr.         •                 ,  Jean  ij.            ....       Painter. 
Ger.      Mengs,  Anthony  R.  (the  Raphael  of  Germany)          .        Painter. 

1O1O 

1729 

1779 

Dutch.  Metzn,  Gabriel             .           .              .       Familiar  Life  Painter. 

1615 

1669 

Dutch.  Mieris,  Francis    .              .              .              Familiar  Life  Painter. 

1635 

1681 

Fr.         Mignard,  Peter          ....              Painter. 

IfilO 

1695 

Amer.  Mignot,  Louis  R.                ....       Painter. 

Amer.    Mills,  Clark      .....          Bculptor. 

1815 

Swiss.   Mind,  Gottfried     .....       Painter. 

1768 

1814 

Ital.      Morghen,  Raphael          ....         Engraver. 

1758 

1838 

Amor.    Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.           .              .              .              .       Painter. 

Amer.    Mount,  William  Sidney             .              .              .              Painter. 

1807 

Eng.      Morelacd,  George               ....        Painter. 

1764 

1804 

Span.     Murillo,  Bartholomew  ft.            .              .              .              Painter. 

ItilS 

1682 

BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. ABTISTS. 


1015 


RATIO*.                                                     NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

BOBS. 

DIBB. 

I>utch.  Neefs,  Poter      .               .              .              Architectural  Painter. 

1570 

1651 

Eng.      Newton,  Gilbert  (Stuart)       .              «              Historical  Painter. 

1785 

1835 

Eng.      Nollekins,  Joseph            .          •  •              •              .        Sculptor. 

1737 

1323 

Eng.       Northcote,  James       •'•'••              Painter. 

1746 

1831 

O 

Eng.      Opie,  John            .....       Painter. 

1761 

1807 

Dutch.  Ostade,  Adrian  van  (interiors)   .                  Familiar  Life  Painter. 

1610 

1685 

Dutch.  Ostade,  Isaac  (winter  scenes)                •               .              Painter. 

1617 

1671 

Eng.       Owen,  William      ...»                    Fainter. 

1769 

1825 

P 

Amer.  Page,  Wm.           .             .             .             *             .       Painter. 

1811 

Fr.        Pajou,  Augusttn         .              .              .              .              Sculptor. 

1730 

1809 

Ital.       Palladio,  Andrew            .              .              .              •       Architect. 

1518 

1580 

Spaa.     Palomino  de  Castro  y  Velasco  A.  A.             .              .        Painter. 

1653 

1726 

Ital.       Pannini,  Giov.  Paolo               .              .       Architectural  Painter. 

1691 

1764 

Or.        Parrhasius,  of  Ephesus             .              .              .              Painter. 

1  B. 

0.  420 

Amfc/.   Peale,  Charles  W.            .              Historical  and  Portrait  Painter. 

1741 

1827 

Amer.   ,  Rembrandt             ....       Painter. 

1778 

1860 

Fr.         Perrault,  Claudius  (designed  the  front  of  the  Louvre)  Architect. 

1613 

1688 

Ital.       Perugino,  Peter  (the  master  of  Raphael)             .              Painter. 

1446 

1524 

Swiss.     Petitot,  John  (excelled  in  enamel)             .              .           Painter. 

1607 

1691 

BeL        Peters,  Bonaventura     .              .              .              Marine  Piiinter.  " 

1614 

1653 

Bel.        ,  Francis  Lucas        .              .              •              .       Painter. 

1606 

1654 

Bel.        ,  John                  .              .              •              Marine  Painter. 

1635 

1677 

Gr.         Phidias  (the  most  famous  of  ancient  sculptors)        .        Sculptor.  B 

.  o.  498    B. 

0.431 

Eng.      Phillips,  Thomas,  R.  A.      .              .              .           Port.  Painter. 

1770 

1845 

Fr.         Picart,  Bernard           ....           Engraver. 

1663 

1733 

Fr.         Pigalle,  John  Baptist           .              .              .           .       Sculptor. 

1714 

1785 

Ital.       Pietro,  da  Pietre              .              .              Hist.  Painter  of  Rome. 

1671 

1716 

Fr.         Piles,  Roger  de            .              .              .       Author  and  Painter. 

1635 

1709 

Ital.       Piranesi,  John  Baptist  (16  volumes  folio)             .           Engraver. 

1707 

1778 

ItaL       Polidors,  da  Caravaggio            .              .              .              Painter. 

1495 

1543 

Gr.         Polycletus  (etatue  of  Juno  at  Argos)             .                  Sculptor.  B, 

,0.430 

Ital.       Pordenone,  Regillo  da              ...              Painter. 

1484 

1540 

Dutch.   Potter,  Paul  (unequalled  in  animal  painting)          .         Painter. 

1625 

1654 

Fr.         Poussin,  Nicholas  (excelled  in  landscape  painting)          Painter. 

1594 

1665 

Ital.       Poussin,  Gaspar  (Dughet)                  .              Landscape  Painter. 

1613 

1675 

Ital.       Piombo,  Sebaatiano  del            ...              Painter. 

1485 

154T 

Amer.    Powers,  Hiram                 ....       Sculptor. 

1805 

Fr.         Pradier,  Jacques                      .              .             ,              Sculptor. 

1798 

1852 

Aiaer.   Pratt,  Mathew                   ....       Painter. 

1734 

1805 

Gr.         Praxiteles                    .             ..              .             .              Sculptor.  f.  B.  o.  350 

Eng.      Prout,  Samuel                ...              Water-colorist. 

1783 

1S62 

Fr.         Prudhon,  of  Cluny              ,              .              .                      Painter. 

1760 

1828 

Fr.         Puget           .              .                 Sculptor,  Painter  and  Architect. 

1622 

1694 

Bug.       Pugin,  Augustus  A  W.    ....    Architect 

1811 

1859 

1016 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


KATIOK.                                                        WAVE   AND   PROFESSION. 

EOSN. 

D1BA. 

ItaL       Raphael,  d'  Crbino  (real  name  Sanzio) 

A  prominent  Painter. 

UN 

1520 

ItaL       Raphael  da  Rhegio  (Raffaelino)                 Hist,  and  Port.  Painter. 

1552 

158C 

Ger.       Raucb,  Christian  David           .              . 

.              Sculptor. 

1781 

1S59 

Dutch.  Remhrandt  van  Ryn,  Paul  Qeritz              . 

. 

1606 

1669 

Ger.       Retsch,  Moritz           .              .              , 

.       Art  Designer. 

1779 

1859 

Bag.      Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua         .              . 

Painter 

1723 

1792 

Eng.      Richardson,  Jonathan              .            Writer  on  Art  and  Painter. 

1665 

1745 

Ger.      Riedinger,  John  Elias                . 

Animal  Painter. 

1695 

'     1767 

Fr.         Rober,  Fleury                 ... 

.           Painter. 

1797 

Scot.      Roberts,  David       .              .              . 

.              .     Painter. 

1796 

1864 

Fr.         Roland,  Philip  (Homer  in  the  Louvre) 

•            Sculptor. 

1746 

1816 

Eng.      Romney,  George                .              . 

.              .         Painter. 

1734 

1802 

Flem.    Roos,  Philip  Peters            .             . 

.               .        Painter. 

1655 

1706 

Ital.      Rosa,  Salvator              .              .              . 

.              Painte*. 

1614 

1673 

Amer.   Rossiter,  Thomas  P.         ,              . 

.              .       Painter. 

Fr.         Roubilliao,  L.  F.        .              .              . 

•              Sculptor. 

1695 

1763 

Fr.         Rousseau,  James                 .              . 

.        Painter. 

leso 

1693 

Eng.      Rowlandson,  Tli.  (caricature—  Dr.  Syntax, 

&o.)   Paint,  and  Eng. 

1756 

1827 

Fiem.    Rubens,  Peter  Paul            . 

Painter. 

1577 

1646 

Scot.      Runciman,  Alexander                  .              . 

.          Painter. 

1736 

1785 

Dutch.  Ruysdael,  Jacob                     ,              . 

Landscape  Painter. 

1636 

1684 

Dutch.  Ruysdael,  Solomon         .              .              . 

.           Painter. 

1616 

1670 

Dutch.  Ryckaert,  David         .              .              . 

.              Painter. 

1615 

1677 

Dutch.  Ryckaert,  Martin                 .              . 

Landscape  Painter. 

1591 

1636 

Dutch.  Rysbraeck,  leter           ... 

Landscape  Painter. 

1657 

1718 

Eng.      Rysbrach,  John  M.  (works  In  Westminster  Abbey)         Sculptor. 

1694 

1770 

8 

Ital.        Salvi,  John  Baptist  (Sassoferrato)          . 

.              Painter. 

1605 

1685 

Ital.        Salvi,  Nicholas 

.        Architect. 

1G99 

1753 

Ital.        Sanmicheli,  Michael       .              .              . 

.      Architect. 

1484 

1559 

ItaL        Sarto,  Andrea  del,  see  VanucM          . 

. 

Eng.       Savage,  James                 ... 

.       Architect. 

1778 

1852 

Ital.        Seamozzi,  Vincent                 .              . 

.              Architect. 

1550 

1616 

Pruss.    Schadow,  J.  G.              .              .              . 

.          Sculptor. 

1764 

1850 

Ger.       Schadow,  Godenhaus  F.  W.                . 

.                  Painter. 

1789 

Ger.       Schadow,  Rudolf          ... 

.           Sculptor. 

1786 

1822 

Dutch.  Scbalken,  Godfrey  (Candlelight  Scenes) 

.                 Painter. 

1643 

1706 

Ger.       Scheffer,  Ary     .... 

,         Painter 

1795 

1858 

Ital.       Schidone,  Eartolomeo            .              . 

.                 Pa;nter. 

1560 

1610 

Gr.        Scopaa                 .... 

.       Sculptor.  B. 

C.460  B. 

C.  353 

Eng.      Sharp,  William          ... 

.            Engraver. 

1740 

1824 

Amer.  Bhattuclc,  Aaron  D.           .              .              , 

,              .         Painter. 

Km:.       Shoe,  Sir  M.  A.,  president  Royal  Academy 

.                Painter. 

1795 

1850 

Eng.      Sherwin,  John  Keyte       ... 

.      Engraver. 

1751 

17M 

Amer.  Smillie,  Juries          ... 

.               Engraver. 

Amer.  ,  George  H.           .              .              . 

.         Painter. 

Amer.          •     ,  James  D.       .              .              . 

.               Painter. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. ARTISTS. 


RATION.                                                          NAME   AMD  PROFESSION. 

BORN. 

DIED 

Amer.  Smybert,  John  (b.  in  Scotland)      .              .              .         Painter. 

1684 

1751 

Flem.    Snyders,  Francis       .                    Landscape  and  Animal  Painter. 

1679 

1657 

Fr.        Soulflot,  J.  G.  (church  of  St.  Genevieve  at  Paris)            Architect. 

1714 

1781 

Butch.  Spaendonck,  Gerradvan            .              .              Flower  Painter. 

1716 

1822 

Span.     Spagnoletto,  Giuseppo  Ribera  la      .              .              .      Painter. 

1589 

1066 

Dutch.  Steen,  Jan                 .                 ...              Painter. 

1633 

1689 

Amer.  Stone,  William  O.           .              ,              .           Portrait  Painter. 

Scot.      Strange,  Robert               .               .               .               .        Engraver. 

1721 

1792  ? 

Amer.   Strickland,  William               .              .              .              Architect. 

1854 

Eng.      Btrutt,  Joseph,    ....  Author  and  Painter. 

1749 

1803 

Eng.      Stuart,  James,  author  of  the  Antiquities  of  Athens     Architect. 

1713 

1788 

Amer.   Stuart,  Gilbert,  pupil  of  Benjamin  West          .        Port.  Painter. 

1759 

1828 

Ger.       Sunder,  Lucas  (see  Cranach)      ...       Engraver. 

1 

ItaL       Teneranl,  Pietro             .             .              .             .       Sculptor. 

1789 

Flem.    Teniere,  David,  the  elder  (pupil  of  Rut/ens)     .              .  Paii.ter; 

1582 

1649 

Flem.    Teniers,  David,  the  younger  (pupil  of  Rubens)         .         Painter. 

1610 

1694 

Scot      Thorn,  Jas.  (Tarn  O'Shanter,  &c.)                .              .        Sculptor. 

1790 

1850 

Eng.      Thornhill,  Sir  Jas.     .              .              .            Historical  Painter. 

1676 

1732 

Dan.      Thorwaldsen,  Albert       ....       Sculptor. 

1772 

1841 

Ger.       Tieck,  Christ  Fried    ....              Sculptor. 

1776 

1851 

Gr.         Timanthes  (contemporary  with  Parrhasius)              .        Painter. 

f.  B.  C.    240 

ItaL        Tintoretto  (Venetian  —  pupil  of  Titian)         .             .        Painter. 

1480 

1579 

ItaL       ,  11  (James  Kobusti)                .              .              Painter. 

1512 

1594 

ItaL       Titian,  the  greatest  of  the  Venetian  school              .       Painter. 

1480 

1579 

Fr.         Troyon,  Constantino          ....        Painter. 

1813 

1865 

Amer.   Trumbull,  John              ...       Historical  Painter. 

1756 

1843 

Eng.      Turner,  J.  W.  M.    .              .              .              .              .    Painter. 

1776 

1861 

Eng;      TJwins,  Thomas,  R.  A. 


Painter.        1183 


1S57 


Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

D|tch. 

Dutch. 

Flem. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Bio. 


Van  Beest  (b.  In  Holland  P)  .  Marine  Painter. 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John  (Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard)          Arch't. 


Vanderlyn,  John 
Vander  Neer,  Arnold 
Vandervelde,  Adrian    . 
,  the  younger 


-,  Win.,  marine  and  battle 


Vanderwerf,  Adrian 

Vandyke,  Sir  Anthony,  the  greatest  of  portrait 

Vaneyck,  Hubert 

Vaneyck,  John,  brothers  (John  of  Bruges) 

Vannucchi,  or  Andrea  del  Sarto    .  . 

Van  Vitelli.  Louis,  a  Neapolitan 

Vasari,  George,  biographer  of  artists 

Vasi,  Joseph  . 

43* 


Historical  Painter. 
Landscape  Painter. 
Landscape  Painter. 
.  .  Painter. 

Painter. 
Historical  Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 
Architect. 


Architect  and  Painter. 
Designer  and  Engraver. 


1672 
1776 
1619 
1639 
1633 
1610 
If  54 
1598 
1366 
1370 
1488 
1700 
1512 
1710 


1852 
1684 
1672 
1707 
1693 
1713 
164(1 
1420 
1441 
1530 
1771 
1574 
1783 


1018 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


»ATIO».  SAME  AHD  PROFESSION. 

Span.      Velasquez,  Jas.  R.  de  Sylvia  y 

Plena.     Verboeckhoven,  Eugene  . 

Amer.  Ver  Bryck,  C.      .  . 

Fr.         Vemet,  Horace  .  . 

Fr.         Vernet,  Joseph      .  .  , 

Ital.       Veronese,  Paul  (see  Cagliarl) 

Ital.  Verrocbio,  Andrew,  inventor  of  the  method  of  taking 
features  in  a  plaster  mould 

Eng.       Vertne,  George  (500  plates)  . 

Ital.        Vignola,  Jas.,  Caprarola  palace  and  St.  Peter'a 

Ital.       Vinci,  Leonardo  da  .  . 

Or.         Vitruvius,  contemporary  of  Augustus  . 

Ital.       Volpato,  John  . 

Fr.  Vouet,  Simon,  founder  of  French  school,  contempora- 
ry of  Charles  L  . 


Fr.        Wailly,  Charles  de 

Amer.    Ward,  J.  Quincy  A. 

Eng.      Warren,  Charles,  perfector  of  engraving  on  steel 

Fr.        "Watteau,  Antoine  .  . 

Amer.    Weir,  Eobt.  W. 

Amer.   ,  James  F.  .  . 

Dan.      Wertmuller,  (P)  (painted  in  America) 
Amer.  West,  Benjamin  .  . 

Eng.       Westall,  Richard    . 

Eng.      ,  William  R.  A.  br.  . 

A  mer.    White,  Edwin  .  . 

Amer.    Whittredge,  Worthington    .  . 

Scot.      Wilkie,  David  .  . 

Eng.      Wilson,  Richard       ... 
Eng.      Woollett,  William  .  . 

Dutch.  "Wouverman,  Philip  . 

Eng.      Wren,  Sir  Christopher  (St.  Paul's,  &c.) 
Eng.      Wyatt,  J-imes  (Pantheon,  Kew  Palace,  &c.) 
Eng.      "Wyatt,  R.  J.  .  . 


[OR. 

BORIS. 

DIED 

Painter. 

i589 

166fl 

Painter  of  animals. 

1799 

.  Landscape  Painter. 

1813 

1844 

Historical  Painter. 

1789 

1863 

.             .     Painter. 

1714 

178* 

bod  of  taking 
,             .        Sculptor. 

1422 

1488 

Engraver. 

1684 

1756 

'eter's            Architect. 

1507 

1575 

.              .        Painter, 

1452 

1519 

Architect. 

f  B. 

0.     30 

.              .      Engraver. 

1733 

1802 

contempora- 

.              .         Painter. 

1582 

1649 

Architect. 

1729 

1798 

.                Sculptor. 

on  steel          Engraver. 

1823 

,              .           Painter. 

1684 

1721 

.    Painter. 

1803 

.              Painter. 

Port.  Painter. 

Painter. 

1738 

182(1 

Historical  Painter. 

1781 

183fl 

.              .       Designer. 

1781 

1856 

.     •       Painter. 

Landscape  Painter. 

Familiar  Life  Painter. 

1785 

1841 

Landscape  Painter. 

ins 

1782 

.              .      Engraver. 

1736 

1785 

Painter. 

1620 

1668 

.              .      Architect. 

1639 

1723 

s.)      .             Architect. 

1743 

1813 

.              .        Sculptor. 

1795 

1850 

Span.    Ximcnes,  Fran. 


Painter.       1598 


166fl 


Hero.    Yples,  Charles  de 


Painter. 


1510 


1563 


Ttal  ZaWia,  Nicholas 

Or.  Zeszis,  celebrated  ancient    . 

Ber.  Zincke  .  .  . 

Ital.  Zuccaro,  or  Zucohero,  Frederlgo 

Ital.  Zuocaro,  or  Zacchero,  Taddeo      , 

Ital.  Znocarelll    . 


.  .       Architect. 

.  .    Painter. 

Enamel  Portrait  Painter. 

.    Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 


1674  1650 

o.  490  B.  o.  400 
1684  1769 
1539  1639 

1529  1669 

1710  1781 


PAINTING. 


10  j  a 


PAINTING.  Chronological  Table  of  the  most  celebrated  Painters,  arranged  in 
Schools  and  Ages,  from  the  revival  of  the  art,  1600,  to  the  commencement  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century. 

(From  Bell' a  Edition  of  Bredovfs  Tables  of  Universal  History?) 

1.  FLORENTINE  SCHOOL. — Style  elevated  and  bold,  seeking  rather  to  be  admired  than  to 
please;  sometimes  gigantic;  neglects  coloring  and  grace — 1240,  Cimabue;  1726,  Giotto;  1211, 
Andrea  Taffl;  1400,  Massolino;  1402,  Massacio;  1491,  Filippo  Lippi ;  1432,  Andrea  Verrochio, 
Andrea  Castagna,  Pisanello;  1443,  Ghirlandajo ;  1445,  LEONARDO  DA  VINCI;  1469,  Bartoloimneo 
di  San  Marco;  1471,  Baldassarre  Per  uzzi;  1474,  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  ;  1434,  Domir.ico 
Boccafumi ;  1488,  Andrea  del  Sarto ;    1493.  Jacopo  Carrucci  da  Pontortno ;  149  >,  Del   RDSSO . 
1500,  Perino  del  Vaga;  1509,  Daniel  da  Volterra;  1510.  Francesco  Salviati;  1510,  Giorgio  Vassart; 
1545,  Antonio  Tcmpesta;  1559,  Luigi  Cardi;    1563,  Francesco  Vanni;   1578,  Matteo  Kosselli; 
1596,  Pietro  Berretini,  called  Pietro  da  Cortona;  1611,  Pietro  Testa;  1615,  Benvenuto  da  Garo- 
foli;  1616,  Carlo  Dolci;  1666,  Benedetto  Lutti;   1695,  Giovan'  Geronimo  Servandoni;   1702, 
Pompeo  BattonL 

2.  ROMAN  SCHOOL  carries  invention  and  design  to  the  highest  perfection  by  the  analytical 
study  of  the  antique  and  of  nature;  heads  of  the  most  sublime  beauty;  coloring  and  chiaro 
oscuro  less  perfect.    1513,   Bernardino   Pinturichio ;    1446,   Pietro   Perrugino;   1483,   Riffsel 
1488,  G.  F.  Penni ;  1492,  Giulio  Romano ;  1528,  Frederico  Barocci ;  1529,  Tadileo  Zncchero ;   1543, 
Frederico  Zucchero;  1589,  Dominico  Feti;   1594,  Nicholas  Poussin ;    1597,  Giovan'  Lorenzo 
Bernini;  1599,  Andrea  Sacchi;  1600,  Claude  Gelee,  called  Claude  of  Lorraine;  1602,  CeriozM" 
1605,  G.  B.  Salvi,  called  II  Sassoferrato ;  1613,   Gaspard  Doghet,  called  Poussin  or  Guaspre>, 
i616,  Luigi  Scaramuccia;   1617,  Francesco   Romanell;    1623,  Giacinto  Brandi ;   1623,  Filippo 
Lauri ;  1625,  Carlo  Maratti ;  1634,  Giro  Ferri ;  1694,  Pietro  Bianchi ;  1728,  Raffael  Mengs. 

8.  VENETIAN  SCHOOL. — Faithful  imitation  of  well-chosen  subjects  of  nature,  excellent 
coloring,  admirable  effect ;  design  less  perfect  through  the  neglected  study  of  the  antique  ;  this 
school  is  now  extinct.  1421,  Gentile  Bellini;  1431,  Andrea  Mantegna;  1478,  Giorgiono;  1477, 
TITIAN  (Tiziano  Vecelli  da  Cadore) ;  1480,  G.  A.  Regillo ;  1485,  Sebastiano  del  Piornbo ;  1510. 
Jacopo  da  Ponte;  1512,  J.  Robusti,  called  II  Tintoretto;  1522,  Paolo  Farinnti;  1522,  Andrea 
Schiavone;  1R28,  Geronimo  Muzziano;  1532,  Paolo  Cagliari;  1535,  Giuseppe  Ponta;  1539,  Dario 
Varotari;  1540,  Felice  Riccio;  1540,  Jacopo  Palma  (II  Veechio);  1544,  Jac  Palrna;.  1549,  Giov. 
Contarino;  1560,  Maria  Tintoretta;  1561,  Leonardo  Corona;  15S6,  Tiberio  Tinelli;  1590,  Aless. 
Varotari;  1600,  Aless.  Turchi;  1635,  Giov.  B.  Langetti;  1642,  Andrea  POZX.O  ;  1656,  Franc. 
Trevisani;  1659,  Sebast.  Ricci ;  1666,  Ant.  Balestra;  1672,  Rosa  Alba  Carriera:  1675. 
Giov.  Ant.  Pellegrini;  1682,  G.  B.  Piazztta;  1687,  Ant,  Canaie;  1693,  Giov.  Bat 
Tiepolo ;  1699,  Giuseppe  Nogari. 


perhaps  somewhat  affected)  grace  in  his  figures  and  attitudes,  and  a  magic  harmony  in  his  colo*- 
ing.  Tibaldi  and  the  Carracci  introduce  a  more  elevated  character  of  design,  and  many  of  their 
pupils  unite  therewith  the  fine  coloring  and  the  graces  of  Corresgio.  1450,  Francesco  Franco  ; 
1490,  F.  Primaticcio ;  1494,  COERF.GQIO  Antonio  Allogri ;  1495,  Polidori  CaWari ;  1504,  Fr.  Maz- 
zuol'i ;  1522,  Pellegrino  Tibaldi ;  1546,  Camillo  Procaccini ;  1559,  M.  Angelo  Amerigi,  cAlleil  Car- 
ravag"io;  1555,  Lodov.  Caracci:  1557,  Agostino  Caracci ;  1560,  Annibate  Caracci;  1560,  Bartol. 
Schidone;  1575,  Guide  Reni,  called  Guido;  1576,  Lionello  Spada;  1577,  Aless.  Tiarini;  1578, 


Mola-  1628,  Cianani;  1633,  P.  F.  Carol! ;  1643,  Lodov.  Quaini;  1648,  Ant.  Franceschini ;  1654, 
Guis  del  Sole;  1657,  Fer.  Galli  Babtena;  16  >5,  Guis.  Maria  Crespi;  1668,  Dotn.  Maria  Viani ; 
1671,'Donato  Creti;  1674,  Giov.  P.  Zanotti;  1691,  G.  P.  Panini. 

(NEAPOLITANS,  GENOME*  SPANIARDS.  These  nations  are  not  regarded  as  having  founded 
general  Schools:  their  painters  are  formed  on  the  masters  of  the  great  Italian  Schools.  Neapol- 
itan.—The  painters  ofthis  nation  are  reproached  with  being  in  general  somewhat  affected. 
Pietro  and  Tommaso  Stefani,  d.  1310;  Fil  del  Tesauro,  1820;  1500,  and  Sabbatani;  1560,  Guia 
Cesare  d'Arpino;  16lX),  Aniello  Falcone;  16^8,  Mario  Niizzi;  1613,  Matteo  Potri;  1615,  Salvator 
Rosa;  1631,  Luca  Giordana;  1657,  Fran.  Solimene;  1661,  Nunzio  Ferajoli ;  1679,  Sebast.  Conca, 
1693  Carl  Corrado.  Genoese  are  often  incorrect  in  design. — 1400,  Nicli.  da  Vottri;  1527,  Cam- 
biasi-  1544.  G.  B.  Pasfgi;  1:»57,  Bern.  Castelli;  1581,  Bernardo  Strozzi;  1590  Gio.  Cs  -lone;  161$ 
Benedetto  Castiglione^  1625,  F.  M.  Borzoni;  1639,  G.  B.  Gauli;  1664, Greg.  Ferrari,  1654,  Bart 
finidoboni;  1660,  II  Molinaretto;  Spaniards. — These  painters  have  especially  imitated  the 
Venetian  School,  and  often  display  its  brilliant  coloring.— 1400,  Alonso  Berragente ;  1487,  Blal«» 


1020  PAINTING. 

de  Pradn;  1519,  Morales;  155,8,  Luis  de  Vargas;  1532,  J.  F.  Xlmenez  de  Navarete:  1550,  PaMu 
de  las  Rovias;  1589,  Joseph  Ribera;  1599,  Don  Diego  Velasquez  de  Silva;  1601,  Alonso  Canoj 
1610,  Henrique  de  las  Marinas;  1613,  Bartolme  Esteban  de  Murillo;  1617,  Franc.  Rizzi ;  1631, 
Matias  de  Torres;  1640.  Pedro  de  Nunez;  1640,  Juan  ile  Alfaro:  1651,  Juan  0.  Falco;  1663,  P. 
di  Pietri.) 

5.  GERMAN  SCHOOL.— This  School  having  never  had  a  common  point  of  union,  bears  no 
general  and  distinctive  character;  it  produces,  in  the  different  styles  of  painting,  rival  artists 
to  the  great  masters  of  Italy  and  of  the  Netherlands.    1297,  Th.  de  Matina;  1357,  Theo.  de 
Prague;  1367.  N.  Wurmser;  1479,  Albert  Dtirer;   1492,  Lucas  Mnller:    1498,  Hans  Holbein; 
If. 5,  Lucas  Cranach ;  1534,  Tobias  Stimmor;  1550,  Christ.  Schwartz  ;  1556,  John  Van  Aachen  : 
1564.  J.  Eottenhammer ;    1570,    J.   Lys;    1574,    Adam    Elzheimcr;    1593,    8;im.    Hofmann ; 
1600.  J.  W.  Bauer;  1606,  Jo.  Sandrart;  1611,  Ch.  Loth  ;  1616,  Govaert  Flink;  1618,  P.  Van  del 
Faes;    1619,  J.  Spilberg:    1621,  Leb.   Stopkopt;    1625,  J.  Lingelback;    1631,  J.  Hen   Koos- 
1637,  Jos.  Warner;  1639,  Gasp.  Netscher;  1640,  Ab.  Mignon  ;  1647,  M.  S.  Merian;  1648,  Godfrey 
Kneller;   1666,  G.  P.   Ruggendas;   1668,  J.  R.  Hnber:    1669,  Anna  Waser;    1685,  Balthasar 
Denner;  1 689,  Fr.  P.  Ferg ;  1698,  J.  E.  Riedenger ;  1709,  Brinkman;  1712,  C.  W.  E.  Dietrich; 

1728,  Raffael  Mengs;  1730,  Solomon  Gessner. 

6.  FLEMISH  OR  BELGIO  SCHOOL. — This  School  excels  in  coloring  and  in  the  faithful  Imi- 
tation of  nature,  but  does  not  always  exhibit  sufficient  nobleness  of  design ;  it  produces 
eminent  artists  in  every  style;  that  to  which  Teniers  has  affixed  his  name  had  its  birtli  in 
this  School;  the  Academy  at  Antwerp,  the  cradle  of  this  School,  was  founded  in  1510,  but 
there  was  a  Society  of  Painters  at  Antwerp  from  the  year  1412.— 1806,  Hubert  Van  Eyk; 
1370,  John  Van   Eyk;    1450,  Qncntin    Messis;    1490,   Ber.    V.   Orley;    1499,   J.   de  Mabuse; 
1553,  Peter  Knock;  1520,  Frank  Floris;  1534,  Mar  de  Vos;  1536,  J.  Straden  ;    1540,  F.  Por- 
bus;  1546,  B.  Spranger;  1548,  O.  Van  Mander;    1550,  H.   Steenwyck;  1555,  Denys  Calvart; 
1556,  Otto  Venius;  1569,  P.  Van  Breughel:  1570,  P.  Neefs;  1573,  8.  Frank ;  1576,  Fr.  Sneyders; 
1577,  Peter  Paul  Rubens;  1580,  David  Teniers:  1594,  James  Jordaens;  1599,  Anthony  Van 
Dyk;  1602,  Philip  de  Champagne;  1610,  David  Teniers;  1613,  J.  Vun  Artois;  1618,  Gonzales 
Coques;  1634,  Van  der  Meulen;  1664,  Simon  Vaielst ;   1663,  G.  P.  Vanbruggen  ;  1672,  Ab. 
Breughel ;  1742,  Henry  de  Coort, 

7.  DUTCH   SCHOOL. — This  School  is  especially  distinguished  by  an  eminent  intelligence 
of  the  chiaro  oscnro ;  exhibits  good  coloring,  and  a  faithful  imitation  of  nature  in  the  mi- 
nutest details.    The  style  of  precious  finishing  is  carried  to  the  highest  pitch  in  this  School 
14(57,  Erasmus;    1494.  Luke  of  Leyden  ;    1498,  Martin  Hemskerk ;   1518,  An.  Moro;   1564, 
Ab.  Bloemart;  1579,  Sol  de  Brey;   1585,  Cornelius  Poelenberg;  1596,  Leo  Bramer  ;  1600,  J. 
D.  de  Heein;  16f)0,  John  "Wynants;  1606,  Albert  Cnyp ;   1G06,  Paul  Rembrandt  van  Ryn; 
1608,  Gerard  Terburg;   1610,  Adrian  Van  Ostadu;    1613,   Gerard  Dow;    1615,  Gabriel   Met- 
zu;  1620,  Philip  Won vermans ;  1624,  Nicholas  Bergham;   1625,  Paul  Potter;    1631,  Ludolph 
Bakhytzen;  1633,  W.  Van  der  Velde;  1635,  Jac.  Ruysdael,  Hobbema;  1635,  Fran,  Mierirs;  1636, 
John'Steen;  1637;  Van  den  Heyclen  ;  163S.  Adrian  van  der  Velde;    1640,  Karel  du  Jardin; 
1664,  John  Weenix ;  1669,  Adrian  van  der  Werf ;  16S2,  John  Van  Hnysnm. 

ENGLISH  PAINTERS. — Formed  in  general  on  the  masters  of  the  Flemish  and  Italian  Schools; 
excel  in  portraits  and  landscapes,  are  unrivalled  in  water-colors. — 14SO,  Hans  Holbein  ;  1543,  F. 
Zucchero;  1572.  Inigo  Jones,;  1601,  P.  Oliver;  1609,  S.  Cooper;  1610.  W.  Dobson ;  1620.  Ric, 
Gibson;  1619.  John  Greenhill;  1643,  Godfrey  Kneller;  1660,  Luke  Cradock;  1677,  James 
Thornhill;  1697,  William  Hogarth;  1714,  Rich.  Wilson;  1728.  Joshua  Reynolds;  1727,  Thorn. 
Gainsborough;  1738,  Sawrey  Gilpin ;  1734,  P.  J.  de  Lontherbour? ;  1735,  David  Allan;  1738, 
Benjamin  West;  1745,  James  Stmtt;  1746,  James  Northcote;  1748,  J.  F.  Nollekins;  1748, 
Philip  Rdnagle;  1751.  William  Hamilton;  1752,  Wm.  Beechey :  1755.  Thorn.  Stothard ;  1759, 
Francis  Bourgeoise;  1761,  John  Opie;  1764,  Geo.  Morland;  1769,  Thomas  Lawrence;  1.774. 
Edward  Bird  f  1776,  John  Constable;  1786,  Will.  Hilton;  1787,  Geo.  Hen.  Harlow;  .Tho- 
mas Daniell;  1785,  David  Wilkie;  1786,  R.  B.  Haydon;  ,  A.  W.  Calcott ;  1789,  W.  Etty. 

8.  FRENCH  SCHOOL. — The  good  painters  of  this  School  are  formed  on  the  model  of  the  differ 
e.nt  Italian  Schools,  of  which  they  bear  the  several  characteristics :  they  are  in  general  more 
successful  in  composition  and  design  than  in  coloring.     It  is  emancipated  from  the  degradation 
and  affected  style  it  assumed  after  the  death  of  Le  Brun  by  Vien,  and  become  the  most  n  inner- 
ons  and  flourishing  school  of  all.— 1490,  Fran.  Primaticcio;  1496,  Rosso  de  Rossi;  1502.  J.  Cousin  ; 
15S2,  Simon  Vouet;  1594,  Nicholas  Pousin  ;  1600.  Claude  Lorraine;  1600.  Le  Valentin;  16(10, 
James  Blanchard ;  1607,  James  Petitot;  1616,  Sebastian  Bourdon;  1617,  Eustachius  le  Senr ; 
1619,  Charles  le  Brnn;  1640,  Charles  de  la  Fosse;  1644.  John  Jonvenet;  11567,  Joseph  Vivien 
1667,  Nicholas  Berlin;  1667,  Anth.  Hivally;  1684,  Ant  Wattean :  16S8,  Francis  Le  Moine :  16'W 
Noel  N.  Coypel;  1700,  Chas.  Natolre;  1794,  F.  Bonchier;  1712,  Joseph  Vernet;  1716,  Vie* 

1729,  J.  B.  Desnays;  1766,  J.  L.  David;  1758,  Carle  Vernet;  1567,  A.  L.  Girodet 


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